Cooley's cyclopædia of practical receipts and collateral information in the arts, manufactures, professions, and trades, ... . Designed as a ... supplement to the pharmacopœia and general book of reference ...

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N

Cooley's Cyclopaedia of Practical
Receipts and Collateral ...

Arnold James Cooley

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Rsference
Chemical Libfa^

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CYCLOPEDIA

OT

PEACTICAL EECEIPTS

AND COLLATERAL INFOBMATION

'T) Digitized by CjOOQIC

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COOLEY'S CYCLOPEDIA

PRACTICAL EEOEIPTS

AVD

COLLATERAL INFORMATION

IH TBI

ARTS, MANUFACTURES, PROFESSIONS, AND TRADES

DBBISKBD A8 A OOMPBBEINBITX

SUPPLEMENT TO THE PHARMACOPCEIA

Ain>
GENERAL BOOK OF REFERENCE

FOB THE MANUFACTURER, TRADESMAN. AMATEUR, AND
HEADS OF FAMILIES

SEVENTH EDITION

BBTIgID AVS SBSATLT BNLABOaO BT

W. NORTH, M.A.CAMB., F.C.S.
VOL. II

LONDON
J. & A. CHURCHILL

11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET
1892

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A OYCLOPiEDIA

OF

PRACTICAL RECEIPTS, PROCESSES,

Ain>

COLLATERAL INFOEMATION

VOLUME II

IRIDIUM— IKON

CUSTXTII. Ir. Atomic weight ■= 193. A
nre metal, Tesembling osmium and platinnm,
and to a lew degree rhodinm, ratheniom, and pal-
ladium, in its properties. It was discorered by
De«x>tils in 1803, and by Tennant in 1804, in the
black powder left in diwolving crude platinam.
This powder is an alloy of iridium with osmiam.
The metal is also found native and nearly pure
amongst the TJralian platinam ores.

Prep. The residue, containing osmiridinm,
&C., that is left when native platinum is dis-
solved in aqua regia is fused in an earthen era-
cible with litharge, boracic acid, and lead, and
the button which forms at the bottom of the
crucible is dissolved in nitric acid, and the
residue treated with aqua regia, and then fused
with zinc in a crucible of gas-carbon, the tem-
perature being finally rused so that the zinc
volatiliaes and a spongy residne of osmiridiom is
left. To obtain pure iridium from this, the fol-
lowing method was adopted by MM. Deviile and
Debiay, on behalf of the Paris Commission for
the International Metric System. The spongy
mass of oemiridium was ignited with barium
nitrate, and the mass extracted with water; a
residne of iridium oxide and barium osmate was
thus formed. This was boiled with nitric acid
ip order to get rid of the osmiam, which volati-
lised as the tetroxide. The solution was then
treated with baryta, and the precipitated iridium
salt redissolred in aqua regia and the iridium
preciintated, by the ad^tion of ammonium chlo-
ride, as the double chloride of iridium and am-
mooinm. This was ignited, and a residue was
thus obtained containing small quantities of pla-
tinam, ruthenium, and rhodium. It was Ignited
with potassium nitrate, and the mass treated
with water, in which potassium ruthenate dis-
solved. The residue was then fused with lead,
and the regulns treated with nitric acid and aqua
regia. A residue of pure iridium was thus ob-
tained.

Frop., Isc Brittle, white, very hard, only

fusible by the strongest heat of Deville's gas

famace. In its pare state it is not acted upon

by any of the acids, but it j» oxidised by fusion

TOL. II.

with nitre, and when ignited in the finely divided
state to redness in the air. MM. Deviile and
Debiay prepared 25 kilos (55 lbs.) of pure iridium
for the Paris Commission, to be used in the manu-
facture of standard meter measures. The raw
material was obtuned from Messrs Johnson and
Matthey, which firm has since supplied the French
Minister of War and the Minister of Agriculture
and Commerce with some standard rules of osmi-
ridinm, which hare been aeknowledged as perfect
in composition, manufacture, and physical proper-
ties. These standard measures are made of an
alloy of 9 parts platinam with 1 part iridium.
An alloy of iridium and osmium (artificial or
native) has been employed for tipping the nibs of
gold pens (everlasting pens).

Iridium, Chlorides of. Sbsquiohiobisb,
IrjCl^. Formed by heating spongy iridium in
chlorine ; it is olive-green in colour, and is in-
soluble in water. With metallic chlorides it
forms green doable salts. — Tetsachlobisb
(Bicelobisb), IrCl^. Formed when finely di-
vided iridium or either of its oxides is dissolved
in aqua re^a ; it is yellowish-red in colour, and
with alkaline chlorides gives double salts which
are black when massive but red when powdered.
Iridium, Oxides of. Sebquioxise, Ir^O,.
Formed when finely divided iridium is ignited in
air or oxygen. At a higher temperature (above
1000° C.) it loses its oxygen and the metal is
re-formed. — DioxiDB, IrO,. Formed when the
diiferent chlorides of iridium are precipitated
with potash in a hot solution in contact with air,
and also when finely divided iridium is fused
with potash and potassium nitrate.
ISinS. Infliunmation of the iris.
I'XOV. Fe. Atomic weight = 56. Sttn.
Febbcv, L.; Fbb, Fr.; EuxN, Ger. A metallic
element resembling to some extent cobalt, nickel,
manganese, and chromium. The history of this
most important metal extends to the remote past.
The discovery of an iron rod in one of the Assyrian
bronzes brought to England by Mr Layard esta-
blished the interesting fact that this metal was
known and commonly employed, where strength
was required, nearly 3000 years ago. Rnst of iron

67

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IRON

and BcaleB of iron were tued aa me^doeB at a
time equally remote.

Source*. Iron very rarely occurs in the me-
tallic state (native iron)— perhaps never of ter-
restrial origin — but it occurs associated with
nickel and other metals in one class of meteorites,
which sometimes contain 90% of metallic iron. In
combination with oxygen and other elements it
occurs all over the world. The following are its
chief ores :

1. Magnetic Iron Ore, Magnetite, Loadetone,
FcgO^. This ore, when pure, is the richest and
most valuable one of iron, but is generally asso-
ciated with more or less silica, &c., and contuns
from 66% to 45% of iron. It occnn crystalline,
inasuve, and in smxU grains. It is dUBcult to
reduce, but makes excellent iron and steel. It is
found in Norway, Sweden, and Lapland, the Ural
Mountains, Silesia, Elba, and the United States.
The Swedish ore is very pure, and is reduced by
means of charcoal ; consequently the iron and steel
manufactured from it is very pnre, and free from
sulphur, phosphorus, &c.

2, Red Samatite or Specular Iron Ore,
fefiy The latter is the crystalline variety, the
former the massive, occurring generally in large
mammillated masses. It contains from 66i% to
■30i% of iron, according to its purity. The chief
impurity is silica. It is found in England at Ul-
verston, in Lancashire, and on the Cumberland
coast near Whitehaven ; also in Westphalia, Elba,
and at several localities in the United States.

8. Brown or Yellov) SamatUa or lAmonite,
2Fe,0, + 8U,0, a hydrated variety of the above.
It usually occurs massive, and is found in the
Forest of Dean, South Wales, and North Ireland ;
also in Sweden, Germany, France, Spain, and
Canada. Bog-ore and lake-ore are varieties of it.
Its impurities are water, silica, &c., and it contains
fh>m63% to 86% of iron.

4. Spathote Iron Ore or Stderiit, FeCO,, is
light in colour, and generally occnn massive. It
is found in England in Somerset, Devon, and York-
shire; also in Styria, Carinthia, and Prussia. It
contains from 27% to 28% of iron. When mixed
with clay or sand it is known aa elay-iromtone,
or argillaoeoue iron ore. This is the most im-
portant English ore of iron, and from it is ob-
tained fully one half of the iron manufactured
in this country. It occurs chiefly in nodules or
beads in the coal measures, and is found in North
and Central England, South Wales, and South
Scotland. When it contains, in addition, 20%
to 25% of carbonaceous matter it is known as
blaek-band ironstone, and this i* found in Lanark-
shire, South Staffordshire, and South Wales;
also in Westphalia, Silesia, South France, and
several localities in the United States.

A tUaniferom iron ore has been found at
Taranaki, in New Zealand, in the form of black
grains, of the size of rather coarse sand. *

Iron also occurs in iron and copper pgriiee,
but these are useless as ores of iron, owing to the
practical difficulty of getting rid (tf all the
sulphur which they contain. Iron further occurs
in minute qnantities in the soil in some mineral
(chalybeate) springs, and in all organisms, notably
in the blood of higher animals; its presence is
eafential for the formation of chloropigrll in

plants. It is also found in the atmosphere of the
sun and some of the fixed stars.

Prep., 4"c. Iron is only prepared on the large
scale, and an account of the manufacture would
be out of place here. Those requiring detailed
information must consult the elaborate works of
Percy, Hunt, Fairbairn, Phillips, and other
metallurgists.

Pure iron may be prepared by introducing
fine iron wire, cut small, 4 parts, and black oxide
of iron, 1 part, into a Hessian crucible, covering
with a mixture of white sand, lime, and carbonate
of potassium (in the proportions used for glass-
making) ; and, after applying a closely fitting
cover, exposing the crucible to a very high degree
of heat. A button of pnre metal is thus obtained,
the traces of carbon and silicon present in the wire
having been removed by the oxygen of the black
oxide.

The stages involved in the manufacturing pro-
cesses for the reduction of iron from its ores are
very briefly the following : — The ore, unless a pure
oxide, is first roasted, by which means carlonic
acid, water, &c., are driven oif. It is then heated
with coal and limestone in a blast-furnace, the
limestone being added to lud the formation of a
slag. The ores are reduced as they descend
through the furnace and combine with carbon;
the iron then melts, and collects in the hearth at
the bottom of the furnace ; the melted slag floats
on the top of the iron, and continually runs off
through an opening made for that purpose. When
sufficient iron has collected it is run off into sand-
moulds, and forms * pigs ' of cart iron, which con-
tain 3% or 4% of carbon with some silicon, and
often phosphorus and sulphur; the presence of
these laal two substances is extremely preju-
dicial.

To convert the cast iron into mrongkt iron it is
heated in a furnace, so as to oxidise the carbon
and silicon, which form a slag with some of the
iron that becomes oxidised ; the sulphur and phos-
phorus are also oxidised away. The ' bloom ' or
mass of metal is worked about (' puddled ') on the
hearth of the furnace by a workman, or, in some
cases, by the aid of a mechanical contrivance.
The wrought iron only contuns 0'15% of carbon.
For the conversion of iron into steel see Strbl.

Prop., Sfc. The properties and uses of iron are
too well known to require description. Its ap-
plications are almost universal. It is remarkably
ductile, and possesses great tenacity, but is less
malleable than many of the other metals. Its
sp. gr. is 7-844. It is the hardest of all the mal-
leable and ductile metals, and when combined
with carbon (steel) admits of being tempered to
almost any degree of hardness or elasticity. In
dry air it does not oxidise at common tempera-
tures ; but at a red heat it soon becomes covered
with a scaly coating of black oxide, and at an in-
tense white beat bums brilliantly with the produc-
tion of the same substance. Pure water, free
from air or carbonic a<nd, does not tarnish the
surface of polished iron, but the combined
action of air and moisture, especially when a
little acid vapour is present, causes its surface
to be soon covered with rust, which is hydrated
seaqtdoxide of iron . Nearly aU acids attack iron ;
dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acid do so with

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lEON

eonaiderable ener^, and the erolution of hydrog>en
gm. At a red heat iron decomposes water rapidly,
hydrogen being evolved, and the black oxide of
iron formed. Iron is magnetic np to a dull red
heat, at which point it loses all traces of that
property. It melts at ahoot 1800° C. (3300° F.).
With oxygen, chlorine, iodine, the acids, Ac,
it forms nnmeroos important compoands. As
a remedial agent, when properly exhibited, iron
acta as a general stimnlant, htsmatinic, and tonic,
and generally proves beneficial in cases of chronic
debility, nnacoompanied with organic congestion
or inflammation. The carbonate (ferrons car-
bonate), as it exists in mineral waters, held in
solution by carbonic acid in excess, appears to
be the form most congenial to the human body ;
add from its state of dilation is rapidly absorbed
by the laoteals, and speedily imparts a ruddy hue
to the wan countenance. Iron is undoubtedly
one of the most valuable articles of the materia
medica, and appears, from the antiquity of its in-
troduction into medicine, and the nnmber of its
preparations, to have been deservedly appreciated.

Iron forms two classos of salts, namely, ferroos
or proto-salts, in which iron exhibits a power of
combining with two atoms of any monad ele-
ment; and the ferric or per-salts,in which iron has
a capaei^ of uniting with three atoms of any
monad element.

Tmt*. The ferrous or proto-salts have gene-
rally a greenish colour, but yield nearly colourless
solutions, except when eoncentmted. Their solu-
tions are known by the following reactions: —
They are not precipitated by hydrosnlphuric aoid
when acid, and bnt incompletely when neutraL
Sulphide of ammonium produces a black precipi-
tate, becoming brown on exposure to the air, in-
soluble in alkalies, bnt easily soluble in the mineral
acids. Ammonia and potassa give a greenish-
white predpitate, gradually becoming green and
then brown in the air. This precipitate occasion-
ally is of a bluish black if excess of potassa is
used. The presence of ammoniacal salts inter-
feres with the action of these tests. Ferrocyanide
of potassium gives a yearly white precipitate^
becoming gradually blue in the air, and imme-
^ately so on the addition of a little weak nitric
acid or chloiine water. Ferrocyanide of potassium
produces a rich deep bine precipitate {iSimbmll't
bine), inaoluble in hydrochloric acid. In highly
dilute solutions the effect is only a deep bluish-
green coloration. Phosphate of sodium produces
a white predpitate, which after a time becomea

The ferric salts, which an also called the seaqni-
or per-salts of iron, have for the most part a
reddiah-yellow colour, yielding deep-coloured
■olotions, which exhibit <Le following reactions :
— ^Ttk^ redden litmns-paper. Hydroaolphnric
•eid ID add solution reduces feme to ferrons
salts, giving a white or yellow predmtate of snl-
phor only. In alkaline solutions it yidds a blackish
predpitate, consisting of sulphur and ferrous sul-
phide. Sniphide of ammonium gives similar re-
action. Ammonia and potassa produce bulky
red^oh-brown precipitates insoluble in excess.
Ferrocyanide of potaadnm gives a rich blue pre-
dpitate (Pmsdan blue), insoluble in hydrochloric
add, and readily decomposed by potassa. Fern-

cyanide of potassium deepens the colour, but does
not give a blue precipitate, as it does with ferrous
salts (proto-salts). Sulphocyanide of potassium
gives an intense ruby-red colour to neutral or acid
solutions. Tincture and infusion of galls strike a
black colour. Phosphate of sodium gives a white
"precipitate, which becomes brown, and finally dis-
solves on the addition of ammonia.

Sttim. 1. The solution must be boiled with
hydrochloric acid and a crystal or two of potas-
sium chlorate to ensure that any ferrons iron is
oxidised to the ferric state. Ammonia is then
added in excess, and the brown fiocculent predpi-
tate of ferric hydroxide is collected, dried, ignited,
and weighed. Its weight multiplied by 0-7 gives
the weight of iron in the sample taken.

2. The solution is made strongly add with sul-
phuric or hydrochloric acid, and some pare zinc is
added ; this is to reduce any ferrie salts present to
the ferrous state. When the zinc is all dissolved
the solution is boiled to expel hydrogen, and
allowed to cool. It is then titrated with a
standard solution of potasdum permanganate,
which is run in from a burette till a permanent
colour^ is produced ; or a stsndard solution of
potassium bichromate may be used, and should
always be employed when hydrochloric acid is
present, as is generally the case. It is run into
the iron solution till a drop of the latter ceases to
give a blue coloration when touched against a
drop of dilute potassium ferricyanide. Jf decir
normal solutions are used, each 1 c.c. represents
0*0056 grm. iron in the sample taken.

Anah/nt ofa» Iron On. The ore is carefully
sampled, and an average portion powdered.

Mouiure, This is estimated by gently igniting
for an hour 2 or 3 gr. of the powdered ore in a
tube through which a current of air, dried by
passing through sulphuric acid or through a cal-
dum-chloride tube, passes, bdng then led through
a second calcium-chloride tube, whore it gives up
the moisture it had taken from the ore. Thia
last tube is weighed before and after the experi-
ment; its gain in weight gives the amount of water
in the sample. If necessary an estimation may
also be made of the water lost at 100° C.

Carbonic acid is estimated by means of the
apparatus described under CASBomc Aon>.

SUiaa, ^e. Heat 10 gr. of the powdered ore
in strong hydrochloric acid, mixed with a little
nitric, in a porcelain basin until it is completely
decomposed. Evaporate the whole to dryness, and
repeatedly extract the residue with warm hydro-
chloric acid, each time filtering the supernatant
liquid into a (-litre fiask. The residue is then
thrown on to tbe filter, washed thoroughly with
water, dried, ignited, and weighed. It consists of
gangue and silica. The nlica may be estimated,
it required, by boiling the weighed residue with a
solution of sodium carbonates in a platinum dish,
filtering, and determining the weight of the
gangue remaining; the difference between the two
weights gives the amount of silica. These weights
multiplied by 10 give the percentage quantities.

Suiphur. The filtrate from the silica, &c., con-
tained in the 1 -litre fiask is diluted to 500 cc,
and well mixed by shaking. 100 cc. are tajken
and evaporated nearly to d^ness to expel excess
of acid, diluted with water, boiled and treated

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900

IRON

with • few drops of bariiun chloride solation.
After (tanding for 24 hours the barimn sulphate
is Altered off and weighed. Ita weight in grma.
multiplied by 6'87 gives the percentage of aul-
phar in the ore; to express as sulphuric acid
multiply instead by 17-17.

Pkiuphorie Acid. To another 100 c.c. of the'
filtrate add a little clear solution of ammonium
nitro-molybdate. After standing for 24 hours in
a warm place, filter, wash the precipitate, treat it
on the filter with ammonia, add magnesia mixture
to the solution, and allow it to stand for 24 hours.
Filter, and wash the precipitate, dry, ignite, and
weigh it. Its weight multiplied by 21*85 gives the
percentage of phosphoric acid in the ore.

Manga»»*», Alumina, Lime and Magnetia,
Potath and Soda. Another 100 c.c. of the
filtrate are boiled with a little nitric acid, am-
monium carbonate is then added till the fluid is
nearly neutral, and then to the clear red liquid
ammonium acetate in excess. Boil and filter, dry,
ignite, and weigh the precipitate, which consists
of ferric oxide, alumina, phosphoric acid, and
traces of silica. The silica is determined by
fusing the precipitate with acid potassium sul-
phate, extracting the fused mass with water, and
weighing the residual silica. The alumina is
estimated by difference. To the filtrate from the
basic acetates add a little bromine and warm, cork
the fiask, and let it stand for a few hours ; then
filter off, dry, ignite, and weigh the precipitate ;
its weight multiplied by 44'9 gives the percentage
of manganout oxide in the ore. Evaporate the
filtrate, ignite the residue, and treat it with a
little water and abont 1 grm. of oxalic acid.
Again evaporate to dryness, ignite the residue,
extract it with a little water, and filter off, dry,
ignite, and weigh the magnetia. Its weight
multiplied by 50 gives the percentage of magnesia
in the ore. Treat the filtrate with hydrochloric
acid, evaporate it and weigh the residue of mixed
chlorides of potassium and sodium. The potas-
sium in this may be estimated by precipitating it
as the platino-chloride.

Iron. In 25 cc. of the same filtrate the iron
is estimated by means of a standard bichromate
■olntlon as described above. If the solution is
dednormal, the number of cc. multiplied by 1-12
gives the percentage of total iron (both ferric
and terroui) in the ore. To find the f erroiu iron
digest some of the ore with hydrochloric acid
only, and estimate the iron in the solution with
standard bichromate. If 1 grm. of the ore were
taken, the number of c.c. used multiplied by
0*66 gives the percentage of f erro«« iron in the
ore; this number multiplied by 1-886 gives the
percentage of f erroiw oxide, FeO. The percentage
of ferrto iron is now found by subtracting f erro««
from total iron ; mnltiplied by 1-429 it gives the
percentage of f em'o oxide, FejOj, in the ore.

Iron, Preparations of ;

Ferric Acetate. Fej(C5HjO,),. eign. Pkr-

AOSXATS OF IBOV; LiQVOB FBSSI ACBTATIB

VOBSIOB (B. P.), L. Solntion of persulphate of iron,
6 oz. ; solution of ammoma, a sufficiency ; glacial
acetic acid (lic^uefied), 3 oz. ; distilled water, a
sufficiency. Mix 8 oz. of the ammonia with 1
pint of water; to this gradually add the persul-
phate of iron, previously diluted with a pint of

water ; stir well, and keep the ammonia in excess.
Set aside 2 hours, filter and wash precipitate
well, press to remove remaining water ; dissolve
precipitate in the glacial acetic acid, and make up
to 10 oz. with water.

It forms a dark ruby-red coloured fluid of
acetous and astringent taste. Used as a luematin
and astringent, acting like, but is milder than,
perchlorido of iron. — Vote, 2 to 8 minims. '

Perri Acetatii Liquor. Solutioh ov acetatb
OP IBOX (B. P.). Strong solution of acetate of
iron, 5 oz. ; water, IS oz. — Dote, 5 to 80 minims.

Perric Albuminate. Sj/n. Liqfob fxbbi albtt-
MINATI, L. Dried egg-albumen, 30 parts ; cinna-
mon water, 270 parts ; solution of dialysed iron, 90
parts; caustic soda, 1*125 parts; rectified spirit,
150 parts; distilled, 1000 parts. Dissolve the
albumen in the cinnamon water, then dilute the
iron with 400 parts water, and add the spirit.
Mix the solutions, add the soda, and set aside for
several hours ; then filter, and add water to 1000
parts.

ITtet. Similar to dialysed iron ; is easily borne
by the stomach. — Dote, 1 to 4 dr.

Ferric Chlo'ride. Fe,Cl,. 8gn. Sbsqiti-

CBLOBtSE OF IBOH, PjEBCHLOBIDE OV I.,
PBBHT7BIATE OF I. j FEBBI BBSQTTICBLOBIDrX,
L. Prep. 1. (Anhydrous.) By parsing dry
chlorine over heated iron filings. Brown scales.

2. (Hydrated.) Dissolve ferric hydrate in hy.
drochlonc acid, evaporate to the consistenceof a
syrup, and crystallise. Yellow or red scaly
la-ystals. The impure solution of this salt hsa
been greatly used as a sewage deodoriser. See

TlNOTUBB.

Perrlc and Ammonium Chloride. FegCl,.

NH4CI. Aq. S]/n. DOTTBIB CBLOBISB OF IBOX
AITD AKUONIUM, AMMOITIO-CEI/OBISB OV IHON J
FeBBI AHlfOiriUJC OEIiOBISUM, L.

Ferric oxide, 8 oz. ; hydrochloric acid, i ]uiit ;
digest in a sand-bath until dissolved, then add at
ammonium chloride, 2i lbs., dissolved in water, 3
pints ; filter the liquid, evaporate to dryness, and
reduce the mass to coarse powder. Orange-
coloured crystalline grains readily s<dable in
water.

Ammonio-chloride of iron is tonic, emmenk-
gogne, and aperient. — Dote, 6 to 15 gr. ; in gUm-
dular swellings, obstructions, &c

Perric Citrate. Ve^C^Ufi,)^. Sj/n. Pxb-

OITBATE OF IBON, CiVSATZ OF EMQinOZISX OV
I., CiTBATB OF I. ; FeBBI CITBAB, L.

Prep. By saturating a solntion of citric acid
in an equal weight of water with freshly pre-
cipitated moist ferric hydrate, evaporating at
65" C. (150^ F.) to the consistence of a syrup,
and spreading on glass plates to dry.

By either of the methods adopted for the
Ainiomo-ciTBATE, merely omitting the addition
of the ammonia. It much resembles the am>
monio-citrate, but is only slightly soluble in
water, and has a rather less agreeable taste.— ~
Dote, 8 to 6 gr.

PeiTic and Ammoaiom Citrate. 8fn. Alc-
Moirio-orrBATB of jbon, Aiacomo-FZBBia

OITBATE ; FeBBI BT AKMONII CITBAB, L.

There are several preparations to which the
term 'citrate of iron' has been applied. That
commonly known under this name is really a

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IRON

dOl

doable citrate of iron and ammonia, and appears
to be correctly called ' ammnnio-citnite of iron.'

IVep. 1. (B. P.) Liquor Ferri Peranlphatis
(B. P.), 8 parts ; liqaor ammonia, 19^ pHrts ; citric
acid (in crystals), 4 parts ; distilled water, a suffi-
ciency ; mix 14 parts of tlie solution of ammonia
with 40 parts of water, and all f^radnally ; the solu-
tion of ferric sulphate stir constantly and brislily ;
let the mixture stand 2 hours, and put into a calico
filter and allow to drain. Wash well the pre-
cipitate nntil it no longer gives a precipitate with
bsriom chloride. Dissolve the citric acid in 8 oz.
of the water, and having applied the heat of n
water-bath add the precipitate of ferric hydrate
previously well drained, stir them together until
the whole or nearly the whole of the hydrate has
dissolved. Let the solution cool, then add 5i
parts of the ammonia, filter through flannel,
evaporate to the consistency of syrup, and dry it
in tiiiu layers on flat porcelain or glass plates at a
temperature not exceeding 100° F.

2. (Ph. L.) Ferroos sulphate, 12 oz. ; car-
bonate of sodium, 124 oz. ; dissolve each sepa-
rately in boiling distilled water, 6 pints ; mix the
■olntiona whilst still hot, and allow the precipitate
to subside ; after a time decant the supernatant
liqaor, wash the precipitate frequently with water
(drain it), add of citric acid (in powder), 6 oz.,
and dissolve by the aid of a genUe heat; when
the whole has cooled, add of liquor of ammonia
(Ph. L.), 9 fl. oz., and gently evaporate to the con-
sistence of a syrup ; in this state spread it very
thinly on flat earthenware dishes (or sheets of
giam), dry by a gentle heat, and when dry keep
it in well-stoppered bottles.

3. (Ph. D.) Citric acid, 4 oz. ; distilled water,
16 0. oz. ; hydrated ferric oxide, obtuned from the
sulphate, 5 oz. ; liqaor of ammonia, 4 fl. oz., or q. s.

4. (Wholesale.) A mixture of iron fitings and
citric acid, in powder, with barely sufficient water
to cover it, is Icept in a warm situation for some
days, occasionally stirring the mass, and re-
placing the water as it evaporates. A saturated
solution is next made in distilled water, there
being previously added more citric acid (about
half the weight of the ac!d first used) as re-
qoired; it is then neutralised with liquor of
ammonia (about li oz. of liquor of ammonia,
■p. gr. '882, to every gall., of the solution of
sp. gr. 1*025), and the solution is concentrated by
evaporation ; the process is then completed as in
No. 1. The first part of tiiis process produces a
nit of the protoxide of iron or ferrous citrate,
which is afterwards converted, by exposure to the
•tmosphere, into a dtrate of the magnetic acid, or
ferri-ferro-dtrate, and, lastly, into dttate of
peroxide of iron, or ferric dtrate.

Prop., 4re. This beantifnl salt is of a rich
ruby colour, and forms glistening transparent
scales, very solnble in aqueous menstrua, and the
resulting solution is less eadly decomposed by
reagents than the solutions of most of the other
oalto of iron. It is ' compatible ' with the alka-
line bicarbonates and iodides, and several other
salts, and is nearly tasteless, advantages which
have been perhaps overrsted by both prescriber
and patient. It is doubtful whether this article
has not obtained a larger sale from its pleasing
appeannoe than from Us medidnal virtoes.

Ammonio-citrate of iron is soluble in water;
the solution feebly reddens litmus ; is not turned
blue by ferrocyanide of potsssium; but either
potassium hydrate or lime-water being added, it
throws down ferric hydrate, and ammonia is
evolved. From 100 gr. by incineration about
80% of ferric oxide is'left. — J>oie, 3 to 10 gr., in
water, wine, or bitter infusions.

Ferric and Magnesium Citrate. Syit. Citbats

OF IBON AND MAONEBIA; FerBI MAaNXBlO-
CITBA8, FbBBI XT MAONESI^ CITXAg, L. Prep.

As the last, but using carbonate of magnesium
instead of ammonia, to neutralise the solution. —
Dote, 2 to 10 gr. It has been recommended as a
chalybeate in the dyspepsia of gouty and debili-
tated habits.
Perric and Quinine Cltrata. Sg». Cicbats

OF QUINIVB MSH IBOIT; FeBBI BT QUIHIJE
CITBA8, L.

(B. p.) Pure ferric hydrate is prepared from
liquor ferri persulphatis, 4i oz., and liquor am-
monite, 8 oz., as in the ferric and ammonium
dtrate. Sulphate of quiifine, 1 part, is mixed with
water, 8 parts, and sulphuric acid, H parts, and
when dissolved, ammonia added until the quinine
is precipitated. The precipitate is collected and
washed with 30 parts of water. Citric acid, 3
parts, is dissolved in 8 parts of water by the aid
of a water-bath, and the ferric hydrate, well
drained, added ; stir together until dissolved, and
add the quinine, stirring well until all is dissolved,
and allow to cool; add 1^ parts of solution of
ammonia diluted with 2 parts of water, stir-
ring the solution briskly until the quinine at
first thrown, down by tte ammonia is redia-
solved ; filter and evaporate to a syrup, drying in
thin layers on flat porcelain or glass plates at a
temperature of 100° P.

Ferric citrate, 4 parts; dtrate of quinine, 1
part ; distilled water, q. s. ; dissolve, gently eva-
porate, and proceed as directed for ammonio-
citrate of iron. Greenish golden-yellow scales
when prepared by the B. P. process, soluble in 2
parts of water, and somewhat deliquescent ; taste
bitter as well as chalybeate. — I>ote, 6 to 10 gr. ;
in cases where the use of both iron and quinine is
indicated,

Perric and Sodium Citrate. Syn. Fbbbi

BODIO-CITBAS, FEBBI ET 80SX CITBAS, L. Pr«p.

From dtric acid, carbonate of sodium, and iron
or the hydrate, as the ammonio-citrate or potas-
sio-citrate.

Peiric and Strychnine Citrate. (U. S.) iSya.
Fbbbi bt btbtchhia oitbab, L. Prap. Citrate
of iron and ammonia, 490 gr. ; stryclmia, 5 gr. ;
citric acid, 6 gr. ; distilled water, 9 fi. dr. IKs-
solve the citrate of iron and ammonia in 1 oz. of
the water, and the strychnia and nitric add in 1
dr. of distilled water. Mix the two solutions,
evaporate the mixture over a water-bath, at 140°
F., to the thickness of a syrup, and spread on
glass plates, so that the salt, when dry, nu^ be
obtained in scales.

Perric Perrocy'anide. Fe4(FeCy,),.18Aq. Sgn.

SbSQVIFSBBOCYANISB of IBOK, PBT7B8IAH BLTTB;

Fbbbi FBBBOOTAiriDUX, F. bbsquifbbbo-ota-
stDUM, L. Prep. Ferrous sulphate, 4 oz. j
water, 1 pint; dissolve, add to the solution of
nitric add, 6 fl. dr., in small portions at a time.

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IBOK

Itoiling for a few momenta after each addition ;
next diMolve ferrocyanide of potassinm, 4^ oz.,
in water, 1 pint, and add this laat solntion, by
degree!, to the first liquid, stirring well each
time ; lastly, collect the precipitate, wash it with
boiling water, drain, and dry it. — Dote, 3 to 5
Rr., 3 or 4 times daily, as an alterative, febri-
fuge, and tonic, gradually increasing the quan-
tity nntil some obvious effect is produced; in
agues, epilepsy, and neuralgia. See PBXneiiX
Blvb.

FttrticHydrat*. Fe,(HO),. See under FS&bio
Oxide.

FerriHypophoiphla. Sg*. Hyfopho8PHiti of
IBOV (U. S. P.). Dissolve in separate portions of
water 480 parts of sulphate of iron and 326 parts
of calcium hypophosphite, mix the solutions. and
filter; evaporate the filtrate to dryness. The
solntion first formed contains a ferrous salt;
during evaporation it Is changed to ferric salt.
It forms a greyish-white powder, odourless and
nearly tasteless, slightly soluble in water. Given
in anemia and cases of defective nerve nutrition.
— Dote, 6 to 10 gr.

Perric Iodide. Fejl,. S^. Fibbi rBBio-
DIDUX, L. Prep. Freely expose a solution of
ferrous iodide to the air; or digest iodine, in
excess, on iron, under water, gently evaporate,
and sublime. A deliquescent, volatile, red com-
ponnd, soluble in water and alcohol. It is rarely
employed in meelicime.

Fenle Vitrata. Fe,(NO,),. Sgn. Pbotoni-

TBATB OP IBOir, KlTBATB OV SKBQITIOXIDI OW

IBOH; Fbbbi pbbnituas, li. By digesting nitric
acid (diluted with aboul half its weight of water)
on iron or ferric hydrate. A deep red liquid, apt
to deposit a basic salt. It is used in dyeing, and
has been recommended in dyspepsia, calcnlons
affections, and chronic diarrhoea. — jDote, 6 to 10 or
12 drops.
Ferric Oxide. Fe^O,. Sgn. Peboxidb ov

IBOV, RBO OXIDB of I. ; OZISVIC BUBBUlt, L.

This substance is found native under several
forms, but that employed in the artt is prepared
by one or other of the following methods :

Prom metallic iron : — From iron wire or clean
iron Slings cut into pieces, moistened with water,
and exposed to the air until completely converted
into rust ; it is then ground with water, elutriated,
and dried in a similar way to that adopted for
chalk. For sale, it is usually made up into small
conical loaves or lumps.

By calcination (Bbowit - bbd oolcothab,
Cboous, IxDiAir bed, Bocob, Jewbllbbs' b.;
FbbBI OXIS0K BUBBVK, L.):— Calcine ferrous
sDlphate until the water of crystallisation is
expelled, then roast it with a strong fire nntil
acid vapours cease to rise ; cool, wash the residuum
with water nntil the latter ceases to affect litmus,
and dry it.

Ferrous sulphate, 100 parts; common salt,
42 parts ; calcine, wash well with water, dry, and
levigate the residuum. This process yields a
cheap and beautiful product, which is frequently
sold for the fern sesquioxidum; but it is less
soluble, and therefore unfitted for a snbstitute
for that preparation.

FBBBIC HTDBiTB. Sg». FbBBI PBBOXISUK

RTDBATirx (Ph. D.), FsBKrao (Ph. K.), L.

iV«p. (Ph. E.) Ferrous solpbate, 4 os. ; sulphu-
ric atad, 3^ fl. dr. ; water, 1 quart ; mix, dissolve,
boil, and gradually add of nitric acid, 9 fl. dr. ;
stirring well and boiling for a minute or two
after each addition, until the liquor yields a
yellowish-brown precipitate with ammonia; it
must then be filtered and precipitated with liquor
of ammonia (fort.), 34 fi. oz., rapidly added and
well mixed in; collect the precipitate, wash it
well with water, dnun it on a calico filter, and
dry it at a heat not exceeding 180° F. When
intended as an antidote for arsenic it should not
be dried, but kept in the moist or gelatinous state.

Fbbbio Peboxidb, Moist. 8g». Febbi pkb--
oxiDUX HimiSTTX, L. Prep. Mix solution of
persulphate of iron (B. P.), 4 fl. oz., with I pint
of distilled water, aud add it gradually to 33 fl. oz.
of solntion of soda (B. P.), stirring constantly
and briskly. Let them stuid for 2 hours, stir-
ring occasionally ; then put on a calico filter, and
when the liquid has drained away, wash the pre-
cipitate with distilled water till what passes
through ceases to give a precipitate with chloride
of barium. Lastly, enclose the precipitate with-
ont drying it in a stoppered bottle, or other
vessel, from which evaporation cannot take place.

Dbt Htsbatb of Peboxidb of Ibov (B. P.).
Syn. Fbbbi fbboxidux htdbaittx, Febbi sbs-

QUIOXIDUK, L. ; PbBOXIDB OF IBOV. Fe,O^UjO.

Dry the moist peroxide, 1 lb., at a temperature
not exceeding 212° F., till it ceases to lose weight.
Reduce to a fine powder. — Doee, 6 to 30 gr.

Prop. Ferric oxide, prepared by precipita-
tion, is obtained in small hard grains, or as an
impiklpable powder, of a brownish-red colour,
odourless, insoluble in water, freely soluble in
acids, and possessing a slightly styptic taste,
especially when recently prepared. When ex-
posed to heat its colour is brightened, its sp. gr.
increased, and it is rendered less easily soluble in
acids. The oxide prepared by calcination i*
darker and brighter coloured, less soluble, and
quite tasteless. It has either a scarlet or purplish
cast, according to the heat to which it has been
exposed. The finest Indian red, or crocus, nsnally
undergoes a second calcination, in which it is
exposed to a very intense heat. It is then known
as ' purple brown.' The best jewellers' rouge is
prepared by calcining the precipitated oxide nntil
it becomes scarlet.

The hydrate is of a yellowish-brown colour,
and though it can be dried without decompodtion,
it requires to be kept in a moist state. It is best
preserved in a well-stoppered bottie, filled with
recently distilled or boiled water.

Pur. Medicinal ferric oxide or sesqnioxide of
iron is soluble in dilnte hydrochloric acid, and is
i^n thrown down by potasaa. The stnuned
liquor is free from colour, and is not discoloured
by the addition of either sulphuretted hydrogen
or ferrocyanide of potassium.

The hydrate (fbbbi PBBOxiDTnc htdbatuk.
Ph. D. ; FEBBUSO, Ph. E.) is entirely and very
easily soluble in hydrochloric acid, without effer-
vescence ; if previously dried at 180^ F., a stronger
heat drives off about 18% of water.

C/tet, Jj;e. The precipitated oxide is employed
in medicine as a tonic and emmenagogue, in
doses of 10 to 80 gr. ; and as an anthelmintic and

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IRON

.908

in tic-donloureiu, in doaei of 1 to 4 dr., mixed np
with honey. It is abo employed to mike some
preparations of iron. The calcined oxide is em-
ployrd as a pigment, as an ingredient in iron
plsster, &c. The hydrate is used medicinally as
a tonic in doses of 10 to 30 gr. ; and in much
larger doses as an antidote in cases of arsenical
poisoning.

We are indebted to Hansen and Berthold for
the introduction of this substance as an antidote
to arsenic. A table-spoonful of the moist oxide
may be given every 5 or 10 minutes, or as often
as the patient can swallow it (iVeira). When
this preparation cannot be obtained, rust of iron
or even the dry so-called carbonate (sesquioxide)
may be given along with water instead. Accord-
ing to Dr Maclagan, 12 parts, and to Devergie,
32 parts, of the hydrate are required to neutralise
1 part of arsenioos acid. Fehling says that the
value of this substance as an antidote to arsenic
is materially impaired by age even when kept in
the moist state. The presence of potassium,
sodinm,ammonium, hydrates, sulphates, chlorides,
or carbonates is not of consequence, and there-
fore, in cases of emergency, time need not be lost
in washing the precipitate, which, in such cases,.
need only be drained and squeezed in a calico
filter. The magma obtain^ by precipitating
ferrons sulphate with magnesia in excess, and
which contains free magnesia and magnesium
sulphate, besides ferric hydrate, precipitates
arsenioas acid not only more quickly but in larger
quantity than ferric hydrate does when alone.
It will even render inert Fowler's solution, and
precipitate both the copper and arsenic from solu-
tions of Schweinfurt green in vinegar, which the
pure gelatinous oxide aloue will not do.
Soluble SaccharatadOzida of Iron. (Q.) Sg».

FSBBXTX OZIDATUX 8A00HABATOX BOLVBILB, L.

Pr&p. Solution of perchloride of iron (sp. gr.
I-480), 2 oz. (by weight); syrup, 2 oz. (by weight);
mix, and add gradually solution of caustic soda
(sp. gr. 1-330), 4 oz. (by weight), and set aside
for 24 hours; then add to the clear liquid 30
fl. oz. of distilled hot water; agitate and set
ande. Poor ofl.the supernatant liquid from the
precipitate which will have formed, and pour on
fresh distilled water; then collect the precipitate
on a filter and wash thoroughly with distilled
water.

Pnt the drained precipitate into a porcelain
vessel, and mix with it 9 oz. of sugar in powder,
and evaporate to dryness with constant stirring
over a water-bath, then mix in enough sugar in
powder to make up 10 ox. by w^ht j reduce to
powder and keep in a closed vessel. 100 parts
contain 3 of metallic iron.

Panic Fhoqiliata. Fe,Hj(P04)r Syn. Fbb-

XIC OBTBOPHOSPHATB (OdUnff) ; PBBBI SSSQUI-
PH08PHAS, PH08PHA8 FBKRICUB, L. A white
powder obtained by precipitating ferric chloride
by sodium phosphate. — Utet and dote. As the last.
Tairi Pyrophoaphaa. Sgn. PxBOPaospBATB OP
nwH (U. S. P.). Citrate of iron, 9 parts; pyro-
phosphate of sodium, 10 parts ; water, 18 parts.
Dissolve the iron salt in hot water, add the sodium
salt and stir constantly until it is dissolved. Eva-
porate at 60° C. to a thin syrup, spread on sheets
of glass, and dry to scales.

Thin apple-green scales, freely soluble in water.
One of the best mild iron tonic salts. — Dose, 5 to
10 gr.

Ferric Sulphate. Fe^SO^),. Syn. Psbsul-

PHATB OP IBON, SDLPHATB OP 8X8QUIOZIDB OP

IBON; Fbbbi PIB817LPHAS, L. Prep. By add-
ing to a solution of ferrous sulphate exactly half
as much sulphuric acid as it already contains,
raising the liquid to the boiling-point, and then
dropping in nitric acid, until the liquid ceases to
blacken by such addition. The solution evaporated
to dryness furnishes a buff-coloured mass, slqwly
soluble in water.

Prop., S[e. With the sulphates of ammonium
and potassium it unites to form compounds to
which the name ' iron alums ' has been given. It
forms the active ingredient in the ' liquor ozysul-
ph&tis ferri' of Mr Tyson, and is said by Dr
Osborne to be a constituent of ' Widow Welch's
pills.' This salt is also formed when ferrous sul-
phate is calcined with free exposure to the air.
Dissolved in water, it is used as a test for hydro-
cyanic, gallir, and tannic acids. Used in making
all the scale preparations of the B. P.

Ferric Sulphide. Si/*. Pebsvlphidb op iboh.
This compound is prepared in the hydrated state
(PBBBi PUBSiTLrEUBBTUX HTDBATUx) by adding,
very gradually, a neutral solution of ferric sul-
phate to a dilute solution of potassium sulphide,
and collecting, Ac., the precipitate, as in the case
of the hydrated ferrous sulphide. Propose by
Bonchardat and Sandras as a substitute for fer-
rous sulphide, to which they say it is preferable.

Ferrie Tan'nate. 8gn. Fxbbi taickas, Fik-
BVII TANincVK, L. Prep. From tannin, 1 part ;
boiling water, 160 parts ; dissolve, add of freshly
precipitated ferric hydrate (dried at 212° F.), 9
parts; evaporate by a gentle heat to one half,
filter, add of sugar, 1 part, complete the evapora-
tion, and at once pnt it into bottles. — Dote, 8 to 6
gr., thrice daily ; in chlorosis, internal hemor-
rhages, kc.

Double Ferric and Ammonium Tartrate. Syn.
Amkonio-tabtbatb op ikon, Docbli tabtbatb
op ibon ass axxomcm, axxomio-pbbbio tab-
TBATB, FbBBIO AlCMOKIO-TAXTBATB ; FSBBI AX-
XOmO-TABTBAB, L.

Prtp. 1. (Aikin^ Tartaric acid, 1 part; iron
filings, 3 parts; digest in a sufficient quantity of
hot water to barely cover the mixture for 2 or 3
days, taking care to stir it frequently, and to add
just enough water to allow the evolved gas to
escape freely ; next add ammonia in slight excess,
stir well, dilute with water, decant, wash the un-
dissolved portion of iron, filter the mixed liquors,
and evaporate to dryness ; dissolve the residuum
in water, add a little more ammonia, filter, and
again gently evaporate to dryness, or to the con-
sistence of a thick syrup, when it may be spread
upon hot plates of glass or on earthenware dishes,
and dried in a stove-room, as directed for the
corresponding citrate.

2. Tartaric acid, 6t oz. ; water, 7 pints ; dissolve,
neutralise the solution with sesquicarbonate of
ammonium, and udd 6| oz. more tartaric acid;
to the solution heated in a water-bath further add
moist hydrated oxide of iron (obtained from
sesquioxide of iron, 63i dr., dissolved in hydro-
chloric acid, and precipitated by ammonia);

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lEON

-when dissolved, filter and evaporate, Ac., as
before.

Prop., ifc. Glossy, brittle lamelUe, or irre-
gnlar pieces, of a deep garnet colonr, almost
black, very soluble in water, and possessing a
sweetish and slightly ferruginous taste. By
repeated re-solution and evaporation its sweetness
is increased, probably from the conversion of a
part of its acid into sugar. It contains more
iron than a given weight of the sulphate of the
same base. It is the most pleasant-tasted of all
the preparations of iron except the ammonio-
citrate, last noticed: — Dote, 3 to 10 gr.

Fbbbuu tabtabatux, Tabtabated ibov (B.

P.) ; FbBKI FOTABSIO-TABTBA8 (Ph. L.), FeBBUX
TABTABIZATTTM ^Ph. £.), FSBBI TABTABTO

(Ph. D.), Fbbbi bt poTAsas tabtbas (Ph. U. S.),
Ii. Frep, (B. P.) Prepare ferric hydrate
from 6 C oz. of liq. ferri persulphas (B. P.), as in
making the double citrate, and add it to 2 oz. of
the acid tartrate of potassium. Digest for 24
hours at 140° F., allow to cool, and decant off the
clear solution, which is to be evaporated down
and dried on glass plates (Ph. L.). Ferrous sul-
phate, 4 oz., is dissolved in water, 1 pint, pre-
vionsly mixed with sulphuric acid, i fl. oz. ; heat
is applied to the solution, and nitric acid, 1 fl. oz.,
gradually added; the solution is boiled to the
consistence of a symp and then diluted with
water, 4 galls, (less the pint already used) ; liquor
of ammonia, 10 fl. oz., is next added, and the
precipitate washed and set aside for 24 hours ; at
the end of this time, the water being decanted,
the still moist precipitate is added, gradoally, to
a mixture of bitartrate of potasBinm, 2 oz., and
water, i pint, heated to 140 F. ; after a time the
undissolved oxide is separated by a linen cloth, and
the clear solution either gently evaporated to dry-
ness or treated in the same manner as the citrate.
Lastly, preserve it in well-stoppered bottles.
The formnla of the Ph. £., S., & U. S. are
essentially the same. The Ph. D. orders a beat
not beyond 160° F. to be applied to the mixture
of the onde and bitartrate, with occasional
stirring for 6 hours, and the desiccation to be
conducted at the same temperature.

Oit. This preparation is a donble salt of
potassium and iron ; it is therefore wrongly called
'tartrate of iron,' as is commonly done. It is
totally solnble in water ; the solution is unaffected
by ferrocyanide of potassium, and not precipitated
by acids with alkalies; on boiling it yields ferric
hydrate. Heated with potassa, 100 gr. throws
down about SO gr. of sesquioxide of iron.
Entirely solnble in cold water ; taste freely chaly-
beate. That of commerce has generally a feebly
inky taste, a slight alkaline reaction, is slightly
deliqaescent, dissolves in 4 parts of water, and is
nearly insoluble in alcohol.

Potassio-tartrate of iron is an excellent ferru-
ginous tonic. — Do»f, 10 to 20 gr., dissolved in
water or other convenient menstruum.

Ferrlo Taleriaaate. S^n. Valebiakatb or
aBSQViozisE or ibom, Vaibbiatb op IBOIT;
Fbbbi taiiBBIaxab, L. (U. S. P.) By adding a
solntion of sodinm valerianate to another of ferric
•nlpbate, and collecting and washing the pre-
cipitate, which is to be dried by placing it for
some days folded in bibulous paper on a porous

brick ; after which it is to be carefully kept from
the air.

Prop., tee. A reddish-brown amorphous pow-
der ; nearly insoluble in water ; solnble in rectified
spirit, and in the dilute acids with decomposition.
— Dote, 1 to 10 gr.; in ansemia and chlorosis
complicated with hysteria.

Ferroso-ferric Hydrate. Fej(HO),. Sgit. Ht-
dratkd peeboeo-pbbbic oxidb,Hii)batsd mag-
netic OXIDE. Prep. 1. Liquor ferri persulphas,
Si parts ; ferri solphas, 2 parts ; solution of soda,
80 parts; distilled water, a sufficiency. Dissolve
the ferrons sulphate in 40 parts of water, add the
solution of soda, stirring them well, boil the
mixture, let it stend for 2 hours, put in a calico
filter, wash with distilled water until the washing
gives no precipitate with barium chloride, and
dry at a temperature not exceeding 120° F.

2. Ferrons sulphate, 6 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 160
minims ; nitric acid, 4 fl. dr. ; stronger solution of
ammonia, 4^ fl. oz. ; boiling water, 3 pints; dis-
solve half of the sulphate in half of the water, add
the oil of vitriol, boil, add the nitric acid gradually,
boiling after each addition for a few minutes;
dissolve the remaining half of the snlphate in the
rest of the boiling water; mix the two solutions,
add the ammonia, stirring well (and boil for a
short time); collect the precipitate on a calico
filter, wash it with water until it ceases to pre-
cipitate a solution of nitrate of barium, and dry
at a heat not exceeding 183° F. The formnlte of
Qregoiy and Dr Jephson are similar.

3. Ferrous sulphate,|8 oz., dissolved in a mixture
of water, 10 fl. oz., and sulphuric acid, 6 fl. dr., is
converted by means of nitric acid, 4 fl. dr., diluted
with water, 2 fl. oz., into ferric sulphate ; this
solution is then added to another, formed by dis-
solving ferrous sulphate, 4 oz., in water, i pint ;
the whole is then mixed with liquor of potassium
hydrate, 2} pints, and after being boiled for 5
minutes is collected on a calico filter, and washed,
&c., as before, and is to be preserved in a well-
stoppered bottle.

Prop., lie. The hydrate is a black sand-like
snbstuice, consisting of very minute crystals.
When pure it is attracted by the magnet, and is
entirely soluble in hydrochloric acid; and am-
monia added to the solution throws down a black
precipitate. The oxide is the chief product of the
oxidation of iron at a high temperature in the air
and in aqueous vapour. It is more permanent than
ferrous oxide, but incapable of forming salts. —
Don, 6 to 20 gr. 2 or 3 times a day.

Perroao-fmrio Oxide. FejO^. Sgn. Maohbtio

OXIDE OF IKOW ; FBBBI OXIDUK NIOBUX, F. O.
KAGKSTICUK (Ph. D.), OxiDUK FKBBOeO-PBBBI-

CUM, L. This occurs native, but that used in
nediexne is prepared artificially. •

From the black scales of iron that fall aronnd
the smith's anvil, by washing, drying, detaching;;
them from impurities by means of a magnet, and
then treating them by grinding and elutriation, as
directed for prepared chslk. The product of this
process is inferior as a medicine to the hydrate ob-
tained as below, being less easily soluble in the
juices of the stomach.

Ferrous Acetate. F(CjH,0^^ Sgn. Fkbsi
ACETA8. L. Prep. 1. From freshly precitntated
ferrous carbonate dissolved in dilute acetic acid.

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2. By adding a Rolntion of calcinm acetate to
another of ferrooa sulphate, and evaporating the
filtered liquid, oat of contact with the air. Small,
colourless, or pale greenish needles or prisms, very
soluble and prone to oxidation.

I'ertOTu Anenate. FejCAsO^),. %*. Fkbri
ASSEmAS. Prep. 1. From a solotion of sodium
arseniate, added to a solution of ferroas sulphate,
the precipitate being collected, washed in a little
cold water, and dried. — Doie, ^5 to -^ gr., made
into a pill; in lupus, psoriasis, cancerous affec-
tions, &c. Maternally, combined with 4 times
its weight of ferrous phosphate and a little
water, as a paint to destroy the vitality of can-
cerous formations. An ointment (20 to 80 gr. to
the ox.) is also used for the same purpose. They
are all dangerous remedies in non-professional
hands.

2. (B. P.) Sulphate of iron, 20t oz. ; arseniate
of aocb, dried at SOC P., 15f oz. ; bicarbonate of
soda, 4ri oz. Dissolve the arieniate and the bi-
carbonate of soda in 5 pints, and the sulphate of
iron in 6 pints, of boiling distilled water, mix the
two solutions, collect the white precipitate which
forms on a calico filter, and wash until the wash-
ing* cease to be affected by a dilute solution of
chloride of barium. Squeeze the washed precipi-
tate between folds of strong linen in a screw-
press, and dry it on porous bricks in a warm air-
cbamber whose temperature shall not exceed 100°
F. — Doee, -iV to J gr.

Ferrous Artenite. Fe(AsO])^ Syn. Febbi
ABSBXis, L. From the potassium arsenite, and
ferrons snlphate, as the last. A yellowish-brown
powder, occasionally used in medidne as a tonic,
alterative, and febrifuge. — Dote, iV to -jfj gt.

Fwrons Bromide. FeBr,. Syn. Febbi bbo-
xzvux, L. Prep. {Moir.) Bromine and iron
filings, of eaeh, 1 part; water, 3 parts ; mix in a
stoppered phial, set it aside, occasionally shaking
it, for 2 or 3 days, and when the colour of the
bromine has disappeared, and the liquid becomes
greenish, filter and evaporate to dryne»s. — Dote,
1 to 6 gt., as a tonic, ^nretic, aod resolvent, in
aianilar cases to those in which iodide of iron is
given.

Fenoos Carbonate. Fe(CO^. Syn. Pboto-

CABBOKA.TB 07 IBOV ; FeBBI CABBOKAB, F. SUB-

CAXBONA8, L. This occurs in nature as sfathobs
OBB, which is found alone, and also forms the
chief constituent of ci^T iBOirsTOHE and blacx-
BAKD OKB, and in many oraltbeatb watebs.

Precipitate a solution of ferrons sulphate with
m aolntion of sodium carbonate, well wash the
green powder with water which has been boiled,
and diy it out of contact with the air. On the
slightest exposure to air it is converted into
ferrous hydrate or oxide. This change is for the
moat part prevented by combining it with sugar,
as in the following preparation.

FBBBI CABBOITAS gACCRABATA (B. P.) ; SaC-
CHASIKB CABBOITATB 07 IBON ; FeBBCX CABBO-
KICTTX SACCBABATlnf, FeBBI OABBOKAB CTTH 8AC-

CKASO (Ph. !».), Xj. Prep. (B. P.) Perrons sul-
phate (sulphate of iroii), 2 pcu^; ammonium
carbonate, li parts ; boiling distilled water, 320
parts ; refined sugar, 1 part. Dissolve the snlphate
and ammonium carbonate eaeh in i of the water,
and mix ; allow to stand for 24 hours and decant

off the clear sotntion, add the remainder of the
water to the precipitate, stir well, allow to settle,
and decant off. Collect the deposit in a calico
filter, press, mb in the sugar in a porcelain mortar,
and dry at a temperature not exceeding 212° F.

Prop., i(e. A sweet-tasted greenish mass or
powder, consisting chiefly of carbonate of iron.
It is one of the best of the chalybeates. — Dote,

6 to 10 gr. When pure, it should be easily
soluble in hydrochloric acid with brisk efferves-
cence.

Ferrous Chloride. Fed. Syn. Pbotocblo-
BIDS 07 ntoir; Fbbbi chiobisuv, L. Prep.
1. (Anhydrous.) By passing dry hydrochloric
arid gas over ignited metallic iron. The chloride
sublimes in yellowish crystals.

2. (Hydrated.) Dissolve iron filings or scale
in hydrochloric acid, evaporate and crystallise.
Soluble g^een crystals.

Perrons Citrate. YeJS'^fi-,)^ Syn. Pboto-

CITBATB 07 IBOH, CiTKATE 07 FBOTOXISB 07 IKOV.

This salt is easily formed by digesting iron filings
or wire with citric acid, and evaporating the
solution as quickly as possible out of contact with
the air. It presents the appearance of a white
powder, nearly insoluble in water, and rapidly
passing to a higher state of oxidation by exposure
to the air. Its taste is very metallic. It is ex-
hibited under the form of pills, mixed with gum
or symp, to prevent it from being prematurely
decomposed.
Ferrons Ferriey'aoide. Syn. Fsbbictaitidb

07 iBOir. Prep. By adding a solution of potas-
sium ferricyanide ('red prossiate of potash') to a
solution of ferrous sulphate (or any other soluble
ferrons salt), and collecting and drying the pre-
cipitate. A bright blue powder. See Trsjf-
BVLL'g Blve.

Ferrous Hydrate. Te^SO)^ See under Fee-
bio OXIDB.

Ferrons Hydrate. Fe,(HO),. May be pre-
cipitated from ferrous solutions as a white
powder, by alkaline hydrates. It rapidly absorbs
oxygen, and turns first green, and then red, by
exposure to the air. Botn the oxide and hydrate
are very powerful bases, neutralising the acids,
and forming stable salts, which, when soluble,
have commonly a pale green colour, and a nauseous
metallic taste.

Ferrous HypophospUte. Syn. Febbi htpo-
FHOBPHIB, L. Prom the double decomposition
of hypophosphite of lime and sulphate of iron,
as hypophosphite of potash.

Ferrous Iodide. Pel,, i^ Pbotoiodide 07
IBON, Iodide op i. ; Fbbbi iodidfh, L. Prep.
Pine iron wire, 1 part; iodine, 2 parts; distilled
water, 10 parts. Introduce the iron, iodine, and

8 parts of water into a flask, heat it about ten
minntes, and boil until all the red colour is gone.
Filter through paper into a polished iron dish,
washing with the rest of the water, and boil until a
drop of the solution taken out on iron wire solidifies
on cooling. Pour on porcelain and cool. (Ph. L.,
1886.) Iodine, 6 oz. ; iron filings, 2 oz. ; water,
4^ pints ; mix, boil in a sand-bath until the liquid
turns to a pale green, filter, wash the residuum
with a little water, evaporate the mixed liquors
in an iron vessel at 212° F. to dryness, and imme-
diately put the iodide into well-stoppered bottles.

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IBON

Iodine, 1 oz., and clean iron filings or tumingi,
i oz., are pat into a Florence flask with distilled
water, 4 fl. oz., and having applied a gentle heat
for 10 minutes, the liquid is boiled until it loses
its red colour ; it is then at ooce filtered into a
second flask, the filter washed with water, 1 fl. oz.,
and the mixed liquid is boiled down, until it soli-
difies on cooling.

SaCOHABINE IODIDX of IBON ; Saochabitk
PEBBI lOSISI, FebBI IODIDUM BACCBABATUK

(IT. S. p.), L. Iron (in powder), 6 parts; water,
20 parts ; iodine, 17 parts ; obtain a solution of
iodide of iron, as above, and add to it of sugar of
milk (in powder), 80 parts ; evaporate at a tem-
perature not exceeding 122° F., until the mass
has a tenacious consistence, then further add of
sugar of milk, 1 oz., reduce the mixture to pow-
der, and preserve it in a well-stoppered bottle. —
Dote, 2 to 10 gr.

From 'syrup of iodide of iron' exposed in a
shallow vessel, in a warm place, until it crystal-
lises ; the crystals are collected, dried, and pow-
dered. A simpler plan is to gently evaporate the
whole to dryness, and to powder the residuum.
The saccharine iodide may be kept for some time
in a corked bottle without undergoing decomposi-
tion.

Obt. The preparation of the above compound
needs care, exposure to air and excess of heat
should be avoided. As soon as iodine and iron
are mixed tos^ether under water much heat is
evolved, and if too much water bo not used, the
combination is soon complete, and tbe liquor
merely requires to be evaporated to dryness, out
of contact with the air, at a heat not exceeding
212° Fahr. This is most cheaply and easily
performed by employing a glass flask, with a
thin broad bottom and a narrow mouth, by which
means the evolved steam excludes air from the
vessel. The whole of the uncombined water may
be known to be evaporated when vapour ceases to
condense on a piece of cold glass held over the
mouth of tbe flask. A piece uf moistened starch
paper occasionally applied in tbe same way will
indicate whether free iodine is evolved; should
such be the case, the heat should be immediately
lessened. When the evaporation is completed,
the mouth of the flask should be stopped up by
laying a piece of sheet India rubber on it, and
over that a flat weight ; the flask must be then
removed, and when cold broken to pieces, the
iodide weighed, and put into dry and warm
stoppered wide-mouth glass phials, which must
be immediately closed, tied over with bladder, and
the stoppers dipped into melted wax.

Prop., Jjfo. Ferrous iodide evolves violet va-
pours by heat, and ferric oxide remains. When
freshly made it is totally soluble in water, and
from this solution, when kept in a badly stoppered
vessel, ferric hydrate is very soon precipitated;
but with iron wire immersed in it, it may be kept
clear in a well-stoppered bottle. — Dote, 1 to 8 gr.,
or more, as a tonic, stimulant, and resolvent;
best given in the form of the syrup. It has been
given witb advantage in anicmia, chlorosis, de-
bility, scrofula, and various glandular affections.

Ferrous Lactate. Fe(C3HjO,),. Sjra. Peoto-

I.ACTATB OF IBON; FeBBI I.AOTAg, FbBBUM

UkCiicuM, L. Prep. Boil iron filings in lactic

acid diluted with water until gaa ceases to be
evolved, and filter whilst hot into a suitable
vessel, which must be at once closely stoppered ;
aa the solution cools, crystals will be deposited,
which after being washed, first with a. little cold
water and then with alcohol, are to be carefully
dried, Tbe mother liquor, on being digested, as
before, with fresh iron, will yield more crystals.

Into sour whey, 2 lbs., sprinkle sugar of milk
and iron filings, of each, in fine powder, 1 oz.;
digest at about 100° F., until the sugar of ndlk is
dissolved, tlien add a second portion, and as soon
as a white crystalline powder begins to form boil
the whole gently and filter into a clean vessel;
lastly collect, wash, and dry tbe crystals as before.

Prop., Sfc. Ferrous lactate is a greenish-white
salt; and when pure, forms small acicular or
prismatic crystals, which have a sweetish ferru-
ginous taste, and are soluble in about 48 parts of
cold and in 12 parts of boiling water. It has
been regarded by many high authorities as supo-
rior to every other preparation of iron for internal
use, as being at once miseible with tbe lactic acid
of the gastric juice, instead of having to be con-
verted into a lactate at the expense of that fluid,
as it is asserted is the case with the other pre-
pamtions of iron, — Doie, 2 to 6 gr., frequently,
in any form most convenient.

Ferrous Ma'late (Impure). Sy». Fbbbi kalas
impceus, L. Prep. (P. Cod., 1839.) Porphy-
rised iron filiugs, 1 part; juice of sour apples,
8 parte; digest for 3 days in an iron vessel,
evaporate to one half, strain through linen whilst
hot, further evaporate to the cousistence of an
extract, and preserve it from the air. — Dote, 6
to 20 gr., where the use of iron is indicated.

Ferrous Hitrato. (FeNO,),. Sgn. Pboto-

NITBATE OF IBOIT, NlTBATE OF FBOTOXIDB OF

IBON; Febbi hiteas, L. By dissolving ferrous
sulphide in dilute sulphuric acid in the cold, and
evaporating the solution in vacuo. Small green
crystels, very soluble, and prone to oxidation.

Ferrous Oxalate (U. S.). Syn. Febbi ozai.ab,
L. Prep. Sulphateofiron,2oz.; oxalicacid,396
gr. ; distilled water, q. s. Dissolve the sulphate
in 80 oz. (old measure), and the add in IB oz.
(old measure) of distilled water. IHlter the
solutions, mix them, shake t(^ether, and set
aside until the precipitate is formed. Decant the
clear liquid, wash the prerapiteto thoroughly, aud
dry it with a gentle heat.

Ferrons Oxide. FeO. Sg». Fbotoxidb of
IBOK; Kebbi FBOTOXiDiiii, L. This substance
is almost unknown in a pure state, from iU
extreme prouenees to absorb oxygen and pass
into tbe sesquiozide,

Fenrons Phosphate. Sy». Ph08PHAT> of ibon,
NeDTBAL F. of PBOTOXISX of IBON, Bii(btaij.io
febuoub obthophosfhatb {Odling); Febbi
FH08PHA8 (Ph. U. S.), L. A salt formed from
ordinary or tribasic phosphoric acid.

Prep. (B. P.) Ferrous sulphate, 8 parte;
sodium phosphate, 2} parte; sodium bicarbonate
} part; boiling disiilled water, 60 parte ; dissolve
the sulphate and sodium salte, each in half the
water, mix, and stir carefully ; filter through
calico, wash with hot distilled water until it
ceases to give a precipiteto with barium chloride,
and dry at a heat not exceeding 120° F.

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907

^rop., Sfc. A slste-coloured powder ; insoluble
in water ; soluble in dilute nitric and bydrochlorie
acids. — JOote, 5 to 10 gr. ; in amenorrhoea, dia-
betes, dyspepsia, scrofula, &c. ; and externally,
as an application to cancerous ulcers.

Ferrona Sulphate. FeS04.7Aq. Syn. Photo-

8ULPHATB OV IBOir, SULPHATI OF IBOIC, COP-
PKSAB, OSBBN VITBIOL, SHOBKAKBB'S BUlOK ;
FSBBI BVLPHAS (B. P., Ph. L..E. & D.), VlT-
BiOLUX PBBBi, L. The crude sulphate of iron or
green vitriol of commerce (pbbbi bvlfhas
rssALiB, Ph. L.) is prepared by exposing heaps
of moistened iron pyrites or native bisnlphuret ot
iron to the air for several months, either in its
unprepared state or after it has been roasted.
When decomposition is sufficiently advanced, the
newly formed salt is dissolved out with water, and
the solution crystallised by evaporatbo. In this
state it is very impure. Xhe ferrous sulphate or
sulphate of iron employed in medicine is prepared
as follows :

Prep, (B. P.) Iron wire, 4 parts ; sulphuric
acid, 4 parts ; distilled water, 30 parts. Pour the
water on the iron, add the acid, and when the dis-
engagement of gas has nearly ceased, boil for 10
minutes. Filter through paper. Allow to stand
24hoaTS, and collect the crystals. Sulphuric acid,
1 fl. oz. ; water, 4 pints ; mix, and add of com-
mercial sulphate of iron, 4 lbs. ; iron wire, 1 oz. ;
digest with heat and occasional agitation until
the sulphate is dissolved, strain whilst hot, and set
aside the liquor that crystals may form ; evaporate
the mother liquor for more crystals, and dry the
whole.

Dissolve the transparent green crystals of the
impure sulphate of iron in their own weight of
water, acidulated with sulphuric acid, and re-
cry stslliae.

The formula of the Ph. U. S. is similar.

Dried : Fbbbi 8(7lpha8 bxsiccata (B. P.),

FBBXI StriTBAB BZ8ICCATUK (Pll. E.), F. 8. BIO-

CAiVK (Ph. D.), L. From ferrous sulphate, heated
in a shsjlow porcehun or earthen vessel, not glazed
with lead, 'till it becomes a greenish-grey mass,
and then reduced to powder. The heat should be
that of an oven, or not exceeding 400° F. 5 parts
of the crystallised sulphate lose very nearly 2
parte by drying.

Oranitlated: Fbbbi sulphas gbanvUiIA, L.
(B. P.) A solution of iron wire, 4 ox., in sul-
phuric acid, 4 fl. oz., diluted with water, lipinte,
after being boiled for a few minutes, is filtered
into a vessel containing rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.,
and the whole stirred until cold, when the granu-
lar crystals are collected on a filter, washed with
rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz., and dried, first by pressure
between bibulous paper, and next beneath a bell-
glass over sulphuric acid, after which they are
put into a stoppered bottle to preserve them from
the air.

Prop., i(e. Ferrous sulphate forms pale bluish-
green rhombic prisms, having an acid, styptic
taste, and acid reaction ; it dissolves in 2 parts of
cold and less than 1 part of boiling water ; at a
dnll red heat it suffers decomposition ; sp. gr.
1*82. It is perfectly soluble in water ; a piece of
iron put into the solution should' not be covered
with metallic copper. By exposure to the air it
effloresces slightly, and is partly converted into a

basic ferric sulphate. — Doie, i to 4 gr., in pills or
solution ; extenMlU/, as an astringent or styptic.
In the arte, as sulphate of iron (copperas), it is
extensively used in dyeing, and for various other
purposes, 'llie dried sulphate (ferri sulphas
exsiccatum) is chiefly used to make pills.

Crude sulphate of iron is frequently con-
taminated with the sulphates of copper, zinc,
manganese, aluminium, magnesium, and calcium,
which, with the exception of the first, are re-
moved with difficulty. It also conteins variable
proportions of the neutral and basic ferric sul-
phates. The preparation obteined by direct volu-
tion of iron in dilute sulphuric acid should, there-
fore, be alone used in medicine.

In eommarce, there are 4 varieties of crude sul-
phate of iron or copperas known : greenish-blue,
obtained from acid liquors; pale green, from
neutral liquors ; emerald green, from liquors con-
teining ferric sulphate ; snd ochrey-brown, which
arises from age and exposure of the other varieties
to the air. Even the first two of these contain
traces of ferric sulphate, and hence give a bluish
precipitete with fcrrocyanide of potassium ;
whereas the pure sulphate gives one which is at
firat nearly white.

ferrous Sulphide. FeS. 8m. SuiiPhidbofibok,
PBOToauLFHioa OF I.; Fbbbi auifHinuETUH
(Ph. E. &D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.E.&D.) Prom
sublimed sulphur, 4 parts ; iron filings, 7 parte ;
mixed together and heated in a common fire till
the mixture begins to glow, then removing the
crucible from the heat, and covering it up, until
the reaction is at an end, and the whole has become
cold.

2. Expose a bar of iron to a full white heat, and
instantly apply a solid mass of sulphur to it,
allowing the melted product to fall into water ;
afterwu^s separate the sulphide from the sul-
phur, dry, and preserve it in a closed vessel.

Hydrated: Fbbbi PROTOsuLPHnBBTVK ht-
DBATCM, L. By adding a solution of ammonium
sulphide or of potessium sulphide to a neutral
solution of ferrous sulphate made with recently
distilled or boiled water ; the precipitete is col-
lected on a filter, washed as quickly as possible
with recently boiled water, squeezed in a linen
cloth, and preserved in the pasty stete, under
water, as directed under Fbbbio Htdbatb.

Prop., S^e. The sulphide prepared in the dry
way is a blackish brittle substence, attracted by
the magnet. It is largely used in the lahoraiorj/
as a source of sulphuretted hydrogen. The hy-
drated sulphide is a black, insoluble substance,
rapidly decomposed by exposure to the air. Pro-
posed by Mialhe as an antidote to the salte of
arsenic, antimony, bismuth, lead, mercury, silver,
and tin, and to arsenious acid ; more especially to
white arsenic and corrosive sublimate. A gargle
containing a little hydrated sulphide of iron will
instently remove the metallic taste caused by
putting a little corrosive sublimate into the mouth
(Mialhe). On contact with the latter substance
it is instantly converted into ferrons chloride and
mercurous sulphide, two comparatively inert snb-
steuces. It is administered ' in the same way as
fenons hydrate. When taken immediately siter
the ingestion of corrosive sublimate, it instently
I renders it innocuons ; but when the administra-

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tion 18 delayed tintil 15 or 20 minutes after the
poison has been swallovred, it is almost nselesa.

Ferrous Tar'trate. Syn. Fesri tabtrab,
Fbsri PKOTOTASTBiB, L. Prep. 1. From iron
filings, 2 parts ; tiirtaric acid, 1 part; hot water,
q. B. ; digest together nntil reaction ceases, agitnte
the liquid, pour off the turbid solution, and collect,
wash, and dry the powder as quinkly as possible,
and keep it out of contact with the air.

2. Crystallised potassium tartrate, 132 parts ;
ferrous sulphate, 139 parts ; dissolve each Mpa-
rately, mix the solutions, and collect the precipi-
tate as before. A nearly insoluble powder ; seldom
used.

Obt, By dissolving the corresponding hydrates
in a solution of tartaric acid, employing the former
in slight excess, and evaporating, both the ferrous
and ferric tartrate are easily obtained.

ISOIT ALITM . SeeALum.

ISOir CEVSVT. See CEMEirrs.

IKOH', DIALT8ED. Sgn. LiQUOB febbi
SIALTSATUB (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. Mix solntion
of pcrchloride of iron, 6 parts, with distilled water,
4 parts, and stir into the mixture sufficient
diluted solution of ammonia to impart, after tho-
rough agitation, a distinct ammoniacal odour.
Collect the precipitated ferric hydrate on calico
and wash it with distilled water, then squeeze to
remove the superfluous water ; add thn precipitate
to solution of perchloride of iron, 1 part, stir
thoroughly, warm gently, and when complete or
nearly complete solution is obtained filter if
necessary, and place the liquid in a covered
dialyaer ; then subject it to a stream of water in
the usual manner until the solntion on the dia-
lyser is almost tasteless. The resulting solution
should measure 28 parts. A clear dark reddish-
brown liquid. Neutral to test-papers. Sp. gr.
about 1-047.

l}eH*. The solution gives no precipitate with
ferrocyanide of potassium or with nitrate of
silver, fant after being heated with hydrochloric
acid it yields with ferrocyanide of potassium a
blue precipitate. 100 gr. by weight affords a
precipitate with a solution of ammonia, which,
washed, dried, and ignited, weighs 5 gr.

2. (< American Journal of Pharmacy.') Take
10 gr. of liq. ferri perchlor. (B. P.), precipitate
by liquor ammonia, and wash the precipitate
thoroughly. Mix this with 12 parts of liq.
ferri perchlor. (B. P.), and place in a dialyser.
The dialyser is placed in a snitable vessel with
distilled water, the water under it renewed every
24r honrs. The operation is continued nntil no
trace of chlorine exists, at which time the pre-
paration is found to be neutral. It nsnally takes
from 12 to 15 days to complete the process.

Theiesalting preparation, which should be of a
deep dark red colour, contains about 6 per cent.
of the oxide of iron. If the solution after com-
pletion of the operation should contain more than
6 per cent, of iron, it may be diluted with dialysed
water till it reaches that point.

The above formula is said to furnish an article
predsely similar to (he original Bravais' dialysed
uon.

8. (X. B. SktMUmortk.) Add ammonia to a
■olntion of perchloride of iron aa long as the pre-
eijatate tatmiA is re-diMolved. A solution is

produced which contains ferric hydrate dissolved
in ferric chloride, with free chloride of ammonium.
Either the liquor ferri perchlor. fort. (B. P.),
or the liquor ferri chloridi (U. S.), may be con-
veniently used, and the liquor ammonite, Bp. gr.
■959 or '960, <rf either Pbarmacop«eia will be
found a convenient strength. If the ammonia be
added to the strong solntion of iron, considerable
heat is evohed, and, on cooling, the preparatioi;!
becomes gelatinised — often so much that the
vessel containing it may be inverted. It is better
to avoid this result, and to such end the solution
of perchloride must be diluted until of a sp. gr,
of about I'SOO. This degree may be nearly
enough approached by diluting 2 measures of
the B. P. liquor with 1 of water, or adding 1
measure of watA to 5 of the U. S. preparation.
This solution will generally remain permanefltiy
bright and fluid. The amount of liquor ammonice
required will of course vary with the acidity of
the perchloride. The liquor ferri (B. P.) will
sometimes bear as much as an equal yolume. A
gelatinised solution, even when made from the
uudiluted liquor, will often become fluid when put
upon the dialyser, but, as has been said before, it
is better to work with bright solutions.

4. {Dr Pile.) Dr Pile, noticing the fact that
chloride of sodium is one of the most rapid crys-
talloids to dialyse, used » solution of carbonate of
sodium to add to the solntion of ferric chloride in
place of the ammonia so generally recommended,
and with great success. The solntion of ferric
chloride (U. S.) which has been neutralised by a
cold solution of carbonate of sodium is poured
into a floating dialyser. Starting with 1 pint of
solution of ferric chloride, which on being treated
with the sodium solution, and ready to dialyse,
had a sp. gr. of 1*175, it had in 5 days increased
to 6 pints. The water in which the dialyser
floated n-aa changed daily. At the end of five
days it had passed through the membrane all the
crystalloids, was free from taste of foreign sob-
stances, and owing to increase of bulk had now
the sp. gr. of 1-0296, and on evaporation yielded
5% dry oxide of iron. Too long dialysation will
cause the solution of iron to become gelatinous.

Mr Shnttieworth ('Canadian Pharmaceutical
Journal,' Oct., 1877) says that an efficient dia-
lyser may be made out of one of the flat hoops of
an ordinary flour barrel, a bell-jar, or even an
inverted glass fnnnel. He gives the preference
to the former, and limits its diameter to 10 or
12 in. ; if it exceeds this, the septum is liable to
bulge in the centre, and to make the layer of
liquid too deep at that point.

The parchment paper employed for the septnm
must be entirely free from holes ; this is an essen-
tiaX condition, and if any should be discovered—
by the simple process of sponging the upper
surface of the paper with water, and then care-
fully examining the under unrface — they must bo
stopped by means of a little white of pgg, applied
and coagulated by heat, or by a drop of collodion.

The parchment paper is not the kind ordinarily
known under that name, but a less porous de-
scription, which has been made by previons
immersion in dilute tnlphnrie add.

Well-washed bladder, deprived of its outer
coat, also makes a good septom.

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IRON

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The ■eptnm ahonld be tied around the hoop
with twine, bnt not too tightly, and should be bo
amnged that ita edges sluU be left standing up
aronnd the hoop, so as to absorb any liquid
escaping from the hoop at its jnaction vdth the
septum. The dialyser being ready for use, the
liquid intended for dialysis is poured into it to a
depth of not more than half an inch, and the
dialyser with its contents is then floated on the
surface of some distilled water, contained in a
suitable receptacle.

The hoop must only be allowed to sink just
below the level of the water; if it gets below
this point, it will be necessary to keep it up by
some support.

It is necessary to change the water in the
outer vessel daily. For the first 2 or 3 days
distilled water should always be used. When
this is not obtainable nun-water should be em-
ployed. When the water shows the absence of
chlorides and the preparation ceases to have a
ferruginous taste, the operation may be regarded
as finished. The process generally occupies one
or two weeks.

"A pig's bladder, completely filled with the
iron solntion, securely tied, and immersed in
water frequently changed, answers well for
making this preparation. The process requires a
longer time than with a carefully regulated and
properly conducted dialysis, but it entails con-
siderably less trouble. I consider it an advantage
to procure the bladder perfectly fresh, as it is
then easily cleaned by pure water, and alkaline
ley need not be used. Great care is necessary in
tying the neck carefully. This can be best ac-
complished by a few turns of iron wire. Above
this may be secured a piece of twine, to suspend
the bladder, by means of a stick, or rod, placed on
the edge of the vessel containing the water. The
bladd^ should be perfectly full, and immersed
altogether in water. The attraction of the solu-
tion for the water is so great that considerable
pressure is manifested, and, should any parts or
holes be in the bladder, the liquid will be forced
out, water will take its place, and failure result."

Pretty general consent appears to have fixed
the strength of the solution of dialysed iron at
6% . Where it exceeds this, the solntion must
be diluted with distilled water; and where it
falls short of the amount, it will have to be
reduced to the required volume by standing it in
a warm and dry situation. The employment of
much heat must be particularly avoimd, as it
very frequently leads to the destmction of the
compound ; hence every care should be taken to
render the evaporation of the fluid unneeeesaiy.

There seems little doubt that the so-called
'dialysed iron' is an oxychloride of the metal.
Prof. Maisch beUeves it to be a very basic oxy-
chloride of iron. On the supposition that the
oxychloride and chloride of iron are both present
in the Uqnid put into the dialyser, the origin of
the oxychloride admits of easy explanation : — The
chloride htiog a crystalloid, difFuses through the
septum into the outer water, and thus becomes
separated from the oxychloride, which being a
colloid, and incapable of a passage through the
membrane, remains in solution in the diidyser.

The comparative freedom from taste and easy

assimilation of the oxychloride of iron render it a
valuable therapeutic agent. The dose of the 5%
solution is IS to 20 drops daily, in divided doses.
Syrup forms a pleasant vehicle for ita administra-
tion.

Dialysed iron has been successfully employed
in a case of arsenical poisoning. The ' American
Journal of Pharmacy' for January, 1878, con-
tains an interesting paper by Dr llattiaon de-
tailing a series of experiments, which conclusively
prove its value as an antidote to arsenic Dr
Mattison recommends the administration of the
iron to be immediately followed by a teaspoonfol
or more of common salt.

IBOH?rLnraS. Syn. FXRBlBAXKVTAfPh.

L. 1836), FSBBI LIIUTITBA (Ph. E.), FXKSI BCOBB

(Ph. D.), L. The usual method of preparing iron
filings for medical purposes has been already
noticed ; the only way, however, to obtain them
pure is to act on a piece of soft iron with a clean
file. The Fr. Cod. orders them to be forcibly
beaten in an iron mortar, and to be separated from
oxide and dust by means of a fine sieve, and frotn
the grosser parts by means of a coarse hair-sieTe;
Iron filings can be purified by a magnet, as foreign
metals and other impurities are not attracted to
the magnet. — Dote, 10 to 80 gr., in sugar or
honey, as a chalybeate ; in larger doses it is an ex-
cellent vermifuge, especially for ascarides or the
small thread-worm.

IBOH LIQlrOa. S^. PTBOLieHITB OF ISON,
DtEK'b A.CBTAIE OP I., B</AOK LIQUOX, TAB IBOIT

L. ; Fksbi acbtab venaus, L. This article, so
extensively used in dyeing, is a crude mixed
acetate of the protoxide and sesqnioxide of iron.
It is usually prepared by one or other of the
following methods :

1. Old scraps of iron (hoops, worn-out tin-
plate, &c.) are left in a cask of pyroligneons acid,
occasional agitation being had recourse to, until
a sufiicientiy strong solution is obtained. By
keeping the acid moderately warm in suitable
vessels it will become saturated with the iron in a
few days. With cold add, on a large scale, forty
days or more are required to complete the pro-
cess.

2. A solution of pyrolignite or crude acetate of
lime is added to another of green copperas as long
as a precipitate is formed ; after standing, the clear '
liquor is decanted.

_ ISOHKOULS. To remove ironmonld from
linen soak the spots with a solution containing 1
gr. of ferrocyanide of potassium and 1 drop of
sulphuric acid in each ounce, then wash with soft
water and remove the stains, which will have
become blue, with solution of potash.

IBOir, BESTTCZB. Sgn. QurrsirNX ibon;
Fkbeuk bbdactum (B. p.), Peebi ptjlvib, L. ;
Feb eeduit, Fr. Frep. This preparation, which
consists of metallic iron in a fine state of division
mixed with a variable amount of magnetic oxide
of iron, is made by passing perfectly £y hydrogen
over peroxide of iron heated to rechiess in an iron
tube.

Prop. A grayish-black powder, attracted by
the magnet, and exhibiting metallic streaks when
rubbed with firm pressure in a mortar. It dis-
solves in hydrochloric acid with evolntion of hydro-
gen, and riionld not give an odour of sulphuretted

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IRON WIRE— ITCH

hydrogen. 10 gr. added to an nqaeons Bolution
of 50 gr. of iodine and 50 gr. of iodide of potss-
siam, and digested with them in a small flask at
a gentle beat, sboiild leave not more than 5 gr.
nndiasolved, which shonld be entirely soluble in
hydrochloric acid.

Vie*. In medicine, it it chiefly given to restore
the condition of the blood in all ansamic states of
the system. There is no pnlverulent state of iron
so convenient as this for children, as it has no
txste, and only a very small dose is required. —
Dote, 1 to 6 gr. (children, i to 1 gr.), in powder,
pill, or between bread-and-butter.

Iron, to remove Bait hom Polished. Rost of
iron may be removed from a polished grate by
means of emery paper, or by scraping some Bath
brick to a fine powder, mixing it with a little oil
and rubbing the spots well with a piece of fisnnel
dipped in this mixture ; after which some whiting
should be applied by diligent friction. This
operation requires dally repetition until the rust
has disappeared. Steel fire-irons, fenders, &c.,
when put aside in the snmmer, should be pre-
viously smeared thinly over with soft paraffin,
known to druggists by the name of ' vaseline ' or
' cosmoline,' or with grease, mercurial ointment,
&c.

Iron, to remove the Stains of, from KarUe. Rub
on very cantionsly (con Suing it to the surface
only occupied by the spot) some strong hydro-
chloric acid, removing it directly the spot dis-
appears. Should this cause any diminution in the
polish, this may be restored by means of emery
paper and putty powder.

IRON WISE. 5^11. Febbtth is pila tbactitx
^Ph. L.), Fbkbi fildm (Ph. E.), Kbbsi fila
(Ph. D.), L. This is the only form of metallic
iron retained in the Ph. L. It is used to make
preparations of iron.

I8ATIHE. CuH,oN204. A yellow crystalline
body obtained by the oxidation of indigo. When
acted upon by potash it becomes converted into
aniline. Isatine may be formed by heating indigo
in a dilute solution of dichromate of potash and
sulphuric acid, or by treating indigo nnder proper
conditions with nitric acid.

ISCHU'SIA. In pathology, retention, stop-
page, or suppression of the urine.

I"8IK0LAS8. Sgn. Iohthtooolla, L. The
finest kinds of isinglass are obtained from various
species of the genus Adpemer, or sturgeon, that
from the great sturgeon being perhaps the most
esteemed. It is the air-bag, swimming bladder,
or sound, dried without any other preparation
than opening, folding, or twisting it. The picked
or cut isinglass of the shops consist of the lumps
of staple isinglass picked in shreds by women and
children, or cut by machines.

Prop., 4*0. Good isinglass is the purest natural
gelatin known. Its qu^ty is determined by its
whiteness, absence of the least fishy odour, and
ready and almost entire solubility in boiling water ;
the solution forming a nearly white, scentless,
semi-transparent, solid jelly when cold. It is
soluble in weak acids, and this solution is precipi-
tated by alkalies. The aqueous solution is not
precipitated by spirit of the common strengths.
1 part of good isinglass dissolved in 26 parta of
hot water forms a rich, tremulous jelly. It is very

commonly adulterated. Of the different varieties
of isinglass, the Russian is the best and most
soluble. See Qelatin.

ISOH'EaiSM . In ckemietry, identity of com-
position, with dissimilarity of properties. Iso-
meric compounds (isomerides) are such as contain
the same elements in the same proportions, but
which differ from each other in their chemical
properties; thus, formate of ethyl (H.COOC,Hj)
and acetate of methyl (CH,.CUOCH,) are iso-
meric, having precisely the same ultimate composi-
tion, though differing in the arrangement of their
elements.

ISOKOB'FEISK. In eiemUtty, the quality
possessed by different bodies, generally, however,
having a similar molecular constitution, of as-
suming the same crystalline form. Isomorphous
substances are found to be closely allied in their
chemical nature ; and the fact of two bodies crys-
tallising in the same form has often led to the
discovery of other points of similarity between
them. The alums, for instance, no matter what
their components, all crystallise in octahedra, and
a crystal of potsssinm-alnm, if transferred to a
solution of chrome-alum, will continue to grow
in it with perfect regularity.

Further, the molecular constitution of all the
ainms can be expressed by the general formula
RR'(S04)^12H20, where R stands for an atom
of such a metal as potassium or sodium (or am-
monium), R' for such a metal as aluminium or
chromium.

ISSUE. Sgn. FoirriciTLUB, L. In t*rgefy, a
small artificial ulcer formed on any part of the
body by means of caustic or the lancet, and kept
open by daily introducing an IB8UB fba covered
with some digestive or stimulating ointment ; the
whole being duly secured by an appropriate
bandage.

ISSUE PEAS. ^%. PlSiB PBO VOHTICITUg, L.

Those of the shops are the immature fruit of the
orange tree (okanox bsbbibs). They are usually
smoothed in a lathe. Issue peas are also ' turned '
from orris-root. The following compound issue
peas are occasionally employed :

1. Orris-root (in powder) and Venice turpentine,
of each, 1 part ; turmeric, 2 parts ; beeswax, 3
parts ; melted together and made into peas whibt
warm.

2. Beeswax, 3 parts j melt, add of Venice tur-
pentine,! part ; mix, and further add, of turmeric,

2 parts ; orris-root (in powder), 1 put ; mix well,
and form the mass into peas whilst warm. More
irritating than the common pea.

3. {Dr Oray.) Beeswax, 12 parts; verdigris
and white hellebore, of each, 4 parts j orris-root,

3 parts ; cantharides, 2 parts ; Venice turpentine,
q. 8. Used to open issues instead of caustic, but
their employment requires care.

ISSUE PLASTERS. See Plastbbb.

ITCH. /Sy». Y0UkJ,ScX)T0H FIBDlBtsPBOHA,

Scabies, L.; Qalb, Fr. In pathology, a cuta-
neous disease, caused by a minute insect lodging
under the skin, and readily communicated by
contact. There are four varieties of itch, dis-
tinguished by nosologists by the names Scabiet
papulifomit, or rank itch; Seabut lymphaiiea,
or watery itch ; Scabiet puruhnta, or pocky itch ;
Scabiet cachectica, a species exhibiting appear-

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IVORY

911

ancea resembling each of the prerioas Tariettes.
Oar 8]>ace will not permit more than a general
notice of the common symptoms, and the mode of
core which is eqaally applicable to each species,
and will not prove injurioas to other skin diseases
simulating the itch.

The common itch connits of an ernption of
minute Tesides, principally between the lingers,
bend of the wrist, &c., accompanied by intense
itching of the parts, which is only aggravated by
scratching. The usual treatment is repeated
applications of sulphur ointment (simple or com-
pound), well rubbed in once or twice a day, until
a core is effected ; accompanying its use by the
internal exhibition of a spoonful or more of
flowers of sulphur, mixed with treacle or milk,
night and morning. Where the use of sulphur
oinlanent is objectionable, a sulphur-bath, or a
lotion or bath of sulphurated potash, or of chlo-
ride of lime may be employed instead.

In the ' Canadian Pharmaceutical Journal ' for
1S72 is a paper by Professor Rothmund recom-
mending the employment of balsam of Peru in
this objectionable disease. The writer states
that one application generally effects a cure, and
that its use does away with the necessity of baths.
He recommends the balsam being rubbed all over
the naked body. Carbolic acid is another and
much cheaper remedy proposed by the same
author. To obviate its caustic action he advises
the acid to be mixed with glycerin or linseed oil,
in the proportion of 1 scr. of the acid to 2 oz. of
ather excipient. He considers the objection to
this remedy may be that it enters too rapidly into
the circulation. Another agent employed by
Professor Rothmund is a lotion composed of
1 part of carbolate of sodium dissolved in 12
parts of water. The affected parts of the skin
are to be rubbed with this three times a day.

It is further recommended to continue this
treatment 8 or 10 days after the cure, in order to
kill any acari or their e^s that may have lurked
among the clothes or bed-linen. See Acabits,
Bath, Lotion (Itch), Ointkbnt, Pbosiabis, kc.

I'TOBT. The osseous portion of the tusks
and teeth of the male elephant, the hippopota-
mus, wild boar, Ac. That of the narwhal or
sea-horse is the most esteemed on account of
its superior hardness, toughness, translncency,
and whiteness. The dust or shavings (iVobt
DV8T, rroBY BHAvmaa) of the turner form a
beantifnl rise or jelly when boiled in water.
Vboktablb itobt is the hard albumen of the
seed of the Piiftelepiat macroearpa, one of the
palm family.

Ivory may be dyed or stained by any of the
ordinary methods employed for woollen, after
being freed from dirt and grease; but more
quickly as follows :

1. BuLCK. The ivoiy, well washed in an al-
kaline lye, is steeped in a weak neutral solution
of nitrate of silver, and then exposed to the light
or dried and dipped into a weak solution of
sulphide of ammonium.

2. Bliti. Ste^ it in a weak solution of sulphate
of indigo which has been nearly neutralised with
salt of tartar, or in a solution of soluble Prussian
blue. A still better plan is to steep it in the
dyer's green indigo-vat.

3. Bbown. As for black, but using a weaker
solution of silver.

4. Qbkbn. Dissolve verdigris in vinegar, and
steep the pieces therein for a short time, observing
to use a glass or stoneware vessel ; or in a solu-
tion of verdigris, 2 parts ; and sal-ammoniac, 1
part, in soft water.

6. Ppbplb. Steep it in a weak neutral solu-
tion of terchloride ot gold, and then expose to the
light.

6. Red. Make an infusion of cochineal in
liquor of ammonia, then immerse the pieces
therein, having previously soaked them for a few
minutes in water very slightly acidulated with
aquafortis.

7. Ybixow. a. Steep the pieces for some honrs
in a solution of sugar of lead, then take them out,
and when dry immerse them in a solution of
chromate of potassa.

b. Dissolve as much of the best orpiment in
solution of ammonia as it will take up, then steep
the pieces therein for some hours ; lastly take
them out and dry them in a warm place, when
they will turn yeUow.

Ivory is etched or engraved by covering it with
an etching ground or wax, and employing oil of
vitriol as [he etching fluid.

Ivo^ is rendered flexible by immersion in a solu-
tion of pure phosphoric acid (sp. gr. 1*13), until
it loses, or partially loses, its opacity, when it is
washed in clean, cold, soft water, and dried. In
this state it is as flexible as leather, but gradually
hardens by exposure to dry air. Immersion in
hot water, however, restores its softness and pli-
ancy. According to Dr Ure, the necks of some
descriptions of infabts' PBBSiNa bottles are
thus made.

Ivory is whitened or bleached by rubbing it
with finely powdered pumice-atone and water,
and exposing it to the sun, whilst still moist,
under a glass shade, to prevent desiccation and
the occurrence of fissures; observing to repeat
the process until a proper effect is produced.
Ivory may also be bleached by immersion for a
short time in water holding a little sulpliurous
acid, chloride of lime, or chlorine, in solntion ;
or by exposnre in the moist state to the fumes of
burning sulphur, largely diluted with air. Cloez
recommends the ivory or bones to be immersed in
turpentine, and exposed for three or four days to
sunliglit. The object to be bleached should be
kept l-8th or l-4th of an inch above the bottom
of the bath by means of zinc supports. For the
preparation of ivory intended for miniatnre paint-
ing, Mr Ernest Spon, in his useful work, ' Work-
shop Receipts,' says : " The bleaching of ivory
may be more expeditiously performed by placing
the ivory before a good fire, which will dispel the
wa,yj lines if they are not very strongly
marked, that frequently destroy the uniformity
of surface."

Ivory may be gilded by immersing it in afresh
solution of protosolphate of iron, and afterwards
in solution of chloride of gold.

Ivory is wrought, turned, and fashioned in a
similar maimer and with similar tools to those
used for bone and soft brass.

Ob: Bone for ornamental purposes is treated
in a similar way to ivory, but less carefully, owing

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912

I VOEY-BLACK— JABOBAN DI

to its inferior value. The boues of living ani-
mals may be dyed by mixing madder with their
food. The bones of young pigeons may thns be
tinged of a rose colour in 24 hours, and of a deep
scarlet in 3 or 4 days ; but the hones of adult ani-
mals take folly a fortnight to acquire a rose colour.
The bones nearest the heart become tinged the
soonest. In the same way logwood and extract of
logwood will tinge the bones of young pigeons
purple (Gibaon).

Ivory, Artificial. Frep. 1. Let a paste be made
of isinglass, egg-shell in very fine powder, and
brandy. Qive it the desired colour, and pour it
while warm into oiled moulds. Leave the paste
in the moulds until it becomes hard.

2. (L'Union Pharmacentique.) Two parts of
caoutchouc are dissolved in 36 parts of chloroform,
and the solution is saturated with pure gaseous
ammonia. The chloroform is then distilled off at a
temperature of 85° C. The residue is mixed with
phosphate of lime or carbonate of zinc, pressed
uto moulds and dried. When phosphate of lime
is used the product possesses, to a considerable
degree, the nature and composition of ivory.

IT0B7-BLACK. See Buck Piouents.

JABOKAHDI. Syn. lABOBAin>i, Jambobaiidi.
The above names are given by the natives of
Brazil, Paraguay, and other parts of South
America, to any indigenous plants possessing
strongly 'stimulant, diaphoretic, and sialogogue
properties, which are principally employed in
those countries as antidotes for the bites and stings
of venomous snakes and insects.

As far as they have been examined, all the plants
known under the generic name ' jaborandi ' have
been traced to the two Nat. Ord. Rutaces and
PlPEBAOVf. Those exercising the most marked
physiological effects appear to belong to the former
or the rutaceous division, and are very probably
different species of Pilocarpiu. The drug was
first introduced into Europe by Dr Coutinho, of
Pemambuco, who some four years since sent a
sample of it to Dr Gubler, of Paris, by whom it
was administered to some of the patients of the
Beai^on Hospital there. The jaborandi with
which these experiments were made was identified
by Professor Baillon, of Paris, as belonging to the
PilooarjHU pinnatus {pinnatifolUu). 4to6grm8.
of the bruised leaves and twigs were infused in a
cup of water, and the patient, being put to bed,
in ten minutes after taking the draught finds
himself bathed in a perspiration lasting for four
or five hours, this being so profuse as to render
several changes of linen necessary during the
time. Accompanying the diaphoresis arc great
salivary and bronchial secretions, which some-
times will not permit the patient to speak without
his mouth becoming filled with water.

The quantity of saliva is stated to have some-
times equalled a litre in measure. These experi-
ments have been repeated in this country by Dr
Binger with analogous effects — in one case re-
ported with jaborandi obtained from the Beaigon
Hospital, and in another from London — results
the similarity of which strongly point to a cor-
responding composition in the two specimens of
the plant used, if, as seems not improbable, they
may have belonged to different specif. A case

of impaired vision following the administration of
jaborandi is also recorded ; but this seems evi-
dently to have been the effect of an overdose of
the drug (' Pharm. Journal,' Srd series, v, 364 and
561).

When jaborandi is administered in divided
doses, instead of producing salivation or sweating,
it acts as an active diuretic only, increasing the
flow of urine to nearly double the usual amount.
M. Albert Robins says : "The effect of jaborandi
on animals is very marked ; guinea-pigs are seized
with salivation, weeping, and diarrha», true ec-
chymoees being found in tbe intestines, and dogs
become instantly salivated, their gastric secretion
being also much increased" ('Me<Ural Times and
Gazette ').

Drs Coutinho and Qubler affirm they have
employed jaborandi in dropsy, bronchitis, diabetes,
and various other diseases, and that they have
found it fully answer their expectations ; and in
one case of albnraiuuria it is narrated that a
permanent diminution of albumen from 14*40 to
12 grms. followed its use.

An allcaloid has been obtained from the pipe-
raeeoUB jaborandi by Parodi, and named by him
Jaborandine. Some short time afterwards Mr A.
W. Gerrard succeeded in separating the alkaloid
from the rutaceous jaborandi, to which, in ac-
cordance with Mr Holmes' suggestion, and because
Parodi had anticipated him in the adoption of the
previous title, he gave the name pilocarpine,

Mr Gerrard recommends tbe following process
for the preparation of pilocarpine: — "Prepare a
soft extract either with leaf or bark, with 60%
alcohol. Digest this with water, filter and wash.
Evaporate the filtrate to a soft extract, cautiously
add ammonia in slight excess, shake well with
chloroform, separate the chloroform solution, and.
allow it to evaporate ; the residue is the alkaloidal
pilocarpine with probably a small amount of
impurity." Mr Gerrard has also succeeded in
preparing a crystalline nitrate and hydrochlorate
of the alkaloid, both of which possess tbe medi-
cinal powers of the jaborandi. A second base
called jaborine has been obtained from the drug.

The abridged description of a sample of jalM-
randi from Pernambuco is from Mr. Holmes'
paper in the 'Pharmaceutical Journal' (Srd scries,
V, 581). The engr. is from the last edition of
Boyle's 'Materia Medica.* "The specimens of
the plant examined appear to belong to a shrub
about 5 ft. high. The root is cylindrical, hardly
tapering at all, nearly i in. in diameter for the
first 12 in., and very sparingly branched.
Bark of root of a pale yellowish brown, about a
line in thickness, and has a short fracture. The
stem is ^ in. in diameter near the root, narrowing
to i in. in the upper branches. The bark is thin,
greyish brown, longitudinally striated, and in
some specimens sprinkled over vrith a number of
white dots. The wood of the stem is yellowish
white and remarkably fibrous. The leaves (one
of which is represented in the myr.) are impari-
pinnate, about 9 in. long, Trith from 3 to 5 pairs
of opposite leaflets, which are articulated to the
rachis, and have very short, slightly swollen petio-
lules. The rachis of the leaf is swollen at the
base.

" The pairs of leaflets are usually about li in.

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JACARANDA LANCIFOLIATA— JALAP

913

apart, the lowMt pair being about 4 in. from the
base of the nchii. The lei^eta are very variable
in lise, aren on the same leaf. Their general
oatline ia oblong-lanceolate. They are entire,

Pilocvfui pimmatifcliut. a, flower ; i, flowtr with the
peUli remored ; c, carpeli.

with an emarginate or even retuie apex and an
nneqoal bale, and texture coriaceous. The veins
are prominent on both sidea of the leaf, and
branch from the midrib at an obtuse angle in a
pinnate manner. When held up to the light the
leaflets are seen to be densely pellncidly punctate.
These pellucid dots, which are receptacles of
secretion, are not arranged, as in another kind of
jaborandi, in lines along the veinlets, but are
irregularly scattered all over the leaf, and appear
eqnally nnmeroos in every part. The whole
plant IS gUbrous."

Mi Holmes says there appear to be two va-
rieties, if not species, of this PHoearjnu, the one
being perfectly smooth in every part, as above
described, and the other having the stems, peti-
oles, and under surface of the leaves covered with
a dense velvety pubescence composed of simple
hair*.

The same author states that the jaborandi of
commerce approximates more nearly to P. tela-
amm* than to P. pi»natifolitu.

TTMtt. Jaborandi is employed either in the
form of extract, tincture, or infusion, as a dia-
phoretic and sialogogue, also galactogogue. It
appears to exert a beneficial effect in chronic

VOL. II.

deafness. It antagonises belladonna, and is used

as an antidote to that drug. — Dose*. Extract, 2

to 10 gr. ; infusion, 1 to 2 oz. ; tincture, i to 1 dr.

JACASANDA LAJTCIFOLIATA. Acts specially

on the genito-urinary mucous membrane;

appears to have no deleterious effect, and

may be taken without nausea. Dr A . Wright

considers that, when known, it will take the

place of other drugs used internally for

gonorrhoea. The fluid extract of the leaves

has been introduced under the name of

' Sahtd.'—Doie, 20 to SO minims.

JAO'aEJlT. By». PAXiCBxroAB. A coarse
brown sugar made in India by the evapora-
tion of the juice of several species of palms.
The following are the principal varieties of
this product :

1. CoooA Jaossbt. From the juice of
the Cocoa-nut palm (Coeot wucifera).

2. Malabab Jaoskbt. From the juice
of the Qummut palm {Sagtenu saoekerifer).

S. Mtsobi Jaoobbt. From the juice of
the wild Date palm {Phania tylvettrit) ; 17
galls, yields 46 lbs.

4. Palktba jAfiOiBT. From the juice
of the Palmyra palm {Borauut flcitUi-
formit i 6 pints yield 1 lb.

JAliAP. iSyn. JaIiApa badiz, i^x^kSK,
B. P. (Ph. L, bt, D.), CoKTOLTnj jai,afs
BADIX (Ph. E.), L. The dried tnbercules of
the ipoffioo pvr^ix, Roy le. Jalap is a power-
ful stimulant and drastic purgative, pro-
ducing copious liquid stools ; but when ju-
diciously administered, both safe and effica-
cious. It appears to be intermediate in its
action between aloes and scammony. — Dote,
10 to 80 gr., in powder; in constipation,
' cerebral affections, dropsies, obstructed men-
stmation, worms, dtc. Owing to its irritant
properties, its use is contra-indicated in in-
flam matory affections of the alimentary canal,
and after surgical operations connected with the
abdomen and pelris. It is usually administered
in combination with sulphate of potassa or bitar-
trate of potassa and ginger ; with mercurials, as
the case may indicate. The powder is very
generally adulterated.

Professor Fliickiger has brought forward some
new notes on jalap, from which it appears that
for the last 20 years the yield of resin by the
roots of this plant has become less than it was
formerly. In 1842 Quibourt found 17-60%,
though at that period the samples varied in their
yield from 10% to 17% ; but nowadays, says our
author, the yield of resin is scarcely ever more
than 12% . The plant itself baa not deteriorated,
for as much as 16-9% of resin was got from roots
bought in the fields around Mexico, whereas
those in Mexico itself gave only 7t% . It would
seem, according to Fliickiger, that the Mexican
merchants let the roots steep for a time in spirit,
and then dry them ; in this manner their appear-
ance is not altered, but a good deal of resin is
extracted, and can be afterwards collected and
sold as jalapin, or resin of jalap.

The jalap plants grown in the botanical gardens
at Cassel and Munich, after desiccation, have
given as much as 22-73% of resin, and 12% re-
spectively, which indicates that, as far as the

68

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914

JALAPIC ACID— JALAPIN

yield of resinoDS matter goea, they can be culti-
vated succenf ully in Earope withoat mnch diffi-
calty. In the species Ipomtea orizabentii, an-
other resin called orizabine has been f oand. The
genera Co»i)olmlut and Ipomcea are represented
in hotcUnutes by about 50 different species, all
of which contain jalapin and orizabine, and
perhaps some other analogous substances. In
Asia there are several drastic species, such as
/. turpethvm, which would bo preferable to the
fraudulent Mexican root. - The seeds of I. hedt-
racaa supply a very pure resin similar to that of
/. puiyaiu. A somewhat less pure resin is
yielded by the seeds of kaladana, known as
jalapine or jalap resin, yet only used in India,
though the Arabs for the last 1000 years have
employed the seeds called habh m nUl, which are
obtained from a plant very similar to the kala-
dana. ^ Japan has two plants, .^oHusa triloba and
Phorhitit triloba, growing wild, which yield the
same resin of jalap.

Jalap Biscnlts. Prep. 1. An oz. of jalap
mixed with 16 oz. of the materials for ginger-
bread or other kind of cake.

2. Pure resin of jalap, 66 grms., powdered
sugar and floor, 1000 grms. ; tincture of vaniUa,
10 grms., white of egg, No. 20, yelk of egg,
"So. 40.

Let the resin be emulsified with the yelks of
the eggs, add successively the sugar, tincture, and
fionr, and mix thoronghly into a paste, with
which thoronghly incorporate the whites of eggs,
previonsly beaten np. Let the mass be divided
into 144 biscnits and bake.

Jalap, Seain of. Sy*. BianrA jai.afx.
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Jalap in No. 40 powder, 8oi.,
rectified spirit and water a sufficiency. Digest
the jalap in warm spirit for 24 hours, then perco-
late with more spirit until nothing more is
dissolved. Add 4 oz, of water to the product
and distil off the spirit. The residue when cold
is washed 2 or 3 times with water, then dried.
Jalap should yield 10% resin.

2. (NatiotUe.) Jalap root is digested in boil-
ing water for 24 hours, and after being reduced
to thin slices more water is added, and the whole
boiled for 10 minutes, with occasional agitation ;
the liquid is then expressed in a tincture press,
and the boiling and pressing repeated a second
and third time (these decoctions by evaporation
yield aqttboub bzibaot ov jalap) ; the pressed
root is next treated with rectified spirit, q. s.,
and boiled for 10 minutes, and then allowed to
cool ; the tincture is then pressed out, and the
boiling with frosh alcohol and expression is re-
peated twice ; a little animal charcoal is added to
the mixed tinctures, and, after thorough agita-
tion, the latter are filtered ; the liquid is now
distilled until nothing passes over, the superna-
tant fluid is poured off the fluid resin, and the
latter dried by spreading it over the surface of
the capsule, and continuing the heat. The pro-
duct is a friable and nearly colourless resin,
which forms a white powder resembling starch.
— Prod. Fully 10% of pure resin.

8. (Planehe^ Resinous extract of jalap is
dissolved in rectified spirit, the tincture agitated
with animal charcoal, and after filtration gently
evaporated to dryness.

Pur. The jalap reein of eommerce is gene-
rally adulterated with scammony, gum, gnaia-
cnm or resin. When in a state of purity, it does
not form an emulsion with milk, like scammony
resin, but runs into a solid mass. It is insoluble
in fixed oils and turpentine, whilst the common
resins are freely soluble in those menstrua. Its
alcoholic solution, dropped on a piece of abaop-
bent white paper, and exposed to the action of
nitrons gas, does not aoqnire a green or blue
colour; if it does, guaiacum resin is present.
2% of this adulteration may be thus detected
{Oobley), 10% only of the resin is soluble in
ether; but guaiacum resin, common resin, and
some others, are very soluble.

Powdered jalap resin placed in cold water does
not dissolve, but forms a semi-fluid transparent
mass, as if it had been melted. Dissolved in a
watch-glass with a little oil of vitriol, a rich
crimson-oolonred solution is obtained, from which, •
in a few houia, a brown viscid resin separates.
These last two characteristics distinguish it from
other resins.

Obt. Earthenware or well-tinned copper vessels
must alone be used in the above processes, as
contact with copper or iron turns the resin black,
and this tinge can only be removed by rpdissolving
the resin in alcohol, the addition of animal
charcoal, and re-evaporation.

Jalap resin is an energetic cathartic. — Dote,
1 to 6 gr. See Jalafiv.

Jalap, Factitiona Saein of. Syn. RtaxsM lAr
hAVS VAOnxiA, It. A substance frequently sold
for jalap resin is made by fusing a mixture of
pale yellow resin and scammony resin, and adding,
when it has cooled a little, but still semi-fluid, a
few drops of balsam of Peru or toln; the mixture
is then poured into small paper capsules or tin
moulds. Its effects resemble those of jalap resin,
but it inflames less {Landerer).

Jalap, Soap of. Syn. Sapo jaIiAPA, Saso
JAI.AF»U8, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Beain of
jalap and Castilo soap, of each, 1 part; rectified
spirit, 2 parts, or q. s. to dissolve the ingredients
softened by a gentle heat ; subsequently evaporate
the mixture by the heat of a water-bath until
reduced to 4} oz., or it has acquired the consist-
ence of a pill-mass.

Prop., ^c. A greyish-brown mass, soluble in
rectified spirit. Said to be milder in its action
than the resin alone. — JDoee, 5 to 16 oz.

JAIiAPlC ACID. Syn. OdobovS fbihoiplb
ov JALAF. Prep. (Pereira.) Add an alcoholic
solution of acetate of lead to a similar solution of
jalap resin, collect the precipitate (jalapate of
lead), and throw down the lead by means of sul-
phuretted hydrogen. See AsBlirTHlo AoiD. A
brownish, soft, g^reasy substance, smelling strongly
of jalap, soluble in alcohol and aUcali, and slightly
so in ether. Jalap resin contains about 18% pf
this substance.

JAIiAFUr. CmHuOi,. Syn. JALAPIHA. Jalap
resin is commonly sold under this name, but pure

i'alapin is prepared by one or other of the fol-
owing formule:

Prep. 1. The liquid filtered from the jalapate
of lead in preparing jalapic acid is a solution of
acetate of jalapin, which, after any trace of lead
is removed, by adding a few drops of dilute

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JAMAICA. DOGWOOD— JATEOPHIC ACID.

916

lolphimc atad, and flltntion, yields the \rhole of

its jalapin, as a precipitate, on the addition of 6

or 6 times its volame of water; thii is collected,

washed vitb a little cold distilled water, and

^ed liyexposnre to a cnrrent of warm dry air.

2. (Sumie.) Coarsely powdered jalap is di-
' gested in strong acetic acid for 14 days, the
tineiare Altered, ammonia added in excess, and
the whole agitated strongly ; the mistnre is then
filtered, the deposit washed in cold water, re-
dissolved in acetic acid, re-precipitated by am-
monia, and again washed and dried.

_ 3. (Zayser.) Pore jalap resin, in powder, is
digested for some time m hoiling ether, by which
means the jalapic acid is lemoved, and pore
jalapin remains nndissolved.

iVx)p.,^a. A transparent, colourless, scentless,
insipid reain, very soluble in alcohol, bnt insolable
in ether. It is the active purgative principle of
emde jalap resin.

JAKAICA DOOWOOS. The bark of the root
of the tree is the port employed in medieime ; it is
yielded by the Piddia eryihrina, and used in the
West IniUes to intoxicate fish. It is a narcotic
and sedative, relieves toothache, allays coogh in
bronchitis and phthisis. It dilates the pnpil. —
Dote. Of liqnid extract, t to 2 dr.

JAJIAI'CnrX. Sgn. JAXAionrA. A peculiar
alkaloid obtained by Huttenschmidt from the
bark of the cabbage-tree {Andira tssrsut).

lV»p. The aqueous solution of cabbage-tree
bark, treated with snlphnretted hydrogen and
evaporated.

^vp. Yellow crystals soluble in water and,
to a limited extent, in alcohol ; fusible, and very
Istter tasted. It forms salts with the acids,
which, in small doses, produce restlessness and
trembling; and in larger ones, purging. It is
said to be vermifuge.

JAKBUL. The seeds or fruit-stones of .Sk^Mia
jamboloMm, Bj/tggiinn jamholanum, Qiven in
diabetes, dii^tic ulceration, &c. Dr Kingsbury
reports a case in the ' Lancet,' in which a patient
had been suffering for six months, and was- quite
prostrate. 6 gr. of the powdered seeds were
given six times in the 24 hours for a fortnight.
The patient was then able to walk, had lost the
abnormal thirst, &c., and was greatly relieved;
steeping well.— DoMt, 5 to 10 gr.
JAHXB'S FOWSBS. See PowDaBS.
JAMB. Sjfn. PBBSBBm. Conserves of flrait
with sugar, prepared by boiling. In the latter
respect tbey differ from the conserves of the
^wthecary.

iVsp. The pulped or bruised fruit is boiled
along with i to 2-3rds of its weight of loaf sugar
until the nuxture jellies, when a little ia placed
on a cold plate; the semi-fluid mass is then
passed through a coarse hair sieve whilst hot to
remove the stones and skins of the fruit, and as
soon as it has coaled a little is poured into pots or
glasKs. It is usual to tie these over when cold
with paper which has been dipped in brandy. The
pots most then be placed aside in a dry and rather
cold situation.

The following fmits are those from which jams
•re cammonly prvpared t — ^Apricots, cherries (va-
nops), cnaocRies, onrrants (black, red, and
white), gooseberries (ripe and green), mulberries.

Orleans plums, raspberries, and strawberries.
Bed currants are commonly added to the last to
remove insipidity.

JAPAS. See V^BinaE, and btlote.

JAPAX'HZVa. The art of covering paper,
vrood, or metal, with a coating of hard, brilliant,
and durable varnish. The varnishes or lacquers
employed for this purpose in Japan, China, and
the Indian Archipelago are resinous juices derived
from various trees belonging to the Nat. Ord.
AtrAOABDUOKiB, especially Stagmaria vemioMua,
SoUgama UmgifoUa, Semaoarpiu anaeardium,
and species of JKtet (Sumach). For use, tbey are
purified by a defecation and straining, and are
afterwards mixed with a little oil, and with oolonr-
ing matter as required. In this country varnishes
of amber, asphaltum, or copal, or mixtures of
them, pass under the names of 'jafas' and

add ' JAPAN TABNIBH.'

Prop. The surface is coloured or punted with
devices, &o., as desired, next covered with a highly
transparent varnish (amber or copal), then dried
at a high temperature (136° to 166° F.), and, lastly,
polished. Wood and paper are first sized,
polished, and varnished. For plain surfaces,
asphaltum, varnish, or japan, is naed. See

JAFOHlc' ACID. C„HuO(. When catecbn
is exposed to the air in contact with caustic alkn-
lies black solutions (alkaline japonates) are
formed ; with carbonated alkalies, red solutions
(alkaline rnbates) ; the acid of the former may
he separated. It is a black powder, insoluble in
water, soluble in alkalies, and precipitated by
acids. Bubic add forms red insoluble com-
pounds with the earths sad some other metallic
oxides.

JASA7S. The Spanish name for babbapa-
BILLA BBIB. See Bbsbs (in pkarmaej/).

JASFES. Sgn. lABFlB, L. A mineral of the
quartz family, occurring in rocky masses. It
takes various shades of red, yellow, brown, and
green, and is occasionally banded, spotted, varie-
gated. It was formerly used as an amulet against
bnmorrhsges and fluxes. It is now extensively
worked np into rings, seals, snuil-boxes, vases,
&c., for which it ia well suited from its ex-
treme hardness and susceptibility of receiving a
fine polish.

JATBOFA CUSCAS. The seed of the physic
nnt^ Cureat purgaiu, ia officinal in the Indian
Fharmacopfleia. It yields 30% of a purgative oil,
acting like castor oil, and given in doses of 12 to
16 drops. Bstenalb/ it is a stimulant, and used
locally to increase the secretion of milk.

JATSOTHIC ACID. <9y». Cbotonic aoid,
Iatbofbio a. a peculiar fatty acid discovered
by Felletier and Caventou, and originally regarded
by them as the cathartic principle of croton oil
and croton seeds, but since shown by Redwood
and Fereira to be nearly inert.

Prep. The oil ia ssponifled by caustic potaaaa,
and the reaulting soap is decomposed by tartaric
acid ; the fatty matter which floats on the surface
of the liquid is then skimmed off the aqueous
portion, and the latter submitted to distillation ;
the liqnid in the receiver ia a solntion of jatrophie
acid.

Prop.,^e. Volatile; very acid; has a nauseous

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916

JAUMANGE— JELLY

odonr ; is solid at 23°, and vaporises at 86° F. It
forms salts with the bases, none ci which possess
any practical importance.

JAU1IAV0E. Prep. From isinglass, 1 oz. ;
boiling water, 12 oz. ; dissolve ; add of anj sweet
white wine, i pint ; the yelks of 2 eggs beaten to
a froth, and the grated yellow peel of 2 lemons ;
mix well, and heat the whole over the fire until
snfflciently thickened, stirring all the time ; lastly,
serve it up or pour it into moulds.

JAWDICX. Sf». lonnva. Morbus luts-
OLlTB, L. ; lorisa, Fr. ; OkumOOBt, Qer. A dis-
ease characterised by a yellow colour of the eyes
and"skin,''deep.coloared urine; and pale alvine
evacuations.

Jaundice is of 2 kinds :—l. In which tbero is
some impediment to the flow of bile into the
small intestine, e.g. by reason of a gall-stone im-
pacted in the bile-duct. 2. In which there is no
snch impediment.

The explanation of the disease in the first case

is simple ; the bile, unable to escape from the

gall-bladd^, is reabsorbed and thrown into the

blood-vessels and lymphatics, and so distribnted

' over the body, colouring the tissues.

The expUuiation in the second case is by no
means clear, and authorities differ greatly as to
the cause.

The number of diseases in which jaundice
oocnrs, and the great variety of known causes
of it, constitute it a tjfmptom rather than a dis-
ease, and the treatment must be modified accord-
ingly. IMuretics and purgatives are of great
service, but must be used as the drcumstances of
each case appear to demand.

JXIiliT. Sfn. OnLATlilA, L. A term now '
very loosely applied to various substances which j
are liquid or semi-liquid whilst warm, and become
gelatinous on cooling.

— Jellies are coloured by the addition of the usual
stains used by confectioners, and are rendered
transparent by clarification with white of egg.

Jelly, Almond. £fy». Qblatdijl AjrreDi-
LABUK, L, Prsp. f^m rich almond milk, i
pint ; tiiick hartshorn jelly, | pint ; sugar, 2 oz, ;
with 2 or 8 bitter almonds and a little lemon peel
to flavour, heated together, strained, and moulded.
Jelly, Ar'rowTOot. 8yn. Qklatiha ka-
BANTX, L, Prep. From arrowroot, li oz., to
water, 1 pint. Tmu let moit jelly is made in the
same way.

Jelly, Bis'cait. Prep. From white biscuit
(crushed beneath the rolling-pin), 4 oi. s cold
water, 2 quarts ; soak for some hours, boil to one
half, stnun, evaporate to 1 pint ; and add of white
sngar, f lb. j i«d wine, 4 oi. ; and cinnamon, 1
teaspoonful. In weakness of the stomach, and
in dysentery and diarrhoea, and in convalescence
combined with rich beef gravy or soup.

Jdly, Bladder-wraek. (Dr SueteU.) %a.
Oklatina fuoi. Prep. Bladder-wrack (Fueu*
veticulotiu), 2 lbs. ; sea-water, 2 lbs. ; macerate
for 16 days. Applied to glandular tumours.

Jelly Bread. Syn. Pakada ; Qblatina pakib,
L. Prep. Cat a French roll into slices, toast
them on each side, and boil in water, 1 quart,
until the whole forms a jelly, adding more water
if required ; strain, and add sngar, milk, &e., to
palate. It may be made with broth from which

the fat has been skimmed, instead of water.
Used as the last.

Jally Broth. Sg». Soup tmu.y. Prep. From
broth or soup from which the fat has been
skimmed, evaporated until it becomes gelatinous
on cooling. A few shreds of isinglass are com-
monly added. See Soup (Portable).

JeUy, Calves' Teet. Prep. For each foot teke
of water, 3 pints, and boil to one half ; cool, skim
ofC the fat, and again boil for 2 or 3 minutes
with the peel of a lemon and a little spice;
remove it from the flre, strain through a jelly
bag (see Filtbatiov), add the juice of a lemon
and a glass of wine, and when it has cooled a
little put it into glasses or ' forms.'

Obe. If this jelly is required to be very trans-
parent it must bo treated as follows : — After the
fat is removed it should be gently warmed, just
enough to melt it, next well beaten with the
white of an egg and the seasoning, and then
brought to a boil for a minute or two, when It
will be ready for straining, &e. The calves' feet
should not be bought ready boiled, but only
scalded. Cows' feet (* cow VXMIS ') make nearly
as good jelly as that from calves' feet, and are
much more economicaL

Jelly, Ceylon Kom. Sgn. Qsutdta okaoi-
LAXLB, L. Prep. {Dr Sigmond.) Boil Ceylon
moss {Chatmlaria liehenoidee), i ox., in water,
1 quart, for 26 minntes, or till tiie liquid 'jellies '
on cooling ; strain and flavour. Very nutritious ;
recommended in irritation of the mucous mem-
branes and phthisis.

Jally, Codeine and Glycerin. Prep. Codeine,
72 gr. ; citric acid, 720 gr. ; reflned gelatin, 6 oz. ;
glycerin, 36 ox. ; (nl of lemon, 1 dr. ; balsam of
tolu, and water, of each, a sufficiency. Boil the
toln in the wato: and filter, making up to 80 oz.
Soak the gelatin in 25 oz. of the toln water till
dissolved, then add the glycerin. In the remain-
ing 6 oz. of tolu water dissolve the codeine and
citric acid, mix altogether, add the oil of lemon
and stir well. Pour into wide-mouthed botties
to set. Useful in chronic laryngitis and phthi-
sical cough. — Dote, 1 dr. (& Siardwiek).

JeUy, Copaiba, (if. Cmllot.) Syn. Qila-
THTA COPAIBA. Prep. Isinglass, 4 parts; water,
40 parts; dissolve in a water-bath, and add
20 parts of sugar ; pour the clear liquid jelly into
a warm mortar, and add copiuba, 60 parts ; tritu-
rate, and pour in a vessel to jelly. Flavour with
some aromatic essential oil or balsam of toln.

Jd^, Cot'siean Hess. 8gn. Qtuntisi. bxl-
MIHIHOOOBTI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Oorsiean
moss {Oraoilaria helmMioeorton), 1 oz.;
water, q. s. ; boil 1 hour, and strain 8 fl. oz. ; to
this add of i^glass (previously soaked in a little
water), 1 dr. ; reflned sugar, 2 oz. ; white wine, a
wine-glassful. Vermifuge. See Dbcootiov.

Jelly, Fruit. Under this head we include
those jellies made from the juices of fruits.

Prep. The strained jnice mixed with i to i
its weight of reflned sugar, until it 'jellies ' on
cooling, observing to carefully remove the scum
as it rises. The process should be conducted by
a gentie heat, and it is preferable not to add the
sugar until the juice is somewhat concentrated,
as by lengthened boiling the quality of the sugar
is ii^nred.

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JERVINE— JEWELRY

917

Ob*. Jellies are sold in pots or glasses, like
(AJca. Both jams and fruit jellies are refrige-
rant and laxative; they are, however, mostly
employed aa relishes, especially daring fevers and
GODTBleBoencea. Thb principal fruit jellies are :—
APPUi, BASBSBBT, OHXSSY (from either Corne-
lian or Kentish cherries), ovbiuht (black, white,
and red), Bj^BSBBBBr, aooBKBiBBY, flux,
4UIR0V, KABFBBXBT. See Lbmoh and Osanob
Jbllt.

Jelly, Olyoerla. jS|^. Qblatini. aLTOBBnri.
JPrep. Mix glycerin to the required consistence
with oomponnd teigacanth powder. Or take pow-
dered gum-arabic, i oz. ; syrup, 4 ox. (S oz. of
sugar to 1 OS. of water) ; the yelks of S eggs;
olive oil, 4 ox.; glycerin, 2 oz. Rub the gum
and syrup well together, add the yelks, and
when mixed add the oil and glycerin, previously
biturated together. Applied to chapped hands,
abrasions, &e. See QLYCBsnr ov Siaboh.

Jelly, Qni''Ty. By evaporating meat gravies.

Jdly, Eartsliom. 8yn. Oblatuta oobktt
CBBTI, L. iVsp. (P. Cod.) Hartshorn shav-
ings, 8 OS. ; wash it in water, then boil in clean
water, 3 pints, till reduced to one half ; strain,
press, add of sugar, 4 oz., the juice of one lemon,
and the white of an ^g beaten np with a little
cold water ; mix well, clarify by heat, evaporate
till it ' jellies ' on cool^, then add the peel of the
lemon, and set it in a cool place. It may be
flaroored with wine, spices, &c. Very nntri-
tioos.

Jelly, lee'land Mom. ^<t. Qblatika li-
OHKBia, L. Frep. (P. Cod.) Iceland moss, S
to. } soak for 1 or 2 days in cold water, then boil
for 1 hour in water, q. s. to yield a strong soln-
tion; strain, decant the dear after repose, apply
heat, and dissolve therein of isinglass, 1 dr.;
evaporate the whole to a proper consistence, put
it into pots, and set them in a cool place. Nutri-
tions. Recommended in phthisis. The jelly of
Iceland moss and cinchona (s-biiATxna lioebkib
dVOHOBA — ^P. Cod.) is made by adding to the
above symp of cinchona, 6 fl. os.

Jelly, loelaad Moss. Anotlier formula. Ice-
land moss, 7i oz. ; water, 80 oz. Boil to 60 oz.
and strain. Add lemon peel, H oz. j isinglass, 2i
oz. ; sugar, 40 oz. Boil to ^ oz. and strain.

Jelly, Iceland Moss (Sweetened). (P. Cod.)

SffU. QBia.TIBA LICKBBIB KACCHABATA, L. iVegl.

SafchaTated Iceland moss (see Ioblans Mosb,
Saoobabaibd), 7i oz. ; sugar, 7i oz. j water, 16
01. ; oiaage-flower water, 1 oz. BoU the first
three snbstanoes and remove the scum which
forms, and then let the jelly flow into a vessel
which contains the crange-flower water.

Jelly, r'rish Koas. ^a. OBLAlurA OEOH-
rai, L- JV<p. Prom Irish or Carrageen moss.
See Oboootiov.

Jellr, I"s1iigTass 5jr«. ConmonoirBBs'

nLLts QsliiXIBA lOETEXOOOLIJB, L. iVvp.

Prom isinglass dissolved in water by boiling, and
•vaponted till it 'ieUies' ou cooling, adding
flavonring, as desired. 1^ oz. of good isinglass
makes folly a pint of very strong jelly. See

BLAVOMABflS, tsaOlAM, CiiTBg-VBBX JB£LT,

Ac.

JtOf, Imn'oa. Frap. Prom isinglass, 2 oz.;
water, 1 quart ; boil, add of sugar, 1 lb.; clarify.

and when nearly cold add the juice of 6 lemons,
and the grated yellow rinds of 2 oranges and of
2 lemons ; mix well, strain off the peel, and put
it into glasses.

Jelly, Ho'yean. As Punch jbixt, bat strongly
flavoured with bitter almonds.

Jelly, Orange. J'rep. From orange jaiceMl pint;
let it stand over the grated yellow rind of 8 or 4 of
the oranges for a few hours, then strain, and add,
of loaf sugar, i lb., or more, isinglass, i oz., dis-
solved in water, 1 pint; mis, and put it into
glasses before it oools.

Jelly, Poach. Pnp. Prom isingUss, 2 ox.;
sugar, 1} lbs. ; water, 1 pint ; dissolve, add of
lemon-jnice, i pint ; the peels of 2 lemons and of
2 oranges ; mm and brandy, of each, i pint ; keep
it in a covered vessel until cold, then liquefy it by
a very gentle heat, strain, and pour it into moolds.
A pleasant and deceptive way of swallowing
alcohol.

Jelly, aninoe. (Ph. E., 1744.) I^n. Qau-
TiHA CYDOiriOBUK, L. iVsp. Juicc of quinces,
S lbs. ; sugar, 1 lb. ; Ixnl to a jelly.

Jelly, Rice. 8yn. Cbsmb db Riz. From
rice boiled in water, sweeetened and flavoured.

Jelly, Sago. Prap. Soak sago in cold water
for 1 luiur. strain, and boil in fresh soft water
until it becomes transparent; then add wine,
sugar, clear broth, milk, or spices, to flavour. 1
oz. of sugar makes a pint of good jelly.

JeUy, Salep. (Sooinraa.) Syn. OBiJ.TDrA
SALEPS, L. JPrtp. Ground salep, 4 dr. ; sugar,
4 oz. ; water, q, s. Boil to 12 os., and flarour to
the taste. *

Jelly, Tapio'ca. As Saoo Jbixt, but using
tapioca in lieu of sago.

JSRTIKS. CaoH,N,0,. An alkaloid disco-
vered in 1837, by Simon, in the root of the Vera-
trum Mum, and by Mitchell, in 1874, in the root
of the Veratrum mride. Ihr H. C. Wood, Jan.,
describing the physi(dogical effects of jervine, says
they consist "in genial weakness, lowering of
arterial pressure, a slow pulse, profuse salivation,
and finijly convulsions." Jervine was analysed
by Will, who ascribed to it the above composi-
tion.

JESUIT'S BARK. See CnrOHOHA.

JESUIT'S DROPS. There are various formolts
for this preparation, e.g. the old Dublin Pharma-
copoeia far. faenzoini oo. was given for it. The
following are typical formults :

1. Qnajacum, 7 oz. ; bals. Pemv., 4 dr. ; sarsa-
parilla, 6 oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 pints. Digest for
14 days and filter.

2. Copaiba, 1 oz. ; gnaiacom, 2 dr.; oil of
sassafras, 1 dr. ; salt of tartar, i dr. ; rectified
spirit, 5 oz. Digest for a week and filter.

JESUIT'S POWDER. Powdered cinchona
bark.

JET. A variety of mineral bituminous carbon,
very hard, and susceptible of a fine polish.

JEW'ELRT. The gold in articles of jewelry,
whether solid or plated, which are not intended
to be exposed to very rough usage, is generally
' coloured,' as it is called in the tnie. This is
done as follows :

1. (Rbd Qold CoIiOUB.) The article, after
being coated with the amalgam, is gently heated,
and, whilst hot, is covered with gilder's wax ; it

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918

JEWELS—JCLUS GUTTATU8

is then ' flamed ' over a wood fire, and strongly
heated, daring which time it is kept in a state of
continual motion, to equalise the action of the fire
on the snrfiace. When all the composition has
burned away, the piece is plnnged into water,
cleansed with the ' scratch-bmsh ' and vinegar,
and then washed and hnmished. To bring np
the beaaty of the coloor, the piece is sometimes
washed with a strong solution of verdigris in
vinegar, next gently heated, plunged whilst hot
into water, and then washed, first in vinegar, or
water soured with nitric acid, and then in pai«
water ; it is, lastly, bnmiriied, and again washed
and dried.

2. (Obxoxv Coiovb.) This is given by cover-
ing the parts with a mixture of powdered hema-
tite, alum, common salt, and vinegar, and applying
heat until the coating blackens, when the piece is
plunged into cold water, rubbed with a brush
dipped in vinegar, or in water strongly soured
with nitric acid, again washed in pure water, and
dried. During tMs process, the parts not to be
dried in ' or-moln colour ' shonld be carefully pro-
tected.

The frauds practised in reference to the ' fine-
ness' of the metal used in jewelry is noticed
under Oois (Jeweller's).. See also AasATore,
DiAXOKD, OxKB, QniDnra Liqvob, Qiu>iHe
Wax, Ac.

JEWELS. See Dukohs, Eubals, Qbkb,
Ac

JKWS PITCH. See Asfealtvk.

JOSDAV and VALSHCIA ALK0SS8. The
kernel of the fruit of iVHiMM amygdaUu, Baill.
(AmygdaUu eostmaitu, Linn.), a tree cultivated
in the north of Africa, Italy, Spain, &c. Jordan
(corruption of jardyne or garden, t. e. cultivated)
and Valencia almonds are imported from Malaga
without the shell, and diiter from other sorts by
their large size and oblong form.

JOUIUrAL BOXES, Alloy fbr. iVsp. Copper,
24 parts ; tin, 84 parts ; antimony, 8 parts. First
' melt the capper, then add the tm, and lastly the
antimony.

JUICE (Spanish). See Exibaos and Li-

QVOBICB.

JTT'JTTBS. A fruit resembling a small plum,
produced by various species of Zitgpluu. Com-
bined with sugar, it forms the ivjvvt pabtb of
the shops, when genuine; but that now almost
always sold under the name is a mixture of gum
and sugar, slightly coloured and flavoured.

JqJnbM, How to Xake. % lbs. of picked gnm-
araUc, 1) lbs. of the finest sugar (sifted), 6 oz. of
orange-flower water, and 1 pint of pure water.
Powder the gum and then put it into a bright
clean basin with 1 pint of water, and dissolve it
over a slow flre, stirring constantly with a wooden
spatula. When it is entirely dissolved, strain it
through a towel or fine hair-sieve to free it from
all sediment. Fat the strained gum and the
sugar into another clean bright basin, and stir it
over a very moderate flre while it boils and re-
duces to the small pearl (or 80'' by the saecharo-
meter) ; then add the oiange-flower water. Stir
all together on the flre, take. off the scum, and
pour the mixture into very smooth clean tin pans
that have been previously well rubbed with oil of
Almonds, or with olive oil; fill them with the

mixture to the depth of a i of an inch, and set
them to dry in the drying-room (moderate heat).
When sufficiently dried, so that on pressing the
surface it proves to be somewhat elastic to the
tonch, remove them from the heat and allow
them to become cold; the jiqube may then be
easily detached and removed from the pans, and
is then to be cut np with scissors into sbrips, and
then the strips into diamond-shaped pieces. The
jujubes can be coloured with cochineal or am-
moniated carmine solution, may be flavoured with
vanilla, rose, Ac., and may be medicated.

JTT'IiEF. ^n. iTTLkll JVLMPVU, Julbfub,
JULAFn7ll, L. A term usually regarded aa
synonymous with 'mxTUBB'; bnt according to
the beat authorities, implying a medicine which is
used as a vehicle for otiier forms of medicine.
The word comes through the French, from a
Pernan expression, which signified ' sweet drink.'
A julep, according to Continental writers, is a
drink of little activity, generally composed of
distilled waters, infusions, and syrups, to which
mucilages and acids are sometimes added ; " but
never powders or oily substances, which could
interfere with its transparency." In England the
juleps of old fAarmaep are now classed under
• MXltTBBg.'

JUIUS 017TTATUS, JUITO IiOHDIHSHSIS.

The Thonsand-legs. The hop-set, or young
plants, are rugose and knotty, affording much
shelter or cover for the eggs, gmbs, and pupn of
insects. Planters usually plwat two or three of
these sets together to form one plant-centre.
These, while keeping a separate or distinct exist-
ence, become much intertwisted, having many
knots and cavities, hiding places, which are made
nae of by many species of the Jnlidn or ' thou-
sand-legs.' These are very frequently found in
such cavities and in great abundance, espedally
where any decay has commenced. This they in-
tensify, if they do not actually cause it, and if
they contrive to penetrate into the softer, more
sappy parts of the plant-centres, they rapidly
occasion dangerous rotting. It is commonly held
that these thousand-legs are merely attendants
upon decay, and do not themselves create it; but
the formation of their jaws, adapted for gnawing
and biting, proves clearly that they are active
soarces of injury to plants. The thousand-legs
(millipedes) must not be confounded with the
species of another family of Myriapods, known as
Seolopendrida, or, familiarly, centipedes, whose
jaws are quite differently formed, and live on in-
sects and animal matter. The two species com-
monly found injuring various crops in England
are distinguished as Jvhu Londinamu and Juhu
guttaiut. Similar species are known in France,
Qermany, and America, where they injure beans,
peas, cabbages, many corn-crops, and hop-plants.
The mischirf, or rather the source of the mischief,
which these ereatores occawon to hop-plants is not
at first apparent, and it would be desirable that
planters should examine the roots of the plants
closely when they flag or show symptoms of
disease.

Life Eittory. Strictly and sdentiflcally speak-
ing, the thonsand-legs are not insects, though they
are generally considered and may be treated here
as such. They undergo no transformation like

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JUNIPER BKKRIKS— KALEIDOSCOPE

919

wirawonna and other imects proper, and have
onlj two Rttiges of life, viz. the egg atage and the
caterpillar or worm stage.

Fiam the end of December to the beginning
tt May the female lays eggs in considerable nnm-
hen nnder stones, in decaying wood, and vegeta-
tion, in the roots of the hop plants, and in other
retreats where there is dampness. When the
young emerge from the ^gs they have at first
only three pairs of legs, according to Taachenberg,
bat the number of legs increases. They are not
fnll grown, Cortis says, until they are two years
old, changing their skins or moulting five times
during this period, and feeding actively tlirongh-
ont. It is believed that, like wireworms, they
live four or five years from the time they come
from the eggs.

J^meutiim. It ia essential, for every reason,
that hop land shonid be drained. For the pre-
vention of thousand-legs this is most desirable,
dnoe they love moisture.

All vegetable rubbish and decaying matter
should be removed from hop plantations which
would serve as a harbour for them.

Frequent and thorough cultivation by digging
lomd the plant-oentiea, and the application of
nitrate of soda, soot, lime, or lime-a^es, to be dug
deeidv into the soU dose round them, will be found
Tei7 benefidaL

■Bs— dwi. Tiapa of pieces of carrot, turnip,
mangel-wunel, or vegetable marrow, put round
the plantH^entoe•, might be advantageously em-
pk^ed. This is done in Germany. Vegetable
manow is the best mediom, being soft.

In the case of a serious attack the use of the
paiafBn-satniated materials recommended in
many other case* would be benefidaL Curtis talks
- of Ikoe-water being used witii effect, as well as of
nitnte of soda bdng washed in. This would
hardly be practicable (' Reports on Insects Inju-
rious to Crops.' by Chas. Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

JVMIFSK KWIRTTM. 8fn. JUNipasi baoox,
J. oomnnna baocm (Ph. B.), JmnpsBUs (Ph.
L.}, L. The fruit of the JilWjperw oommimtr, or
oommon juniper tree.

Donath obtained from 100 parts of the ber^

Water

29-M

YoUtileoa . . . .

•91

Formic acid . . . .

1-86

Acetic acid . . . .

•94,

Malic acid (combined) .

•21

Oxalic acid ....

traces

Wax-like fktbf matter .

■64

Oreen reon (from ethereal

solution) ....

8-46

hoUc solution) .

1^29

peiin)

•87

Pectine . . . .

•78

Albuminous substances

4-46

Sugar

29-66

CeUuloae . . . .

16-88

ICneial substances

2-88

T,oss

2-89

In the old Ph. L. and D. both the tope and
(^mxFBBi wuvatvt st o^omiiiiii. Ph. h.

1886; rosamjia — baoojs, oaovkiha. Ph. D.
1862) were ordered. The berries are stomachic
and diuretic, and have been long employed in
dropsies, either alone or combined with foxglove
and squiUs. The tops (aTTMXJTATKS) have been
highly praised in scurvy and certun cutaneous
affections. — Dow, 1 to 2 dr., made into a conserve
with sugar, or io the form of infusion or tea.

JUS'KXT. 8gn. Dbtovbhibb jxtnkbt, Cusd
JBLLT. iV«p. From warm milk put into a bowl,
and then turned with a little rennet ; some scalded
cream and sugar are next added, with a sprinkling
of cinnamon on the top, without bresJcing the
curd. Much esteemed by holiday folk in the
western counties during the hot weather of
snmmer. Sometimes, very strangely, a littie
brandy finds its way into these trifles.

JXJTX. This ia the fibre yielded by the Cor-
ohoru$ captularit, a lime tree growing in India
and China. It is the material of which sacks,
gunny bags, and coarse thread are made. It
mixes even with linen or cotton, and hence may
not improbably be employed as a sophisticsnt of
these substances.

The tngravingt on page 920 exhibit the different
microscopic appearances of the three substances.

yAranr. HydrocIUorate of oxychinoline-
ethyl. Small white crrstals, soluble in water.
The solution pves a white precipitate with am-
monia. Used in fevers and infliunmation as an
antipyretic and febrifuge j its taste is very un-
pleasant, so is best given hypodermically. J)o*e,
6 to 10 gr.

KALEIDOSCOPE. 8gn. Fu>vxB-aiiAB8. A
pleasing philosophical toy invented by Sir David
Brewster, which presents to the eye a series of
symmetrical changing views. It is formed as
follows : — Two dips of silvered glass, from 6 to
10 in. long, and from 1 to li in. wide, and rather
narrower at one end than the other, are joined
together lengthwise, by one of their edges, by
means of a piece of silk or doth glned on their
backs ; they are then placed in a tube of tin or
pasteboard, blackened inside, and a littie longer
than is necessary to contain them, and are fixed
by means of small pieces of cork, with their faces
at an angle to each other — that is, an even aliquot
part of 4 right angles (as the i, i, -f^, 4c.).
The small end of the tube is then dosed with an
opaque screen or cover, through which a small
eyehole is made in the centre; and the other end
is fitted, first with a plate of common glass, and
at the distance of about l-8th of an inch, with a
plain piece of slightly ground glass, parallel to
the former; in the intermediate place or cell are
placed the objects to form the images. These
consist of coloured pieces of glass, glass beads, or
any other coloured diaphanous bodies, snfScienUy
small to move freely m the cell, and to assume
new positions when the tube is shaken or turned
round. A tube so prepared presents an infinite
number of changing and symmetrical pictures,
no one of which can be exactly reproduced. This
toy is so easily constructed, is so very inexpensive,
and at the same time so capable of afloiding an
almost inexhaustible fund of amusement to the
young, that we advise our juvemle friends to try
their hands at its construction. Any common

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JUTE

COTTOH.

.■^«-

J .1 J

Linen.

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KAIil— KEFYH

981

tabe of tin or pasteboard may be nied, and stripa
of glaaa amoked on one side will answer for
mirror

KAIJ. The name formerly applied to a species
at Saltola employed for making baxilla. It is
sometimea oaed as a designation for the ornde
alkalies, and is the Qerman synonym for ' potasaa.'

KaU, Add'nlatad. 8g». Lsicoir and kjlu,
LxMOVXATXD K. A common preparation of the
shops for making a pleasant eflerreseing draught.
It is sometimes inconMctly styled 'citrate of
potash.' Pnap. 1. Carbonate of soda and tar-
taric add, of each, 6 oz. ; lump sngar, 1 lb. ; all
in the ati^ of fine powder, and separately dried
by a very gentle heat, after which they are mixed
together, fliiToared with essence of lemon, 1 dr«
rnbbed throogh a game sieve in a warm dry
sitaation, pnt into bottles and corked down im-
mediately.

8. Finely powdered white sngar, 16 lbs. ; tar-
taric acid, 4t lbs,; carbonate of soda, 4 lbs.;
essence of lemon, 1 o>. ; as the last. Keeps well.
A dessert-spoonful of either thrown into a glasafhl
of water makes a pleasant effervescing draught.

KAIJim. [L.] Potassium.

KALTDOS. A cosmetic lotion; it resembles
' Qowi.Ain>'B Lotion,' but is got up in a rather
more pleasing sj^le. See Lotion.

if*»*T.a 'Hie red powder rubbed olt the
fruit capsules of Mallottu phiUppinentu, Mnell.
Arg. (JBottltra tUuioria, Boxb.), a plant belonging
to the Nat. Ord. BuPHOKBU.ca.B. Kamala is
imported £rom India, where it is known under
the name of kameela. The tree from which it is
obtained ia from 15 to 20 feet in height, indi-
genous to India and to many of the East Indian
Uanda.

T«.-«i« liaa long been employed in India as a
reme^ for tapeworm, and within the last few
yean has been given for the same purpose in this
country with fair success. It may be admi-
nistered in doses of from 80 gr. to 8 dr., sus-
pended in water, rubbed up with mucilage, or
mixed wiib syrup. In large doses, such as 8 dr.,
it sometimes foxgeB violently. After the third or
fourth motion the worm is generally evacuated
dead. A second dose may be taken in about 4
hours alurald tiie first fail to aot; or, instead of
a second dose, some castor oil may be given.
ir«iYi«i» is also used externally by the natives of
India in various skin comphunts, particularly in
■eabies. It is also sud to have proved useful in
herpetic ringworm.

Or Anderson ohUuned from the resinous
oolooTing matter, which is the principal constitu-
ent of ir«»"«i«) a yellow crystalline substance, to
whid> he gave the name rottUrin. The existence
of rottlerin has since been confirmed by Ilr Groves,
who found that it becomes changed by exposure,
a drcnmstanee to which he atteibutes its non-
deteetion in old spedmens of the drug, and to
whidt may very reasonably be attributed Leube's
(Ulaxetoflndit.

ne Britlah PharmaoopcBia ascribes the fol-
lowing 'ehazaeters' to kamala: — "A fine ^n-
nnlar mobile powder, of a brick-red colour; it is
wUh diflcolty mixed wiili water, but when boiled
with alcohol the greater put is dissolved, forming
a red solution. Bther dissolves most of it, the

residue consisting prindpally of tufted hairs. It
should be free from sand or earthy impurities."

Kamala forms a very considerable article of
export from India, it being a valuable yellow dye.

KA'OIiIB'. iSgn. China olat, Poboblain o.
A fine white clay, derived from the decomposition
of the felspar of granitic rocks, and consisting
almost entirdy of hydrons silicate of aluminium,
whereas ordinary clay contains quarts and iron
oxide in addition. The potteries and porcelain
works of this country are chiefly supplied with
this substance from extensive tracts of it wliich
occur near St Austell, ComwaU. See Clay.

Eisner gives the following process for distin-
guishing kaolin from ordinary day : — He agitates
it in a test-tube with pure strong sulphuric add
till a uniform mixture is produced, decants the
add after subsidence, dilutes it carefully with 6
volumes of water, and supersaturates the cooled
solution with ammonia.

Kaolin thus treated separates bnt slowly from
the strong add, and the diluted add sdntion
gives an immediate white predpitate with am-
monia, whereas ordinary day is but slightly
attacked by the add, separates quickly fnmi it,
and the add after dilution gives but an insignifi-
cant precipitate with ammonia. When ground
and washed it forms a powder often sold as
fuller's earth. The powder with a little water
is a good pill exoipient for such substances
as permanganate of potassium, chloride of gold,
and silver nitrate. 1 os. of powdered kavlin
rubbed with 5 drops of creosote forms an excd-
lent dusting powder for chafed or sore places,
likewise for erysipelas. Kaolin ointment is a
mixture of equal weights of vaseline, hard par-
affin, and kaolin mdtod, mixed, and stirred till
cold.

KAP^OKOB. CuHuO. Sgn. Capnohob.
A colourless oil obtained from crude creosote
by distillation with potassa. It begins to boil at
ISef C. (860° F.), but the greater part comes over
between 200^ and 208° C. (892° and 406° V.), It
has a peculiar odour, and is insoluble in water,
but rokdily soluble in an alkaline solution of
creosote.

KATAITSIB. Sgn. Cataxtbis, Contaoc
ACTION. Terms applied to a class of chemica
actions in which the decompositions and the
recombinations of the dements of compound
bodies are apparently exdted by the mere pre-
sence of, or contact with, other bodies, which do
not themselves suffer such a change. A good
example of a katalytic agent is platinum-black
(finely divided metallic platinum). When a mix-
ture of hydrogen and oxygen are passed over this
substance at the ordinary tempermture combina-
tion takes place between them.

SAVA-KAVA {Piptr mtthgtHeum). A plant
growing in the Polynesian Islands, tbe root of
which IS employed by the natives to form an
intoxicating drink. It contains a white crys-
talline prindple known as jroeais. In small
doses it is tonic, stimulant, and diuretic. It has
been highly recommended in gonorrhoea and in
gout. — Dote, 80 to 60 mimms of the fluid extract.
See Ata.

EETTK, or KSFLDT. A nutrient drink pre-
pared from the Caucasian milk fungi and largdy

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KELP— KKRMES MINERAL

used in Oermany and Switzerland nnder the name
of kefyr-knmis. Following are methods for its
preparation : — The dry Amgi, after having been
kept dnring 8 hooTB in tepid water and washed
a few times with clean water, are pat into new
milk at 30°, which most he renewed duly. The
fnngi, which are originally of greater ip. gr.
than milk, most be shaken frequently, hot not
too violently, for abont 8 days, in order to ac-
quire by increase of size change of colonr to
white, and gradual rising to the surface of
the liquid, the qualities necessary for the pre-
paration of kefyr and kefyr-knmis. New, cool
skimmed milk is now ponred upon the fungi,
at the rate of 6 to 8 times their volume, the
vessel closed with a cork, and left in a medium
temperature for 24 hoars, being frequently shaken
meanwhile. The liquid is th^ strained, and the
same procedure repeated once or twice again
after washing the f ung^ with cold water. The
beverage thus obtained is the kefyr of the moun-
taineers, which for appearance and taste may be
compared to fresh sour cream.

The kefyr-kumis, called ' kapyr ' by the natives,
is obtained by pouring together in a champagne-
bottle 1 part of kefyr and 2 of new, cool i^lk,
corking the bottle tightly and leaving the com-
pound to brew with frequent shaking for .24, 48,
or 72 hours, according to the required strength
of the kapyr. It is extensively prepared and
consumed in Odessa and the ports round about.
N. Saidemann, of Odessa, has analysed the pro-
duct, and finds its percentage composition to be —

Casein 4*0

Albnmen . . .0*8

Batter . .8-0

Sugar of milk ... 2-0
Alcohol . . . .0-6

Water and salts . . . 88-0
Carbonic acid . . I'O

KELP. Sgn. Vabboh, Fr. The alkaline
ashes obtained by burning various species of sea-
weed, formerly much used for the preparation of
carbonate of soda. The weeds most valued for
the purpose are the JSiuiui v$*iculonu, nodonu,
and Mrrattu, and the Laminaria bulbota and
digitaia.

Of late years the mannfhctnre of kelp, like that
of barilla, has been almost abandoned except as a
■ooxee of ioJUne. Mr E. C. C. Stanford, by care-
folly collecting and compressing the weed, and
afterwards submitting it to dry distillation,
largely increases the yield of iodine and bromine,
and obtains in addition various valuable hydro-
carbons. See BabiiiI^, Iodikb, Soda, las.

EXBAXm. A substance obtained from horn
shavings by digesting them with pepsin and dilate
hydrochloric acid which dissolves out the albu-
minous substances. The residue is now dissolved
in ammonia, and evaporated to gum-like consist-
ence. Keratine tiios prepared is used for coating
mUt which ace intended to pass the stomadi and
disfolTe in the small intestines the action of a
piU can thus be localised.

KIR'KES. Sgn. Kiutsa-ekim, Axxxsus ;
OBAinix TnroToxiux, L. The dried bodies of
the female Coeau ilieit of T.innans, a small
Insect of the Ord. Rtxnrtau, which Bou-
lidies on the Ilex oak. It has been used as a

red and scarlet dye-stuff ever since the time of
Moses; but is now superseded in this country
by cochineal, which gives colours of much greater
brilliancy.

EES'KES HnrlSAL. Sgn. Ebbioib itxs»-
BAXB, K. xiKBBAUa, L. An amorphons ter-
sulphide of antimony, containing a small admix-
ture of teroxide of antimony and sulphoride of
potassium. Frep. 1. IH teb HmiD Wat. a.
(P. Cod.) Carbonate of soda (cryst.), 128 parte
(say 21 parts), 'a dissolved in water, 1280 parts
(say 210 parts), contained in a cast-iron pan ; ter-
sulphide of antimony (in fine powder), 6 parte
(say 1 part), is next added, and the whole boiled
for an hour, with constant agitation with a woodea
spatnla; the b<nling liqnid is then filtered into »
heated earthen pan containing a small qnaotity
of very hot water, and the solution is allowed to
cool as slowly as possible ; the red powder which
is deposited is collected on a doth, on which it is
well washed with cold water, and the snperflaons
water being removed by pressure, the powder is
dried by a gentle heat, and is, lastly, passed
through a fine silk-gauze sieve, and preserved
from light and ur.

b. (Wholesale.) From black snlphide of anti-
mony, 4 lbs. ; carbonate of potaasa, 1 lb. i boil in
water, 2 galls., for i hour, filter, &c, as before.
The nndiuolved portion of sesquisnlphide of an-
timony may be boiled again several timea with
fresh potassa and water, until the whole b dis-
solved. Inferior to the last.

0. (CiiUzbll's Kbsmbb.) From tersulphide of
antimony, 4 parts; crystallised carbonate of aoda,
90 parts ) water, 1000 parte j boil, ixs., as in 1, ^
and dry the powder, folded up in paper, at a heat
not exceeding 90^ F.

2. Ik thb Dbt Way. a. (P. Cod.) Car-
bonate of potessa, 100 parte; teraolphideof anti-
mony, 60 parte ; sulphur, 8 parte j mix, fuse in a
Hessian crucible, pour the melted mass into ao
iron mortar, and when cold reduce it to powder ;
next boil it in water, 1000 parte, contelned in an
iron vessel, filter the solution, and otherwise pro-
ceed as before. — Prod., large, but of Inferior
quality.

b. {Fownei.) From tersnlpliide of antimony,
6 parte ; carbonate of soda (dry), 8 parte ; water,
80 parte ) fuse, &c., as before. Nearly eqnal to
1, a.

e. (BtrttUmt.) Carbonate of potassa (pore),
8 parte ; tersulphide of antimony, 8 parte} water,
q. s. Besembtes the last.

Prop., ifo. An odourless, tasteless powder,
insoluble in both wafer and alcohol, and, when
pure and carefully prepared, entirely soluble in
hydrosulphate of ammonia. As prepared by the
formula 1, a, and 1, o, it is a very dark crunson
powder, of a velvety smoothness j but that from
the other formuls has a brownish-red ooloar,
more or less deep. The secret of preparing this
compoond of a fine and velvety quality, like that
imparted from the Continent, oonsiste sim|^ in
filtering the solution whilst boiling hot, and allow-
ing it to cool very slowly, by pladng tiie tssscI in
an appropriate situation ftir that pnrpose. Another
important point, according to Base, is to enplay
sufficient alkali to keep the whole of the teroxide
of antimony in solution as the Uquid coola, instead

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KETCHUP— KIDNEYS

9SS

of aHowing a part of it to be deposited with the
kennes. This is the reason of the superior quality
and mildiieaa of that prepared according to the
directionB of the French Codex. The liquor de-
canted from the 'kermes mineral' yields the
golden sulphide of antimony on the addition of
an add, for which purpose acetic add is generally
employed.

Uote, i gr. to 3 or 4 gr., as a diaphoretic, ca-
thartic, or emetic. It occupies in foreign practice
the place of our James's Powder.

KETCH'DP. £ys. Catohttp, Catsvp, Katoh-
m. l%e juice tt certain vegetables strongly
salted and spiced, so as to be used as sauce ; or a
simple sauce made without the natnral juice as a
snhetitnte for the true ketchup. The following
are the prindpal varieties :

Satdiup, Camp. iV«p. Take of good old beer,
2 quarts ; white wine, 1 quart ; anchovies, 4 oz. ;
mix, heat it to the boiling-point, remove it from
the fire, and add of peeled shalots, 8 oz. ; mace,
nutmegs, ginger, and black pepper, of each,
bruised, i <n.; macerate for 14 days, with fre-
quent agitation, then allow it to setue, and decant
and bottle the clear portion.

Ketdrap, Ca'eomber. Prtp. From ripe encum-
bers, in the saitae way as mushroom ketchup.
Very Insdous. Hixed with cream or melted
butter it forma an excellent white sauce tor
fowls, &c

Kstchop, Karlne. iVsp. Take of strong old
beer, 1 gall. ; anchovies, 1^ lbs. ; peeled shalots
(crushed), 1 lb,; bruised mace, mustard-seed,
and cloves, of each, ^ oz.; bruised pepper and
ginger, of each, ^ oz. ;! mushroom ketchup and
vinegar, of each, 1 quart; heat the mixture to
the boiUng-poin^ put it into a bottle, and ma-
cerate for 14 days, frequently shaking; then
stnun through flannel, and bottle it for use. Ez-
eeUent with anything; like the last, it makes
good white sauce, and keeps well.

Ketchup, Xnsh'room. Prep. 1. Sprinkle mush-
room flaps, gathered in September, with common
salt, stir them occasionally for 2 or 3 days, then
lightly squeeze ont the juice, and add to each

Son doves and mustard-seed, of each, bruised,
. ; allsjnce, black pepper, and ginger, of each,
bruised, 1 oz. ] g^ktly heat to the boiling-point
in a covered vessel, macerate for 14 days, and de-
cant or strain. Should it exhibit any indications
of change in a few weeks, bring it again to the
boiling-pointt with a little more spice and a table-
qiooofnl more salt.

2. Take of mushroom juice, 2 galls. ; pimento,

2 oz.; cloves, black pepper, mustard-seed, and

ginger, of each, bruised, 1 oz. ; salt, 1 lb. (or to

* taste); shalots, 8 oz.; gently simmer for 1 hour

in a covered vessel, coo^ strain, and bottle.

S. Ttke of mushroom-juice, 100 galls. ; black
pepper, 9 lbs.; allspice, 7 lbs.; ginger, 6 lbs.;
cloves, 1 lb.; all bruised; salt, q. s.; gently
simmer in a covered tin boiler for 1 hour.

KsMhitp, Oys'tar. F\np. Pulp the oysters, and
to each pint add, of sherry inne, or very strong
oU ale, 1 pint ; salt, 1 oc. ; mace, i oz. ; black
pepper, 1 dr. ; simmer veiy gently for 10 minutes,
■tmin, oool, bottle, and to each bottle add a spoon-
ful or two of bruidy, and keep them in a oool
ntuation. Coctaa xtaanvt and xmsai xaioiH-

np are made in the same way. Used to flavour
sauces when the fish are ont of season ; excellent
with rump-steak, &c.

Ketchup, Pon'taa. Fnp. Take of the juice
of elderberries and strong vinegar, of each, 1 ]nnt ;
anchovies, i lb. ; shalots and spice, q. s. to fiavour ;
boil for 6 minutes, cool, strain, and bottle. Used
to make fish sauces.

Ketchup, Toma'to. -Avm, Prepared from to-
matoes or love-apples, like mushroom ketchup,
except that a little very strong Chili vinegnr is
commonly added. An admirable relish for ' high '
or rich-flavoured viands.

Ketchup, Wal'nut. Prep. 1. Take of the ex-
pressed juice of young walnuts, when tender, t
gall. ; boil 10 minutes, skim, add of anchovies, 2
lbs. ; shalots, 1 lb. ; cloves and mace, of each, 1
oz. ; 1 dove of garlic, sliced ; simmer in a covered
vessel for 16 minutes, strain, cool, and bottle, add-
ing a little fresh spice to each bottle, and salt,
q. s. Will keep good in a cool place for 20
years.

2. Take of green walnut-shells, 16 galls. ; salt,
6 lbs. ; mix and beat together for a week, press
out the liquor, and to every gallon add, of all-
spioe, 4 oz. ; ginger, 8 oz. ; pepper and cloves, of
each, 2 oz. ; ^ bruised ; simmer for half an hour,
and set aside in a dosed vessel and in a cool situa-
tion until suffldently dear.

8. Take of walnut- juice, 1 gall.; vinegar, 1
quart; British anchovies (sprats), S or 4 lbs.;
pimento, 8 oz.; ginger, i oz.; long pepper, i
oz. ; doves, 1 oz. ; shalots, 2 oz. ; bou and bottle
as before.

4. From the juice of walnut-shells, 80 galls. :
salt, 1 bushel; allspice and shalots, of each, 6
lbs. ; ginger, garlic, and horseradish, of each. 8
lbs. ; essence m anchovies, 8 galls. ; as before.

Ketchup, Wise. Prep. Take of mushroom or
walnut ketchup, 1 quart ; chopped anchovies, i
lb. ; 20 shalots ; scraped horseradish, 2 oz. ; spice,
q. 8.; simmer for 15 minutes, oool, and add of
white and red wine, of each, 1 pint; macerate for ,
1 week, strain, and bottle.

&»neral Stmark*. In preparing the above
articles vessels of glazed ewthenware or stone-
ware, or well-tinned copper pans, should alone
be used to contain them whilst bdng boiled or
heated, as salt and vegetable juices rapidly cor-
rode copper, and render the ketchup poisonous.
Nothing in the shape of copper, lead, or pewter,
should be allowed to touch tiiem. Even a plated
copper spoon left in a bottle of ketchup for some
time will render its contents poisonous. Unplea-
sant and even dangerous fits of vomiting, colic,
and diarrhoea have resulted from the neglect of
this precaution. See SAtroB, &e,

KIBES. The vulgar name for ulcerated chil-
blains.

KIS^KTB. 8yn. Rmnw, L. (In anatoti^.)
The kidneys are the organs which secrete the
urine, and form the great channels by which the
effete nitrogenous matter is removed from the
blood. See Ubihi and Ubhtabt imcnoat.

Kldngys. (In eooHeety.) Soyer recommends
Udneys to be dressed hy gently broiling them,
having previously split them, "so as nearly to
divide them, leaving the tt,t in the middle," and
"run a skewer tlovngh them, that they may

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924

KIESEBITE— KNIVES

remain open." After lieing' robbed with tt little
batter, and seasoned with salt and pepper, " they
may be served on toast, or with any sauce." " Yon
may also egg and bread-crumb them." "Five
minutes suffice for a sheep or lamb's kidney of
common size " (So^er). 1 or 2 lamb's kidneys,
plunly. broiled and served np with the gravy in
them, eaten along with a little dry-toasted bread,
form a most excellent and appropriate luncheon
or dinner for a dyspeptic or conviJeseent.

KIE8ESITS. A sulphate of magnesia found
in the refose salt (abranmsalz) of Stassfnrt, near
Magdeburg. It forms aliont 12% of the
abraumtaU. It is employed for washing wool
and for the manufacture of ' permanent white ' by
treatment with chloride of barinm ; also for the
preparation of Qlanber salts, and of hypochlorite
of magnesia for bleaching linen. See LiNBir..

EnrO'S CUP. Prep. Yellow peel of 1 lemon ;
lump sugar, If ox. ; cold water, 1 pint; infuse 8
or 10 honrs, and strain. The addition of a tea-
spoonful of orange-flower water is a great im-
provement. Used as a diluent in cases where
acid liquors are inadmissible. See Lbxokade.

EOrO'S EVIL. See Sobopula.

KINO'S YELLOW. See Yiuow PiaiutirTg.

KI'KIC ACID. HC,H,iO,. Sjf*. Quikio
AotD, CiHCHOirio AOD>. A monobasic acid occur-
ring in the cinchona barks, in which it exists
associated witb the alkaloids.

Ejnic acid is somewhat extensively diffused
throughout the vegetable kingdom, being found
in the bark of every species of the true cinchonas,
as well as in the leaves of the oak, the elm, the
ash, the i^, the privet, and the coffee plant and
berries. It occnis in the cinchona buks most
probably combined with the alkaloids, which
therefore exist in the plant as kinatea.

It is readily obtained from kinate of lime by
the action of dilate snlphnric acid; the filtered
solution, evaporated to the oonsistenoe of a syrup,
gradually deposits large crystals resembling those
of tartaric acid.

Henry and Plisson give tiie following directions
for the preparation of kinic acid : — Mt^e a decoc-
tion of cinchona bark with water contuning some
sulphuric acid, and filter whilst hot, and to the
filtrate add gradually freshly precipitated oxide
of lead nntU the liquid becomes neutral and
changes from a red to a pale yeUow colour; care
must be taken to add sufficient oxide. The
filtrate is freed from lead by passing sulphuretted
hydrogen through it, and filtered milk of lime
is then added to precipitate the quinine and cin-
chonine; and the filtered liqnid is evaporated to
• syrup, which yields on cooling crystalline calcic
kinate. To separate the acid from the calcic
salt, Berzelias directs an aqueous solution of the
salt to be made and to be precipitated by bssio
acetate of lead; the washed precipitate, sus-
pended in water, is then decomposed by sulphu-
retted hydrogen, and the solution filtered and
evaporated. Or the caldum kinate may be de-
composed by an aqueous or alcoholic solution of
fnlphario acid {Wattt).

Kinic add is, in the form of large tabular
crystals, fusible at 161° C. These orystals dissolve
in 2 parts of water; they are also soluble in
•^ts of winsb hat icareely, if at all, in ether.

It forms salts called kinates. Kinate of calcinm
is obtained from an acidulated infusion of cin-
chona bark, by adding an excess of lime, filtering,
evaporating to a syrup, and setting the liquid
aside to crystallise. These crystals are purified
by re-dissolving them, treating the solution with
a little animal charcoal, and crystallising the salt
as before. The liqnid from which the bark-
alkaloids have been precipitated by hydrate of
lime affords an almost inexhaustible supply of
this salt Mr H. Collier states that kinate of
quinine is one of the most soluble and best salts
al quinine for hypodermic use. See KmoiiB.

KlirO. Sgn. aux-KiHO; Kino (B. P., Ph.
L. £. and D.) The juice Sowing from the incised
bark of the Pteroearptu martupium, imported
from the Malabar Coast, hardened in the sun. —
JDote, 10 to 30 gr., in powder; as an astringent
in clironic diarrhoea, &e.

Kino, Pactltlona, met with in the shop*, ia made
as follows : — Logwood, 48 lbs. ; tormentil root, 16
lbs.; madder root, 12 lbs.; exhaust by coction
with water, q. s. ; to the liquor add of catechu, 16
lbs.; dissolve, strain, and evaporate to dryness.
Prod., 24 lbs. Extract of mahogany is also com-
monly sold for kino.

KiaSCE'WASSEB (-vKs-ser). [Qer.] S^.
KisacEBirwABSBB. A spirituoas liquor distilled
in Qermany and Switzerland from bruised cherries.
From the rude manner in which it is obtained,
and from tiie distillation of the cbeny-atones
(which contain pmsaic acid} with the liquor, it
has often a nauseous taste, and is frequently
poisonous. When properly made and sweetened
it resembles noyeau.

KI8H. An artificial graphite oocanonally pro-
duced in iron-smelting furnaces. It occurs in
brilliant scales, and is said to possess peculiar
efficacy in certain forms of antsmia and chlorosis.

KITCEliS. The late Alexis Soyer set down
as one of the crying faults of our countrymen the
employment of an apartment for the kitchen
which is eitfaer too small or inconveniently situ-
ated, and which, in general, is not sufficiently
provided with ' kitchen requisites.' " As a work-
man cannot work properly without the requisite
tools, or the painter produce the proper shade
without the necessary colours, in like manner
does every person wishiug to economise his food
and to cook it properly require the proper furni-
ture wherewith to do it." The neglect of these
matters, which is so general, is, undoubtedly, a
mischievous and deceptive economy.

JUIIVES. to Clean. After being used, all knives
should be wiped on a coarse cloth, so as to ensure
their freedom from grease previous to being
cleaned. The practice of dipping the blades in -
hot water not only fails to remove any grease that
may be on them, but is almost sure (o loosen the
handles. It is very essential to remove any grease
from them, since if this remain it will spoil the
knife-board.

For cleaning knives, a proper knife-cleaning
machine, pnrdiased of a good maker, is best.
But where this is not used, the knife-board ought
to be covered with very thick leather, npon which
emery powder should be placed. The emery gives
a good polish to the knives, and does not wear
them out so quickly as Bath-brick. When the

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KNOX'S POWDER— KREASOTE

926

pointa of the knivea beeome worn verj thin, they
■honld be roonded by the knife-grrinder. Where
the handles are good it will wtmetimes be worth
while to fit them to new blades.

KKnCS POWOES. iVcp. From common
■alt, 8 parts; chloride of lime, 8 parte ; mixed to-
gether. An oonoe of it diuolved in a tumblerful
it water famishes a solution which is similar to
Labarraqoe's disinfecting fluid.

KOCEUH'S IiIQUIS. .Prep. From copper
Blings, 96 gr.; liquor of ammoiua, 2 fl. oz.;
digested together until it turns of a full blue
colour, and then mixed with hydrochloric acid, 6
fl. dr. ; distilled water, S lbs. — Dote, 1 to 2 tea-
spoonfuls duly ; in scrofula. It is poisonona in
large doses.

KOLA. VUT8 are the fruit of the SttrcuUa
aeumnmata, a tree of Central Africa. There the
kola is the remedy for all diseases, and ii almost
worshipped by the natives. It is sold at high
prices, and no important bargain is ever concluded
without a gift of kola. The natives have found
this fruit to possess tonic, nutritive, stimulating,
and aphrodisiae properties. They use an infusion
of the roaated nut as well as the nnt in its natural
state. Analysis shows that kola contains a large
proportioa of caffdne with a little theobromine
and tannin. It use is, therefore, indicated in the
chronic ^arrhoea of hot coontries, where it has
been saoeessf nlly employed by naval surgeons in
stomach complaints and in eadiexia. DrDiqardin
Beanmeti has found it useful in chronic disfrhoea
and in ear^ac affections. He gives 16 grms.
(about i ox.) in the course of the day in 2 cups of
infusion of the roasted kola, or as an elixir, or as
a chocolate.

X. Nattcm's formnln are applicable either to
the natural or the roasted kola. A tincture is made
by macerating for 15 days 1 part of kola in 6
part* of alcohol W ; a wine by macerating for 15
d^s 100 grms. in a litre; an extract by perco-
bong 100 grms. with alcohol 60° and concen-
trating the percolate to the proper consistence ; a
symp is made similarly, but instead of concen-
tiating the percolate is made with sugar to weigh
1 kilogrm. Fills are made from the extract, 10
eenti^ms. in each with some powdered kola ; an
aleoholate by macerating 1 part of fresh scraped
kda in 5 parts of alcohol 80° for 15 days ; an
dixir by mixing together equal parts of the aloo-
holate and of simple syrup; a saccharate, by
Tabbing together 1 p«urt of fresh kola with 2 parts
of sngar, sifting and drying ; lozenge from the
saecharate with 1 part of tragacanth and 6 parts
of water to 100 parts of sacdiarate with any do-
aimd flavonr; a chocolate with 60 grms. of the
saoeharate^ 40 grms. of cocoa powder, and i grm.
of cinnamon. Lastly, U. Nation gives the fol-
lowing form for a pleasant mixture of kola : —
Alooholate or tincture, 6 to 80 grms. j tincture of
cinnamon, 1 g^rm. ; brandy, q. v. ; qrnp of orange,
80 grms. ; distilled water, q. s. to 160 grms. See

Chooolaxb.

KOOCHliA. HUT. See Nirx Yokioa.
KOVHUS. A liquor prepared by the Calmucs,
by fermentJBg mare's muk previously kept until
sour and then akimmad. By distillstion it yields
a spirit called rack. lacky, or araka. 21 lbs. of
fermented milk yield about ) pint of low wines.

and this, by rectification, gives fully i pint of
strong alcohol. It has lately come into nse as a
remedy for phthisis and general debility.

The following formula from the ' Zeitschrift
des Oesterr. Apoth. Ver.' (1876, 626), for the pre-
paration of so-called Kouiusa bxtbact, is said to
be a good one : — Powdered sugar 'of milk, 100
parts ; glucose (prepared from starch), 100 parts ;
cane-sugar, 800 parts ; bicarbonate of potassium,
86 parts ; common salt, 38 parts.

Dissolve these ingredients in 600 parts of boil-
ing fresh whey of milk, allow the solution to cool,
then add 100 parts of rectified spirit, and sf ter-
wards 100 parts of strained fresh beer-yeast. Stir
the mixture well and put into bottles containing
a i litre each. The bottles must be well corked
and kept in a cool place.

For the preparation of koumiss add 6 to 6
table-spoonfuls of this extract to a litre of
skimmed, lukewarm milk, contained in a bottieof
thick glass ; cork well, keep the bottle for i a day
in a moderately warm room (at 16° — 20° C), and
afterward* in a cool cellar, shaking occasionally.
The bottle should be filled to within 8 to 4 cm. of
the cork. After 2 days the koumiss is ready for
nse. SeeKxRB.

KOUS'SO. Sgn. Cimao, Eooso. This sub-
stance is the dried flowers of the Sagema abj/t-
ainiea, an Abyssinian tree which grows to the
height of about 20 feet, and belongs to the Nat.
Ord. RoBAaB.s. It is one of the most effective
remedies known for both varieties of tapeworm.
The dose for an adult is 8 to 6 dr., in powder,
mixed with about i a pint of warm water, and
allowed to macerate for 15 or 20 minutes. The
method prescribed for its successful administra-
tion is a» follows : — The patient is to be prepared
by a purgative or a lavement, and the use of a
very slight diet the day before. The next
morning, fasting, a little lemon juice is to be
swallowed, or a portion of a lemon sucked, fol-
lowed by the dose of kousso (both liquid and
powder), at 8 or 4 draughts, at short intervals of
each other, each of which is to be washed down
with cold water acidulated with lemon juice.
The action of the medicine is subsequently pro-
moted by drinking weak tea without either milk
or sugar, or water flavoured with lemon juice or
toasted bread ; and if it does not operate in the
coarse of 8 or 4 hours, a dose of castor oil or a
saline purgative is taken.

The flavour of kousso is rather disagreeable
and nauseating. Its operation is spe^y and
effectual; but at the same time it is apt to
produce, in large doses, great prostration of
strength, and otnisr severe symptoms, which unfit
it for administration to the delicate <^ both
sexes, or during pregnancy or affections cS the
lower viscera. Caie should be taken not to pur-
chase it in powder, as, owing to its high price, it
is imif ormly adulterated. The powdered kousso
of the shops is, in general, nothing. more than
the root-bark of pomegranate, coloured and
scented. An infusion is contained in the B. P.
1 in 16.— 2>0M, 4 to Sox. taken without straining.

XBS'ASOTE. i%». Cbsasotb, Csaosors,
ESBOBOTB; Cbbasotum (B. P., Ph. L. & D.),
CBBAZOTVif (Ph. £.), L. A peculiar substance,
discovered by Beichenbach, and so named on

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KBEATIN

account of its powerfal antiaeptie property. It
is a product of the dry diBtUlation of organic
bodies, and is the proserratire principle of wood-
imoke and pyroligneous acid.

iVep. Ereasote is manofactored from wood-
tar, in which it is sometimes contained to the
amount of 20% to 35% , and from crude pyro-
ligneous acid and pyrozilic oil.

Wood-tar is distilled till a black residue it
obtained which 8oli(Ufies on cooling. The distil-
late separates into two layers : an acid aqueons
layer, and an oily one. This latter contains the
kreasote, and is redistilled, only that part of the
distillate being collected which is heavier than
water. The product is now washed with a solu-
tion of carbonate of soda, and rectified in a glass
retort, in order to separate any remaining oils
that are lighter than water. A solution of pot-
ash is then added; this dissolves the kreasote
with evolution of heat ; while the hydrocarbons
present remain for the most part undissolved.
The alkaline solution is heated in contact with
the air, when a foreign substance, which dis-
solved in the potash at the same time as the
krrasote, separates out as a resin. The kreasote
is then liberated by the addition of sulphuric
acid, and further purified by repeated treatment
with potash and sulphuric acid successively.
Finally it is dried and rectified.

Prof. Kreasote is a colourless, transparent
Uqud, heavier than water, of a peculiar un-
pleasant penetrating odour resembling that of
smoked meat, and a very pungent and caustic
taste; its vapour irritates the eyes; it boils at
400° P., and is still fluid at— 16-6° P. ; it pro-
duces on white filter paper greasy spotB, which
disappear if exposed to a heat of 212*- F.; dis-
solves in 80 parts of water, and mixes in all pro-
portions with spirit of wine, the essential and
fiitty oils, acetic acid, naphtha, disulphide of
carbon, ammonia, and potassa ; it dissolves iodine,
phosphorus, sulphur, resins, the alkaloids, indigo-
Uue, several salts (especially the acetates and the
chlorides of calcium and tin); reduces the nitrate
and acetate of silver; is resinifled by chlorine,
and decomposed by the stronger acids. The
aqtfeous solution is neutral, and precipitates solu-
tions of gum and the white of eggs. It kindles
with difficulty, and bums with a smoky flame.
When quite pure, it is nnaltered by exposure to
the air. Sp. gr. 1-071, at 68° P. A slip of deal
dipped into it and afterwards in hycbrochloric
acid, and then allowed to dry in the air, acquires
a greenish-blae colour. It rotates a ray of polar-
ised light to the right, whereas carbolic acid does
not affect polarisation.

Pw. The fluid commonly sold in the shops
for kreasote is a mixture of kreasote, picamar,
and light oil of tar ; in many cases it is little else
than impure carbolic acid, with scarcely a trace
of kreasote. Pure kreasote is perfectiy solnble
in both acetic add and solution of potassa:
shaken with an equal volume of water in a
narrow test-tube, not more than the l-80th part
disappears ; otherwise it contains water, of which
kreasote is able to take up 1-lOtb without
becoming tnrbid. If it can be dissolved com-
pletely in 80 parts by wmght of water, at a
medinm tempentore, it then forms a perfectly

nentral liquid. An oily residue floating on the
surface betrays the presence of other foreign pro-
ducts (bupion, eafnoxob, fioajcas), which are
obtained at the same time with the kreaaote
during the dry distillation of organic snbstaaces.

Kreasote is " devoid of colour, has a peculiar
odour, and is soluble in acetic acid. When it is
dropped on bibulous paper, and a boiling heat is
applied for a short time, it entirely escapes,
leaving no transparent stain." (Ph. L.) " En-
tireW and easily solnble in its own weigbt of
acetic acid." (Ph. B.) Sp. gr. 1-046 (Ph. L.).
1-066 (Ph. E. and D.). The density and boiling-
point of absolutely pnre kreasote is given above.
When prescribed in pills with oxide of silver, the
mass will take fire unless the oxide be first mixed
with liquorice or other powder {Bgyini).

Viet, Kreasote has been recommended in
several diseases of the organs of digestion and
respiration, in rheumatism, gout, torpid nervous
fever, spasms, diabetes, tapeworm, ftc.; bnt its
use has not, in general, been attended with satia-
factory results. It is given in the form of pills,
emulsion, or an ether^ or spiritnona solntion.
Externally it has been employed in variona
chronic diseases of the skin, sores of different
kinds, mortifications, scalds, bums, wounds (as a
styptic), caries of the teeth, &c ; mostiy in {he
form of an aqueons solution (1 to 80) ; or mixed
with lard (6 drops to 1 dr]), as an ointment;
dissolved in rectified spirit, it forms a nsef nl and
a popular remedy for toothache arising from
decay or rottenness. In the aria, kreasote was
extensively employed to preserve animal sab-
stances, either by washing it over them, or by
immersing them in its aqueons solntion. As an
antiaeptie, however, it is now nearly superseded
by carbolic acid, but is still used to preserve
wood. A few drops in a saucer, or on a piece of
spongy paper, if placed in a larder, will efFectn-
ally drive away insects, and make the meat keep
several days longer than it otherwise would. A
small quantity added to brine or vinegar is com-
monly employed to impart a smoky flavour to
meat end flsh, and its solntion in acetic acid is
used to give the flavour of whisky to malt spirit.
See Cabbquc Acid.

KEE'ATOr. C4H,N30,.Aq. 8gn. Cmatik.
A crystallisable substance obt^ned from the jnioe
of the muscular fibre of animaJs. It was first
obtained by Chevrenl.

Prep. (Liebig.) Lean flesh is reduced to
shreds, and then exhausted with sneoesriTe
portions of cold water, employing pressure ; the
mixed liquid is heated to coagulate the albnmen
and colouring matter of the blood, and is then
strained through a cloth; pore baryta water is
next added as long as a precipitate forms, the
liquid is filtered, and the filtrate is gently evapo-
nU»d to the consistence of a syrup; after repose
for some days in a warm situation, crystals of
kreatin are deposited; these are purified by i«-
dissolving them in water, agitating the solution
with animal charcoal, and evaporating, &c., so
that crystals may form.

iVop., 4*0. Brilliant, colourless, prismatic crys-
tals ; readily soluble in boiling water, sparingly ao
in cold watOT and in alcohol ; the aqueons solution
is neutral, bitter tasted, and soon putrefies.

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KREATmiN— LAC

927

KKBAT'IVIH'. C^H^NjO. This snlistanoe
exuta in imall qmntitiet both in the jnioe of
flesh and in coi\]anetion with kreatin in urine.
It is alio produced by the action of the stronger
acids on kreatin. It forms colonrlesa prismatic
ci7Btals, which are soluble in water, and the
solution has a strongly alkaline reaction. It is a
powerful organic base, and piodoces crystalUsable
salts with the atnds.

ERS^nC ACTD.' See Cnstno aoxd.

KSTSTAL'LnrE. The name originally applied
by Unverdorben to Aimiiri.

KU8Trri£5'8 XETAIi. Prap, Take of mal-
leable iron, 3 parts ; beat it to whiteness, and add
of aatinumy, 1 part; Molucca tin, 72 parts; mix
nnder chanoal, and cool. Used to coat iron and
other metals with a surface of tin; it polishes
without a blue tint, is bard, and has the advantage
of bring free from lead and arsenic.

ITAMtZSXQ. A method of preserving wood
and cordage from decay, long known and prac-
tised; patented by Mr Kyan many years rince.
It consists in immersing the materials in a
solution of corrosiTe sublimate), 1 part, and water,
60 or 60 parts, either under strong pressure or
the oontrtuy, as the urgency of Hie case or the
dimensions of the articles operated on may require.
SeeDBTBox.

KT'AVOIi- A substance obtained from coal-
tar oil, and at first thought to be an independent
principle, but since shown to be identioU with
AmiKB.

LABASBAQTIS'8 nUID. See SOLUXION ov

CHZiORISB OVSODA.

JiLBnaAMUM. 8yn. LASAjnnc. An odorous,
resinons substance found on the leaves and twigs
of the Cj/*tm* antietu, a plant growing in the
island of Candia and in Syria. It was formerly
mnoh used for making stimulating plasters. The
ttdlowing compound is often vended for it :

^bdanum, 7aetl"tiou8. Prep. From gnm-
anime, reain, Venetian turpentine, and sand, of
each, 6 parts; Spanish jnice and gnm-arabic, of
each (dissolved in a little water), 8 parts ; Canada
balsam, 2 parts; ivory-black, 1 put; balsam of
Peru, q. 8. to give a &int odour.

UL'BEUB capable of resisting the action of ana,
■PUtrrg, yrtxan, fmrpB, and DiLirTB.AOtDg,may
be obtained as follows : — Lay a coat of strained
white of egg over the label (an ordinary paper
one), and immediately put tiie vessel into the
upper portion of a common steam-pan, or other-
wise expose it to a gentle heat till the albumen
coagolatea and turns opaque, then take it out
and diT it before the fire, or in an oven, at a white
heat of abont 212° F. ; the opaque white film will
then beocme hard and transparent. The labels
on bottlea containing aiBONa aoidb or alkalinb
Mxvnovs shoold be either etched upon the glass
I7 means of hydrofluoric acid, or be written with
inooRodible ink. A. varnish made by dissolving
anm-dainmar in benzol is useful for preserving
Mbels from the action of acids and other chemicals.
See EroHnre and Ixx.

LAB'OSAIORT. JSs»- LABOSATOBItW, L.
A place fitted np tot the perf ormanoe of experi-
mantal or mannfaotnring operations in oAmiw-
trgffharmaeg, and other sciences. For full in-

formation respecting the best mode of fitting np
a chemical laboratory the reader ia referred to
works especially devoted to chemical manipulation.
Almost any well-lighted (a room with a good top
or north light is to be preferred) spare room may
be fitted np as a smidl laboratory at very little
ex}>en8e. The gas-furnaces and improved lamps
introduced of later years have to a certain extent
rendered chemists independent of brick furnaces.
A strong working bench, fitted with drawers and
cupboards, and having gas-pipes at intervals for
attaching different kinds of jets, is an indispens-
able fixture. A close cupboard or closet, which ia
connected by a pipe with the chimney or the
external air, is required to receive vessels emitting
corrosive or evil-smelling vapours ; the door <a
this closet should he of glass. A sink, with a
copious supply of water, must be at hand for
washing apparatus. A glass or stoneware barrel,
with a tap of the same material, is required for
holding distilled water. Shelves, supports for
apparatus, and drawers, should be provided in
abundance. The fine balances and other delicate
instruments should be kept in a separate apart-
ment. With regard to apparatus, we may state
that the articles most frequently required in a
laboratory are the gas or alcohol lamps ; iron pans
for sand-bath and water-bath ; evaporating dishes;
precipitating jars, funnels, and wash-botties ;
retorts, fiasks. and test-tubes ; mortars and pestles;
retort- and filtering-stands ; rat-toil and triangn-
lar files, and glass rod and tubing.

LABUSBISX. A poisonous alkaloid, found
in the unripe seeds of the laburnum plant asso-
ciated with another poisonous alkaloid called
Ogtitifu.

LAC. Sg*. Lacca, L. a resinous substance
combined with much colouring matter, produced
by the puncture of the female of a small insect,
called the Coatmt laeea or fieut, npon the young
branches of several tropical trees, especially the
Fuau indiea, Fiau nUgioia, and Croto» lacei'
ferum. The crude resinous exudation constitutes
the BllOE-LAa of eommeree. Shbll-lao or
BHBLi^O is prepared by spreading the resin into
thin plates after being melted and strained.
Sbed-IiAO is the residue obtained after dissolving
out most of the colouring matter contained in the
resin.

Shell-lac is the Und moat commonly employed
in the artt. The palest is the besl^ and is known
as ' orange-lac.' The darker varieties — * liver-
coloured,' 'ruby,' ' garnet,' &C. — respectively di-
minish in value in proportion to the depth of their
colour,

Utet, t[e. Lac was formerly much 'used in
fMcUoiiu t its action, if any, is probably that of a
very mild diuretic. It is now chiefly used in
ssKixruoM, TABHI8HH, iiAOQtnntB, and bmit-
nro-WAX.

Lac, Bleached. 8f». Whux lao; Laooa
AXBA, L, By dissolving lac in a boiling lye of
pearlash or caustic potusa, filtering and passing
chlorine through the solution until all the lac is
precipitated; this is collated, well washed and
polled in hot water, and, finally, twisted into
sticks, and thrown into cold water to harden.
Used to make pale varnishes and the more deUcate
coloured sealing-)

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928

LAC-DYE— LACTATE

LAC-STX. Sf- Lao, Lao-xakb, Ivsiait
cooHimtAL. A colouring enbstanoe used to dye
scarlet; iimpoTted from India.

Prep. By diaiolving oat the colour of ground
stick-Uc by meant of a weak alkaline solation,
and then precipitating it along with alumina by
adding a solation of alum.

Ob». To prepare the lac for dyeing, it is ground
and mixed with dilated ' lac spirit,' and the whole
allowed to stand for about a week. The ' cloth '
is first mordanted with a mixture of tartar and
'lac-spirit,' and afterwards kept near the boil
for three quarters of an hour, in a bath formed
by adding a proportion of the prepared lac-dye to
the mixture used for mordanting. Lac-dye is
only applicable to woollen and silk. The colours
it yields are similar to those obtained from
cochineal, but less brilliant.

LAC-SPUtlT. See Tnr Uordantb.

LACS. This decorative fabric is made by in-
terweaving threads of linen, cotton, or silk, into
various patterns and designs. Although in some
instances lace is made by hand, the greater part
is now manufactured by machinery worked by
steam or water. The hand-made lace was called
bone, pillow, or bobUn lace, these two latter
names having been given it from its having been
woven upon a pillow or cushion by means of a
bobbin. The manafactured article is bobbin net.
Lace and the machineiy by which it is produced
is of so complex a nature that Dr Ure says of one
particular form of it : " It is as much beyond the
most curious chronometer in the multiplicity of
mechanical device as that is beyond a common
roasting jack."

Owing to the improvements in machinery in-
troduced of late years, it may be mentioned that
a piece of lace which 20 years since could only be
pix)daced at a cost of St. 6d. for labour, may now
be turned out for Id., and a quantity of the fabric
which sold for £17, now realises only 7«. A pair
of curtains, each 4 yards long, may be made in 1
frame in 8 hoars.

The following statistics relating to the British
lacs industry are of interest: — "In 184S there
were S200 twist net and 800 warp frames, return-
ing £8,740,000 that year ; in 1861, 8200 bobbin
net and 800 warp, giving a return of £3,846,000;
and in 1866, 8552 bobbin and 400 warp, returning
£6,180,000. There has since been no actual
census, but about the same number is now at
work, and the returns and profits are greatly in-
creased by improved quality and patterns of goods
prodaeed. llie returns of 1872 were certainly
£6,000,000 at least ; and from advancing wages
and demand for Lever's laces, must still rapidly
increase. Hen are now earning by making them
from £4 to £6 for 56 hours' weekly labour."

Laee, Sold and SUvar, to Cleait. Redaoe to fine
crumbs the interior of a 2-lb. stale loaf, and mix
with them i lb. of powder blue. Sprinkle some
of this mixture plentifully on the lace, afterwards
rubbing it on with a piece of fiannel. After
brushing oB the crumbs rub the lace with a piece
of crimson velvet.

lace, to Scour. Take a perfectly clean wine
bottle; wind the lace smoothly and carefully
round it ; then gently sponge it in tepid soap and
water; and when clean, and before it beromes

dry, pass it through a weak solution of gnm and
water. Next pick it out and place it in the son
to dry. If it be desired to bleach the lace, it
should be rinsed in some very veak solation of
chloride of lime, after removal from which it
must be rinsed in cold water. Starch and expose
it; then boil and starch, and again expose it if it
has not become sufficiently white.

The following method -is also sidd to whiten
lace : — It is first ironed slightly, then folded and
sewn into a clean linen bag, which is then placed
for 24 hours in pure olive oil. Afterwards the
bag, with the lace in it, is to be boiled in a solu-
tion of soap and water for 16 minntes, then well
rinsed in lukewarm water, and finally dipped in
water containing a small quantity of starch. The
lace is then to be taken from the bag, and
stretched on pins to dry.

To scour point lace proceed as follows : — " Fix
the lace in a prepared tent, draw it tight and
straight, make a warm lather of Castile soap, and
with a fine brush dipped in rub over the lace
gently, and when clean on one nde do the same
on the other ; then, throw some clean water on it,
in which a little alum has been dissolved, to take
oS. the suds; and, having some thin starch, go
over with it on the wrong side, and iron it on the
same side when dry; then open with a bodkin
and set it in order. To clean the same, if not
very dirty, without washing, fix it as before, and
go over with fine bread, the crust being pared off,
and when done, dost out the crumbs ' (JErtdit
Span).

Black lace maybe cleaned by passing it throogh
warm water containing some ox-gall, rinsing it in
cold water, and then passing it through water in
which a small quantity of glue has been previously
dissolved by means of heat; it should then be
taken out, clapped between the hands, and dried
on a frame.

LAC'WTEB. A solution of shell-lac in alcohol,
tinged with saffron, annotta, aloes, or other
colouring substances. It is applied to wood and
metals to impart a golden colour. See Yabitibh.

lAMiner, Burmese or Vamlsh. Obtained irom
Melanorrhaa utitata. Wall. It is used by the
Burmese in lacquer work, both red and black, as
rise in gilding, and for covering buckets to make
them watertight. It has been used as an anthel-
mintic. The wood is used for tool-handles, gun-
stoeks, and railway sleepers.

LACQXTES DTE8. According to Metallarbeiten,
these can be produced as follows: — i dr. of
boradc add ; white sbell-lac, 16 dr. ; mastic, 16
dr. ; manilla copal, 15 dr., are dissolved in alaolnte
alcohol, 1] pints. It is left at rest for at least 18
hours, and daring the time is occasionally agitated.
8 dr. of Venetian tnrpentine is then sdded, and
shaken until the latter has been thonraghly mixed
and dissolved, after which the whole is thoroughly
filtered. The colourless lacquer can be dyed wi^
all kinds of non-acid colouring matter which are
soluble in alcohol, and which should be previously
dissolved.

LACTALBU'KEZr. See Cabiis.

LACTATE. Syn. Laotab, L. Asaltof laetic
add. The lactates are characterised by yielding
an enormous quantity of perfectly pure carbonic
oxide gas when helped witii 6 or 6 parts of oil of

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LACTATION— LACTIC FERMENTATION

929

vitriol. Moat of theae salts may be directly formed
by ^asolving tbe hydrate or carbonate of the metal
in the dilate acid. .
IJLCTA'TIOH. See Intaicct, NimsiNS, Ac.
IiACnCACn). CgHgO,. Syn. AoisovxiLK;
AotDxrx i^Acnovx, L. A sonr, syrupy liquid
discovered by Scheele in whey. It la alao found
in Eome other animal flnids, and in several vege-
table juices, especially ii} that of beet-root.

Lactic acid is by no means an unimportant con-
stituent of the human organism. It is contained
in the gastric juice, and is frequently formed in
the sweat. It has also been detected in the saliva
of persons suffering from diabetes. A modifica-
tion of the acid, termed sarkolactic acid, occurs
in the fluids of the muscular tissue.

It is likewise a product of the fermentation of
many vegetable juices, such ss turnips, carrots,
beet- root, and cabbage, which latter vegetable,
after undergoing the lactic fermentation, becomes
converted into the sauerkraut of the Qermans.

In the form of calcic lactate it occurs in nnx
vomica.

JVep. I. By decomposing any lactate with
dilute sulphuric acid. As, however, the chief task
is to get the lactate, a method of accomplishing
this ia described beloto :

2. Diaaolve 6 kiloa. (12 lbs.) of sugar and 80
grms. (1 oi.) of tartaric acid in 26 litres (5 galls.)
of boiling water, and after some days add a mix-
ture of 260 grms. (i lb.) of putrid cheese with S
kilos. (If galls.) of sour skimmed milk and 3
kiloa. (6 Iba.) of finely divided chalk. The mix-
ture ahonld then be placed in a spot where its
temperature will be maintained at 80°— 35° C.
(Str — 95' F.), and should be atired up every day ;
after abont a week the liquid becomes a thick
magma of calcium lactate. This is then filtered
throagh a cloth, and decomposed by sulphuric
»nd. The solution of lactic acid is filtered off
from the precipitated calcium sulphate, and is
neutraliaed with zinc carbonate, when zinc lactate
is formed. A simpler plan is to form this salt at
once by adding 2 kilos. (4 lbs.) of zinc-white in-
stead of chalk. After 2 or 3 weeks a magma of
zinc lactate is formed, which is pnrified by re-
crystallisation. It is then dissolved in boiling
water, and the zinc is precipitated with sul-
phuretted hydrogen. The filtrate is concentrated
on a water-bath until mannite, deposited together
with the zinc' salt, separates out, forming a pasty
mass. This is titen dissolved in the smallest
possible quantity of water and the lactic acid
removed by shacking up with ether: By evapo-
rstinf the ethereal solntion lactic acid is ob-
tained.

N.B. — In the above the quantities given in
parentheses are not the exact equivalents of those
expressed in the metric system,

8. If the acid la not required absolutely pure
the calcium lactate, obtained by fermentation of
sugar as described above, may be simply filtered
off, recrrstaUised, and decomposed with sulphuric
acid. The solution on evaporation yields aqueous
lactic acid, but there will always be a little cal-
cium present.

Oti. Lactic acid may be rendered quite pure
by dilution with water, saturation wiUi baryta,
evaporation, crystallisation, re-solution in water,
roL. n.

and the careful addition of dilute snlplidri<rici3,
as in No. 1 ; the liquid is, lastly, again filtered and
evaporated. Another plan is to convert the acid
into lactate of zinc by the addition of commercial
zinc- white, and to redissolve the new salt in water,
and then decompose the solution with a stream of
sulphuretted hydrogen. In all cases the evapora-
tion should be conducted at a very gentle heat,
and, when possible, finished over sulphuric acid,
or in vacito. For particular purposes this last
product must be dissolved in ether, filtered, and
the ether removed by a very gentle heat. Care
must also be taken to remove the solid lactate of
calcium at the proper period from the fermenting
liquid, aa otherwise it will gradually redissolve
and disappear, and on examination the liqnid will
be found to oonsist chiefly of a solution of buty-
rate of calcium.

Frap. An aqueous solution of lactic acid may
be concentrated in vocmo over a surface of oil of
vitriol until it appears as a syrupy liquid of sp.
gr. 1-216; soluble in water, alcohol, and ether;
exhibiting the usual acid properties, and forming
salts with the metals, called laotatxs. Heated
in a retort to 130° C. (266° F.), a small portion
distils over, and the residuum on oooUng solidifies
into a yellowish, compact, fusible mass of laetic
anhydride, very bitter, and nearly Insoluble in
water. By long boiling in water this substance
is reconverted into lactic acid. Heated to 250°
C. (480° F.), it suffers decomposition, lactide (the
anhydrous, concrete, or sublimed lactic acid of
former writers) and other products being formed.
This new substance may be purified by pressure
between bibulous pxper and solution in boiling
alcohol from which it separates in dazzling white
crystals on cooling. By solution in hot water and
evaporation to a syrup, it furnishes common lactic
acid.

Utei. Lsctic acid has been given in dyspepsia,
gout, phosphatic urinary deposits, Ac From its
being one of the natural constituents of the gastric
juice, and from its power of dissolving a con- '
siderable quantity of phosphate of calcium, it
appears very probable that it may prove bene-
ficial in the above complaints. — Dote, 1 to 5 gr. ;
in the form of lozenges, or solution in sweetened
water.

LACTIC FESlUrVTA'TIOir. The pecnliar
change by which saccharine matter is converted
into lactic acid. Nitrogenous substances, which
in an advanced state of putrefactive change act
as alcohol-fermenu, often possess, at certain
periods of their decay, the property of inducing
an acid fermentation in sugar, by which that sub-
stance is changed into lactic acid. Thus, the
nitrogenised matter of malt, when suffered to
putrefy in water for a few days only, acquires the
power of acidifying the sugar which accompanies
it ; whilst in a more advanced state of decomposi-
tion it converts, under similar circumstances, the
sugar into alcohol. The gluten of grain behaves
in the same manner. 'Wlieat-flour, made into a
paste with water, and left for 4 or 5 days in a
warm situation, becomes a true lactic acid fer-
ment ; but if left a day or two longer it changes
its character, and then acts like common yeast,
occasioning the ordinary panary or vinous fermen-
tation. Moist animal membranes in a slightly

59

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980

LACTIDB— LACTUCIN

decaying condition, often act energetically in de-
veloping lactic acid. The lennet employed in the
mannf^tnre of cheese frnniahee a well-known
example of this class of guhstances.

In preparing lactic acid from milk, Ote acid
formed, after a time, coagulates and renders in-
soluble the casein, and the production of the acid
ceases. By carefully neutralising the free acid
by carbonate of sodium, the casein becomes soluble,
and, resuming its activity, changes a fresh quan-
tity of sugar into lactic acid, which may be also
neutralised, and by a sufficient number of repeti-
tions of this process all the sugar of milk present
may, in time, be acidified. This is the rationalt
of the common process by which lactic acid is
obtained. Cane-sugar (probably by previously
becoming grape-sugar) and the sugar vf milk both
yield lactic acid ; the latter, however, most readily,
the grape-sngar having a strong tendency towards
the alcoholic fermentation. If the lactic fermen-
tation be hllowed to proceed too far, the second
stage of the process of transmutation commences,
hydrogen gas and carbonic acid gas are evolved,
and the butyric fermentation, by which oily adds
are formed, is established.

Pasteur ascribes the lactic fermentation to the
agency of a specific kind of ferment, which occurs
in the form of a g^yish layer deposited upon the
snrfaoe of the sediment formed during the fer-
mentation of the sngar in the manufacture of
lactic acid.

If to a mixture of yeast or any nitrogenous
substance and water sugar and uien chi^k be
added, and finally a very small quantity of this
greyish substance, taken from a portion of ■
Uquid undergoing active lactic fermentation,
lactic acid fermentation is almost immediately set
np, the chalk disappears owing to the formation
of calcic lactate, and the greyish substance is
ocnpionsly deposited. When placed under the
microscope this ferment is seen to be composed of
"little globules, or very short articulations, either
isolated or in threads, constituting irregular floo-
culent particles, mnch smaller than those of beer
yeast, and exhibiting a rapid gyratory motion."
If these little particles be washed thoroughly in
pure water, and then placed in a solution of sugar,
uctic acidification immediately commences in the
saccharine liquid, and goes on steadily until
stopped by the excess of free acid.
LACTIDB. See Laotio Aoid.
LACrnr. I^. Laoiobi. see SvsAB at
Mtuc.

LACTOKXTEB. Syn. GaIiAOTOVXTXb. An
instrument for ascertsjning the quality of milk.
Milk may be roughlg tested by placing it in a
long graduated tube sold for the purpose, and
allowing it to remain until all the cream has
separated and measured, then decanting ofF the
clear whey, and taking its sp. gr. ; the result of
the two operations, when compered with the
known quantity of cream and the density of the
whey of an average sample of milk, gives the
value of the sample tested.

A little instrument called a 'milk-tester' is
sold in London at a low price. It is essentially
a hydrometer which sinks to a given mark on the
stem in pure water, and floats at another mark at
the opposite end of the scale in pure milk. The

intermediate space indicates the quantity of
water (if any) employed to adulterate the article.
As the sp. gr. of pure milk varies, the indications
of the 'teeter' cannot be depoided on. See
Mtuc.

LACTOPEFTOr. A preparation of American
origin, and stated to be composed of sugar of
milk, 20 ox.; pepsin, 4 oz. ; pancreatin, 3 oz. ;
diastase, 1 dr. ; lactic acid, 2i dr. ; hydrochloric
add, 2i dr. ; mix well, dry and powder. Used •■
a remedy for dyspepsia. — Dote, 10 to 16 gr.

LACTOSE. See SnaAB of Milk.

LACTUCA. (B. P.) 8gn. Lbttvox. The
leaves and flowering-tops of the wild indigenona
plant Laetuca virota. They are sedative, nar-
cotic, and powerfully diuretic ; also mildly laxa-
tive and diaphoretic. Oiven in dropsy and visceral
obstructions. See Leitucb, Exxbact of.

LACTUCA"SinK. i^. Lsttuob opivk.
Thbidacb ; LAOTUOABinif (Ph. E. & D.). The
inspissated milky juice of the Zactnca ttiUva

{common garden lettuce)i or the Zaetuea etrosa
strong-scented wild lettuce), obtained, by in-
cision, from the flowering stems, and dried in the
air. The latter species yields by far the greatest
quantity. M. Arnand, of Nancy, adopts the fol-
lowing method of procuring this substance, which
appears to be the most productive and simple of
any yet published: — Before the development of
the lateral branches, the stems of twelve plants
are cut, one after another, a little below the com-
mencement of these branches; returning to the
first one, a milky exudation is found on the cnt
portion, and on that which remains fixed in the
earth ; this milky exudation is adroitly collected
with the end of the finger (or with a bone knife),
which is afterwards scraped on the edge of a
small glass ; the same operation is performed on
twelve other heads, and so on ; on tiie third day
it is repeated on every portion of the plant re-
maining in the ground, a tiiin slice being first cot
off the top ; this is done every day until the root
is reached. As soon as the lactncarium is col-
lected it coagulates ; the harvest of each day is
divided into small pieces, which are placed on
plates, very near each other, but without touching^,
and allowed to dry for two days, after which they
are set aside in a bottie. In this way 16 or 20
times the ordinary product is obtained.

Prop., I(c. Lactncarium is anodyne, hypnotic,
antispasmodic, and sedative, allaying pain and
diminishing the force of the circulation. It has
been recommended in cases in which opium is
inadmissible, and has been administered witli
advantage in chronic rheumatism, colic, diarrhoea,
asthma, and troublesome cough of phthisis, the
irritability and wakefulness in febrile disorders,
Sx. — Dote, 2 to 6 gr. ; made into pills, lozenges,
or tincture.

LACTU'Cnf. i%>i. LAOTtronnrx, L. This ia
the active principle of lactncarium, and ia foond
in the juice of several species of lettuce.

Prep. Exhaust lactncarium with hot rectified
S|nrit, agitate the tincture with a little animal
charcoal, filter, add a little milk of lime, and
evaporate to dryness ; digest the residuum in hot
rectified spirit ; filter, and evaporate by a gentle
heat, so thatciysials may form.

Prop., (fv. A nearly colourless, odonrlaai.

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LADANUM— LAKS

d31

fii^le^ neutral, bitter snbrtance; iparingly
solable in cold water and in ether, bnt freely
solnble in alcohol. It posaewei feeble Iwsic pro-
perties. Qood lactQcarium coniaini full; 20% of
thia substance.

UUD'ASim. See Labdakuit.

IiASraXCS COSTSA-BTIHmjLHT. See
Db/lttsbt.

LAKS. Sfn. Laoca, L. Animal or regetable
ooloDrini^ matter, precipitated in combination
with oxide of .tin or alamina, nsaally the latter.
The term was formerly restricted to red pre-
parations of this kind, bnt is now indiscriminately
applied to all compounds of alumina and colouring
matter. The term *lakb,' when nnqnalifled by
an adjective, is, however, understood to apply
exclosirely to that prepared from cochineal.

Prep. Lakes are made — 1. By adding a solu-
tion of ainm, either alone or partly saturated
with carbonate of potassa, to a filtered infusion
or decoction of the colouring substance, and after
a(^tation precipitating the mixture with a solu-
tion of canxmate of potash. 2. By precipitating
a decoction or inf nsion of the colouring substance
made with a weak alkaline lye, by adding a solu-
tion of alum. S. By agitatmg recently precipi-
tated alnmina with a solution of the colouring
matter, prepared as before, until the liquid is
nearly decoloured or the alumina acquires a
snflciently dark tint. The first method is usually
employed for acid solutions of colouring matter,
or for those whoso tint is injured by slktdies ; the
second for those that are brightened, or at least
oninjnred, by alkalies ; the third for those colour-
ing matters that have a great affinity for gela-
tinous alumina, and readily combine with it by
mere agitation. By attention to these general
rules, lakes may be prepared from almost all
animal and vegetable colouring substances that

?ield their colour to water, many of which will be
onnd to possev gnat beauty and permanence.
The precise process adapted to each particular
substance may be easily ascertained by taking a
few drops of its infusion or decoction, and ob-
serving the effects of alkalies and acids on the
colour. The quantity of alum or of alumina
employed shoiud be nearly sufficient to decolour
the dye-liquor; and the quantity of carbonate of
potaasa should be so proportioned to the alum as
to exactly precipitate the alumina without leaving
free or carbonated alkali in the liquid. The first
portion of the precipitate has the deepest colour,
and the shade gradually becomes paler as the
operation proceeds. A beantifnl ' tone' of violet,
ted, and even purple may be communicated to
the cirioaring matter of cochineal by the addition
gf perehlorids of tin ; the addition of arseniate of
potaasa (neutral arsenical salt) in like manner
gives shades which may be sought for in vun
with alom or alumina. After tiie lake is pre-
cipitated it most be carefully collected, washed
with eold distilled water or the purest rain-
water nntil it ceases to g^ive out colour, and then
carefully dried in the shade. In this state it
foims a toft velvety powder. That of the shops
is gnieraUy made up into conical or pyramidal
drops (drop lake), which is done by dropping the
moist lake through a small funnel on a clean
boaid or ateb, and drying it by a gentle heat as

before. A very litUe dear gum-water is com-
monly added to the paste to give the drops con-
sistence when drr.

Lake, Blue. Sgn. Lacoa ccbxitlu, L. Pre-
pared from some of the blue-cobnred flowers;
fugitive. The name is also applied to lump
archil (lacca ccsrulea), to moist alumina coloured
with indigo, and to mixed solutions of pearlash
and prussiate of potash, precipitated with another
solution of sulphate of iron and alum. These
are permanent and beautiful, bnt are seldom
used, in consequence of indigo and Prussian blue
supplying all that is wanted in this class of
colours.

Lake, Brasil-wood. Sgn. Dsop ukb ; Lacoa
IW OLOBTTLig, I/. Prtp. 1. Take of ground
brazil-wood, 1 lb.; water, 4 galls,; digest for
24 hours, then boil for 80 or 40 minutes, and
add of alum, 1) lbs., dissolved in a little water ;
mix, decant, strain, and add of solution of tin, i
lb.; again mix well and filter; to the clear liquid
add, cautiously, a solution of wit of tartar orjcar-
bonate of soda, as long as a deep- coloured precipi-
tate forms, carefully avoiding excess; collect,
wash, dry, Ac., as directed above.

Oba. The product is deep red. Bv collecting
the precipitete in separate portions lakes varying
in richness and depth of colour may be obtained.
The first portion of the precipitated lake has the
brightest colour. An excess of alkali turns it on
the violet, and the addition of cream of tartar on
the brownish red. The tint turns more on the
violet red when the solution of tin is omitted.
Some persons use less, others more, alum.

2. Add washed and recentiy precipitated alu-
mina to a strong and filtered diecoction of Brazil-
wood. Inferior te the last.

Lake, Carmlnated. Syn. CocHuraAL lakb,

FlOKEKCI I., FLOBBSTim 1., PaBIB L., VlBBlTA

I..; Lacoa Bi:.OBBliTiirA, L. Prep. 1. The re-
ridunm of the cochineal left in making carmine
is boiled with repeated portions of water until it
is exhausted of colour ; the resulting liquor is
mixed with that decanted off the carmine, and at
once filtered; some recently precipitated alumina
is then added, and the whole gently heated, and
well agiteted for a short time; as soon as the
alumina has absorbed sufficient colour the mixture
is allowed to settle, after which the clear portion
is decanted, the lake collected on a filter, washed,
and dried, as before. The decanted liqaor, if still
coloured, is now treated with fresh alumina until
exhausted, and thus a lake of a second qualify is
obtained. Very fine.

2. To the coloured liquor obtained from the
carmine and cochineal as above, a solution of
alum is added, the filtered liquor precipitated
with a solution of carbonate of potaasa, and
the alum or alamina ; this brightens the lake col-
lected and treated as before. Scarcely so good as
the last.

Ob*. Some makers mix a little solution of tin
with the coloured liquor before adding colour.
The above lake is a good glazing colour with oiU
but has little body. It may be made directiy
from a decoction of cochineal (see helotp).

Lake, Coclrineal. iVsp. 1. Cochineal ^n coarse
powder), 1 oz. ; water and rectified spirit of each,
2i oz. ; digest for a week, filter, and precipitete

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LAMB— LAMP

the tincture with a few drops of aolntion of tin,
added every two hours, until the whole of the
Golooring matter is thrown down; lastly, wash
the precipitate in distilled water and dry It. Very
fine.

.2. Digest powdered cochineal in ammonia
water for a week, dilute the solution with a
little water, and add the liquid to a solution of
alum, as long as a precipitate falls, which is the
lake. Equal to the last.

3. Coarsely powdered cochineal, 1 lb.; water,
2 galls.; hoil 1 hour, decant, strain, add a solu-
tion of salt of tartar, 1 lb., and precipitate with a
solution of alum. By adding the alum first, and
precipitating the lake with uie alkali, the colour
will be slightly varied. All the above are sold as
CABK INATBD Or FiAKBlTCB iiAKB, to which they
are often superior.

Iiake, Oraen. Made by mixing blue and yellow
lake together. Seldom kept in the shops, being
generally prepared extemporaneously by the artist
on his palate.

Iiake, Lac. Prep. Boil fresh stick-lao in a
solution of carbonate of soda, filter the solution,
precipitate with a solution of alum, and proceed
as before.

lAke, Lichen. See Obcbin.
Lake, Hadder. Sgn. Lacoa bvbi^, L. oo-
LDMBlifA, L. Prep. 1. {Sir B. C. IngUfieU.)
Take of Dutch grappe or crop madder, 2 oz. ;
tie it in a cloth, beat it well in a pint of water
in a stone mortar, and repeat the process with
fresh water (about 5 pints) until it ceases to
yield colour ; next boil the mixed liquor in an
earthen vessel, pour it into a large basin, and add
of alum, 1 oz., previously dissolved in boiling
water, 1 pint ; stir well, and while stirring pour
in gradually of a strong solution of carbonate of
potassa ('oil of tartar'), IJ oz.; let the whole
stand uutil cold, then pour off the supernatant
yellow liquor, drain, agitate the residue with
~ boiling water, 1 quart (in separate portions), de-
cant, drain, and dry. Prod., i oz. The Society
of Arts voted their gold medal to the author of
the above formula.

2. Add a little solution of acetate of lead to
a decoction of madder, throw down the brown
colouring matter. Biter, add a solution of tin or
alum, precipitate with a solution of carbonate of
soda or of potassa, and otherwise proceed ns
before.

8. (Ure.) Ground madder, 2 lbs.; water, 1
gall.; macerate with agitation for 10 minutes,
strain oft the water, and press the remainder
quite dry ; repeat the process a second and a
third time; then add to the mixed liquors, alum,
4 lb., dissolved in water, 8 quarts ; and heat in a
water-bath for 3 or 4 hours, adding water as it
evaporates ; next filter, first through flannel, and
when sufficiently cold, through paper ; then add
a solution of carbonate of potassa as long as a
precipitate falls, which must be washed until the
water comes off colourless, and, lastly, dried. If
the alkali be added in 3 successive doses, 3 dif-
ferent lakes will be obtained, successively dimin-
ishing in beauty. See Maddeb, Maddbb (Red),
Sus.

Lake, Or'ange. Prep. Take <Jf the best
Spanish annotta, 4 oz.; pearlash, J lb. ; water, 1

gall.; boil for i hour, strain, precipitate witli
alum, 1 lb., dissolved in water, 1 gall., taking
care not to add the latter solution when it
ceases to procuce an effervescence or a pre<npi-
tate; stnun, and dry the sediment in small
squares, lozenges, or drops. The addition of
some solution of tin turns this lake on the
I.BUON YELLOW; acids redden it. See Lakk
(yellow).

Lake, Sed. Prep. Take of pearlash, 1 lb.;
clean shreds of scarlet cloth, 8^ lbs. ; water, 6
galls ; boil till the cloth is decoloured, filter the
decoction, and precipitate with a solution of
alum, as before. See the Laebs noticed above
(Brazil-wood, Carminated, Cochineal, and
Hadder).

Lake, Yellow. Prep. 1. Boil French berries,
quercitron bark, or turmeric, 1 lb., and salt of
tartar, 1 oz., in water, 1 gall., until reduced to
1 half, then strain the decoction, and precipitate
with a solution of alum.

2. Boil 1 lb. of the dye-stuS with alum, i lb. ;
water, 1 gall., as before, and precipitate the
decoction with a solution of carbonate of potash.
See Lake (Orange), above.

LAHB In its general qualities closely resembles
mutton, of which, indeed, it is merely a younger
and more delicate kind. It is well adapted as an
occasional airticle of food for the convalescent
and dyspeptic; but it is unequal for frequent
nse, more especially for the h^thy and robust,
to the flesh of the adult animal.

LAUBS, DISEASES OF. Among other dis-
eases, these animals are particularly prone to one
affecting the lungs, in consequence of the exist-
ence of parasites (Strongglua bronchiali*) in the
air-passages. See Pabasites.

LAMP. A contrivance for producing artificial
light or heat by the combustion of inflammable
liquids. The term 'lamp' is also applied to a
portable gas-burner (oas-laup), and to a tubular
candle-holder, which by the aid of a simple
mechanical device^ keeps the flame at one height
(cahsle-laup).

Oil lakpb were employed for illumination
among the nations of antiquity at the earliest
period of which any record exists. The As-
syrian, Qreek, and Roman lamps preserved in our
museums are generally noble specimens of art-
workmanship. Though elegant in form, and
rich in external embellishment, the ancient lamp
was simply a vessel to contain the oil, with •
short depression or spout on the one side, in
which the wick is laid. Lamps of this rude con-
struction are still in common nse in many conn-
tries.

No important improvement in the principle
and consbuction of lamps as a source of light
occurred until a comparatively recent date s the
smoke, dirt, and disagreeable odour of the
common lamp having previously led to its disuse
among the superior classes in favour of candles.
At length, in 1789, M. Argand made a revolution
in illumination by the invention and introduction
of the well-known lamp which bears his name.
In the ABaAHS lamp a hollow tubular wick of
woven cotton replaces the solid bundles of fibres,
and is so arranged that air passes through it into
the interior of the flame. Over the burner is

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LAMP

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placed a cylindrical glass chimney, open at the
bottom, and Burronnding the flame at a short
distance from it, by which another current of air
is made to act on the exterior portion of the
flame. In this way a due supply of oxygen is
secured, and sufficient heat generated for the
perfect combustion of the gaseous products of
the oil, and the smoke and soot which escape
from the ordinary lamp are converted into a bril-
liant and smokeless flame.

The earliest table-lamps constructed on Ar-
gand's principle had one serious defect - the oil
vessels bad to be placed almost on a level with
the burners, in a position which caused them to
cast objectionable shadows. This defect was
almost entirely removed by making the oil vessel
in the form of a flattish ring, connected by
slender tubes with the burner. The more ele-
gant contrivances, known as the mocebatob
XAXP and Cabcsl i^ahp, which are now so much
Dsed for burning colza and similar oils, cast no
shadow. In these the oil, instead of being
sucked up by the wick, or descending to it by the
force of gravity, is driven op by mechanical
from the oil-reservoir contiuned in the

foot or pedestal. A spiral spring, acting upon a
piston, elevates the oil in the ' moderator,' while
a little pump worked by clockwork does the same
duty in the ' Carcel.' The burner and wick in
each are formed on Argand's principle.

For burning the hydrocarbon oils distilled
from coal and petroleum, lamps of very simple
construction are used. These oils, in consequence
of their diffusive character, rise to a considerable
height up a wick, and therefore do not require
mechanical lamps. The wicks of hydbooasbok
I.AMP3 are usually flat, but sometimes circular.
To cause perfect combustion, a strong draught of
air is created by placing over the flame a tall
glass chimney, usually much contracted above the
flame. A metallic cap, with an orifice the shape
of the flame, is placed over the burner, its use
being to deflect the currents of air upon the
flame. The reservoirs of hydrocarbon lamps
ought always to be constructed of some bad con-
ductor of heat, as glass or porcelain.

For chemical operations, many forms of lamp
are used. The ordinary glass spibit-lamp, fitted
with a ground-glass cap, is quite indispensable
for minor experiments. (See engr. 1.) Stone-

ware wick-holders are preferable to those of
brass, which become greatly heated, and en-
danger the splitting of the glass. "An effective
spirit-lamp may at any time be constructed out
of a phial having a glass tube passing through
the cork, a cover being formed from a test-tube
inverted over the wick, and fitting with moderate
tightness on the upper extremity of the cork "
{OremlU Wiliiatiu). Alcohol or wood-spirit is
the fuel used.

The Aboasd hAXT, when intended as a source
of heat for chemical purposes, is so modified as to
adapt it to bum either oil, spirit of wine, or
wood-spirit, and the combustion is greatly aided
by the chimney, which in this case is made of
copper. (See e«yr. 2 and 8.) The lamp Itself is
aiao made of metal, and furnished with ground
taps to the wick-holder and aperture by which
the spirit is introduced, in order to prevent loss
of spirit by evaporation when the lamp is not in
use. When In use this aperture must always be
left open, otherwise an accident is sure to happen,
as the heat expands the air in the lamp, and the
spirit is forcibly expelled.

In those situations in which coal-gas is cheap,
it may be used with great economy and advantage
as a source of heat in most chemical operations.
Retorts, flasks, capsules, and other vessels can be
thus exposed to an easily regulated and constant
temperature for many successive hours. Small
platinum crucibles may be ignited to redness by
placing them over the flame on a little wire
triangle. Of the various gas-lamps now used in
the laboratory, the first and most simple consists
of a common Argand gas-burner fixed on a heavy
and low foot, and connected with a flexible gas-
tube of caoutchouc or other material. (See
engr. 4.) With this arrangement it is possible to
obtain any degree of heat, from that of the
smallest blue flame to that which is sufficient to
raise a moderately large platinum crucible to
dull redness. When gas mixed with a certain
proportion of air is burnt, a pale blue flame, free
from smoke, and possessing great beating power,
is obtained. A lamp for burning the mixture
may easily be made by fitting a close cover of
fine wire gauze over the top of the chimney of
the last-mentioned contrivance. The gae i»

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984

LAMP

torned on, and after a few minutes ignited above
the wire ganze. The ingenious and nief ul burners
of Bnnaen and Oriffin are so constmcted that gas
and air mixed in any proportions, or gas alone, may
be burnt at pleasure. Bnnsen's is a most efficient
and conrenient form of bomer. (See engr.) It
consists of a gas-jet snrronnded by a m^al tube
about 6 to 9 in, high and about i in. in diameter;
having at the bottom four large holes. On the
admission of air, when the gas is turned on, the
air rushes in by these orifices, and mingling with
the gas, the mixture ascends to the top of the
tube and is there ignited, giving rise to a flame of
great heat, but without luminosity, owing to the
simultaneous combustion of the carbon and the
hydrogen. The burner, however, is so contrived
that by shutting off the supply of sir entirely or
limiting it, the flame may be made more or
leas Iwninons at pleasure. To distribute the
flame, a rosette burner is placed on the top of the
tube.

An improved variety of this bnrner has been
designed by Bunsen, and is flgored below.

It is so contrived as to give a flame that is a
very much better snbstitvte for the flame of the

blowpipe than the ordinary Bnnsen's bomer, and
may hence be employed for reducing, oxidising,

Fio. t.

ImproTad Bunun buner.

fiising, and volatilising, as well as for the obser-
vation of coloured flames. Fig. 1 is a sheath
which, by turning round, regulates the admission
of air. When it is used, the conical chimney,
d d d' d', is placed in e e; it is of a size sufficient
to allow of the flame burning tranquilly. In flg.
1 the flame is represented of half its natural size.
This flame it wiU be seen consists of 3 divisions,
viz. : 1, a a a' a', the dark zone, which is composed
of cold gas mixed with about 62 per cent, of air ;
2, acab, the mantle formed by the burning
mixture of gas and air; 8, aba, the luminous
tip of the dark cone, which only appears when
the orifices for the air are partially closed.
Bednctions may be performed in this psxt of the
flame.

Bnnaen, however, divides the flame into 6
parts, to which he attributes as many functions.
These 6 divisions of the flame he names as fol-
lows:

1. The late at a has a relativdy low tempera-
ture, because the burning gas is here cooled by
the constant current of fresh ur, and also because
the lamp itself conducts the heat away. This
part of the flame aerres for discovering the colours
produced by readily volatile bodies, when less
volatile matters which colour the flame are also
present. At the relatively low temperature of
this part of the flame, the former vaporises alone
instantaneoasly, and the resulting colour imparted
to the flame is for a moment visible unmixed with
other colours.

2. The Fueing Zone. This lies at /8, at a
distance from the bottom of somewhat more than
one-third of the height of the flame, equidistant
from the outside and the inside of the mantle,
which is broadest at this part. This is the
hottest part of the flame, viz., about 2300°, and
it therefore serves for testing substances, as to
their fusibility, volatility, emission of light, and
for all processes of fusion at a high temperature.

3. The Lover Oxidising Zone lies in the outer
border of the fusing zone at y, and is especially
suitable for the oxidation of oxides dissolved in
vitreous fluxes.

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4. Tie Upper Oxidumg Flame at i congUU of
the noa-lnminoDi tip of tbe flame. Iti action is
■trongeet when the air-holea of the lamp are fully
open. It is need for the roasting awiqr of volatile
products of oxidation, and generally for all pro-
cesses of oxidation, when the highest temperature
is not required.

6. TAe Lower Beducing Zone lies at I, in the
inner border of the fusing lone next to the dark
cone. The reducing gases are here mixed with
oxygen, and, therefore, do not possess their full
power, hence they are without action on many
substances which are deoxidised in the upper
reducing flame. This part of the flame is especi-
ally suited for redaction on charcoal or in vitreous
fluxes.

6. The Upper Seducing Flame lies at t,, in the
luminous tip of the dark inner cone, which, as
already explained, may be produced by diminish-
ing the supply of air. This part of the flame
must not be allowed to get large enough to
blacken a test-tube filled with water and held in
it. It contains no free oxygen, is rich in separ-
ated incandescent carbon, and therefore has a
much strong^ action than the lower reducing
xone. It is used more particularly for the reduc-
tion of metals collected in the form of incrusta-
tions.

The subjoined is a drawing of the gauze burner,
which is an open cylinder with wire gauze at the
top.

Argsnd'i lamp, with vire-gvue csp.

When this is placed over the gas burner, a
supply of air is ^awn in at tbe bottom by the
ascending current of gas, and the mixture bums
above the gauze, with a very hot flame, quite free
from smoke, the metallic meshes preventing the
flame from passing down to tbe gas below.

lamp, nameless. 8gn. Quywh^ut. A coil
of fine platinum wire is slipped over the wick of
a tpaiX lamp, the greater part being raised above
tbe cotton; the Uunp is supplied with ether or
alcohol, lighted for a moment, and then blown
oat. The coil continues to glow in the mixed
atmosphere of air and combustible vapour, until
the liquid in the lamp is exhausted.

I«mp, ManochromaVic. A lamp fed with a
mixture of a solution of common salt and spirit
'of wine. It gives a yellow light, and makes every
object illuminated by it appear either yellow or
black. The human features are changed in a re-
markable degree ; the countenance appearing
truly ghastly and unearthly.

lamp, Baftty. Sgn. Mutib's i.aiip, Datt,
QaoiTDT. The safety lamps of Sir H. Davy and
George Stephenson are similar in principle, and
were independently invented about the same time.
That of Sir H. Itevy consists of a common oil

wire gauze,

reater than the

e wire of which it

-60th of an inch in

Tlio fire-damp (carbu.

ug with air

lamp, surmounted
the apertures of
l-20th of an inci
is made to the
diameter. (S(
retted hydroge:

passes through the meshes into
the interior of the gauze cylinder.
Here it ignites, but the flame
which is produced by its com-
bustion cannot explode a mixture
of fire-damp and air by which the
lamp may be surrounded. The
flame is prevented from passing
to the exterior of the gauze by
the cooling action of the metal of
which it is constructed. When
this lamp is taken into an ex-
plosive atmosphere, although the
fire-damp may bum within tbe
cage with such energy as some-
times to heat the metallic tissue
to dull redness, the fiame is not
communicated to the mixture on
tbe outside. These appearances
are so remarkable, that the lamp
becomes an admirable indicator
of the state of the air in difFerent parts of the
mine, and if its admonitions are attended to, gives
tbe miner time to withdraw before an explosion
takes place.

Lamp, Telescope. This ingenious contrivance,
invented by Messrs Hurray and Heath, is intended
for microscopic illumination. It consists of 8
brass tubes, sliding one within the other, the oil
vessel being contained in the inner tube. The
height of the lamp is regulated to the greatest
nicely by simply turning one tube in the other,
interior spiral guides preventing all chance of
slipping. The great advantage of this arrange-
ment is absence of the stand and bar usually
employed for raising and lowering the lamp,
which enables it to be used on all sides, and to be
brought much closer to the microscope than other
lamps. (See engr.)

LAKP-BLACK. See Black Pisuents.

LAMKEST. Hgn. Obbat lahpbet, Sbax.
This fish is the Petromiton marinut of Linnnns.
It generally quits the sea in the spring, for the
purpose of spawning, and remains in our rivers
for a few months. Its fiesh is soft and glutinous,
and though esteemed a delicacy, is extremely dif-
ficult of digestion, if not otherwise unwholesome.
Potted lampreys are usually so highly seasoned as
to become a dangerous article of food. Henry I
is said to have lost his life from tbe efllects of a
surfeit of lampreys.

LAKFBOKIA CAPITELLA, Linn. The Currant
Borer. This is of very similar habits to the moth
.Xgeria. This small insect produces a caterpillar
which injures currant bushes of all kinds, and
raspberry canes as well, by burrowing into their
shoots and killing them.

This Lampronia is mentioned by Kaltenberg
as troublesome in Qermany, but no mention is
made of it by American writers.

Life Sittory. The moth is a species of the
genus Lampronia of the extensive family of
Tineina. It is very small, being only about

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936

LAMPBONIA RUBIELLA

8 lines kcross its expanded wings, and its body
being only about three lines in length. Upon
the brownish fore-wings there are markings or

tinges of purplish-yellow which glisten in the sun.
The hinder wings are lighter in colour with
delicate fringes. As it has a little dark yellow
top knot of hairs, it is called capiiella.

It is believed that the perfect insect places its
eggs on the stems of the currant bushes in May,
and that the larva makes its way into them and
remains until the following spring.

Pretention. CarefuUy cutting away and
burning infested branches and shoots should be
adopted (' Reports on Insects Injurious to Crops,'
by Chas. Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

LAMFBOHIA BUBIELLA, Bjerkander. {Lam-
pronia, from Xa/tirpos, splendid; rvbiella, from
rvhra, a raspberry.) The Raspberry-shoot Borer.
Raspberry and blackberry plants are liable to be
injuriously affected by the larvae of a very small
and elegant moth througbont the month of May.
They choose the tender shoots upon which the
blossoms and fruit come, commencing their opera-
tions upon these when they are about an inch in
length, and attacking them just under the whorls
of leaves at their summits. Penetrating into the
shoots, they work their way inside them down to
their bases, revelling in the most abundant juices.
The consequences to the shoots are fatal. They
wither up after a while, and can produce no fruit.

Among several insects whose larvte prey upon

raspberry and blackberry plants it is very di65cult
for those unlearned in entomology, or those who
have not studied carefully the habits of various
species, to particularise, or, in plainer
language, to ' spot ' the offender. The
terms bug, fly, and maggot serve al-
most as the sole, or at least as the
most important, definition of distinc-
tion to busy cultivators, so that unless
the actual culprit is presented, to-
gether with a description of its
fashion of injury, identification is
nearly impossible.

It msy be said that the fashion of
injury differs in each insect just as
the form of each species of insect
differs exceedingly. Thus the Lam-
pronia has a mode of attack distinct
altogether from that of the raspberry
beetle, Bytmrut, or from the operation
of the raspberry weevil, OtioryneJuu
pieipet, and each of these latter has
its own peculiar line of action. The
Lampronia rubiella may be known at
once by the brilliant red colouring of
its larva, and its method of burrowing
in the youngest shoots.

Fruit-growers who have been asked
as to whether they had sustained harm
and loss from this insect, have in many
cases replied that they have certainly
noticed that many of the young shoots
of the raspberry plants have withered,
but attributed this to natural decay
or to unhealthiness.

A large fruit-grower near Orpington,
in Kent, was much exercised as to this
"^ ' affection of his raspberry plants, and
stated that he believed tlieir roots had
" got down to something they did not
like." He subsequently and upon close
investigation discovered " little red maggots in the
shoots, which turned out to be the larvte of a
tiny moth, afterwards identified as the Lampronia
rubiella."

Injury to raspberry shoots of the same cha-
racter was traced to the larve of this moth in
fruit plantations near Lancaster in 1882, and
from several other places complaints of harm to
raspberry plants have been received in the last
three or four years clearly caused by this insect.
Kaltenberg speaks of this moth as known in
Germany, and says that the larvte live in the
shoots of the raspberry and blackberry plants.
It does not appear that it is known in America.

Life Hittory. This moth is readily distin-
guished by its lustrous brown wings, dotted over
with yellow spots, two of which on the upper
wings are large. The wing expanse is only about
five lines, not } an inch, and its body is not
more than l-3rd of an inch long.

It belongs to the Lipiuoftxba and to the genus
Lampronia of the numerous and interesting
family Tineida. In moth form it escapes from
the chrysalis in June and lays eggs upon the
canes of the raspberry and blackberry under or
among the folds of their fine cuticle or bark
Caterpillars, or larvte, are hatched in August
and begin at once to feed upon the leaves

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LANDANINE— LAPIS

987

Wertwood con&nna this, and remarks that they
feed for a time and then hybemate. Stainton
also agrees with this in his description of this
moth (' Lepidoptcra-Tineina,' by H. Stainton).
It is not quite clear whether the larvn hybemate
npoD the steins nnder the bark or skin, or jnst
under the ground sheltered by leaves or mbbish.

The larra is bright red, about three lines, i in.
in length, with a dark-coloured head. It begins
feeding upon the succnlent shoots of the rasp-
berry and blackberry plants as soon as these are
formed, boring into them as described above, and
changes into a chrysalis towards the end of Hay.

I'rmntion. In order to prevent this insect
from coming in a subsequent season it would be
necessary to cut the canes down closer than usual
at pruning time, and to remove every scrap of
the cuttings. All dead leaves and grasses and
weeds and mbbish should be cleared away from
round the stocks. These should be well cleared
ovt. After a very bad attack it would pay well
to cat the stocks right back and let them make a
fresh start. Where the canes are staked or
trained, though this is not much practised in
cnltnre on a large scale, the stakes or supports
should he removed. It may be remsrked here
that stakes with rind or bark left on frequently
harbour insects in all stages, and the bands or
tie* which fasten the trees or canes to them
serve as snug shelter for larvs of all kinds daring
the winter. For example, in the winter 1888 — 89 it
was seen that multitudes of larvsB of aphides had
taken np their winter quarters in the straw
bands pat round damson trees to keep them from
robbing.

Good cultivation in the late autumn and in the
early spring close to the stocks should be adopted,
together with the application of lime, soot, or
puaiBn soaked substances, after a bad visitation.

Jtamtdie*. Those shoots which show signs of
withering should be immediately cut off with
shears and carried away to be burned (■ Beports
on Insects Injnrioos to Crops,' by Chas. White-
-head, Esq., F.Z.S.).

liAMDAXlWE. CuH,NO,. An alkaloid ob-
tuned by Hesse from the aqueous extract of
o^mn. It is homologous with morphine and
eodone. It dissolves in strong sulphnric add
with a rose-red colour, in strong nitric acid with
an orange-red colour, and in ferric chloride with
emerald-green colour.

LAVOLDI. ^. Ai>sP8i.ANX,L.; Wool PAT.
This substance is the natural fat of the skin and
of epidermic tissues generally, snch as hair, wool,
hoofs, and feathers. It is mainly obtained from
sheep^s wool, and consists of cholesterin, stearic
acid, and about 40% water. Prof. Liebreich,
writing of lanolin, says : — " My researches have
led me to believe that lanolin is always present
wherever keratinous tissue is formed. As to the
origin of this cholesterin fat, it may- be asked
whether it is secreted by glands, or formed simul-
taneously with the keratinous tissue. I can
answer that the homy tissues are full of lanolin,
even where there are no glands to produce it.
The degree of brilliancy and elasticity of the
horny tissue is in direct proportion to the amount
of lanolin present. I must not forget to say that
Kme researches made by French experimenters

were of great interest to me while I was working
on the subject. Berthelot has shown, many years
ago, that it is possible to combine synthetically
cholesterine and fatty acids ; he has also foreseen
that this fat might be found in nature. 1 have
found that the researches of Hartmann and
Schultz have brilliantly confirmed those of
Berthelot. I have, moreover, shown that lanolin
is nearly always present in keratinous tissue.

" From its use in over 400 cases in the hospital
and private practice of Dr Lassar, the dermato-
logist, »o irritatio» of tie ilriit fiat evtr pro-
duced, a result which my own experience, during
the years in which I have been experitnenting
with it, conflrmb For this reason ajone it is to
be highly recommended for massage. It was
furthermore observed in Dr Lassar's clinic that
the nuMt irritable iki» could bear lanolin when
all other fata caused cadema and irritation."

Dr L. K. Pavlovsky writes that his experiments
with lanolin enable him to arrive at the following
conclusions :

1. Narcotic extracts, when combined with
lanolin, are absorbed by the skin 'quite satis-
factorily,' their analgesic action being obtained
'with almost an absolute certainty.' The dose
used was only twice as largo as that for internal use

2. Hydrochlorate of quinine is slso absorbed
very easily. This statement is based on four
cases of intermittent fever in children, where
lanolin and qainine inunctions rapidly gave the
desired effects.

3. When an ordinary ointment, with iodide of
potassium, is rubbed into the skin, iodine appears
in the urine not sooner than two, four, or six
hours after inunction, while Lassar obtained
iodine from the urine about three minuiee after
fHciion with a lanolin ointment. Patschkowsky
and Kaspar found traces of iodine in the urine
SO minutes after rubbing it into the skin with
lanolin, whereas with the ordinary iodide of
potash ointment results were nil,

4. In children, lanolin is better absorbed than
in adults.

6. Washing the skin with ether considerably
facilitates the absorption of lanolin ointments.

6. In general, lanolin is a substance which
promises to supersede every other bssis for
ointments, and even, in certain cases, to supersede
the internal administration of drugs.

Iianolinum Hydrargyrl. Syn. Mkbcubial
LANOUir. Prep. Mercury, 100 parts; lanolin,
200 parts ; mercurial ointment, 6 parts ; mix in a
warm mortar until the mercury is extinguished.
Said to be superior to mercurial ointment.

LASTHAirnni. La = 92. A rare metal, dis-
covered by Mosander, sssociated with oxide of
cerium. Oxide of lanthaninm is a pale salmon-
coloured powder, unaffected by ignition in open
vessels. According to Zschiesche, the atomic
weight of lanthaninm is 90' 18. See Cesivii.

LASTHOFIKE. QsHa^O^. A base obtained
by Hesse in small quantity, associated with other
bases from the aqueous extract of opium. It is
homologous with papaverine. Strong nitric acid
dissolves it, giving rise to an orange-red colour.
Strong sdphnric acid gives with it a faint violet
colour.

LA'FIS. [L.] A stone. The term was much

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LAECH BARK— LAUDANUM

employed by the old chemists, and is still oom-
monly applied to several preparations used in
medieina.

Lapis Caosticiu. See Fotabsiuii.

Istpis Di-ri'miB. Sya. Ditihb btokb ; LA7I8

OPHTHAUtlCUB, L. ; PiBBBB WTIITB, Fr. I>rep.

1. (Beer.) Verdigris, nitre, and alum, equal
parts, melted together.

2. (P. Cod.) Alnm, nitre, and blue vitriol, of
each, 8 oz. ; camphor, 1 dr. ; as last.

3. ( Wooffiut.) Bine vitriol, uitre, alnm, and
camphor, equal parts, melted together, adding the
camphor last. Astringent and detergent. 1 oi.,
dissolved ia vrater, 1 pint, formed a once celebrated
lotion. 1 dr. in water, 1 pint, is still nsed as a
collyrinm.

Lapis iBftnutlis. See "Srnwn ov Siitbb.

Lapis Lasall. See Ui/tbaxabihi.

Lapis Lydiu. Sgn. Ltdtan BTOra. A sili-
ceous slate, nsed as a tonchstone by jewellers.

Lapis Kedlcamento'sTis. 8j/». MsDionrAL
8T0KB; Lapis kibabixis, L. Prep. (Ph. L.
1746.) Alnm, litharge, and Armenian bole, of
each, 6 oz. ; colcothar of green vitriol, 3 oz. ;
vinegar, 4 fl. oz. ; mix, and evaporate to dryness.
Formerly nsed to make an astringent and deter-
gent lotion : — 1 oz. to water, 1 pint. Once a
popular application to iilc«s, and in other cases ;
now disused.

Lapis Tnhurar'lu. Very similar to Lapib
Drvnrcrs.

LASCH BASK. The inner bark of the Pmnm
lorMr, the common larch, has been lately intro-
duced under the form of a tincture into the
British Pharmacopoeia.

Dr Stenhonse obtained from the bark a peculiar
volatile constituent, possessed of acid properties
for which the name of lariximic acid has been
proposed. The other trees of the pine family are
deftdent in thib acid. The young bark abounds
most in it. Gum, starch, resin, and that variety
of tannic acid which forms olive-green precipi-
tates with the salts of iron, have also been found,
in addition to other snbstuices, in larch bark.

The inner bark, employed internally, has a
special action on the mucous membranes, and acts
as an astringent and mild stimnlant. It is said
to have been given with excellent results in hsemop-
tysis, as well as in bronchitis attended with copious
expectoration, and in diseases of the nrinary
passages. Sxtemallg it has been found serviceable
in psoriasis, chronic eczema, and some other skin
diseases. It is best to combine its extract or
tincture with glycerin when it is to he nsed out-
wardly. See TiHonrBB ov Laboe Babk.

LABS. 8g». Ho»'b labd, AzimeB j Adbfb
(Ph. L.), Axthtoia (Ph.E.), A. sniLi,U8(Ph. D.),
A. POBCI, A. FBSFABATU8 (B. P.), L. The fat
of the pig (Sim tcrofa, Linn.) melted by a gentle
beat, and strained through flannel or a hair-sieve.
The fat about the loins yields the whitest and
baldest lard. " That which has been cured with
chloride of sodinm is not to be employed " (Ph.
L.). "It is not to be nsed without being first
carefully washed with water" (Ph. L. 1866).
Used chiefly to make (nntments, and in eooJctry.
See Adipb.

LABD'IirG. By many this is regarded as
belonging to the higher style of cookery only,and

too troublesome and extravagant to be adapted to
the kitchens of the middle classes and the poor.
This, we are assured, is not the case. On the con-
trary, " it is an economical process, and will
make lean meat go mnch farther than without it."
The process of luding is as follows : — " Oet what
is called a larding needle — that is, a piece of steel
from 6 to 9 inches long, pointed at one end, and
having 4 slits at the otiier to hold a small strip of
bacon when pnt between them. It will, perhaps,
cost \0d. Cut the bacon into pieces 2 or 3 inches
long, and i to ^ an inch square ; put each ona
after the other in the pin, insert it in the meat,
and leave only about \ an inch ont ; nsing 8 pieces
to each pound " (Soger).

LABK. The Alamda arvtmii (bktiabk). and
the Alauda erUtata (pibls-labk), with several
other species of the same genus, form a light and
nutritions article of food, by many esteemed •
delicacy, though one which might well be dis'
pensed with. The last, according to Oalen and
Dioscorides, eaten either roasted or boiled, ' helps
the colic' The heart, applied to the thigh, was
also regarded to possess the same virtne. Larks
are great insect-eaters, and the destmction of them
should be prevented by every possible means.

LABTVGITI8. Inflammation of the larynx, or
upper part of the windpipe. The symptoms that
indicate this most dang^rons malady are sore
throat, accompanied with oonriderable pain in
front of the throat, difficulty in breathhig and
swaUowing, considerable hoarseness, chai^ or
loss of voice, a sense of sniTocation, fever, restlesa-
ness, flushing of the face, and an eager desire for
fresh air. Laryngitis may arise from numoooa
causes, and no one coarse of treatment will apply
to all cases. ICedieal advice should be songht ••
soon as the malady is discovered.

LAUD'AKUK. This name is now understood
to denote, exclusively, the common tincture of
opinm of the Pharmacopoeia ; but formerly the
term Was applied to several preparations of
opium differing greatly from each other, both
in their strength and mode of preparation (see
helow).

landBanm, Dntchnuui's. From the flowers of
bull's hoof or Dutchman's laudanum {Pauiflora
memema, Linn.) infused in rum. Narcotic Used
as a substitute for tincture of opium in the West
Indies.

Laudanum, Ford's. This ia merely the common
tinetnre of opinm aromatised with a little cloves
and dnnamon.

Landanun, Honltos's. Prep. From opinm,
21- oz. ; distilled vinegar, li pints ; digested to-
gether for a week, the filtered tincture gently
evaporated nearly to dryness, and then redissolved
in weak spirit (1 of rectified spirit to 7 of water),
1 quart. — Dote, 10 to 60 drops.

Landannm, Venmann's. A fermented infusion
of opium evaporated to the consistence of honey.

Landannm, Quince. 8gn. Extbactoic opii

CTDOVIATUII, LAUDAinrK CTDOiriATUH, L. Prep.
1. Extract of opium made with quince juice ; a
few drops of the oils of cinnamon, doves, and
mace bang added before the mass cools. Now
seldom nsed.

2, (liAUDAHTnC, UQUIS-QTnirCB ; IiAITDAVmt
UamOVK OXDOBIATtW, L. S. 0. PARATDX BEX'

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LAUaHINO OAS— LEAD

919

xnTATioin, L.) A fermoited infasion of opiam
prepftred with qninee juioe, aromatUed with clovea,
rinnamon, aloes wood, and yellow sandal-wood,
and evaporated so as to possess about twice the
strength of the ordinary tincture. Now obsolete.

Laudamim, Souneaa's. Wine of opium pre-
pared by fermentation. See Wdtk.

T^njgjmu Smith'* CoBceiitratad. Besombles
Battley's uquoB opn skdatitits, bnt possesses
about 6 times its strength.

Landamim, Bwadiaar^g. Prep. From extract
of opium, 2 parts, dissolved in a mixture of alco-
hol, 1 part, distilled water, 8 parts. Every 6 drops
contain 1 gr. of opium.

y^na^nimi, Sydenham's Liqnid. Sgn. Lavs*
Ainm uQUEDxnf Stdbitbaxi, L. Similar to
-wnrx at opnric (Ph. L.), but rather stronger,
and aromatised with a little cloves and cinnamon.
Wine of opium is now always sold for it.

T.^i^iiia«Tiin^ Tartaiiied. Sjf*. LAUBAinnc
uqtnDUX TASTABizATVM, L. A tincture of
opium prepared with spirit alkalised with salt
of tartar, and flavoured with aromaiics. Obso-
lete.

ImLVSHIS^ OAS. See Nitbous Oxidb.

LAXntlL. See Chzbbt Laursl, Swbbt Bat,

UTA. The matter thrown out by volcanoes.
The beantifnl ornamental vases, jugs, and other
olgecta sold nndar the name are a superior sort of
nnglazed coloured porcelain.

LATXJOHT. See EmncA.

laAY^EVDER. The flowen or flowering tops
of LutandiUa vera, or common garden lavender,
largely cultivated at Hitcham and Eitchin. An
essential oil, spirit, and tincture, prepared from
it, are officinal in tlse PharmaoopoBias.

Lavnidar Sya (for oottok). For 100 yards of
material. Take 1 lb. of Ic^rwood, and 2 lbs. of
somsch, and scald them separately. Then decant
tiiem into a proper-sized tub, let them cool to
Wf F., and add 2 gills of vitriol. Winch the
goods in this 20 minutes; lift, and run them
slightly through acetate of iron; wash them in
two waters ; then pre 1 lb. of logwood as before,
raise with 1 pint ra chloride of tin, wash in two
waters; then in a tub of cold water pnt 4 oz.
extract of indigo, enter and winch in this 16
minutes, lift ; give one water and dry.

Lavoidar I^e (for wool). BoU 6i lbs. of
logwood with 2 lbs. of alum. Then add 10 oz. of
extract of indigo. When cold pnt in the goods,
and gradnally r^se to the boiling-point. For
60 Hm.

IatmuUt, Sad. See TnrcTTTBi.

lavandar. Smith's British. Prtp. From
English oil of lavender, 2 oz.; essence of am-
bergris, 1 oz.; eau de Cologne, 1 pint; rectified
spirit, 1 qnart. Very fragrant. See Waibb,
Latbitdib.

LaTendw, to Sya Silk. {Mktlfratt.) Into a
vessel with warm water, as hot as the hand can
bear, dissolve a little white soap, enough to raise
a lather; tiien add 1 gill of archil liqnor, and
work the goods in this for 16 minntes; wring out
and dxT.

Boil 1 M. of cudbear, and add the solution to
the sow and water instead of archil, which will
giveVuvender having a redder tint than with

the archil. If a still redder shade of lavender be
required the soap may be dispensed with.

Lavender Water. See Sfibits, Fbbtuxbd.

LAZ'ATIVJCS. Sjf. LBViTiYBa; Laxitita,
Laxantia, LsyiTivA, L. Mild purgpatives or
cathartics. The principal of these are — almond
oil, cassia pulp, castor oil, confection of senna,
sulphur, cream of tartar, figs, grapes, honey,
phosphate of soda, prunes, s^ad oil, tamarind*,
cascara sagrada, &c.

LATIU. Among gardeners, a nrade of pro-
pagating plants by laying down the shoots «(
young twigs and covering a portion of them with
the soil without detaching them from the parent
plant. To fadlitate the rooting of such layer*,
the part beneath the wnt is fractured by twisting
or bruising it, or it is partly cut through with a
sharp knife immediately under a bad. When the
layer has taken root it is divided from the parent
stem, and transplanted or potted. In this way,
with a litUe care, nearly all plants may be
multiplied.

UIAD. Pb. Atomic weight-206-4. /Sy*.
Plukbux, L.; Ploxb, Fr.; Blbi, Qer. A
metallic element belonging to the same gronp a*
silicon, germanium, and tin. It does exUbit
some aniuogies with those elements as regards it*
chemical properties, bnt is much more nearly
related to the rare metal thallium. It has been
known from the earliest times.

iSoKrcM. Lead rarely occurs native. The
salphide^ gml»»a (PbS) is by far the moat im-
portant ore, and occurs in Cornwall, Derbyshire,
S. Wales, N. of England, Scotland, and in vsriouB
localities of Oermany, Austria, Spain, United
States, and Peru; some has also been obtained
from Australia. Other less important natuially
occnrring compounds of lead are ioaraoint*
(CuPbSbSt), the carbonate, osnwnfo (PbCOi),
and the sulphate, angUiiU (PbSO^).

Prap. Three distinct processes are made n*e
of for smelting lead. These are:

1. Ths Atr-redmetio* Proem (P»r«g),w'ldthiB
employed when the ore consists mainly of galena,
and is free from silica and the sulphides of other
metals. The galena is heated in a reverberatory
furnace, and some of it is converted into an oxicle
and some into the sulphate; at a (iertain stage
the temperature is raised, and the rest of the
sulphide is oxidised at the expense of the oxygen
of the oxide and snlphate, according to the
following equations, sulphur dioxide being
evolved and metallic lead left behind.

2 PbO + FbS - SO, -«- 8Fb
PbSOl + PbS = 2S0, + 2Pb.

2. Tie Oarbon-radmetUm Proeeet is employed
for less pure ores, and eonsists in tiie roasting of
the ore and the snbseqnent redaction of the lead
1^ carhonaceon* matter in a 'dag-hearth,' or
(mall blast-fnmaoe.

8. The PreoipUatum Froeeu, in which the
reduction of the lead is effected by metallic iron,
is chiefly practised in France and Germany,
where the ore contains other metals, such as
copper, antimony, and arsenic. Layers of the
ore and the reducing material (at the present
time a rich iron slag is generally used instead of
oast-iron) are smelted together in a small blast
('schlieg') fumace. Much lead remidns in the

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LKAD

slag that is formed, and this is again worked np,
and finally is often heated to obtain the copper it
contains.

On the small scale, chemically pare lead may
be prepared thus {St<u) : — Heat a solution of lead
acetate in a leaden vessel in contact with thin
sheet lead to about 40°— 50° C. (106—120° F.) in
order to precipitate silver and copper. Filter
and ponr the solution into very dilute pure
sulphuric acid, collect the precipitate of lead
sulphate, and carefully wash it with a solution of
■mmoniam carbonate and ammonia; it is thus
transformed into the carbonate. A portion of
this is converted into lead oxide by carefully
heating it in a platinum basin, whilst to the rest
nitric acid is added in such quantity that a
portion of the carbonate remains undissolved.
Add the lead oxide to the boiling solution of the
nitrate in order to precipitate any traces of iron,
filter the solution, and pour it into a solution of
pure ammonium carbonate. Keduce the lead
carbonate thus formed by fusing it with potass-
ium cyanide; fuse the metal thus obtained a
second time with potassium cyanide, when it will
assume a convex surface like mercury.

Furif. Lead obtained by the commercial pro-
cesses described above contains small quantiixes
of antimony, copper, zinc, silver, Sus. If there is
much antimony present the metal is hard, and is
softened by melting and partially oxidising it in
a reverberatory furnace with a cast-iron bottom.
The antimony oxidises more readily than the
lead, and so a scum of oxides is obtained, contain-
ing nearly all the antimony and some lead. This
scum is reduced with coal, and yields a mixture
of lead and antimony which can be used for type-
metal. The diver in commercial lead, although
present in very small quantities, pays for ex-
traction, and this is carried out by either of the
two foUowing processes for desilverising lead.

Pattiiuon't Procet: The metal is melted and
caref nlly skimmed, and then allowed to cool. As
it cools crystals of lead comparatively poor in
silver form, and are fished out by means of a
perforated ladle ; a residue much richer in silver
IS left in the pot. A series of pots is often used,
the first third of the fishings from each pot being
placed in the pot above, the second third after-
wards re-smelted in the same pot, and the re-
sidual third pat into the pot below. By this
means the silver is worked towards one end of the
series, the lead towards the other. The richly
argentiferous lead thus obtained is cupelled when
the lead is oxidised and removed, and the silver
remains.

Parkn' or Karrten'i Frocett. Lead is melted
with zinc, 11*2 lbs. of zinc being required for
every 7 oz. of silver per ton of lead, and the
mixture is allowed to cool, when an alloy of sine
and silver rises to the surface, and is fished out
with a perforated ladle. To remove the small
amount of zinc which remains dissolved in the
lead, the mixture is heated to dull redness in a
cnrrent of air, whereby the zinc is oxidised,
whilst the main portion of the lead remains
behind in the marketable state. Or superheated
steam is passed into the melted alloy of lead and
zinc, wherel^ the zinc is oxidised, together witlk
a little of the lead, and the oxides are carried

over into chambers where they are condensed,
while the lead remains behind in the pare state
{CordwriS.) The silver is obtained from the nnc-
silver alloy by distilling oS the zinc or dissolving
it in hydrochloric acid.

The refined lead of eommeree is very pure ; an
analysis of a sample from the Harz gave a total
impurity of only 0'0164Jlo — that is, only 164 parts
per million.

According to Keith the refining of lead is now
carried out by electrolysis in New York by the
Electro Metal-Refining Company. In each of 90
wooden vessels about 1 yard hi^b by 2 yards wide,
dip 13 cylinders of thin brass plate, arranged con-
centrically at about 2 in. distance from each
other, and serving as kathodes. The anodes are
formed of plates of unrefined lead 2 ft. x 6 in.
X \ in., Burroanded by muslin bags. A solution
of lead sulphate and sodium acetate is constantly
fed into the vessels at the bottom, and runs over
at the top into a warming apparatus, where it is
heated to 88° C. (100° F.), and is then conveyed
back again into the electrolysing vessels. Arsenic,
antimony, silver, &c., are deposited in the muslin
bags surrounding the anodes, and are melted with
saltpetre and soda to obtidn the silver. Prac-
tically all the impurities are thus removed, and
the refining of 1 ton of lead requires an expendi-
ture of 148 lbs. coal.

In 1885 the lead produced in Europe amounted
to 830,000 or 860,000 tons, in North America
120,000 tons. The average yearly consnmption
for recent years is. North America, 36,000 ; Eng-
hind, 115.000 ; France, 66,000 ; Germany, 45,000 ;
in other parts of the world, 100,000; in all
460,000 tons. In France the consumption of
lead plate and tubing has decreased enormously.

Prop. Lead is a white metal with a bluish-
grey tinge; its sp. gr. is 11-26, or, after it has
been poured into water, 11 -SB; it is but little
increased by hammering. It is soft and tough,
may be cut with a knife, and leaves a str^k
upon pajper. It can be beaten into foil, bat not
drawn into wire. When melted repeatedly it
becomes hard and brittle, probably owing to the
formation of a small quantity of oxide ; it is also
rendered brittle by the presence of antimony,
zinc, bismuth, arsenic, and silver. It crystallises
in octahedra. If a piece of zinc be suspended in
solution of sugar of lead (lead acetate), the lead
separates out in an arborescent growth, known as
the 'tree of Saturn,' Saturn being the old alcbe-
mistic name for lead. Lead melts at 384° C.
(683° F.), but volatilises only at a -bright r«d
heat. It is scarcely at all attacked by sulphuric
or hydrochloric acids, but dissolves in nitric acid.
It oxidises superficially in the air, a bright,
freshly-cut surface quickly tarnishing.

SaUt. Lead forms a number of salts, which
are mostly white in colour, and insoluble or only
slightly soluble in water, though more so in
acids. They are described in detail beUm.

TttU. "flie oxides and salts of lead, mixed
with a little carbonate of soda, and exposed on a
charcoal support to the reducing flame of the
blowpipe, readily yield a soft and ductile globule
of metallic lead, and the charcoal, at the same
time, becomes covered with a yellowish incrnata-
tion of oxide of lead. Both metallic lead and ita

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LEAD

Ml

oxide* are aoluble ia nitric acid, furnishing a
■alation which may be examined with ease.

Solation of lead salts may be recognised by the
foUowing reactions : — Solpboretted hydrogen, sal-
phydrate of ammonium, and the alkahne sol-
phides, give black precipitates, insoluble iu the
cold ^Inte acids, alkalies, alkaline sulphides, and
cyanide of potaasinm. Potassium and sodium
hydrates give a white precipitate, soluble in ex-
cess. Ammonia (except with the acetate) gives a
white precipitate, insoluble in excess. The car-
bonates of potassinm, sodium, and ammonium,
give a wliite precipitate, insoluble iu excess.
IHlnte sulphuric acid (in excess), and solutions of
the sulphates give a white precipitate, sparingly
soluble in dilute acids, but soluble in a hot boiling
solution of potassium carbonate. Chromate and
bichromate of potassium give yellow precipitates,
insolable in dilute nitric acid, and solnble in solu-
tion of potassium hydrate. Iodide of potassium
gives a yellow precipitate, soluble in great excess
by heat, and separating in small, brilliant, golden-
yellow scales as the liquid cools. A piece of
poliahed zinc precipitates metallic lead in an
arborescent form, hence called the lead tree. To
prepare for these tests, a solid supposed to contun
lead should be digested iu nitric acid, when the
eolation, evaporated to dryness and redissolved in
water, may be tested as abotia.

Sttim. The ore of lead (galena) may be
digested in nitric acid, when the solution may be
treated vrith sulphuric acid, and the lead sulphate
collected, washed with dilute sulphuric acid and
then with alcohol, ignited, and weighed; its
WMght multiplied by 0-683 gives the equivalent
weight of metallic lead. This is called an assay
in the wet fray. The method adopted by practioU
mineralogists is an assay in the dry way, and is
eondncted as follows : — A small but powerful air-
furnace, charged with coke, is brought to as high
a temperature as possible, and a conical wrought-
iron crucible plunged into the midst of it ; as soon
as the crucible has attained a dull-red heat, 1000
gr. of the galena, reduced to powder, are thrown
into it, and stirred gently with a long piece of
stiff iron wire flattened at one end, in order to ex-
pose as large a surface of the powdered ore to the
air as possible, observing now and then to with-
draw the wire, to prevent it becoming red hot, in
which case some of the ore would permanently
adhere to it, and be reduced before the intended
time ; the roasting ia completed in 8 or 4 minutes,
and any portion of the ore adhering to the stirrer
being detached by a knife, and returned into
the crucible, the latter is covered up, and allowed
to attain a full cherry-red heat, when about 2 or
3 spoonfuls of reducing flux are added, and the
whole brought to a full white beat ; in 12 or 16
minntes, the portion of metal and scoria adhering
to the sides of the crucible are scraped down into
the melted mass with a small stick of moist green
wood, after which the crucible is again covered,
and the heat urged for 2 or 3 minutes longer, so
as to keep the mass in a perfectly liquid state dur-
ing the whole time ; the crucible is then removed
ftom the Are with tie crucible-tongs, and adroitly
tilted so as to discharge its contents into a small,
ingot-moald of brass, observing to rake the scoria

from the surface to the sides of the crucible, so '
as to allow the molten lead to be poured oat with-
out it ; the scoria is then reheated in the crucible
with about \ spoonful of flux, and after being
cleansed with a piece of green wood, as before, is
at once poured into a second mould, which is in-
stantly inverted; the little button of lead thus
obtained is added to the lead in the other mould,
and the whole is accurately weighed. The
weight, divided by 10, gives the percentage of
lead (inrlnding silver, if present) iu the ore
examined.

One Imlf of the lead thus obtuned is pnt into
a dry cupel of bone-ash, and placed in the cupel-
ling furnace, and treated as described in the
article on assaying ; the metallic button left on
the cupel is then detached and weighed. The
weight, divided by 6, gives the percentage of pure
silver.

Oh: The flux commonly employed in the
above assay is composed of red argol, 6 parts;
nitre, 4 psjrts ; borax, 2 parts ; fluor-spar, 1 part;
well pulverised and thoroughly mixed together.
When the ore is very refractory, about a spoonful
of carbonate of potassium shonid be added for
each lOOO gr. of ore, in which case the roasting
may be dispensed with. The quantity of silver in
argentiferous galena varies from mlttB ^ i V^
of the whole. Whenever this ore contains above
2 parts of silver in the 1000, it is found to be
profitable to extract the latter. Indeed, by
Fattison's process it is found that as small a pro-
portion as 1 in 8000 can be extracted with profit.

U»et. Lead is used to make pans for evapo-
rating sulphuric acid, vitriol, and alum, for
making leaden chambers of solpburic acid works,
for water and gas supply tubing, for retorts,
bullets, plate, foil, shot (mixed with a littie
arsenic), extraction of metals, as silver and gold,
alloys, lead acetate (sugar of lead), litharge, red-
lead, white-lead, chrome yellow, Ac. Some of ita
salts are employed in msdieine.

Lead-poitoning. Administer an emetic of sul-
phate of zinc or sulphate of copper, and, if neces-
sary, tickle the fauces with the finger or a feather,
to induce vomiting. Should this not succeed, the
stomach-pump may be had recourse to. Epsom or
Glanber's salts, or alum dissolved iu water, orwater
acidulated with sulphuric acid, followed by tea,
water-gruel, or barley-water, are the proper anti-
dotes, and should be taken as soon after the poison
has been swallowed as possible. In poisoning by
white-lead, Dr Alfred Taylor recommends the
administration of a mixture of sulphate of mag-
nesium and vinegar, as preferable to the sulphate
alone. When the symptoms are those of painter's
colic, the treatment recommended under that head
should be adopted. In paralysis arising from lead,
small doses of strychnine and its prepaiations
may be cautiously administered. A symptom of
poisoning by lead is the formation of a narrow
leaden blue line, from l-20th to l-6th of an inch
wide, bordering the edges of the gums, attached
to the neck ol two or more teeth of either jaw
{Dr Burton). This discoloration may often be
detected or rendered more conspicuous by rinsing
the month out with water holding a little sul-
phuretted hydrogen or sulphydrate of ammonium

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LEAD

in Bolntion. Chersllier and Bayer recommend
the use of mlphnroni or hepatic mineral waters,
or of artiftcial solutions of sulphuretted hydrogen
or allcaline sulphides in water, both in cases of
acute and chronic poisoning by lead ; but the
practical success of this plan does not appear to
have been in proportion to theoretical anticipa-
tions. The moist and freshly precipitated sulphides
of iron are said by their adrocates to be in&llible
if taken sufficiently early.

Pure water put into a leaden vessel and exposed
to the air soon corrodes it, and dissolves the
newly formed oxide ; but river and spring water
hare little action upon lead, provided there is no
free carbonic acid present, the carbonates and sul-
phates in such water destroying their solvent
powers. It has beenf oondthat a very small amount
of phosphate of sodium or of iodide of potassium,
dissolved in distilled water prevents its corrosive
action on this metal. The lead in contact with
■nch water gradually becomes covered with a
snperficial film of an insoluble salt of lead, which
adheres tenaciously, and prevents further change.
I^om this it appears that ordinary water (' hard
water '), which aboonds in mineral salts, may be
more or leas safely kept in leaden cisterns ; but
distilled water and rain water, and all other
varieties that contain scarcely any saline matter,
speedily corrode and dissolve a portion of lead
when kept in vessels of that metal. When, how-
ever, leaden cisterns have iron or zinc fastenings
or braces, a galvanic action is set up, the preserva-
tive power of saline matter ceases, and tiio water
speedily becomes contaminated with lead, and un-
fit for consumption as a beverage. Water con-
taining carbonic anhydride also acts on lead, and
this is the reason why the water of some springs
(although loaded with saline matter), when kept
in leaden cisterns, or raised by leaden pnmps,
possesses unwholesome properties.

If. Fordos, in a communication to the ' Jonmal
de Pharmacie et de Chimie,' xix, 20, states that
in the course of some experiments on the applica-
bility of lead for water-pipes and cisterns he could
not detect a trace of laid in 10 litres of river
water taken from the leaden cistern of one of the
Paris hospitals. But upon shaking pure water
with shot and air a coating of carbonate of lead
was formed on the sides of the bottle, which
almost rendered the glass opaqne. On dissolving
the film in nitric acid, and estimating the lead,
it was found that 1 litre of water had produced
5 milligrms. of the carbonate. Wine and vinegar
would also dissolve that film ; and as shot is com-
monly nsed for cleaning wine-bottles, lead fre-
quently finds its way into wines, a fact which may
account for many of the cases ol chronic poisoning
by lead which occur in large towns. The detection
of small quantities of lead in forensic investiga-
tion woald afford, therefore, no proof of any in-
tentional ptrisoning.

Orflla's erroneous statement that lead is a nor-
mal constitaent of the human organism may also
be accounted for in this way.

Free carbonic add is evolved daring the fer-
mentation or decay of vegetable matter, and hence
the absolute necessity of preventing the leaves of
treat falling into water-cisterns formed of lead.
The 'eau de roae' and the 'can d'orange' of

commerce, which ore pore distilled water holding
in Bolntion small qnantitles of essential oil, suid
are imported in leaden canisters, always cmtfun
a small quantity of lead, and deposit a sediment,
which is not the case when they are kept inglasa
or incorrodible vessels.

Lead and all its preparations are highly poison-
ons ; and whether imbibed in almost infinitesimal
quantities with onr daily beverages and food, or
swallowed in larger and appre^able doaes, is
productive of the most disastrons consequences,
the real cause being unfortunately seldom sds-
pected.

Lead in Atoated Vater. Some time since Sir
Robert Christison condemned the use of syphons
for lemonade, owing to the action of free tartaric
acid upon lead, and the rapidity with which waters
containing any free acid become charged with
lead in syphons. According to Professor Miller,
0-0176 gr. of lead per gallon is not an nnnaiial
amount for average cistern water, Hr John S.
Thompson, however, reports to the Edinburgh
University Chemical Society that, after such
water has been aSrated and put into a syphon,
the amount of lead dissolved in it begins to rise
in a rapid manner. Thns in potash water, drawn
from a syphon, 0*0408 gr. of lead per galL was
found to be present, being nearly 85 times the
quantity found in the same water before it
entered the syphon. Pure aerated water again
drawn in a similar manner from a syphon gave
0-0816 gr. of lead per gall., or exactly double the
amount found in the potash wator, showing at
once the well-known protective action that salts
of the alkalies and alkaline earths have on lead.
"Although," says the 'Medical Journal,' "these
reanlts are sufficiently high and ahuming, still,
when the water is drawn oft in small qnanlaties
at a time, as is frequently the case with invalids,
the results are found to be still higher; thus,
when potash water was so treated, 0-0465 gr. of
lead per gall, was found, while aBrated water,
drawn off in small quantities, gave 0-0988 gr. of
lead per gall., showing a very marked rise in
both cases, lie cause of this increase in quantity
of the lead appears to be owing not so much to
the lengthened period of contact between the
liquid and the metal as to the fact that the
nozzle of the syphon, being exposed to the atmo-
sphere in a moist state, becomes rapidly oxidised
or carbonated, and is left in the most snitable
condition for entering into solution, so that, whoi
merely small portions of the liqnid are drawn
off each time, a comparatively concentrated solu-
tion of lead is obtained. These results," con-
tinues the same authority, "compare accurately
with those which were obtained by Messrs Savory
and Moore in examining the contents of a series
of syphons of aerated water for Dr George Owen
Bees, F.B.S., whose attention was drawn to the
subject by detecting symptoms of lead-pcnaoning
in himself after he had been in the iiabit for
some time of drinking snch afirated water."

Lead, Acetate of. Pb(C,H,0,)98H,0. Sfu.
Plukbio acbtatb, Susab of lxas; Plumbi
AOETAB (B. P.), L. Frep. Litharge (i» ^"^
powder), 24 oz.; acetic acid, 2 pinto; distiUed
wator, 1 pint; mix the acetic add and the water,
add the litharge, and dissolve with the aid of a

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LEAD

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gentle heat, filter, evaponte antil a pellicle forms,
and crystallise. Drain and dry the crystal.

Acetic add (sp. gr. 1-0843), 23 parts, is gently
heated in a copper boiler rendered electro-negative
by means of a large flat piece of lead soldered
within it, and litharge (pure, and in fine powder),
18 parts, ia sprinkled in ; the heat is then con-
tinned, with constant stirring, until the acid is
saturated, when the mother-waters of a former
process, if any, are added, and the whole is
heated to the boiling-point, and allowed to settle
ontil cold; the clear portion is now decanted, and
eraporated in a similar vessel nntil the liquor has
tb6 tp. gr, 1-266 or 1-267, when it is run into
sait-glaxed stone-ware vessels (the edges of which
have been well smeared with candle-grease) and
allowed to crystallise. The product is 38 to 38}-
parts of crystallised sugar of lead. It is found
to be advantageons tt> preserve a very slight
excess of acid during the boiling and crystallisa-
tion, to prevent the formation of any basic acetate
the presence of which impedes the formation of
regular crystals.

From btharge, 112 lbs.; acetic acid (sp. gr.
1-057). 128 lbs. iVod., 180 to 184 lbs.

JPnp. Pure acetate of lead forms colourless,
transparent, prismatic crystals, slightly efflo-
rescent in dry ur; it is soluble in 8 parts of
alcohol and in li parts of cold water; the aqueous
Mintion has a sweet astringent taste, and feebly
reddens litmus, but turns turmeric and the juice
of violets green; when gently heated, it melts in
its water of crystallisation; by continuing the
heat the whole of the water is expelled, and the
dry acetate obtained; at a higher temperature
the salt suffers decomposition, and acetic acid,
acetone, &c., are given off. Commercial acetate
of lead is in general a confused crystalline mass,
somewhat resembling broken lump sugar. It is
powerfully astringent and poisonous.

When pure it is completely soluble in distilled
water acidulated with acetic acid, forming a
transparent colourless solution. " 38 gr. dissolved
in water require for complete precipitation 200 gr.
measures of the volumetric solution of oxidic
■cid"(B. P.).

Umt, j-e. Acetate of lead is extensively em-
ployed in dyeing and calico-printing. In medicine,
H IS used as an astringent, styptic, and heemo-
static, in pulmonary, uterine, and intestinal
basmorrhage, colliquative diarrhoea, phthisical
sweats, ic. It is usually combined with morphia
or opiom, and with acetic acid to prevent it pass-
ing into the state of the poisonous carbonate in
the stomach.— Z)o«<, ^ to 2 gr. (^CoUier) ; 1 to 8
gr. to 8 or 10 gr., twice or thnce a d^ (Pereira) ;
S to 10 gr., every 6 or 8 hours (A. T. Thornton).
SxtemaUj/, as a coUyrium, 10 gr. to water, 8 fl. oz.
(A. T. Thornton) ; as a lotion, 20 gr. (A. T. Thorn-
«os) ; 1 dr. {Collier) to water, 8 or 10 fl. oz. ; as
an injection, 40 gr. to rose-water, i pint. The
lotion is cooling and sedative, and is commonly
used in excoriations, local inflammations, &c

Basle AcetatW. There are several of these
salts, bat only one is of any importance :

Tribute Iiead Acetate, or Double Flum])lc Ace-
tate aad Dioxide. Fb(C,H,0,)„2PbO. i^it.
8vBA0>x&n oy lrld, Babio leas aobtatx,

OoPLAKD'b mows asm of IAAD ; FlUKBI BUBAOITAB

(B. p.), L. I>rep. Litharge, 7 parts ; acetate of
lead, 10 parts ; and distilled water, 40 parts, are
boiled i an hour, and evaporated down, and
allowed to crystallise out of contact with air.

Used under the form of ' plumbi subacetas
Uqnor* (B. P.).

Lead, Az8e''niate of. Pb,(AsOJ,. 8y». Abbi-
NATE OP L. ; Pluitbi absbmiab, L. Prep. By
gradually adding a solution of acetate of lead to
another of arseniate of sodium. A white, in-
soluble powder. Proposed as an external ap^ca-
tion in certain forms of cancer.

Lead, Bro'aiide o£ PbBrj. Syn. Pxvirai
BBomsux, L. Prep, By precipitating a soln-
tion of neutral acetate or nitrate of lead with a
solution of bromide of potassium. A white, crys-
talline powder, sparingly soluble in water. It
fuses by heat into a red liquid, which turns yellow
when cold. It has been used in the same cases
as iodide of lead.

Lead, Car'bonate of. PbCO,. Sgn. Plumbi
CAXBOHAB, L. Prep. By precipitating a cold
solution of either acetate or nitrate of lead with
a solution of an alkaline carbonate, taking care
to well wash the precipitate and dry it in the
shade. This preparation is seldom employed,
the commercial (basic) carbonate (white-lead)
being substituted for it. See White PiaMBNTS.

Lead, Chloride of . PbCU. Sg». Lbadcblobidb;
Plumbi ohlobidum (Ph. L. 1836), L. Prep.
(Ph. L. 1886.) Dissolve acetate of lead, 19 oz.,
in boiling water, 3 pints ; next dissolve chloride
of sodium, 6 oz., in boiling water, 1 pint ; mix the
two solutions, and when cold wash and dry the
precipitate. A white crystalline powder.

Dissolve finely powdered litharge in boiling
dilute hydrochloric acid, and set aside the
filtered solution to cool. Brilliant colourless
needles.

Prop. Soluble in 136 parts of cold and in 22
parts of boiling water ; it melts when heated, and
solidiBes on cooling, forming a horn-like substance

(HOBir LEAS ; PLUMBI COKNEUM).

Utet, S^c. In the Ph. L. 1836, chloride of lead
was ordered to be employed in the preparation of
' hydrochlorate of morphia.' TUt Tnson highly
recommends it in cancerous affections, to allay
pain and restrain morbid action, either in the
form of a lotion or ointment.

Various mixtures of lead chlorides and oxide
are employed as a white pigment under the name
of ' Pattison's white.' It is prepared by rapidly
mixing a boiling solution of lead chloride with an
equal volume of lime-water. Another similar
compound is called ' patent yellow,' or ' Tamer's
yellow.'

Lead, Chronutte «f. PbCrOv ^. Chbomb

YELLOW, LEMOIT TELLOW, I<BIP8I0 TBLLOW,

Fabib TELLOW. Prep. By adding a filtered
solution of acetate of nitrate of lead to a like solu-
tion of chromate of potassium as long as a pre-
cipitate forms, which is collected, washed with
water, and dried. For information respecting the
manufacture of this substance on the large scaler
US a colouring substance (chrome yellow), see
Yellow PieHBirTB.

Lead, Dichromate of. Sgn. Chbomb obahsb,
Chbomb bbs. PbCrOi.PbO. Prep. By add-
ing to a solution of nitrate or acetate of lead a

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LEAD

solution of chromate of potassimn, to which an
equivalent of potassa has been added. This com-
pound is of a splendid scarlet colour. See Red

PiaUENTS.

Lead, C;'anide of. PbCyj. 8yn. Plchbi
CTANIDUM, L. Prep. By adding hydrocyanic
acid to a solution of acetate of lead as long as a
precipitate forms, which, after being washed with
distilled water, is dried by a very gentle heat,
and preserved from the light and air. Sometimes
used as a source of medicinal hydrocyanic acid.

Lead, Iodide of. Pbl^ Syn. Leas iooisb;
Plumbi iodldux (B. p.. Ph. L. E. D.), L. Frep.
(B. P.) Nitrate of lead, 4 parts; iodide of potas-
sium, 4 parts ; distilled water, a sufficiency. Dis-
solve with the aid of heat the nitrate of lead in 80
parts of water, and the iodide of potassium in 10
parts of water ; mix, collect the precipitate, wash,
and dry at a gentle heat.

Prop., Ifc. A rich yellow-coloured powder,
soluble in acetic acid, alcohol, and boiling water;
when heated, it fuses and volatilises in yellow
vapour, but with a higher hegree of heat violet
vapours of iodine are evolved, leaving a residuum
(lead) which is wholly soluble in nitric acid. —
i)(w«, i to 4 gr. or more, made into a pill ; as a
deobstruent and resolvent in enlargements of the
cervical, axillary, and mesenteric glands, and in
scrofulous affections and scirrhous tumours.

Lead, Bitrate ot Pb(NO^r Syn. Plttmbi
KiTBAS, L. (B. P., Ph. E. D.). Prap. .. (Ph. D.)
Litharge (in fine powder), 1 oz. ; pure nitric
acid, 2 fl. oz., diluted with water, \ pint; mix,
apply a sand-heat, and evaporate to dryness, occa-
sionally stirring ; boil the residuum in water, 2^
pints ; filter, acidulate with a few drops of nitric
acid, evaporate till a pellicle forms, and set the
liquid aside to cool; lastly, dry the deposited
crystals on bibulous paper, and preserve them in
a well- closed bottle.

(Commercial.) By dissolving white-lead in
dilute nitric acid, and crystallising.

Vtet, S[e. This salt is extensively used in
calico-printing, and in the preparation of the
iodide and other salts of lead. It was formerly
much esteemed in asthmas, bajmorrhages, and
epilepsy. It is now often used as an external
application in cancer, ulcers, wounds, and various
cutaneous affections. It is the basis of Liebert's
celebrated 'cosm^tiqne infallible,' and of Le-
doyen's ' disinfecting fluid.' A very weak solu-
tion is an excellent application to chspped nipples,
lips, hands, &o. — Hote, ^ to 1 gr. ; in the form of
pill or solution, washed down with a tablespoonful
of water very slightly acidulated with nitric acid.

Lead, Vitro-sac'charate of. Syn. Plukbi
XITBOBACOHABAB, L. Prep. {Br S.E.Soekini.)
Nitric acid, 1 part; water, 19 parts; mix; in this
dilute acid saccharatc of lead (in fine powder) is
to be dissolved, and set aside that crystals may
form, which are to he dried by pressure between
—the folds of bibulous paper. A weak solution of
the salt, acidulated with saccharic acid, has been
employed by Dr Hoskins as a solvent for phos-
phatic calculi with apparent success.

Lead, Oxides of. There appear to be four
oxides of lead — ^the monoxide (PbU), red-lead

iVhfi^, the setqnioxide (PbjO,), and the dioxide
PbO]). Only the first of these forms stable salts.

Lead, Oxide of. FbO. Sy». Uokoxtdb or

XEAS, PeOTOXIDB OF IBAD, YBIXOW OXIDE OF
LEAS, MaSBICOT, LiTHABOE ; PXUJCBI OXYBUU

(B. P.), L. Prep. This substance is obtained
perfectly pure by expelling the acid from nitrate
of lead by exposing it to beat in a platinum cru-
cible; or, still better, by adding ammonia to a,
cold solution of nitrate of lead until the liquid
becomes faintly alkaline, washing the precipitate
with cold water, drying it, and heating it to
moderate redness for 1 hour.

Prop., l(c. Pure protoxide of lead has a
lemon-yellow colour, and is the best of all the
salts of lead. It is very heavy, slightly soluble
in water, and freely so in acids, particularly when
in the hydrated state; the aqueous solution has
an alkaline reaction ; at a red heat it melts, and
assumes a semi-crystalline form on cooling; in
the melted state it rapidly attacks and dissolves
siliceous matter, with which it unites to form
glass (flint glass) ; when heated along with
organic substances of any kind it is easily reduced
to the metallic state.

On the commercial scale this oxide is prepared
by heating the grey film or dross that forms on
the surface of melted lead when freely exposed to
the air. When the process is arrested, as soon as
the oxide acquires a uniform yellow colour, it is
called massicot; when the heat is still further
increased, until it fuses or partially vitrifies, it
forms litharge, of which there are several
varieties. See Ltthaboe, Mabsicot.

Lead, Bed Oxide of. FbjO^. Syn. Rbd-lbad,
MiNiTTU. Prep. This is prepared by exposing
nnfused protoxide of lead to the air for a long
time at a dull red heat. It is a very heavy powder,
of a flne red colour, decomposed by a strong heat
into protoxide of lead and oxygen gas, which is
evolved. Somewhat uncertain in its composition,
but this is generally Pb,04 or PbO«2PbO. See
Red PiauENT.

Lead Dioxide. PbO,. 8y». Binoxidb tut

LEAD, PeBOXISB OP LEAD, PtTCE OXISB OF LBAD.
Prep. By digesting red oxide of lead in dilute
nitric acid ; or by fusing a mixture of protoxide
of lead and chlorate of potassium at a heat a
little below redness and washing the powdered
mass in water; or by transmitting a current of
chlorine gas through a solution of neutral acetate
of lead. This oxide gives up half its oxygen
at a red heat; acids also decompose it. Its
chief use is in the chemical analysis of certain
gaseous mixtures to separate sulphurous acid,
which it converts into sulphuric acid, at the
same time absorbing it, forming sulphate of
lead. It has recently been employed as an oxi-
dising agent in the manufacture of the AjnuxB

STB8.

Lead, Fyrolig'nite of. Sugar of lead made with .
crude pyroligneous acid. Used in dyeing, chiefly
for the preparation of acetate of alumina.

Lead, Sac'charate of. Syn. Pluhbi aac-
CHABA8, L. Prep. {Dr S.S.Soekine.) Nitric
acid, 2 parts; water, 10 parts; mix in a porcelain
capsule, add of sugar, 1 part, and apply heat
until reaction ceases ; then dilute the liquid with
distilled water, neutralise it with powdend chalk,
filter, and add to the filtrate a solution of acetate
of lend as long as a precipitate (saccharate of

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LEAD D0ST— LEATHER

946

lead) fonns; lastly, collect tiie pncipitate on a
filter, -waafa and dry it. Uaed to ifiake nitro-
saccborate of lead, and aa a soorce of lacchiiric
acid.

I«ad. BDl'phate lO. FbSO,. 8p». Plcmbi
BT7I.PHAB, L. Thia lalt ocean native in trans-
parent octc^edm (lead vitriol), and is obtained in
large qnantiiaes aa a by-prodnct in the prepara-
tion of acetate of alnminnm for dyeing.

Ittp. By adding dilute solphnric acid to a
aolntion of a soluble salt of lead. It is solnble in
strong hydrochloric acid and bitartrate of am-
monium, bat almost insoloble in water and dilute
snlphnric acid, though it dissolves to some extent
in the strong acid. Commercial strong sulphuric
add contwns small quantities of lea^ sulphate
derived from the lettden pans in which it was
oooeeittrated ; on diluting tite acid the snlphate is
predidtated aa a white powder.

Lead. Snl'phida of. PbS. Bg*. Plvidi bui.-
FKISUIC, L. This occurs abundantly in nature
in the form of sai.bna, see abovt.

Prep. By fusing metallic lead with solphnr,
or b^ pasnng sulphuretted hydrogen through a
station of a salt of lead.

The natarally occurring compound is Uue-grey
in cokmr, with semi-metallic loatre and sp. gr.
•boot 7-6. When precipitated by sulphuretted
hydiogen it forms a bhuik powder, insoluble in
hydrochloric, soluble in nitric acid.

Lead. Tan'nate ot ^. Plukbi TAinrAS, L.
Prep. Precipitate a solution of acetate of lead
with an infusion of galls, and wash and dry the
I»ecipitate. Astringent, sedative, and hramo-
sUtic — Dote, 1 gr. and upwards, made into a

S'll. It has been highly recommended in the
grm of ointment and cataplasms, in bedsores,
chronic olcen of the feet, white swellings, dbc.

Lead, Tar'trata of. Sgn. Fluxbi tabikab,
L. Prep. By precipitating acetate of lead by
tartrate of ammonium, washing and drying.

IXASOUST. Syn. Pultib fluxbi, PLuinvii
Dimtm, L. Prep. By melting new lead,
adding braised charcoal, mixing with violent
agitation, which most be continued until the
metal 'sets,' and then pounding and washing
away the ehareoal. Used by potters.

UJLB, GBAVTJLATKD. Prep. By melting
new lead and pouring it in a small stream from
an iron ladle with a hole drilled in its bottom into a
pail of water. Used to make solutions and alloys.

LEAD FTBOFE'OSITS. See Ptbofhobttb.

IJA1),EE1>-. See Rbd PiaiuxTS.

IiEAS. WHITE-. See Wbitb Pismmt.

UATHIS. %«>.CoBivx,CoBiUB,L. Leather
is the skin of animals which has been prepared
by one at other of several proeesses adopted for
the purpose, having the common object of pre-
venting its spontaneous destmetion by putre-
faction, besides other objects, which are more
or less pecnliar to each variety of this nseful
substance.

Leather is only prepared on the large scale, and
primarily either by the proceas of ' TANiriHa ' or
' TAwne,' in the manner briefly described under
these heads.

ClTKBiXD uuTBXit is leather which has been
tanned, and sold to the currier, who, after soak-
ing it in water, and rubbing it to soften i^ pares

it even with a broad, sharp knife, rubs it with a
piece of polished stone or wood, and, whilst still
wet, besmears it with oil or grease (DlTBBlxe),
which gradually penetrates the leather as the
moisture evaporates. It next undergoes the
operation of ' waxing,' which consists of first
rnbbing it on the flesh side with a mixture of oil
and lamp-black ; it is then ' black-sized ' with a
brash or sponge, and, when dry, is lastly 'tallowed'
with a proper cloth, and ' slicked ' upon the flesh
side with a broad and polished lamp of glass.
Leather carried on the hair or grain side,
termed 'black on the grun,' is blackened bv
wetting it with iron liquor, and mbbbg it with
an iron 'slicker' before applying the oil or
grease. The grain is finally raised by the 'pommel'
or 'graining board' passed over it in various
directions.

Leather is dyed or stained by the application,
with an ordinary brush, of any of the strong
liquid dyes, in the cold or only gently heated, to
the surface of the skin previously stretched on a
board. The surface, when dry, is commonly
finished off with white of egg and the pommel or
smoothing stick. Bookbinders generally employ
copperas water aa a black stain or sprinkle, a
solution of indigo as a blae one, and a solution of
salt of tartar or common soda as a brown one.

Leather, before being japanned or varnished,
aa in the preparation of what is called 'BHA-
MBLLEO ' and ' FATBVT LBATHSB,' is carefully
freed from grease by the application of absorbent
substances or hard pressure between rollers, and
the surface is nicely shaved, smoothed and
polished by appropriate tools ; the varnish is then
applied to the grain side for the former, and the
flesh side of the skin for the latter, which is pre-
viously stretched out tight on a board to recdve
it. The whole is, laatly, submitted to a gentle
stove- heat to harden the varnish j and the process
is repeated if necessary.

Utet, i[e. These are well known, and are all
bat nniversal. The leather manufacture of Great
Britain is equal in importance and utility to sny
other department of our industry, and inferior in
point of value and extent only to those of cotton,
wool, and iron. " If we look abroad on the in-
struments of husbandry, on the implements used
in most of the mechamc trades, on the structure
of a mnltitade of engines and machines ; or if we
contemplate at home the necessary parts of oar
clothing — breeches, shoes, boots, gloves — or the
furniture of our houses, the books on our shelves,
the harness of our horses, or even the substance
of onr carriages ; what do we see but instances of
human industry exerted upon leather P What an
aptitude has this single material in a variety of
circumstances for the relief of our necessities, and
supplying conveniences in every state and stage of
life ! Without it, or even without it in the plenty
we have it, to wlutt difficulties should we be ex-
posed ! " {Dr Campbell). Leather is a kind of
natural felt, but of much doaer and firmer tex-
ture than that of artificial origin. " The thinner
and softer kinds of leather are someiimea used as
body-clothing; bat its special and proper pur-
pose is the manufacture of coverings for the fest^
to protect them from cold and water" (Brat.
Wilton). See jAPAinnsa, Vabkibh, Ac.

60

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946

LEAVEN— LEECH

Leather, Deitnietioii of, by Gm. It U well
known that the binding of booki suffers consider-
able damage when the books are kept in apart-
ments lighted by coal gas. That the caase of
this det^oration is due, as was believed, to the
combustion of the bisulphide of carbon contained
in the gas, and its consequent oxidation into sul-
phuric acid, is exemplified by the following inte-
resting communication from Professor Church,
published in the 'Chemical News' for October
19th, 1877. He says, "Vellum seems un-
affected; morocco suffers lea*t; calf is much
injured, and mssia still more so. The disintegra-
tion is most rapid with books on the upper shelves
of a library, whither the heated products of
combustion ascend, and where they are absorbed
and condensed." See BooKBnrsnra.

By comparing specimens of old leather with
specimens of new, it is quite clear that the de-
structive influence of gas is doe mainly to its
sulphur.

True, there are traces of sulphates in the dye
and size of new leather bindings, but the qaantity
is insignificant, and there is practically no free
sulphuric acid. That leather may be destroyed
by the oil of vitriol produced by the burning of
gas in a library is proved by the following obser-
vations and analyses :

The librarian of one of onr public libraries
forwarded to me the backs of several volumes,
which had been ' shed ' by tbe books on the upper
shelves in an apartment lighted by gas. The
leather of one of these backs (a volume of the
' Archsgologia ') was carefully scraped off so as to
avoid any paper or size from underneath. This
task of scraping was easy enough, for the leather
was reduced to the consistency of Scotch snuff.
On analysis of the watery extract of this leather,
the following figures were obtained :

Free sulphuric acid in decayed
leather .... 6-21 per cent.

Combined .... 2-21 „

8-42
LBAVEV. Dongh which has become sour or
run into a state of incipient putrefaction. When
a small quantity of it is added to recent dough it
excites fermentation, but is apt to produce a dis-
agreeable taste and odour in the bread. It is
now superseded by yeast. Both these substances
are used in the same way.

LEAVES (Medicated). Sj/n. Folia msoioata,
L. On the Continent several preparations of
this kind are in use. In many cases the leaves of
tobacco deprived of nicotin, by soaking them in
water, are dried, and then moistened or steeped
in a tincture or infusion of the mediciniJ sub-
stance. In this way belladonna, camphor, and
henbane are often administered. Cruveilhier
recommends opiated belladonna leaves for smoking
in troublesome coughs, phthisis, spasmodic
asthmas, Ac., to be prepared as follows : — Bella-
donna leaves, 1 oz., are steeped in an inf osion of
opium, 10 gr., in water, 1 fl. oz. (or less), and are
then carefully dried in the shade. "Mubtaso
LBAT3B (Riggollof s) consist of mustard moist-
ened with water, spread on paper, and dried"
(Sq*ir0). See CiOAJta (in pKarmacg), and
Vbobtablbs.

lAaves, How to Dissect. " For the dissection
of leaves," says Mrs Cussons, " I find the process
of maceration too long and tedious, to say no-
thing of the uncertainty as to the results. I
have therefore adopted the use of alkali in satn-
rated solution, the specimens to be introduced
while the liquid is heated to the boiling-point ;
the time of immersion to be regulated by the
character of the various leaves and the nature of
the epidermis to be removed. When tbe specimen
i* treed from epidermis and cellular tissue, it
must be subjected to the action of chlorine to
destroy the colouring matter. The introduction
of peroxide of hydrogen not only serves to render
the lace-like specimen purer in colour, but also
preserves it. In destroying the colouring matter
in ferns this also is invaluable; added to the
chlorine it gives a solidity to the bleached fronds:,
and appears to equalise the action of the chlorine.
For skeletonising capsules the slow process of
maceration by steeping in rain-water is alone
available; a moderate heat may be applied to
hasten the process, but alkali is useless. The
only known flower which can be cUssected is the
Hgdnmgtajaponica. The fibrous nature of the
petals renders it easy to skeletonise in the perfect
truss in which it grows. Skeletonised leaves and
capsules appear to gain in the process a toughness
and durability not possessed by them in thmr
natural state."

LEECH, ftyit. HiBirso (B. P.), L. The offi>
cinal leeches of the Pharmaoopceias are the Samgui-
tuga mtHeinalu (Sirudo medurinalis, Cnv.)
and S. offletnaHti the first of these is fami-
liarly known as the ' old English ' or ' speckled
leech.' It is also occasionally called the ' Ham-
burg grey' or 'Russian leech,' from being im-
ported from those parts. Its characteristics are
— Back, greenish or olive-green, sometimes al-
most black or intense brown, with 6 rusty-red or
yellowish longitudinal stripes, which are mostly
spotted with black. Belly, dirty yellow or light
olive-green, spotted more or less with black.
The spots are very variable in size and number;
in some cases few, in others so numerous as to
form the prevailing tint of the belly. This
variety, which is tbe most valuable of the com-
mercial leeches, is chiefly imported from Hamburg.

The Sanguituga offidnalit, familiarly known
as the ' Hamburg ' or ' French green leech,' is
imported from Bordeaux, Lisbon, and Hamburg.
Its characteristics are — Back, brovmish olive-
green, with 6 reddish or rusty yellow longitudinal
bands. Belly, light dirty pea-green, or yellowish
green, free from spots, but exhibiting two lateral
stripes. This leech is vastly inferior to the pre-
ceding variety, and some of those imported from
France and Pcnrtugal are absolutely useless, from
their indisposition to bite, arising from the fraud
practised by the collectors and dealers of gorging
them with blood to improve their appearance
before sending them to market. The above are
the species of leech commonly employed in medi*
cine in this country, but many others are noticed
by writers on the subject.

Leeches are best preserved in water obtained
from a pond, and occasionally changed; when
kept in spring water they soon die. Tbe intro*
duction of a hand to which an ill-flavoured

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LEECHINO— LEMON JUICE

947

medidne or odour adhere* into the water in
which they are kept is often sufficient to poison
ttiem. The application of saline matter to the
■kin of leeches, even in very small quantities,
immediately occasions the expulsion of the con-
tents of the stomach; hence a few gnuns of
common salt are frequently sprinkled over them
to make them disgorge the blood which they
have swallowed. "Ae frequent changing of the
water in which leeches are kept is iigudicions.
Once a month in winter and once a week in
mmmer is deemed sufficiently often by the large
dealers^ unless the water becomes discoloured or
bloody, when it should be changed every day, or
ereiT other day. When clean pond water cannot
be obtained, clean lain water that has been well
exposed to the air should alone be employed.
Mr J. B. Eenworthy recommends plamng in the
water a few balls of irregular lumps of pure
day, about 2i in. in diameter ; a method which
we can recommend as both simple and successful.
The plan adopted by M. ¥6e Is as follows: —
Place 7 in. of a mixture of moss, turf, and
charcoal in a marble or stone trough, over which
sprinkle some small pebbles. At one end of the
tarongh and about halfway up place a thin shelf
ot stone or marble pierced with small holes, on
which put first some moss or portions of marsh
horaetaii {Hquuetmn paltutre), and on this a
layer of pebbles to keep it down ; then pour in
water sufficiently high just to moistou the moss
and pebbles, put in the leeches, and tie over the
month of the trough with a cloth. Another plan
consists in keeping the leeches in a glass tank or
aqnarinm, provided with a pebbly bottom and a
few healthy aquatic plants.

JPropty. According to Dr Wagner, an annual
feast on living' blood is necessary to render
leeches able to grow and propagate. These con-
ditions can only be fulfilled by restoring to the
breeding dstoms those which have been already
employed. All artificial methods of feeding
than by bladders or sponges of blood have been
found to ful. He recommends the employment
of two tanks, with the bottom formed of loam,
day, or tur:^ surrounded by an inner border of a
«i«nn<Mi substance, and an outer one of sand — the
one for leeches fit for medical use, and the other
for breeding, or for such leeches as have been
applied. No leeches are to be taken from the
breeding-tank untU a year has elapsed after their
having been applied and fed with human blood ;
and their removal to the first tank should take
place in September or October, as by this time
the breeding season is over. By this plan all
leeches that have been applied are to be carefully
restored to the breeding-tank, without making
them disgorge the blood they have swallowed.

IXECH'IH&. This consists in the application
of leeches to any vascnlar part of the body for
the purpose of withdrawing blood from it, and
thus aluying local infiammation, distension of
TBiscils, Ac Leeches are most conveniently ap-
plied by means of a common pill-box or a wine-
glass. The part should be previously washed
Mrfeetly dean, and if covered with hidr should
oe cUisdy shared. Sometimes leeches aie indis-
posed to bite; in such cases, allowing them to
crawl over a piece of dry Unen or calico, rolling

them in porter, moistening the part with a little
milk or sweetened milk, or drawing a little blood
by a slight puncture or scratch will usually make
them bite freely. To stop the bleeding from
leech-bites various plans are adopted, among
which the application of nitrate of silver or
creasote, and gentle pressure for some hours with
the finger, are the most successful. Of late years
a piece of matico leaf or soldier's herb, applied in
the same manner as a piece of lint, has been
commonly adopted to stop the bleeding of leech-
bites.

L£XK. Syn. PoBBUK, L. The AJUum pormm,
Linn. Its general properties are intermediate
between those of the onion and garlic. The juice
is said to be powerfully diuretic, and capable of
dissolving phosphate calculi.

LEOTT'Xnr. Vegetable casein. It is found
most abundantly in the seeds of legnminons
(podded) plante, e.g. beans, peas, &c., as well as
in the sweet and bitter almond.

In properties it closely resembles the casein et
milk,

Legumin may be obtained from peas or from
almonds as foUows : — After digesting the crushed
seeds tor 2 or S hours in warm water, the undis-
solved portion is removed by straining through
linen, and the strained liquid, after depositing the
starch suspended in it, is next filtered and mixed
with diluted acetic acid. The white floccnlent
precipitate which is thns produced is then col-
lected on a filter and washed. It is afterwards
dried, powdered, and digested, first in alcohol, and
afterwards in ether.

Bochleder considered that, as thus obtained by
Dnmas and Cahonrs, it was not absolutely pure,
since, as it was not entirely soluble in a cold con-
centrated solution of potash, he recommended the
alkaline solution being decanted from the undis-
solved portion, and again precipitated by the
addition of acetic acid.

Legumin as thus prepared was believed by
Bochleder to be pure, and was found on analysis
to give results analogous to those furnished by
casdn.

In the seed, legumin occurs associated with
considerable quantities of the phosphates of cal-
cium, magnesium, and potassium. Bennet co-
agulates it like it does the casein of milk, ite
similarity to which is exemplified by the manufac-
ture of a kind of cheese from peas and beans by
the Chinese.

Dried peas contain about a fourth of their
weight of legumin.

LEK'OV. Sgn. LiKO, L. The fruit of the
CUrtu limonmn, or lemon tree. The juice, peel,
and essential oil are officinal. See Oil, and
below.

vaeoS Ads. See ClTBIo Aou).

LEH'OK f LATOUS. See Kbbbitob ov Lbuok.

LEK'ON JUICE. £yn. Luioms suoovs
(B. P.), SuoouB cmoyirx (Ph. L, and D.), L.
The juice of the lemon, obtained by squeezing
and straining. When freshly expressed, it is
turbid, owing to the presence of mucilage and
extractive matter. These substances render the
juice liable to decomposition, and various methods
have from time to time been proposed for pre-
serving it. Amongst these may be mentioned the

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948

LEMON-FEEL— LEMONADE

addition to the fresh jnice of 1% of bisalphite of
ealdam, or 10% of proof spirit.

" We hare examined the jnice expressed from
two varieties of lemons, viz, Palermo and Messina,
with the following results :

Filarmo. Ueisinm.
<• Onnces of joice yielded

by 100 lemons . . 108 96

Sp.gr. of juice . . 1044-86 1038-66

Percentage of citric acid 8'12 7'04

Percentage of ash . 0289 0-801

" 100 parU of the ash of the juice of Palermo

lemons gave —

" Solphnric add . . 10-69
Carbonic acid . . 16-83
Chlorine ... 0-81
Phosphoric acid . . 6-74
Ferric phosphate . 1*82

Lime .... 8-89
Magnesia . 802

Potash .... 47-84
Soda .... 8-82
Silica .... 0-72
Loss .... 0-42

100-00
'<If lemons ar« kept a few months before
squeezing, the yield of jnice is slightly increased,
but its specific gravity and percentage of citric
acid remain unaltered. It is erroneous to sup-
pose that the acid of the lemon is, by keeping,
changed into sugar. We have kept lemons for 12
months, and found that the percentage of add
was not diminished. A certain proportion of
sugar was formed, but at the expense of the
soluble starch contained in the cell-walls of the
lemon. Lemon jnice on being kept is found to
decrease in density, bat the amount of add re-
mains the same " {Sarkneti).

Lemon juice may be preserved by heating it to
160° F., filtering, and setting it aside in bottles
completely filled. If this process be performed
in the winter, the juice, it is sud, may be kept
perfectly good for 12 months. Fresh lemon juice
is prevented from decomposition and rendered fit
for exportation by mixing it with 1-lOth of alco-
hol {Sohtoeitxer).

The Merchant Shipping Act of 1867 requires
that after a ship has oeen at sea 10 days 1 ot. of
lime or lemon juice, mixed with 1 oz. of sugar
and i pint of water, shall be served out to each
of the crew between the hours of 12 and 1 in the
day.

Admit. Lemon juice is frequently adulterated,
the adulterants bdng water, sugar, or gum, and
sulphuric or acetic acid. The modut operandi is
to dilute the genuine jnice with water, and then
bring up the density with the sugar or gum, and
the percentage of add with one or other of the
, above acids. The examination of lemon and lime
juice supplied to the navy is now conducted in
the Inland Bevenne Laboratory, Somerset House,
and it speaks well for that department when we
say that cases of scurvy on board ships are now
of very rare occurrence. No juice is passed un-
less it comes up to a certain standard in specific
gravity and percentage of citric acid, and any
sample containing any other add is at once re-
jected.

Prop. Lemon juice is refrigerant and anti-
scorbutic, and has long been extensively em-
ployed in the preparation of cooling drinks and
effervescing draughts, which are jostly esteemed as
wholesome summer beverages, as well as palliatives
in fevers, nausea, te. In scurvy there U no
remedy equal to freahly expressed lemon juice ;
and in acute rheumatism and gout, according to
the united testimony of Dr Owen Bees, Dr
Babington, and numerous Continental practi-
tioners, it has been exhibited with considerable
success. In agues, dysentery, English cholera,
nausea and vomiting, heartbom, putrid sore-
throat, hospital gangrene, syphilis, and numerous
skin diseases, it has proved most serviceable. See
Cmuo Aon>, Gout, &c.

Lemon Juice, Faett"tl(nis. Sg*. SOLvno a^oisi
orriiiai, Sxiooub txnovau PAormuB, L. Prep.
1. Citric add, 1^ oz. ; carbonate of potassa, 46
gr. J wMte sugar, 2^ oz. ; cold water, 1 pintj
dissolve, add the yellow peel of a lemon, and in
24 honrs strain through a nair-sieve or a p«ce of
muslin.

2. As the last, but using 16 or 18 drops of ml
of lemon, to flavour instead of the lemon peeL

Oh*. The above is an excellent substitute for
lemon juice, and keeps well in a cool place. Tar-
taric add, and even vinegar, are sometimes used
instead of citric add; but it is evident that it
then loses all claim to being considered as an
imitation of lemon jnice, and to employ it in lien
of which would be absurd.

IiSK'OV-FEBIi. as*. COBIBX LixoHTm
(B. P., Ph. L.), L. " The fresh outer part of the
rind" (B. P.). "The fresh and the dried exterior
rind of the fruit," the latter dried " in the month
of April or May " (Ph. L.). Candied lemon-peel
?0OETBX iiicoinni oohbitub) is employed as a
dessert, and as a flavouring ingredient by cooks
and confectioners. It is reputed stomachic See
Caitdtimo.
LSXOH nCKIiE. See Sauob.
LSMOHADX'. Sgn. Limok bkbbbbt, Kihs'8
OUF ; LmoiTASvii, L. ; LmoNASl, Fr. Prep. 1.
Lemons (sliced), 2 in no. ; sugar, 2| oz. ; boiling
water, \\ pints ; mix, cover up the vessel, and let
it stand, with occasional stirring, until cold, then
pour off the dear through a piece of muslin or a
dean hair-sieve.

8. Juice of 3 lemons; yellow peel of 1 lemon;
sugar, \ lb. ; cold water, 1 quart; digest for 5 or
6 hours, or all night, and decant or stnun as
before.

3. Citric add, 1 to If dr. ; essence of lemon, 10
drops; sugar, 2 oz. ; cold water, 1 pint; agitate
together until dissolved.

Ob*. Lemonade is a pleasant, cooling summer
beverage, and when made as above may be drunk
in large quantities with perfect safety. It also
forms an excellent refrigerant and antiseptic
drink in fevers and putrid diseases gener^^.
Tartaric add is commonly substituted for dtnc
add, from being cheaper ; it is, however, mnch in-
ferior, bdng less wholesome and less agreeable.
Lemonade for icing is prepared as above, only
using a littie more sugar. Orange sherbet, or
orangeade for idng, is made in a siniilar way from
oranges,
lemonade. ASra'ted. Sgn. Lixokaoux acka.-

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LEMONADE POWDER— LENTIL

949

Tim, L. ; lUMOHtDB SAZBCBB, Fr. Prtp. 1.
(P.Ood.) Water, charged with 6 timm its rolame
ot carhonie add gaa, 1 pint; symp of lemon, 8
oz. ; mix.

2. (Withont a bottling machine.) a. Into each
bottle pat lemon lymp, 1 to 1| oi. ; essence of
lemon, 3 drops ; seaqnicarbonate of soda, i dr. ;
water, q. s. to nearly fill the bottle ; have the cork
fitted and ready ^ hand, then add of tartaric
add (oryst.), 1 dr. ; instantly close the bottle, and
wire down tiie cork ; it shonld be kept inverted in
a eool place, and, pnferably, immersed in a vessel
d ioe-odd water.

t. 'As the last, but snbstitating lamp ragar, f
oz., for the lemon symp.

e. Prom lamp sagar, 1 ox. ; essence of lemon,
8 drops ; bicarbonatB of potassa, 26 gr. ; water,
q. B., as No. 1 ; then add citnc acid (oryst.), 46
gr., and oork, Ac, as before. The last is most
whidesome, especially for the scorbatic, dyspeptic,
gcntj, and rheomatic.

Oht, The best a8rated lemonade of the London
makers is prepared by patting li fl. oz. of rich
lemon syrnp into each bottle, which is then filled
ap with aerated water at the bottling machine.

Tiemonade, Antimo"iiiatad. iS^». Likosasuk
AHincoiruTair, h. Prqi. By adding tartar
emetic, 1 gr., to each pint of ordinary lemonade.
—JDote. A wine-glassful every | hoar or hoar,
as a diaphoretic and expectorant. See AvTixoirr
(Potaasio- tartrate).

Lemonade, Ape'rient. iS^ii. Limobasvm
LAXATiTux, L. I'rep. 1. Sngar, 1 oz. ; lemon
jaioe, I fl. oz. ; snlphate of soda, 3 dr. ; water, 8
fl. oz. ; pnt them into a Boda-waber bottie without
shaking, have the oork ready fitted, add of sesqai-
earbonato of soda (in cryst.), i dr., and instantly
oork the bottle, wire it down, and keep it in a
cool place, inverted. For a dose.

8. Heavy carbonate of magnesia, li dr.; refined
■agar, 1 oz.; essence of lemon, 5 or 6 drops;
water, 8 fl. oz. ; bottle as last, then add of citric
•dd (ciyst.), 8 dr., and instantly oork, Ac, as
before. For a dose. It should be kept for at
least 84 hours before being taken.

Lemonade, Laetie. S^. Lntovinvu uon.
CUM, L. Prep. (Mofftndit.) Lactic add, 1 to 4
dr. ; syrup, 8 oz. ; water, 1 jnnt ; mix. Becom*
mended in dyspepsia, Ac

Lemcoade, Milk. Syn. Livohabux laoiib,
L. I'rep. Tain of sugar, i lb.; water, 1 pint;
dissolve, add the juice of 8 lemons ; milk or whey,
i dnt ; stir the whole together and atmin throngh
a tudr-deve. Some persons add a glassful of
■berry.

Lanottade, Mla'eraL Sgn. LncoirAsa xi-
nnAia, Fr. On the Continent this name is
applied to various drinks consisting of water
aodolated with the mineral acids and sweetened
with sngar. Thus we have limonade chlor-
hydrique, nitriqne, phosphorique, Bulphnrique,
ftc, ul of which are used as cooling drinks in
fevers, inflammations, skin diseases, &c.

LHoinuule, Fort'able. See Powdkbs.

LEMOVASSPOWDIX. Pnp. Bicarbonate of
■oda, 16 oz.; tartaric acid, 14 oz. ; icing lagar, 82
oz. ; essence of lemon, 80 drops ; essence of pine-
apiile, 6 drape; mix.

LUKHIADE P0WSXH8. See Powsns.

LEKOVAOE Wnra. Prtp. Tartaric add, 6
grms. ; alcohol, 25 grms. ; syrup of orange flowers,
50 grms. j sherry wine, 250 grms. ; distilled water,
676 grms. Mix the liquids and dissolve the tar-
taric acid therein ; filter into 8 12-oz. bottles, to
each of which add 30 gr. of bicarbonate of soda,
cork quickly and secure the cork with a string
before shaking. The spirit can be substituted by
cognac if a finer preparation is wanted.

LEHOBATSS KALI. See Kali, Potabbzux
(Citrate), &c.

LEVITIVES. In Mstiiotse, purgatives which
act in a gentle manner, and have a soothing efFect.
See LiXAiiTBS.

LEES. In optiet, a piece of glass or other
transparent medium, having one or two carved
surfaces, either convex or concave. A description
of the different kinds of lenses belongs to a work
on optics. It may, however, be useful to the
chemical student to remark here that the Coo-
siNSTOH and Stashofe uinbbb, which may now
be bought at any of the optidans, neatly mounted
and of great power, for a few shilliDgs, will be
found of the greatest service in examining minute
crystals, precipitates, Ac; and for all ordinary
purposes offer a cheap and efficient substitute for
more complicated microscopes. An extempora-
neous instrument, possessing oonsiderable power,
may be made by simply piercing a small circular
hole in a slip of metal, and introducing into it a
drop of water, which then assumes a spherical
form on each side of the metal, while the latter
is held in a horizontal position. The ingenious
little TOT Kiososoocns sold about the streets of
London, under the form of a perforated pill-box,
at one penny each, consist of such a lens made
with Csiiada balsam instead of water, which has
the property of hardening without losing it«
transparency after exposure for a few hours to
the air. A still simpler substitute for a lens is a
piece of blackened card-paper with the smallest
posnble needle-hole pierced throngh it. Any
very small object held in a strong light, ana
viewed through this hole at the distance of about
an inch, will appear quite distinct, and fromlO to
12 times larger than its usual size.

Another method for the manuftetare of an
extemporaneous lens, by Mr Francis, is the fol-
lowing : — Procure a piece of thin platinum wire,
and twine it once or twice round a pin's point, so
as to form a minute ring with a handle to it.
Break up a piece of flint glass into fr^ments a
little larger than a mustard seed ; place one of
these pieces on the ring of wire, and hold it in
the point of the fiame of a candle or of a gas-
light. The glass will melt and assume a complete
lens-light or globular form. Letitcoolgradoally
and keep it for moonting. It may be mounted
by placing it between two pieces of brass which
miTe corresponding circolar holes cut in them of
sodi a size as to hold the edge of the lens.

LEE'TIL. 8jf». Lbitb, L. The seed of the
Xrvum Uni, a plant of the Nat. Oid. Lxeina-
VOBM. The lentil is considerably smaller than
an ordinary pea, and is of the shape of a double
convex lens. Several varieties are cultivated on
the continent of Europe and in many parts of
Asia, where they are largely consomed as human
food. Lentils are more nourishing than any

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950

LEPROSY— LEVICO

other description of pulse, bat are reputed difficult
of digestion, apt to disorder the bowels, and
ii\iarious to the eyes. Several alimentary pre-
parations, sold at high prices as cures for dys-
pepsia, constipation, &c., contain lentil floor as
the prindpal ingredient.

ComporiUo* qf LentiU.

Nitrogenous matter . . . 26-2

Starch, &c 56-0

Cellulose 2-4

Fatty matter . . . .2-6

Mineral matter .... 2*3

Water 11-6

10000
(PajfM.)

Lentils, on account of thsir difficult digesti-
bility, require to be very thoroughly cooked. See
EktaiiSKta and Rbtaxbmta.

LEPBOST. Sgn. Lsfba. A disease of the
skin distinguished by circular scaly patches.

LEPTAZTSRUr. A peculiar crystalline prin-
<dple obtained from the root of Leptandra vir-
ginioa, a North American plant belonging to the
Nat. Ord. SobofhvlasijlCBjb. Leptandrin is
chiefly employed in American medical practice as
a cathartic and oholagogne, in which latter
function it has been recommended as a sabstitnte
for mercury; it excites the liver and promotes
flow of bile without any irritation of the bowels.
It is stated to be very serviceable in cases of
duodenal indigestion and chronic constipation. —
Data, i to 2 gr.

Mr Wayne obtained leptandrin by adding sub-
acetate of lead to an infusion of the root, Altering,
precipitating the excess of lead by carbonate of
sodium, removing the carbonate of lead by
filtration, passing the Altered liquid through
animal charcoal to absorb all the active matter,
washing the charcoal with water till the washings
began to be bitter, then treating it with boiling
alcohol, and allowing the alcoholic solution to
evaporate spontaneously. By dissolving the
powder thus obtained in water, treating this
with ether and allowing the ether to evaporate,
needle-shaped crystals were obtained, which had
the bitter taste of the root. Leptandrin is soluble
In water, alcohol, and ether.

Commercial leptandrin is a dark greenish
powder consisting chiefly of resin, and is the
substance intended to be used when ordered in
prescriptions.

LETH'ASOT. Sg*. Lbthabsus, L. A heavy,
unnatural sleep, sometimes bordering upon apo-
plexy, with scarcely any intervals of waking,
from which the patient is with difficulty aroused,
and into which he again sinks as soon as the
excitement is withdrawn. It frequently arises
from plethora, in which case depletion is indi-
cated j or from the suppression of some usual
discharge or secretion, which it should then be
OUT business to re-establish. It also often arises
from over mental fatigue and nervous debility,
when relaxation from business, the use of a liberal
diet, and ammoniacal stimulants and antispas-
modics are found useful. When depending on a
4etennini^tioq of blood to the head, cupping may

be had recourse to, and all sonroes of excitement
avoided. In all cases the bowels should be
moved as soon as possible by means of mild pur-
gatives.

LXTTTTCE. 8gn. Laotitoa, L. The early
leaves or head of the Laetuoa taUva, or garden
lettuce, form a common and wholesome salad.
They are reputed as slightly anodyne, laxative,
hypnotic, and antaphrodisiac, and have been
recommended to be eaten at sapper by those
troubled by watehfulness, and in whom there
exists no tendency to apoplexy. The leaves and
flowering tops of L. eirosa are officinal in the
B. P., the 'flowering herb' (laotuoa) in the
Ph. L., the ' inspissated] jniee' in the Ph. E.,
and the 'inspissated juice and leaves' in the
Ph. D. The 'inspissated juice' of Iioetuea
mrota, or strong-scented wild lettnce, is also
officinal in the Ph. £. ; and both the ' leaves and
inspissated juice' of the same variety are ordered
in the Ph. D. The last species is more powerful
than the cultivated lettuce. See Eztbaox and

LAOrrCABTUK.

LEUCOBBH(E'A. 8yn. Weitks; Catabbhub
■vxaivjB, Flvob albub, L. The symptoms of
this disease are well known to most adult females.
The common causes are debility, a poor diet, ex-
cessive use of hot tea, profuse menstruation or
purgation, late hours, immoderate indulgence of
the passions, frequent miscarriages, protncted or
difficult labours, or local relaxation. Occasionally
it is symptomatic of other affections. The treat-
ment must be directed to the restoration of the
general health, and imparting tonicity to the porta
aflected. Tepid or sea bathing or shower-baths ;
bark, chalybeates, and otiiet tonics; with local
affusions of cold water and mild astringent
injections, as those of black tea or oak bark,
are generally found successful in ordinary

LEVAITT' KUT. See CocotrLVB nrsicrB.

LEVICO. An arseniated mineral water from
the Aostrian Tyrol. It has the following composi-
tion, according to Drs L. von Barth and Hugo
Weidel :

Levico (Strong) springs from 4 rents at the
bottom of the grotto named Yitriolo Cave, which
is 4S0 feet deep; 19 pints are supplied per
minute.

Fer 10,000 Pari* hy WeigM.

Arsenious acid .

Chloride of sodium

Frotosnlphate of iron

Persulphate of iron

Sulphate of alumimum
„ „ manganese
„ „ calcium •
„ „ magnesium
„ „ potassium
„ „ sodium •
„ „ ammonium

Silicic acid .

Carbon from organic matter

0-0868?9
0-001781
26-676198
18-019720
6-239878
0-002418
8-724^88
3-883451
0-087081
0-312031
0-032270
0-310384
0-097825

Levico (UUd) springs from a g^rotto named
the Ocker Cave with a supply of 88 pinte per

minute.

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LBVIGATION— LIGHT, ELECTRIC

061

Ar 10,000 Partt by Wriglt.

Aneniona acid , .

. 0-0096

Chloride of Rodiam .

. 0-0003

Protoanlphate of inm

. 6-6278

Penalpiuite of iron

. 2-7272

Sulphate of alumimam

. 1-6919

» M copper .

. 0O520

Protocarhonate of iron

. 0-1658

. 0-0008

„ „ mag^esiTun

. 2-8648

„ „ calcinm •

. 8-2477

„ „ sodiuni .

. 0-1679

„ „ potaraom

, 0-0099

„ „ anunoniam

. 0-0062

Silicic arid

. 0-2298

LKYIOAIIOV. 83%. LBnOAZlo, L. The
prooen of reducing snliatances to fine powder,
by making them into a paste with water, and
grinding the man npon a hard smooth rtone
or (lab, irith a conical piece of itone having a
flat, smooth nnder •ortace, called a 'mnller.'
Lerigation ia reiorted to in the preparation of
punto on the imall scale, and in the elntriation
<tf powdera. The term is also sometimes incor-
rectly applied to the lengthened tritnration of
a SBDstanoe in a marble or Wedgwood-ware
mortar*

IBYOBACyinc ACID. See lUcnno Acid.

liETDXH' JAS. Syn. Lsydsh phiaIi, Ekko-
miOAL JAS. An insteximent for the accomnla-
tion of the dectric floid. Its simplest form is
that of a wide-monthed jar of rather thin glass,
coated on both sides wiUi tin-foil, except on the
npper portion, which is left nncoated, and having
a cover of baJced wood, through which passes a
brass wire ternunating in a metallic knob, and
ooBuniuieaiing with the inner coating. To charge
the jar the onter coating is connected with the
earth, and the knob pnt in contact with the
oondaetor of an electrical machine. The inner
and onter surfaces of the glass thns become re-
spectively positive and negative, and the particles
<rf the glass become strongly polarised. On
makiiig connection between the two coatings
with a conducting substance discharge takes
place by a bright spark and a loud snap ; and if
any part of the body be interposed in the circuit
a shock is f^lt.

LIBATITJ8'8 UOTOE. See Ta (Tn ohlo-
■am*).

U'CHBV. In paiAology, a dry papulous or
pimply eruption of the skin, terminating in scurfy
exfoliations. " Lichen exhibits great variety in
its outward characters in different individuals ; in
one the pmples are brightly red ; in another, of
debQitafad constitution, they are bluish and livid ;
IB a tiiird they ate developed around the baise of
hairs; in a fourth they appear as circular groups
and increase by their circumference, while they
fade in the centre, forming so many rings of
various sixe; in a fifth, a modification of the
preceding, they have the appeaiance of flexuons
tsuids ; while in a sixth they are remarkable for
producing intensity of suffering or unusual dis-
organisation of the akin. They are all occasioned
by constitutional disturbance, sometimes referable
to the digestive, and sometimes to the nervous sys-
tan. In some instances, however, they depend

upon a local cansA. I have had a crop of lichenous
pimples on the backs of my hands from rowing in
hot weather; and in hot climates that annoying
disorder called prickly heat is a lichen " (J^rm.
Wilton). The treatment of this affection is
noticed under EBUFTloirB (Papular).

LICHS9S. 8yn. LioHBirsg (Juss.), Liobbv-
AiiXg (Lind.), L. In iotoay, these are ciyptoga*
mous plants, which appear under the form of
thin, flat crusts, covering rocks and the barks
of trees. Some of them, like Iceland moss
{Citraria itlamdiea), are esculent and medicinal,
and employed either as medicine or food; and
others, when exposed in a moistened state to the
action of ammonia, yield purple or blue colouring
principles, which, like indigo, do not pre-exist in
the plant. Thus the Soecella tinotoria, the Vario-
laria oreina, the Lecamora tariaraa, ha., when
ground to a paste with water, mixed with putrid
urine or solution of carbonate of ammonia, and
left for some time freely exposed to the tax,
furnish the archil, litmus, and cudbear of com-
merce, very similar substances, differing chiefly in
the details of their preparation. From these the
colouring matter is easily extracted by water or
very dilute solution of ammonia. See AxoElx,
CusBBAB, and Litmus.

LISBSB'S HESBS OP HEALTH— Oesnnde-
heltskranter Llebersehe — Blankanhsimer Thee —
Blankenheimer Tea — Herba Oalsopsidis Grandl-
flone Condsa (yellow hemp-nettle).

IiIO'ATUIlX. In twrgtry, a small waxed piece
of cord or string formed of silk or thread, cm-
ployed for the purpose of tying arteries, veins,
and other parts, to prevent hsemorrhage, or to
cause their extirpation. To be safe and useful
they should be round, smooth, and sufficiently
strong to permit of being tied with securitv mth-
out incurring the danger of breaking or slipping.
There are many cases recorded in which emigrants,
soldiers, and travellers have lost their lives fnnu
the simple inability of those around them to apply
a ligature.

IIOET. Sy%. LuKBV, Lux, L. Light acts
as a vivifying or vital stimulus on organised
beings, just as privation of lights or darkness dis-
poses to inactivity and sleep. "In maladies
characterised by imperfect nutrition and san-
gninification, as scrofula, rickets, and anemia,
and in weakly snigects witii oedematons (dropsical)
limbs, Ac, free exposure to solar light is some*
times attended with very happy results, (hien
and elevated situations probably owe part of their
healthr qualities to their position with regard to
it." On the contrary, " in diseases of the eye,
attended mth local vascular or nervous excite-
ment, in inflammatory conations of the brain, in
fever, and in mental irritation, whether attended
or not with vascular excitement, the stimulns of
light proves injurious, and in such cases dark-
ness of the chamber should be enjoined. After
parturition, severe wounds, and surgical opera-
tions[, and in all inflammatory conditions, exclusion
of strong Hght contributes to the well-doing of
the patient (Ptfrvu-o).

LXGHT, XLECTBIC. Shortiy after Faraday's
discovery in 1880 of electrical induction, or the
power of a bar of magnetised steel to set up in a
certain direction a current of eleotzicity in a 0(41

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958

LIGHT, ELECTRIC

of tniulated wire when introduced into it, IHxu,
redncing the result of Faraday's researches to
practice, constructed an instmment which ap-
pears to hare heen the first dynamic magneto-
electric machine. By Pixu's contrivance a cur-
rent of electricity was generated hy means of the
poles of a permanent horseshoe magnet heing
made to revolve across those of an electro- or
temporary magnet, the induced electricity set np
in which in its tnm established in the surround-
ing helix a current of electricity, which heing
made to escape by the terminals or ends of the
wire coils conld he applied to practical nse.

The dynamic electro-magnetic machines of
Saxton and Clarke, which succeeded Pixu's, may
be regarded as modifications of this latter, since
they differed only in the arrangement of their
parts and mode of action. All three machines
were chiefly in nse in chemical and physical
laboratories, whence they have gradnally been sup-
planted by the far more useful Buhmkorff's coil,
a very powerful variety of the electro-magnetic
insiniment. In a small form Clarke's is now
chiefly nsed for medical purposes. That electro-
miagnetic machines, as cheaper and more conve-
nient sources of electric force, should have heen
applied to the purposes of telegraphy, will be an
obvious inference.

Among the most important and effective of the
various instruments for attaining this end, it will
snffice to mention the magneto-electric machine
of Messrs Siemens and HMske, first brought into
use in 1854.

Except, however, in the case of short distances,
or with telegraphs belonging to private persons
or commercial firms, these instruments have not
met with very general adoption. This is owing
to the great tension of the induced current, and
the consequent difficulty of insulating the wire,
particularly for long distances, objections from
which the old galvanic apparatus is in a much
greater measure free. Mr Henley was the first
to use the dynamic magneto-electric machine for
working the electric telegraph soon after this
instmment had been adopted in England ; but, as
we have seen, the method, except in the cases
quoted, has been in great measure abandoned.
A large magneto-electric machine has lately been
invented by Wheatstone, the induced spark from
which is uud for firing mines.

The first eleciro-magnetic machine used for
lighting purposes appears to have been one that
was the joint invention of MM. IfoUet and Van
Malderen, of Bmssels, a circumstance to which
it probably owes its name of the 'Alliance
Machine.'

Kollet, who brought out his invention (which
is a modification of Clark's) in 1850, originally
designed it for the electrolysis of water, the
hydrogen resulting from which it was proposed
to pass through camphine, or some other hydro-
carbon illuminant, and to bum as sas. Addition-
ally it was desigqed to use thenydrogen as a
•ource of motive power by exploding it m a smt-
ably constructed engine. Owing to the improve-
ments, however, effected in the machine by Van
Malderen, by which it became a powerful gene-
rator of magneto-electricity, this purpose was
abandoned. The 'Alliance Machine 'consists of a

cast-iron frame, on the circumference of which
40 powerful horseshoe magnets, each capable of
supporting a weight of 120 to 130 lbs., are fixed,
in eight series of 5 magnets each. A number of
circular metal discs, around the circumference of
which are attached sixteen bobbins of insulated
wire fixed to a horizontal shelf turned by a
pulley, are in such a position with regard to the
magnets, that with each revolution of the shaft
each bobbin passes sixteen alternate poles of the
magnets, and will have had sixteen alternate
currents set up or induced in it. Until replaced
by the later and smaller magneto-electric
machine, the 'Alliance' has been the one mostly
employed for the production of the electric light
in France, and it is still in use in the lighthonsea
of Heve and Qrisnez, as well as in those of many
other places in that country. In 1866 Mr
Holmes took out a patent for a machine, which
differs from Nonet's in increasing the number of
bobbins by arranging them in concentric drcle*
between two brass discs. By this device the
bobbins revolve more quickly in succession in
front of the poles of the magnets, a plan which
ensures the generation of a greater number of
currents for every revolution.

Like the first application of Nollet's, Holmes^
machine was used for lighthouse illumination.
It was in work from December, 1858, until June,
1862, at the South Foreland lightJionse, since
which time it has been removed to Dungeness, in
the lighthouse of which station it has been in oae
ever smce.

When applied to lighting purposes, both the
the 'Alliance' and Holmes', and tiia other
machines named, are worked in conjunction with
the carbon points, which when arranged with
proper machinery constitute the electric lamp.

Wild's and Ladd's are powerful dynamic
magneto-electric instruments, capable of yielding^
large quantities of the electric fluid.

Artificial illumination by means of electzieity
has, however, been more or less occasionally pime>
tised for other than lighthouse purposes.

For instance, in 1854, during the building of
the Napoleon Docks at Rouen, when 800 work-
men were engaged nightly for 4 hours, the elec-
tric light was used for several nights with perfect
success, the men being able to carry on their work
at a distance of more than 100 yards from the
source of the light.

In 1862 and 1863 it was frequently employed
in Spain during the night in the construction of
railways. During the late Franco-Qerman war in
1870 it was applied to submarine illomination. and
more lately it has been used in a series of street
illuminations in St. Petersburg.

The electric light apparatus was placed on the
tower of the Admiralty buildings of that city,
and by means of it 3 of the larger streets were
illuminated at night from 7 until 10 o'clock. In
this latter case, as well as in that of the Boaen
Docks, the lamps were supplied with the eleotrio
current generated in batteries.

It may be said, however, to have been only
within the last two years that the question ox
electric lighting has developed into a burning one,
and that the light itself has become so mueh more
generally and extensively adopted.

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Tlua new en in the history of artiflcial illnmi-
nation may be mid to date from the introdnction
of two forma of dynamic magneto-electric appa-
nkoM, the one invented by Or Siemens, the
eminent telegraphic engineer, the other by M.
Qramme, of Paris, who, from having been for^
meiiy a jonmeyman carpenter, has now become
the head of a mannfactare which forms a moat
important branch of scientific industry.

in the apparatni of Gramme and Siemens 8
marked featnres and improvements over the older
machines have been achieved :

1. A g^reat reduction in size, and, conseqnently,
in coat and requisite space for the mnchine.

2. The method of genentting large quantities
of electricity by the mutual action between the
different parts of the same machine, and the in-
duction therein set np. This discovery was made
independently and nearly simultaneonsly by Drs
Siemens and Sir Charles Wheatatone.

8. The production of the electric current at a
much less expenditure of motive power.

On this latter point Professor l^dall, in his
repml to the Elder Brethren of the Trinity Honse,
states that magneto-electric machines of old
oonstmction cost 10 times more, occupied 26
times the space, and weighed li times as much
a* the recent machines, while they produced only
one fifth of the light with practiradly the same
driving power ; which in efFect amounts to this —
that, taking illuminating efiect in each case into
consideration, the new machines cost one fiftieth,
and are, aa regards space occupied, 186 times
more advantageons than the earlier forms.

In all the older and larger machines the current
of electricity, as it was given off from the wire
and passed Uirongh the carbon points, was alter-
nate or first in one direction and then in the oppo-
site— tliat is, it was a momentary current, first
positive and then negative.

In Siemens' machine, and in one form of
Gramme's, the current is direct — that is, it pur-
sues one nnifbrm course in its passage through
the carbon jM>iDts of the lamp, and in its circuit
from the terminal of one irire to that of the
other.

Scientiflc opinion is somewhat at variance as to
the disadvantages of the indirect current ; many
dectriciaos consider that it causes the partial
destruction of the oontacts, and sets up onneces-
saiy heat in the machine. In magneto-electric
machines employed in electro-metallurgic opera-
tions it is essential the current should be a
direct one.

In tlie Oiamma machine the electro-magnet
consists of a ring composed of soft iron wire
attached to a horiiontal spindle or axis, which
latter is toniied by an endless strap revolving on a
pulley. Around this iron ring are wound a
number of omls, each having 80O turns, of insu-
lated copper wire, each coil being bent inside the
ling, and fixed to an insulated piece of brass.

ne wire being continuous, each coil is con-
nacted with tiie adjacent one, the whole of the
coils thns forming a single conductor. The series
of piecea of braes to which the wire is soldered
ars fomied into a cirde, which surrounds the axis
of the mschine, each ^eee of brass being insulated
from its neigliboar. The iton-wirs ring with, its

attachments is so arranged, that when the shaft
or axis to which it is fixed is turned, it revolves
between the poles of a powerful horseshoe magnet
in the same plane with it. As it turns the ring
gives rise in the coils to two different and
diverse currents of electricity, one in one half of
the coils around the ring, and the other in the
other half.

These currents are made to pass to the circle
composed of the insulated piecea of brass, which
are arranged radially to the axis of the machine.

Two brass brushes press against these insulated
brass radii, one on each side.

These brushes are connected one to each ter-
minal of the machine, and so contrived as always
to be in contact with the coils, not becoming
insulated from one coil until contact is established
with the next one, an arrangement which gives
rise to a continuous current of electricity always,
and in the same direction.

The Qramme, although of very small dimen-
sions, is an extremely powerful machine. It
easily decomposes water, and will heat an iron
wire 8 inches in length and a 26th of an inch in
diameter to redness.

The following description of the Siemens
magneto-electric machine is from a paper read
some few months back at the Society of Arts by
Dr Paget Higgs, and is extracted from the journal
published by that body :

"In the latest form of construction of the
Siemens magneto-electric machine the anuatore^
as the revolving coU may be called, consists of
several lengths of insulated copper wire, coiled in
several convolutions upon a cylinder. The whole
surface of the cylinder is covered with wire, laid
on in sections, each convolution being parallel to
its longitudinal axis. For about 2-3rds of its sur-
face the wire cylinder is surrounded by curved
iron bant, there being just auflicient space left
between these curved iron bars and the wire
cylinder to allow of its free rotation. The curved
iron bars are prolongations of the cores of large,
flat electro-magnets; the coils of these electro-
magnets and the wire on the cylinder (from brush
to brush) form a continuous electrical drcnit.
On revolving the cylinder (which is supported on
a longitudinal axis in suitable bearings, the axis
carrying a pulley) an' initially weak current is
generated into its wires by their passage through
the magnetic field, formed by the residual mag-
netism of the iron coils of the electro-magnets,
and the current being directed into the coils of
the electro-magnets, increases the magnetism of
the cores, whi^ again induce a stronger current
in the wire cylinder. This material action may
continue until the iron has attained its limit of
magnetisation. The maximum magnetic power
actmg upon each convolution is attained at every
revolution of the armature, when the convolution
passes through the centre of both magnetic fields,
and gradually falls to zero as the convolution be-
comes perpendicular to that position. Each con-
volution has, therefore, a neutral position, and a
convolution leaving tint position on the one side
of the axis and advandng towards the north pole
of the electro-mignet would be subject to a direct
indnoed eurrent) and that portion of the convoln-
tioa jonthe opposite sid« «f the axis voujd be tra-

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LIGHT, BLECTRIC

verud by a cnirent of oppoaite direction u regards
a given point, bat of the mme direction ai
regards circoit. Each of the sections of wire
coiled npon the cylinder consists of two separate
coils, leaving four ends; two of these ends are
connected to each of the segments of a circular
commutator divided into parts. But all the coils
are connected to the several segments of thecom-
mntator in such a manner that the whole of the
doable sections form a continnoos circait, bat not

one continnous helix. Two bmshea placed
tangentially to the segments of the commutator
collect the electric currents; these brnsbes are
connected one to each electro-magnet, and the two
free ends of the electro-magnet coils are connected
to the conducting wires leading to the lamp.

The dimensions, weight, number of revelations
made by the armature, light eqaivalent in normal
candles, and horse-power required for driving, are
for the 8 sizes of nmchines as follows :

Dimenskm in iBcke*.

Wsicht
inlts.

of cjUnder.

Cudla-
light.

Hone-
power.

length.

Width.

Hsiglit.

26
29

44

21-

26

28-8

8-8

9-6

12-6

298

419

1279

1100
660
480

1,000

6,000

14,000

Uto 2
8ito 4
9 to 10

In the lamp which it is preferred to nse with
the Siemens machine, the points of the carbons
after being separated are brought together again
by the gravitation of the top carbon and its
holder. The descent of the top carbon actuates
by means of the straight rack it carries at its
lower end, a large pinion, the spindle of which
carries a small pinion, gearing into a second neck
attached to the lower carbon holder, the superior
weight of the top carbon and holder, in conjunc-
tion with the multiplying ratio of the two pinions,
producing a continual tendency of the carbons to
approach each other. The large and small pinions
are connected to each other, and to the spindle
that carries them, by an arrangement of friction
discs, and the object of this construction is to
allow of the two racks being moved equally and
dmultaaeoasly ap or down for the purpose of
focussing the light when required. This move-
ment is effected by means of bevelled gearing,
and actuated by a milled head, which can be
pressed into position when required. On the
spindle carrying the large and small pinions and
the friction (Uses is placed a toothed wheel, con-
nected with the spindle by a pawl and ratchet.

This wheel is the first of a train of wheels and
pinions driving a regulating fly in the usual way.
The pawl and ratohet are provided to allow of the
rapid distancing of the carbon holders when it
hecomes necessary to introduce fresh carbons.
The spindle of the fly also carries a small finely
toothed ratohet wheel. This ratohet wheel is
actuated by a spring pawl, carried at the end of
a lerb, which lever is the continuation of the
armature of the electro-magnet, in such a manner
that when the armature is attracted by the electro-
magnet, the spring pawl engages in the teeth of
the ratohet wheel, and causes the wheels in gearing
therewith to act upon the racks of the carbon
holders to draw them apart.

The action of the lamp is as follows: — The
current passes from the conductor to the top
carbon holder, thence through the carbons to the
bottom carbon holder, then to the coils of the
eleet«>-magnet situated in the base of the lamp.
3Prom the coils of the electro-magnet the circmt
i« oompl«t«d to Uw other oondactor. Upon the

current passing throagh the circuit, the armature
of the electro- magnet is attracted, and the abut-
ment from the armature lever caused to short-
circuit the coils of the electro-magnet, releasing
the armature. The armature being released, the
short-circuit is removed from the coils of the
electro-magnet, and the cycle of movement re-
peated ; in this manner an oscillatory motion is
given to the armature lever, which by the spring
pawl actuates the ratohet wheel, the train of
clockwork, and the racks of the carbon holders,
forcing the carbons apart until the distance
between their points snffidently weakens the car-
rent, BO that it no longer attracts the armature of
the electro-magnet. Thus by the combined
action of gravitation of the top carbon in drawing
the carbons together, and of the current to sepa-
rate the carbons when they approach too doaely,
a working distance is maintained between the
points with perfect automatism.

Siemens' lamp is at the present time employed
in the Lizard Lightiiouse, in Messrs Siemens'
Engineering Works in England and Wales, as
well as in other localities or buildings requiring
powerfully lighting up.

An interesting ifiustration of the valne of the
electric light to the sailor is famished by the
'Telegraph Journal' of April eth, 1878. This
publication contains a letter from the captain of
the S.S. ' Faraday,' narrating how that vessel was
by ite means prevented from running into another
vessel during a dense fog.

Siemens' magneto-electric apparatus and lamp
were used on the occasion above referred to.

In every form of contrivance for electrical
illumination the lamp or lighting apparatus con-
sists of carbon points separated by a very tUght
interval, through which the carrentof dectricity
passes by means of terminal wires attached to the
dynamo-electrical machine.

The lighting effect is produced by the passage
of the electric spark through the small gap which
separates the carbon points, in which interval
extremely minute hut solid particles of carbon,
given off by the points, are heated ap to incan-
descence in the path of the spark, and thus give
rise to iitt intensely Inminoos fbcns known as

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966

' the electric Hght.' The hrillianoy of the light
of oonne depends upon the quantity of electricity
emjdoyed.

A very large number and variety of designi
and patents for electric lamps haTC made their
appearance in England, America, France, and
Bnaua within the period following the invention
of the small, powerful, and economic dynamo-
electric machines of Siemens and Qramme.

The lighting apparatus generally attached to
and waited by that variety of Gramme's machine
generating the continuous current is that known
as the 'Benin Lamp.' Two carbon electrodes
placed vertically one above the other (the positive
being the upper one) are fixed on brass holders,
which are so connected by a suitably contrived
clockwork movement, comUned with the working
of an electro-magnet in connection with the elec-
tric circuit, as to maintain the two carbon poles
during their combustion at the necessary distance
from each other. Serrin's lamp diifers in detail
from Siemens', but, like this latter, is automatic
in principle. In Puis it was the one in general
use untQ the introduction of the Jablochkoff
candle, and, with the Dnboscq lamp, may be
looked upon as the precursor of the various lamps
and regulators now employed in electric lighting.
Serrin's lamp or regulator, with some slignt
modification in the machinery, is also used in the
Lontin system of electric illumination, by which
separate lights are supplied by separate circuits
of electricity. The Jablochkoff candle is the
invention of a Roasian engineer, whose name it
bears.

It oonaisia of 2 sticks of gas carbon, about 9
inches long and ^ of an inch thick, which are
placed vertically side by side, and insulated from
one another by a very thin strip of kaolin or
china day (a silicate of alumina and potash), the
whole forming a candle. Each carbon rod'is con-
nected with one of the terminal wires of a
Gramme dynamo-electric machine, the electric
dureot from which, however, not being con-
tinwms, sets up an alternate current between the
tips or poles of the candles, which are giadnaUy
otaismned like an ordinary taper, and with this
only difference in action between Serrin's and
Siemens' lamps, that whereas in these latter the
spark passes from the top to the bottom carbon
point, in the Jablochkoff candle it jumps from
side to side. The inventor contends that the
kaolin by becoming heated diminishes the resist-
ance of the circuit and thus permits of the pas-
sage of the electric spark more easily throngh the
carbons; and also, we believe, asserts that the
kaolin, being electrolytically decomposed as the
carbons are consumed, becomes converted into
silica, which melts and drops down, whilst the
olmniniiim liberated contributes luminosity
dnring combustion to the flame.

One of the chief advantages, however, claimed
hf M. Jablochkoff is, that he can divide the
emenit into a nnmber of different lights, as the
lenstonoe of the circuit is uniform.

▲ laige nnmber of Jablochkoff candles are
emplOTed in the celebrated ' Magasins da Louvre,'
one of the most extensive commercial establish-
ments in Paris for the sale of silks, ribbons,
glorsi^ &e., and clothing of every description.

The pure white light diffused by electricity
admirably adapts it for viewing colours of aU
kinds at night, whether seen in pictures or on
fabrics and raiments, and more particularly blues
and greens, the hues of which are frequently
indistinguishable from each other by gaslight.
The candle is also used to light the courtyard of
the H6tel du Louvre, a large building contiguous
to, and with its apartments running over, the
Mi^asins, as well as in several shops.

JablocbkolTs system is also in work in Paris in
front of many public buildings, and by its means
the Place and Avenue de l'Op£ra, together occu-
pying a space 900 ^ards long by SO yards wide,
are brilliantly illummated every night.

That celebrated circus, so well known to every
visitor to Paris, the Hippodrome, is also lighted
by it.

Another form of electric lamp is that of M.
Bapieff, now in use in the macmne-room of the
' Times ' newspaper office. In this lamp there are
four carbon points instead of two. M. Bapieff,
like M. Jablochkoff, states that by means of his
system he is enabled to supply several lamps with
the same electric current. In the Wallace-Parmer
lamp slabs of carbon instead of points are had
recourse to.

In the lamps of M. Begnier, in one variety two
revolving carbon discs are used, whilst in another
a rod of carbon descends upon a disc of the same
material, an arrangement which the inventor
states leads to the subdivision of the current and
its separate utilisation by a number of such
lights.

One of the latest and apparently most suc-
cessful methods for dividing Uie electric current
so that one and the same current shall be made
simultaneously to supply and render incandescent
a series of carbon points, and in so doing g^ive
rise to as many effective electric illuminators, is
that of Mr Werdermann. Mr Werdermann,
observing the disparity of consumption between
the positive and negative poles of the electrodes,
found by experiment that when the sectional
area of the negative pole was 64 times greater
than the positive one, the electric arc was so far
reduced that the two carbons were in contact.
Under these conditions the electric arc was in<
finitely small, the negative electrode was not
consumed, whilst the positive one was incan-
descent. Two supplies of electric light, there-
fore, ensued, one by the electric arc, and the
other by the incandescent carbon of the positive
electrode. Under these circumstances, if it were
possible to devise a plan by which the positive
pole as it consumed should he kept in uniform
contact with the negative pole, tiie difficulty
which had hitherto proved the stnmblingblock
to using a series of lights from one current would
be annihilated.

Mr Werdermann demonstrated the correctness
of his premises by a practical illustration of his
plan (November, 1878) at the British Tele-
graph Manufactory, 874, Euston Bood. The cur-
rent from a dynamo-electric Gramme machine
of 2-horse power was conducted to two electrio
lamps, each having an illuminating value equal
to 860 candles each. The light so produced is
described by a spectator as " being wrft and iim*

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LIGHT, ELECTRIC

like, and aa being capable of being looked at
without discomfort, thongh it was not shaded."
These being eztingnished, ten smaller lamps
were ignited by means of the same corrent, each
one having an illuminating power eqnal to 40
candles. "The lamps bnmed steadily with a
beantifQl soft and clear white light. First one
of the ten lights was then extingnished, and
afterwards a second, the only effect on the re-
mainder being that they became slightly more
brilliant " (' Dafly News •").

Unlike Mr Bdjson, Ur Werdermann does not
believe in the indefinite divisibility of the electric
light. It will be observed that the candle-power
of the light becomes diminished by snbdivision.
Two lights gave a light eqnal to 700 candles,
vrlineas the same current divided into ten lights
gave an aggregate light of only 400 candles.

The following extract from the 'Times' of
December 6th, 1878, illnstrates the financial
aspect of the electric light question : —

" At the nsnal weekly meeting of the Society
of Arts, held last evening, Dr C. W. Siemens,
F.B.S., in the chair, a paper on electric lighting
was read by Mr J. N. Shoolbred. M.Inst.C.E.
The object of the author was to present some
results of the application of electric lighting to
indnstrial purposes, especially as regards cost.

He noticed first the Holmes and the Alliance
magneto-electric machines, giving alternating
currents and single lights for lighthouse use.
Secondly, he rererred to the dynamo-electric ma-
chines, producing single lights for general indus-
trial purposes, as well as for lighthouses, and
induing the Siemens and the Qramme machines.
In his third group the author included the
machines used for producing divided lights, each
group indicating a marked period representing a
clearly defined stage of progress in electric light-
ing. With reg^d to cost, Mr Shoolbred stated
that in every instance his figures and particulars
were those afforded by the users of the various
lights, and not by the inventors or their repre-
sentatives. In the case of the Holmes machine
the annual cost per lighthouse was about £1086,
inclusive of interest, repairs, and wages. With
the Siemens machine the annual cost was about
£494 per lighthouse, incloding interest and the
other expenses. With the Alliance machine as
Bsed at Havre the cost was about £474 per annum
per lighthouse, interest, &c., indnded. The single-
light Qramme machine has been in use in ihe
Paris goods station of the Northern of France
Ktilway for 2 years. Six machines have been kept
going with one light each, and the cost is found to
be 6d. per light per honr, or with interest on out-
lay at 10% , Sd. per hour. The same light at the
ironworks of Messrs Powell at Bonen was stated
to cost 4Ld. per light per honr, exclnsive of in-
terest and charge for motive power, the latter
bdng derived from one of the engines on the
the works. In 1877 a series of experiments were
earned out with the Lontin light at the Paris
terminus of the Paris, Lyons, and Mediterranean
Bailway. The passenger station was lighted, and
the resnlts were so satisfactory that the company
have entered into a permanent oontiact with the
moprtoton of the I^ntin light for lighting tiieir
Burt* good* atfttion with 12 lights, at a coat of

6d. per liglit per honr. The Western of France
Railway Company have had 6 Lontin lights in
the goods station at the Paris terminus, St Laxsre,
since May last, and 12 lights in the passenger
station since June. Careful experiments have
shown the cost to be 8d. per light per hour, in-
dosive of interest. Referring to the JablochkoS
light, Mr Shoolbred placed before the meeting
some particnlars with regard to its application in
the Avenne de I'Op&a, Paris, which were afforded
him by M. J. Allard, the chief engineer of the
lighting department of the City of Paris. It
aimears that the anthorities pay the Sod^
Gf&i^iale d'£lectricit^ 87f . 2c. per honr for the
62 lamps in use there. These 62 lamps supersede
844 gas jets which were previously used, and
which coat the anthorities 7'244f. per honr. The
electric illumination, however, is considered as
equal to 682 gas jets, or about double the original
illumination — that is, to a cost of 14'46f. per
hour, as against 37'2f . for the deetric light, the ,
cost of which, therefore, is 2*6 times that of the
gas. The contract for lighting by electridty was
terminated by the City of Paris, and the authorities
have dedined to renew it except at the price
paid for gas, namdy, 7'224f. (or about 6x.) per
hour, and that only until the 15th of January next.
These terms have been accepted by the Soci£t^,
so that the price paid to them will be at the
rate of abont 1^. per light per hour. Mr Shool-
bred stated that the Sod^ place thdr expenses
at l-06f . (or jnst lid.) per light per honr, which,
however, they hope shortly to reduce by one half.
A series of careful photometric experiments
carried out by the municipal authorities with the
Jablochkofl lights, above referred to, showed each
naked light to possess a maximum of 300 candles
of intensity. With the glass globe this was
reduced to 180 candles, showing a loss of 40% ,
while during the darker periods through which
the lights passed the light was as low as 90
candles. The foregoing were the only authenti-
cated particnlars which the author could obtain
as regards the working of the various deetric
systems of electric lighting. In oohclnaion, Mr
Shoolbred referred to the Rapiefl light at the
' Times ' office, which, he observed, worked fairly
and with regularity, which could not be sud of
all others, and it might therefore be entitled to
take rank as an established application of decbic
illumination. The paper was illustrated by the
Siemens, Rapiefl, Serrin, and other forms of
deetric light, which were shown in operation."

That the electric light is eventoally destined to
supplant coal-gas in illuminating the fronts of
large buildings, open spaces, squares, assembly
rooms, public halls, theatres, picture galleries^
workshops and factories, &c., seems no very ex-
travagant prediction. We have already seen that
it has for some years been emploped in one light-
house ; and we have the testimony of Mr Douglas,
of the Trinity House, at a meeting of the Society
of Arts, that at the Souter Point Lighthouse there
had been only 2 stoppages in 8 years, once through
a bad carbon breiSdng, and once throng &e
lighthouse-keeper going to deep.

In addition to places above specified, amongst
other localities in which it is in work, we may men-
tion the choools^ factories of M. Menier, at

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NoiieUei his india-rubber works at Genelle^ his
sugar r^nery at Hice, and Messrs Caille's works
at Paris.

That eleotricity is more economical as a
method of artificial ligbing than coal-gas the
figores previoosly given seem to demonstrate,
and there can be no qaestion as to the much
greater Inminosit; and parity of the light over
the gas flame, qualities which render it an admir-
able substitute for the sunlight, the absence of
which it may be said to supply at night. One
disadvantage urged against its employment in
weaving rooms is that it casts such dark and
distinct shadows that these are frequently mis-
taken for the threads themselves, an objection
which is said to have been remedied by placing
the light as near the ceiling as possible. The
non-generation of carbonic acid and sulphurous
prodncta snch as are given off by burning gas,
utboogh of slight importance when the light is
employiBd in the open air, becomes a great advan-
tage when it is used in crowded assembly rooms
or theatres, since the atmospheric contamination
caused hj carbonic acid becomes of course con-
siderably reduced. The absence of sulphur com-
pounds especially qualifies the light for use in
large libraries. If it be true that the light gives
rise to an appreciable amount of ozone, this oon-
■tatntes another point in its favour. Opinion is
at variance as to the possibility of the practical
application of the electric light for illuminating
private houses and dwellings in such a manner as
to supply the place of the gas we now bum in
them. One serious impediment to the probable
aceomplishment of this result certainly seems to
be the fact that electricity for lighting purposes
can only practically be conveyed to short dis-
tances trem its source, which would necessitate
the establishment and supervision of a number of
generating machines near the houses to be
Ughted. Another obstacle, which hitherto has
not been overcome, is the drcnmstance that the
enrrent when subdivided yields proportionately
a greatly diminished amount of Ught. For
instance^ one light which had a certain photo-
metric candle value would yield when divided
into two an aggregate amount of light oonsider-
ablj leas than the one ; and if divided into three
stiu leas, and so on. This has been pointed out
when notidng Mr Werdermann's invention for
the divisibility of the light. Mr Bdison, the
American inventor, asserts that he has conquered
this ^fficulty, and additionally perfected a
m«i-tiiiM» for measuring the enrrent used in the
electric light. He states that it consists of an
i^pantas placed in every honse lighted by elec-
tricity, which roisters the quantity of electricity
consumed, and uses for the purpose 1-lOOOthpart
of the qnanti^ employed in the building.

A matter of primary importance in connection
with the successful working of the electric light
is the quaUty of the carbon points. In their
manirfartore gas carbon obtained from the necks
of the retorts used in gas-making, as being the
baldest and purest, is employed.

Snperiorj however, as tiiis form of carbon is to
every other deacription of the substance, it is
never chemiokUy pore, and as any foreign sub-
stance imparts to the light the irregularity or

flickering that sometimes accompanies it, it is
necessary the impurities should be removed. To
effect their separation the carbon has to nndergo
several processes, such as soaking in caustic pot-
ash to remove the silica, treatment with strong
acids, several washings, grinding, Ac. It is then
kneaded and put into moulds, in which it is sub-
jected to a pressure as high as 12 tons to the
square foot. Subsequently the points so made
are baked.

Since the above article was written the electric
light has made enormous strides, and is in con-
stant use in numberless factories, exhibitions,
and public places'. Recent modifio^ions in the
law relating to the formation of Electric Light-
ing Companies has given a great impetus to its
use, and at the present time the lighting of large
areas in London and other cities is bang nnder-
taken. The experience of the past 10 years has
curried electric lighting beyond the experimental
stage, and the extended use of the light will
probably serve to establish it firmly. This deve-
lopment has naturally led to the introduction
of endless new apparatus, and the whole question
is now far beyond the limits of even a long
article.

LiaHTHnra,FBECAirriOVaAOAIKST. The
object of a lightning conductor is to deliberately
attract the lightning, and, by providing proper
means, to conduct it safely and harmlessly to the
earth. It is obrious, therefore, that a defective
conductor is worse than none at all. In the case
of houses placed among tall trees, it is probably
the better plan to fix the conductor to one of the
tallest, provided that in this way it is of a
greater height than the highest point of the
house or building. By this means, if the cini-
ductor should fail, the tree alone suffers. If it
be remembered that electricity has a tendency to
discharge itself through or to be attracted by
points and projections, the danger of standing
under an uolated tree during a thunderstorm
will be readily understood. In the same way a
person walking across open ground withont trees
constitutes himself an isolated pmnt, and is,
therefore, liable to be struck. In such cases it is
probably safer to lie down than to continue walk-
ing, A wood is fairly safe provided the traveller
do not halt under the tallest trees, which are, as
before said, liable to be struck. The proximity
of iron gates, railings, and the like should be
avoided. In the house the centre of a carpeted
room is practically safe unless there be a metal
chandelier overhead.

IilOlnV. C,H,aO,. 8yn. Cbllulou. This
is woody fibre deprived of all foreign matter. It
forms about 96% of baked wood, and constitutes
the woodyportiouofall vegetable substances. Fine
linen and cotton are almost entirely composed of
lignin, the associated vegetable principles having
been removed by the treatment the fibres have
been subjected to daring the process of their
manufacture.

Pure lignin is tasteless, inodorous, insoluble in
water and alcohol, and absolutely innutritious ;
dilute acids and alkaline solutions scarcely affect
it, even when hot j oil of vitriol converts it into
dextrin or grape sugar, according to the mode of
treatment. When concentrated sulphuric add is

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958

LIGMITfi— LIMB

added very gradually to about half its weigbt of
lint, linen rag, or any similar substance shredded
small, and contained in a glass vessel with con-
stant trituration, the fibres gradoally swell up and
disappear, without the disengagement of. any gas,
and a tenacious mucilage is formed, which is en-
tirely soluble in water. If after a few hours the
mixture be diluted with water, the acid neutral-
ised by the addition of chalk, and after filtration
any excess of lime thrown down by the cautions
addition of a solution of oxalic acid, the liquid
yields, after a second filtration and the addition
of alcohol in considerable excess, a gummy mass,
which possesses all the characters of pure dextrin.
If, instead of at once saturating the diluted acid
solution with chalk, we boil it for 4 or 5 hoars,
the dextrin is entirely converted into grape sugar,
which, by the addition of chalk and filtration as
before, and evaporation by a gentle heat to the
consistence of a syrup, will, after repose for a few
days, furnish a concrete mass of crystallised sugar.
By strong pressure between folds of porous paper
or linen, redissolving it in water, agitation with
animal charcoal, and recrystallisation, brilliant
colourless crystals of grape sugar may be obtained.
Hemp, linen, and cotton, thus treated, yield fully
their own weight of gum, and 1% of their weight
of grape sugar. During the above transforma-
tion the sulphuric acid is converted into sulpho-
lignic acid, and may be procured in a separate
state. A. solution of oxide of copper in ammonia,
or solution of basic carbonate of copper in strong
ammonia, dissolves cotton, which may then be
precipitated by acids in colourless flakes.

LXQ'fllTE. Syn. Bbowk ooai.. Wood and
other matter more or less mineralised and con-
verted into coal. The lignites are generally dark
brown, and of obvious woody structure. They
are distinguished from true coals by burning
with little fiame and much smoke. Those of
Qermany are largely used as a source of paraffin
and burning oils.

LIS'SrUH TI'TiB. See GuAiAOTric Wood.

UKE. CaO. Si/». OxiDB oe OAUitoii}
Chattx, Fr. ; EaIiK, Ger. Lime, when pure,
and as a chemical and medical reagent, will be
found treated of under CAXOtrK (Oxide of). It
is prepared on the large scale for commerce by
calcining chalk, marble, or limestone, in kilns,
and ia called quicklime, caustic lime, burnt
lime, stone lime, Ac. The limekilns are usually
of the form of an inverted cone, and are packed
with alternate layers of limestone and fuel, and
the burnt lime ruced out from the bottom. The
lime thus obtadned is a pale yellow powder, com-
Uning eagerly with water, and crumbling to a
light white powder — 'slaked lime' — with the
evolution of much heat. Lime which slakes well
ia termed 'fat lime,' while if it slakes badly it is
termed ' poor lime.' The slaked lime— the oai«i8
HXSKA8 of the B. P.— is fresh lime sprinkled with
water till it falls to powder.

Lime, Chloride of. i^fn. BLBACEnra powsbb,
Chiobihatbd limb, HypoohiiObitb ov CAionni .

This article was formerly believed to be a
compound of lime and chlorine (CaO.Cl), and
consequently received the name of 'chloride of
lime.' We now know, however, that it is not
a definite sabctanoe, bat a mixture of calcium

hypochlorite, calcium chloride, and calcium hy-
^te. The value of this preparation is doe to
the readiness with which the calcium hypochlorite
is decomposed by acids, even by the carbonic acid
of the air, with the evolution of hypochloroiu
acid, which abstracts hydrogen from many vege-
table colouring matters, badly smelling gases, Ac ;
the former are thereby bleached, and the latter
deodorised.

Chloride of lime is most extensively used for
bleaching linen, calico, and similar fabrics, thoa-
sands of tons being made near Newcastle alone
every year. It is also largely employed as a
deodoriser.

Pnp, Freshly slaked lime is tiiinly spread
out in a proper vessel, and exposed to an atmo-
sphere of chlorine gas until it is saturated. Now
included in the Materia Medica.

Slaked lime (fresh), 20 parts ; common salt, 1
part, are- mixed together, and the powder placed
in long earthenware vessels, into which cUorine
is passed until the mixture begins to grow damp,
or until 1 part of it, dissolved in 130 parts of
water, is capable of decolouring 4^ parts of ml-
phate of indigo (see CEXOBiinrntT), when the
whole is transferred to dry bottles.

(Wholesale.) The chlorine is generated from
the usual materials mixed in leaden vessels, heated
by steam, and the gas, after passing throug'h
water, is conveyed by a leaden tube into an ^lart-
ment built of siliceous sandstone, and arranged
with shelves or trays, containing dry fresh-slaked
lime, placed one above another, about an inch
asunder. The process, to produce a first-claas
article, is continued for 4 or 6 days. Daring this
time the lime is occasionally agitated by means of
iron rakes, the handles of which pass through
boxes of lime placed in the walls of the chamber,
which thus act as valves.

The successful manufacture of bleaching pow-
der is dependent upon the careful observance of a
number of conditions, such as the quality of the
limestone, which should be free from iron ; the
presence of magnesia at the time is also vary ob-
jectionable, since it gives rise to the formation
and presence in the bleaching powder of deliques-
cent chloride of magnesium. The apportionment
of the water in slaking the lime is also a matter
of no inconsiderable importance, the lime forming
into balls, which fail to properly absorb the gas
if the water be insufficient, whilst if it be in
excess it yields a powder deficient in chlorine.
When slaked the lime is passed through a sieve
to free it from small pebbles. After being slaked
it is kept for 2 or 8 days before being used, as it
is found that under these circumstances it absorbs
chlorine more readily than when recently pre-
pared. Previous to its entrance into the Ume
chamber the chlorine is passed through water, to
free it from vapour of hydrochloric acid and solid
particles of chloride of mangpanese.

The temperature of the chamber into which
the chlorine is passed ought not to exceed 18° C.
(62° F.). An excess of dilorine has been found
to yield a powder deficient in hypochlorite.

Bleaching powder, unless protected from the
air (carbonic add), slowly parts with its chlorine.
In summer it has been estimated that it loses as
much as 86% of the gas, and in winter aboat 86% .

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LQII!— LIMESTONE

969

Prop., 4v. Chloride of lime is a pale, yellow-
iah-«Uto powder, generally more or less damp,
and e-rolnnK a chlorine-like odonr of hypo-
cfalorons acid. Its soluble constitaenta ^ssolve
in about 20 parts of water. It is decomposed by
■cida with the evolution of chlorine and oxygen
(hypochlorooa acid). Oood chloride of lime
ahoald contain from 82% to 36% of chlorine, of
which, howerer, bnt 26% to 30% can be easily
liberated by an acid.

JEMrai. See Chzosixstst.

Vaa. Chloride of lime is employed in mtdi-
eina as a deodoriser and disinfectant. An oint-
ment of chloride of lime has been used in
■crafola, and a lotion or bath, moderately dilate,
is one of the cleanest and readiest ways of
remoYing the 'itch,' and several other skin
diseases. It is also in great use as a disinfectant,
and may be used either in substance or solution.
A small quantity of the powder spread on a flat
dish or plate, and placed on the chimney-piece,
and a like qnanti^ in an opposite part c^ the
roam will contione to evolve snfElcient chlorine or
kypochlorons acid to disinfect (P — Ed.) the air of
an apartment for several days. The evolution of
cUorine is promoted by occasionally renewing
the exposed surface by stirring it with a piece of
■tide, and after it becomes scentless, by the addi-
tion of a little acid, as strong vinegar, or hydro-
chloric acid, or oil of vitriol, largely diluted with
water. Of late, however, it has 1>een partly
superseded by sulphurous acid, carbolic acid, &c.
The most extensive consumption of chlori^ of
lime is, however, for bleaching textile fabrics.
When employed for this purpose the goods are
first immersed in a dilute solution of this sub-
stance, and then transferred to a vat containing
^nte sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. The chlo-
rine thus disengaged in contact with the cloth
causes the destruction of the colouring matter.
This process is generally repeated several times,
it being unsafe to use strong solutions. White
patterns may thus be imprinted upon coloured
doth; the figures bung stamped with tartaric
add thickened with gum-water, the stuff is im-
mersed in the chloride bath, when the parts to
which the acid has been applied remain unaltered,
while the printed portions are bleached white.

OomelmiUng Bemarki. Chloride of lime is now
searcdy ever made on the small scale, as it can be
purchased of the large manufacturer of better
qoality and cheaper than it could possibly be
made I>y the druggist. The chief precaution to
be observed in the manufacture of good bleaching
vomda is to maintain the ingredients at a rather
low temperature.

IliiM, ^noUgiiite of. An impure acetate of
ealdum used for making mordants in dyeing and
calico-printing, as a substitute for the more ex-
pensive acetate of lead.

lima. Salts of. See under CALCruit.

JJMt. The fruit of Oitnu limatta. It re-
sembles the lonon, bnt is smaller and has a
smoother skin. It is imported into Qrest Britain
in a preserved state for use as a dessert. Its
juice is also largely imported for the preparation
of CIXBIO AOID, and for the prevention of scurvy
OB bold riiip (see belofo).

JUICZ. Sgn. LniOH nwM. The

juice of the fruits of various species of Ciirmt,
principally UMBB, is known in aommerce under
these names. It is very variable as to quality,
which depends upon the method of extraction,
the quality of the fruit, and the honesty of the
shipper.

_ We have examined the juice expressed from
limes sent from the West Indies, from Jamaica,
and from South Africa, with the following
results: (2Won)

V. India. Jamsiea. S. AMca.
Specific grarity

of juice . . 1041-30 1044-18 1044-90
Per cent, of

citric add . 7-96 8-66 8-60

Per cent, of ash 0-321 0-401 0-864

The yield from limes is very small, and the
freshly expressed juice contains a large amount
of pulp. This, however, on standing a few
weeks, separates, and a dear sherry-coloured
liquid is obtained.

A concentrated lime or lemon juice is used by
calico printers. It is a "dark, treacly-looking
fluid, marking from 48°— 64° Twaddell," and
contains about 30% of pure citric add.

Adult. See Lbmoh Jvicb.

Sttim. Lime juice is only valuable on account
of the citric add it contains. If of good quality,
100 gr. will neutralise from 70 to 76 gr. of pore
crystallised carbonate of soda. " For oommerdal
purposes each grain of carbonate of soda neutral-
ised may represent | gr. of crystallised citric add
(equal to 88 gr. of dry acid), and the value of the
Ume juice be calculated in proportion " {(yif«iU).
As commercial lime juice contains variable pro-
portions of vegetable extractive matter, the
indications of the hydrometer cannot be depended
upon. See AcisncsTBT, Cixsio Aoid, Ac.

LIKE'BTOBE. A general term applied to a
great variety of rocks in which carbonate of lime
is the principal constituent ; more or less silica is
also invariably present.

Uttim. The value of chalk, limestone, marble,
&c., for hydraulic mortars and cements may be
determined as follows :

A given weight (say 100 gr.) of the sample is
rednced to powder and digested in hydrochloric
acid diluted with about an eqaal wdghtof water,
with frequent agitation for an hour or longer;
the mixture is then diluted with thrice its volume
of water, thrown upon a filter, and the undis-
solved portion washed, dried, ignited, and
wdghed. This wdght indicates the percentage
of clay and silica or sand, and the loss that of the
lime or calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, and
ferric oride present in the substance examined.
In most cases these results will be suffident to
show the quality of the limestone for the purpose
of making mortar or cement.

The filtrate and the washings are mixed toge-
ther, and ammonia is added in excess ; the bulky,
reddisb-biown predintate is collected, washed,
dried, ignited, and wdghed. Tiua gives the per-
centre of ferric oxide.

The filtrate from last is then treated with
oxalate of ammonium, and the quantity of lime
determined in the manner described under the
head of CALonrx.

The liquid filtered from the precipitate in last

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960

LIMETTIN— LINCTU8

it boiled for some time with carbonate of potas-
num nntil ammoniacal fames are no lon^r
eTolved; the precipitate is then collected on a
filter, washed with not water, dried, and strongly
ignited for 3 or 4 hours, and, lastly, weighed.
This ^Tes the percentage of magnesium carbonate.

LIlCETTUr. A crysfaiilline substance which Pro-
fessor Tilden and C. B. Beck extracted from the
deposit which is found in oil of limes. It has
the formula CigHuO,. Essence of lemon yields a
similar substance, CifH^O^ but essence of ber-
gamot yields a crystalline compound difCering
from both of these. The properties of the sub-
stance are described in a paper communicated to
the Chemical Society.

mrC^US. [L.,Eng.] %». LoOH, LoHOCH,
LiHorVBB, Laicbatitb ; LooOH, Fr. A medicine
of the consistence of honey, intended to be licked
off a spoon. This form of medicine is well
adapted to females and children, but is not much
used in England at the present time. Those em-
ployed in modem pharmacy and prescribing are
included under the heads Coitpeotiov, Cohbbbtb,
and Elbotcasy. The dote, when it is not other-
wise stated, is a teaspoonf nl occasionally.

IlnctTis Acidns. Frep. 1. (Hospital for Con-
sumption.) Dilute sulphuric acid, 6 minims,
ozymel, 26 minims ; simple linctns to 1 dr.

2. (XJniversity College Hospital.) Dilute sul-
phuric acid, 6 minims ; oxymel, 20 minims ; spirit
of chloroform, 2 minims ; treacle to 1 dr.

Uaetu, Caca'o. Sgn. Liircnra cacao, L.;
CbSkb db Tboitchih, Fr. Frep. From cocoa
butter, 2 oz. ; white sugar (in powder), syrnp of
capillaire, and syrup of tolu, of each, 1 oz. Mix.
Demulcent and pectoral ; in coughs, sore throats,
hoarseness, &e.

Linctns ComnnuU*. Prep. 1. Dilate sulphuric
acid, 16 minims; syrup of squill, 30 minims;
paregoric, 8 dr. ; tratcle, 1 dr. ; anise water to 1
oz. ; mix. — Dote, 1 dr. (King's Coll. Hospital).

2. Dilute sulphuric acid, 7i minims ; tincture
of squill, 30 minims ; syrup of extract of poppies,
H dr.; powdered tragacanth, 6 gr, ; treacle, 2
dr. ; water to 1 oz. — Soie, i to 2 dr. (Middlesex
Hospital).

3. Solution of hydrochlorate of morphia, 3
mininm ; spirit of chloroform, 3 minims ; glyce-
rine and water, of each, i dr. (City Chest Hos-
pital).

4. IHInte sulphuric acid, 6 minims; liquid ez-
traet of opium, 8 minims; syrup of squill, 16
minims ; treacle, i dr. ; water to 1 dr. (Charing
Cross HonntalV

6. Acetic acid, 2 minims ; vinegar of squill, 86
minims ; syrup of poppies, 86 minims ; confection
of hips, 100 gr. ; powdered tragacanth, 6 gr. ;
boiling water to I oz. — Dote, 1 to 2 teaspoonfols
(St. Bartholomew's Hoa^tal).

6. Olive oil, 4 dr.; confection of hips, 6 dr.;
vinegar of squill, li dr. ; tincture of opium, 7i
minims; treacle, 8 dr.— Vote, 1 to 2 dr. (St.
Oeorge's Hospital).

7. Dilute sulphuric acid, 6 dr. ; syrup of squill,
6 dr. ; syrup of poppies, 6 dr. ; comp. tinctnre of
camphor, 5 dr. ; ipecacuanha wine, 2 dr. ; gum-
aiable, 6 dr.; treacle, 2i fl. oz.; water, 7i oz. —
Dote, 1 to 2 dr. (Westminster Opbtlujmio Hoa-
pitri).

8. Olive oil, 4 oz. ; tartaric acid, 2 oz.; powdered
gum, 4 oz. ; powdered opium, 30 grs. ; treacle, 5
Iba. (Women's Hospital).

9. Dilate sulphuric add, 80 minims; vinegar
of squill, S dr.; tinctnre of opium, 80 minims ;
powdered tragacanth, 40 gr. ; treacle, 2 oz. ; water,
2 oz. (London Ophthalmic Hospital).

Iiinotnz, Cough. Syn. Pbotokal likctus;
LivCTUB FB0TOSAXI8, L. Frep. (Dr. Latham.)
Compound ipecacuanha powder (Dover's powder),
I dr. ; compound tragacanth powder, 2 dr. ; syrup
of tolu, confection of hips, and simple ozymel, of
each, 1 oz. — Dote, 1 teaspoonfal, 3 or 4 times a
day. " This linetus has been extensively used, as
a remedy for coughs, in the West End of LoncUm,
having been found to be a safe and generally
efficacious remedy " (Sedwood). The preceding
as well as the foUowing are also useful prepara-
tions.

Linctns, Demulcent. 8yn. LiNonra DixiTir-
CBKB, L. ; LooCH SB Tbovchin, Fr. Frep. From
oil of almonds, syrup of capillaire, manna, and
cassia pulp, of eadi, 2 oz. ; powdered gum traga-
canth, 20 gr. ; orange-flower water, 2 fl. oz. As
the last. The above is the quantity for 2 days,
which is as long as it will keep.

Linetus of Egg. i^n. LnroTiTB ovi, Lobook
OTi, L. Ftrep. Oil of almonds, i dr. ; yolk of 1
egg ; syrup of marsh-mallow, 1 oz. Mix.

Linctns, Emollient. Sgn. Oily BUTLBioir;

LoHOCH OLBOBTHC, EUULBIO OLEOSA, L. ; LoOCH

HxriMUX.Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Oil of almonds,
powdered gum, and orange-flower water, of each,
4 dr.; syrup of marsh-mallow, 1 oz. ; water, 3
fl. oz. or q. B. ; for an emulsion. In troublesome
oonglis.

Linctns, Sxpee'torant. Sifn. LivotUB xx-
FEOIOBAKB, LoBOOH B., L. Prep. 1. Ozymel of
squills, confection of hips, syrnp of marsh-mallow,
and mucilage of gum-araUc (thick), equal parts.
Demulcent and expectorant.

2. (Dr. Copland.) Oil of almonds and syrup
of lemons, of each, 1 fl. oz. ; powdered ipecacu-
anha, 6 gr. ; confection of hips, 1 oz.; compound
powder of tragacanth, 3 dr.

Linetus, Oreen. S»»- hisarm tibidb, Lo-
HOCE VIBISB, L. Frep. Pistachio nuts (or sweet
almonds), Ifo. 14 ; syrup of violets, 1 oz. ; oil of
almonds, i oz. ; gum tr^;acanth, 16 gr. ; tinctore
of saffron, 1 scruple; orange-flower water, 2 dr.;
water, 4 oz. Mix.

Llactns c. IpecaenanhA. Frep, Ipecacuanha
wine, i dr. ; linctns to 1 oz. — Dote, 1 teaspoonfiil
(St. Bartholomew's Hospital).

Linetus Limonls. Frep. Syrnp of lemon, 6
dr. ; solut. acet. morphia, 2 fl. dr. ; water to 8 oz.
—Dote, 1 dr. (Throat Hospital).

Llactns of Linseed. (E.1744.) Sgn. Lnonm
Lnri, LoROOH um, L. Frep. Fresh-drawn lin*
seed oil, 1 oz. ; syrup of tolu, 1 oz. ; sulphur, 2 dr. ;
white sugar, 2 dr. Mix.

Linetus of Manna. (E. 1744.) %•. Lnronrs
Mixsx, IjOhoch MAHiriB, L. Frep. Equal parts
of manna, oU of almonds, and syrnp of violets.
Mix.

LlnetuB Morphlna. Frep. 1. Solution of hydro-
chlorate of morphine, 8 minims ; spirit of ddoro-
form, 8 minims; glycerine^ 1 dr. (Westminster
Hospital).

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LINEN

961

2. HydrocUorate of morphine, | gr. ; dilate
bjdrocliloric arid, 2 minims; ijrup of squill, 20
minima ; dilute hydrocyanic acid, 2 minims ; vater
to make 1 dr. (^oyal Chest Hospital).

Liiictiu of Saphthalln (J)«p(uqui»r). 8gn.
lOXCTVa XJLP HTEiLXnri, Lohooe kafhthaxihi,
L. Prtp. To one common lohoch add from 8 gr-
to 90 gr. of naphthalin. The latter must he well
triturated with the gtim. — Doie. One teaspoon-
ful, as an expectorant.

Liactu Opiatu. Prep, Tincture of opium,

10 minims; dilute sulphuric acid, 12 minims;

treacle, 6 dr. ; water to 1 oi. — I>ot», 1 to 2 dr.

(Guy's Hospital).

Idjutoa, PectoraL Sgn. Fox LUirofl; Lijrc-

TU8 PBCTOBAUB, LOHOOH i FUUfOHB TULPriTlC,

It. frep. From spermaceti snd Spanish juice,
of each, 8 oi. ; water, q. s. to soften the liqnorice ;
make a thin electuary, and add of honey, 8 Ihs. ;
oil of aniseed, 1 oz. ; mix well. A popular and
excellent demulcent in coughs. It formerly con-
tained the herb ' fox lungs,' but spermaceti is now
substituted for that article.

Uaetna of Poppies (Th. Hosp.). Sfn. Lihctub
PAPATXBia. JPrep. Compound tincture of cam-
phor, syrup oF poppies, and syrup of tolu, of each,
equal parts ; mix. — Dote, 1 fl. dr.

Usetu FotaHSS Hitratis. Prep. Nitrate of
potash, H dr. ; oxymel, i dr. ; syrup of roses to
1 J 01. — Doee, 1 teaspoonful (Guy's Hospital).

Liaetiu SeUlss. Prep. 1. Syrup of squill, syrup
of poppies, syrup of lemons, syrup of tolu, equal
quantities. — Dote, 1 dr. (Tlm>at Hospital).

2. Oxymel of squill, 20 minims; dilute sul-
phuric acid, 5 minims; tincture of opium, 2
miidilu; simple linctus to 1 dr. (Consumption
Hosjrfial).

S. Oxymel of squill, 1 dr.; paregoric, 16
minims; mucilage, 1 dr. — Doie, 2 dr. (St.
Mai^s).

Unctoa Seilla Co. (vel c. Opio). Prep. 1. Oxymel
of squill, 5 minims ; compound tincture of cam-
phor, 2^ minims; spirit of nitrons ether, Sf
minims; water to Idr. (Westminster Hospital),

2. Oxymel of squill, 20 minims; compound
tincture of camphor, 10 minims; ipecacuanha
wine, 5 minims ; mucilage to 1 dr. (Boyal Chest
Hospital).

8. Oxymel of squill, 2 dr.; paregoric, 1 dr.;
ipecacuanha wine, i dr. ; mucilage to 5 dr. (Uni-
venity Hospital).

Unctna Simplex (vet Theriaca Preparata).
Prep. Treade, 20 minims; spirit of chloroform,
2 minima; water to 1 dr. (Consumption Hos-
pital).

UaetuofSpetauMea. (E.1744.) Sifn. Lihc-
tub OBTACH, Lohoch ohmlObi, L. iVep. Sper-
maceti, 2 dr. ; yolk of egg, q. s. ; triturate, and
add gradually oil of almonds, 4 oz. ; syrup of tolu,
1 oz ; mix.

IdactoB of Symp of White Poppies. (P. C.)
Sya. LmoTUB ktrwi capatbbib Aiai, Lohooh
fiwremvAtATKBlBAJXt. Prep. White lohoch,
6 parts ; symp of poppies (P. C), 1 part. Mix.

Unetu, Tupentina. Ars. LnrorvB btimxt-
Lurs, L. xxBBBiitiBnrx, Lohooh authblh in-
Ticinf, L. Prep. (Seeamier.) Oil of turpen-
tine, 2 dr.; honey of roses, 3 oz.j mix. — Dote.
A teaspoonful night and morning, followed by a

TOL. IX.

draught of any weak liquid; in worms, more
especially tape- worm.

Idnctns pro Tnssl. Prep. Oxymel of squill,
syrup of poppies, mucilage, of each, equal parts
(St. Thomas's Hospital).

Linctus, Vhita. Syn. LiNorns Azxoa, Mib-
TVBA AI3A, Lohooh albvii, L. ; Loooh blako,
Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Jordan almonds, 4i dr. ;
bitter almonds, i dr. ; blanch them by steeping
them in hot water and removing the skins ; add
of white sugar, i oz. ; gum tragacanth, 20 gr. ;
beat to a smooth paste, and further add of oil of
almonds and orange-flower water, of each, 4 dr. ;
pure water, 4 fl. oz. A pleasant demulcent in
tickling coughs.

Lui'jsjf. iS*^. Lamra, L. Linen is a
textile fabric made of the liber-flbres of the
XtitMN utiiatiitimum, or common flax, a plant
which from time immemorial has been cultivated
for this purpose. It is remarkable for the
smoothness and softness of its texture, and is
hence highly esteemed in temperate climates as
an elegant and agreeable article of clothing to
be worn next the skin. Its flbres are better
conductors of heat, more porous, and more at-
tractive of moisture than those of cotton, which
render it less adapted for body-linen in cold
weather, as well as in hot weather and hot
climates, than calico. The latter, however, lacks
the luxurious softness and freshness of linen,
whilst the peculiar twisted and jagged character
of its fibres renders it apt to excite irritation in
extremely delicate skins. The common pre-
judice in favour of old linen and flax lint for
dressing wounds is thus shown to have reason on
its side, and, like many other vulgar prejudices,
to be supported by the investigations of science.

Identif. Linen fabrics are commonly sophis-
ticated with cotton, which is a much less costly
and a more easily wrought material. Various
plans have been proposed to detect this fraud,
many of which are too complicated and difficult
for practical purposes. The following commend
themselves for their simplicity and ease of appli-
cation :

1. A small strip (a square inch, for instance)
of the suspected cloth is immersed for 2 or 8
minutes in a boiling mixture of about equal parts
of hydrate of potassium and water, contained in
a vessel of silver, porcelain, or hard glass ; after
which it is taken out and pressed between the
folds of white blotting-paper or porous calico.
By separating 8 or 10 thrtnds in each direction
their colour may be readily seen. The deep
yellow threads are LlNBir,the white or pale yellow
ones are corxoir.

2. A small strip of the cloth, after having
been repeatedly washed with rain-water, boiled
in the water, and dried, is immersed for 1 to 2
minutes in sulphuric acid ; it is then withdrawn,
carefully pressed under water with the fingers,
washed, immersed for a few seconds in ammonia,
solution of carbonate of potassium, or solution of
carbonate of sodium, again washed with water,
and dried between filtering-paper. By this
treatment the cotton fibres are £ssolved, while
the linen fibres are merely rendered thinnei- and

: more translucent according to the duration of
I the experiment: after a short immersion the

61

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1

cotton flbrea appear transparent, while the linen
fibres remain white and opaque.

8. BOttger recommends the linen stuffs to be
dipped into an alcoholic solution of rosolic acid,
then into a concentrated solution of sodiam
carbonate, and finally washed with water. The
linen fibre assumes a pink colour, whilst the
cotton fibre remains unaltered.

4. (By the' iciOBOBCOFB.) The indications
afforded by both the previous tests, although
quite visible to the naked eye, are rendered still
more palpable by the use of a magnifying glass of
small power, as the common pocket lens. Under
a good microscope the presence of cotton in a
linen tissue is very perceptible. The fibres of
cotton present a distinctly fiat and shrivelled ap-
pearance, not unlike that of a narrow, twisted
ribbon, with only occasional joints ; whilst those
of flax are round, straight, and jointed. The
fibres of cotton, after being
exposed to the action of
strong alkaline lyes, un-
twist themselves, contract
in length, and assume a
rounded form, but still con-
tinue distinct in appear-
ai^ce from the fibres of
linen. The cut represents
a fibre of linen (1) and a
fibre of cotton (2) as they
appear when magnified 165
diameters. The difference
between the two may be
perceived, although less dis-
tinctly, through a good Stanhope or Coddington
lens, provided the object be well illuminated.

Dyeing. Linen and cotton, from the simi-
larity of their behaviour with dye-stuffs, are
treated in nearly the same manner. The affinity
of their fibres for colouring matter is very much
weaker than that of the fibres of silk and
woollen. On this account they are dyed with
greater difficulty than those suDstances, and the
colours so imparted are, in general, less brilliant
and permanent under similar conditions. Linen
shows less disposition to take dyes than cotton.
The yarn or cloth, after being scoured and
bleached in the usual manner, requires to have an
additional tendency given to it by chemical means,
to condense and retain the materials of the dye-
hath in its pores. This is effected by steeping
the goods in solutions (mordants) which have
at once an affinity for both the fibres of the cloth
and the colouring malter. A similar process is
employed in dyeing most other substances ; but
with cotton and linen attention to this point is
essential to the permanency of the dye. These
matters are more fully explained under the heads
DniNa and MoBSAin.

The following process for bleaching linen,
having been omitted from the article on " Bleach-
ing," is inserted here :

Mr Hodges' process, which is known in Ireland
as the ' chemico-mechanical process,' owing to the
patentee turning to account the advantages de-
rivable from the employment of mechanical con-
trivances driven by steam, combined with the
introduction of a new method of obtaining the
hitherto little used hypochlorite of magnesium, may

be said to date from the discovery of the substance
known as kiemrUe (native sulphate of magnesia),
which occurs as an essential constitnent of the
Abraumsalts of Stasaf urth. For some time after
the introduction of this snbstancfi into the market
it was considered of little value except for the
production of Epsom salts ; but Mr Hodges, in
the course of some investigations in bleaching
jute, having had occasion to employ large quan-
tities of hypochlorite of magnesia, it occurred to
him that kieserite might be substituted for the
more expensive crude sulphate of magnesia ; and
the importation into Ireland of the sample for
this purpose was the first that was ever sent into
that country for the manufacture of a bleaching
liquor, or, indeed, for any other use. Mr Hodgea,
on experimenting with the kieserite, found that
it not only supplied the place of the crude sulphate,
but acted as a better precipitant for the lime of
the bleaching powder, which is employed in the
production vt the hypochlorite of magnesia ; and
that it also produced a stronger and clearer solu-
tion. Without entering into a minute description
of the process (wliich is at present successfully
carried out in a factory erected for the purpose
in the neighbourhood of Belfast), the following
outline will be sufficient to show the nature of the
methods adopted. The kieserite, which is im-
ported from Germany in square blocks, on arriving
at the works is conveyed to a house, on the ground-
floor of which it is stacked until required, when
it is ground to a fine powder placed in barrels, and
drawn up by means of a crane to a room at the
top of the building, at one end of which is a row
of three tanks furnished with water-taps, agi-
tators, and false bottoms. In one of the end
tanks a definite quantity of the kieserite powder
(varying according to its strength as ascertained
by analysis) is placed and dissolved in a given
quantity of wat^, the solution being assisted by
agitators, and on settling the clear liquor is
siphoned over into the middle tanl^. In the third
tuik bleaching powder (hypochlorite of lime),
varying in quantity according to the strength of
the kieserite solution, is placed. The bleaching
powder, after being agitated with water, is allowed
to settle, and the clear solution is siphoned over
into the middle tank containing the clear kieser-
ite solution, the agitator being kept in motion
not only during the mixing of the liquids, hut
for some time after. The mixed liquids are then
allowed to remain undisturbed aU night, after
which the clear hypochlorite of magnesia solution
is siphoned into a large settling tank, which is
situated in the room below. From this vessel it
is conducted through wooden pipes (which are so
contrived that they can be opened and cleansed
at wiU) into a large (astern standing in the
bleaching-house. This, cistern is fitted with a
ball-cock, by which arrangement the liquid can
be drawn off by a system of wooden pipes as re-
quired. The bleaching-house in which the cistern
is situated is fitted ap in an original manner, and
covers something more than an acre of ground;
whilst the reeling-shed, which is the only part of
the works our limits will permit us to describe,
is 240 ft. long by 24 ft. broad, and contains 10
steeps and 12 reel-boxes. Each box is provided
with water, a solution of the bleaching agent, and

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(team-pipes, and is capable of reeling at a time
abont 500 lbs. of yarn. Above the box is a line
of rails or pillars. A travelling crane runs along
the reels, and carries the reels from one box to
another. Attached to this crane is a newly
invented hydraulic pnmp, by means of which the
reels with the yarn on them can be lifted in a few
seconds from one box to another.

After the yam has been boiled, washed, and
passed throogh the squeezers in the nsnal manner,
it is pat on to a waggon, in which it is carried, by
means of a line of rails, down to the first reel-box.
Her« it is placed on to the reels, which are made
to revolve by means of steam, first in one direc-
tion and then in another, throngh a solution of
carbonate of soda, previoosly heated by means of
the steam-pipes before mentioned. The yarn
having been sufficiently scalded, and so saturated
with soda, the leels to which it is attached are
raised by the hydraolic pump ont of the box, and
the yam allowed to drain for a few minutes,
after which the travelling crane carries it on to
the mext box. Into this box the yam is again
lowered by the pump, and made to revolve as
before, but this time throngh a solution of the
bleaching agent, which, immediately reacting on
the carbonate of soda with which the yam is
charged, renders this bleaching agent free from
the danger which attends the employment of
ehloiioe, or the ordinary bleaching powder used
in the older methods of bleaching. After the
yams have been brought to the desired shade
in the solution of Hod^s' bleaching agent the;
are ather removed as before to a new box, and
there washed before being scoured, or they are
thrown into one of the steeps filled with water
for the night. These operations are repeated with
weaker solutions in the remaining reel-boxes,
either once or twice, according to the shade
required.

Hr Hodges claims as the chief features of his
inventimi that it consists, first, in the employ-
ment of a bleaching agent which has not hitherto
been practically employed, and a cheap method
for its production ; second, in the preparation of
the yam prior to being submitted to the action of
th» bleaching agent, this preparation setting free
not only the imprisoned chlorine of the hypo-
chlorite, but also another powerful bleaching
agent, oxygen ; third, in new and improved ma-
ehhiery, by which the work of bleaching the yam
is greatly shortened ; fourth, in doing away with
the tedions and expensive operation of exposing
the yam on the grass. If this last were the only
feature in Hr Hodges' invention, the patentee
woold have greatly improved the process of bleach-
ing ; not only, however, does the new process sop-
jdant the old long and tedious one, but a great
economy of time is additionally gained in other
partsof the process. Added to these advantages it
is stated tluit a superior flmsh is given to the
yams, and that in consequence a much. greater
demand for them has arisen.

Mr Hodges contends that the absence of caustic
fime from his new bleaching compound gives it
great advantages over the old bleaching powder,
particolarly in its application to finely woven
fabrics, snch as mn^ns, &c. He also says that
fiibries bleached by it recetve an increased capacity

for imbibing and retaining colouring matter, a
fact of considerable importance to the dyer and
calico-printer,as they are thus enabled to communi-
cate to the fabrics tints which have lieretofore
been considered impossible. See Kibssbitb.

The domestic management of linen may here
receive a few moments' attention. Fruit-stains,
ironmoulds, and other spots on linen may, in
general, be removed by applving to the part, pre-
viously washed clean, a weak solution of chlorine,
chloride of lime, spirits of salts, oxalic acid, or
salts of lemons in warm water, and frequently by
merely using a little lemon juice. When the
stain is removed the part should be thoroughly
rinsed in clear warm water (without soap) and
dried. Recent ironmoulds or ink spots on
starched linen, as the front of a shirt, may be
conveniently removed by allowing a drop or two
of melted tallow from a common candle to fall
upon them before sending the articles to the
laundress. The oxide of iron combines with the
grease, and the two are washed out together. If
the spot is not entirely removed the first time, the
process should be repeated. Linen that has
acquired a yellow or bad colour by careless wash-
ing may be restored to its former whiteness by
working it well in water to which some strained
solution of chloride of lime has been added,
observing to well rinse it in clean water both
before and alter the immersion in the bleaching
liquor. The attempt to bleach unwashed linen
should be avoided, as also using the liquor too
strong, as in that case the linen will be rendered
rotten.

IiIHO. The Qadut moha, Linn., an inferior
species of the cod-fish tribe, common in the
northern seas, and used as a coarse article of food
by the poor.

LIK'IICBH^. S$rs. LnrntEyTUK, L. Afiuid,
semi-fluid, or soapy application to painful joints,
swellings, bums, £e. The term is also occasion-
ally extended to varions spirituous and stimu-
lating external applications. A preparation of a
thinner consistence, but similarly employed, is
called an ' smbbooaxioit.' These terms are, how-
ever, frequently confounded together and mis-
applied. Liniments are generally administered
by friction with the hand or fingers, or with
some substance (as a piece of flannel) capable of
producing a certain amount of irritation of the
skin. Sometimes a piece of linen rag dipped in
them is simply laid on the part. In most cases
in which liniments are found beneficial, the ad-
vantage obtained from them is attributable rather
to the friction or local irritation than to any
medicinal power in the preparation itself. The
greater number of cerates and ointments may be
converted into liniments by simply reducing their
consistence with almond or olive oil, or oil of tur-
pentine.

Liniment, Ae'id. Sgn. LliniiBirTUiCAOlDtrK,
L. AOiDi BuxPHUBici, L. Prep. 1, (Sir B.
Brodie.) Salad oil, 8 oz. ; oil of vitriol, 1 dr. ;
mix, then add of oil of turpentine, 1 oz., and
agitate the whole well together. As a counter-
irritant, in rheumatism, stiff joints, &c. It
closely resembles the ' Qvlstoniait bhbkooa-

TlOIf.*

2. (Hosp. F.) Olive oil, S oz. ; oil of turpen-

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LINIMENT

tine, 2 oz. ; sulpbnric acid, 1 fl. dr. An excellent
alterative, itimQlant, discatient, and counter-
irritant, in chronic rheumatism, stiff joints, in-
dolent tomoars, and various chronic diseases of
the skin.

Liniment of Aconite. Prep. (B. P.) Aconite
rooi in No. 40 powder, 20 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz. ;
rectified spirit, enough to make 30 oz. Allow the
spirit to percolate through the powder, then add
the camphor and make up to 30 oz. with spirit.
Fainted on the face it relieves neuralgic pain.

Linlmentnm Aconiti. (B. P.) Aconite root, in
powder, 20; camphor, 1 ; rectified spirit, to per-
colate, 30. Moisten the root for 3 days, then pack
in a percolator, and pour sufficient rectified spirit
upon it to produce with the camphor 30.

Strength, 1 in \\. Applied with a camel-hair
pencil, alone or mixed in equal proportions, with
a soap liniment or compound camphor liniment,
and rubhed on the part. Seven parts of this, and
1 part of chloroformum belladonnse, sprinkled
thinly on impermeable piline, is the best applica-
tion for neural^a or lumbago.

Liniment of Am'ber Oil. 8yn. Livimintitic
BUCOiiri, L. Prep. 1. From olive oil, 3 parts ;
oils of amber and cloves, of each, 1 part. Be-
tetablea ' Roche's bkbbocatioh.'

2. (Opiated: LiMiKiHTtrK sucoiia OFumi,
li.) From rectified oil of amber and tincture of
opium, of each, 2 fl. oz. ; lard, 1 oz. Anodyne,
antispasmodic, and stimulant, A once popular
remedy in cramp, stiff joints, Ac.

LlnUnont of Ammo'^nia. Sy». AincomAOAi.

LiaiMSyT, VOLATILB L., OiL XND HiLBTBHOSV ;

LlviKBHTlTK AUJCOKiiB (B. P., Ph. L. Ij!. and
D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Solution of am-
monia, 1 part ; olive oil, 8 parts ; mix.

2. (Ph. L. and E.) Liquor of ammonia (sp.
gr. -960), 1 fl. oz. ; olive oil, 2 fl. oz. ; shake them
together until they are mixed.

3. (Ph. D.) To the last add of oUve oil, 1 fl.
oz. Stimulant and rubefacient. Used in rheu-
matism, lumbago, neuralgia, sore throat, spasms,
bruises, Ac. When the skin is irritable more oil
should be added, or it should be diluted with a
little water.

4. (Camphorated: LnnvBHTUx AKKomx

CAXFHOBATUK, EmBBOOATIO AJdK. OAXPHO-

BAIA, L.) a. (Hosp. F.) Olive oil, 8 oz.;
camphor, \ oz. ; dissolve by a gentle heat, and
when cold, add of liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. oz.

i. Soap liniment, 2 oz. ; olive oil and liquor of
ammonia, of each, 2 dr. As the last; more
especially for sprains, bruises, chilbluns, &c.

6. (Compound : Db Obantiixb'b OOVHTBB-

IBBITAVT or AHTISTMOVB LOTIOIT ; LliriVBir-
TVM AMMOKLS OOMPOSITUM, L.) (Ph. E.) a.

(SlBOvaBB.) From liquor of ammonia (sp. gr.
'880), 6 fl. 01. ; tincture of camphor, 2 B. oz. ;
spirit of rosemary, 1 fl. oz. ; mix. It should be
kept in a well-stoppered bottle and in a cool
situation.

h. (Wbakbb.) Solution of ammonia (-880), 6
fl. oz. ; tincture of camphor, 3 fl. oz. ; spirit of
rosemary, 2 fl. oz.

Obt. The above formulss are nearly identical
with the original ones of Dr Qranville ; the prin-
cipal difference being in his ordering liquor of
ammonia of the sp. gr. -872, instead of -880.

They are counter-irritant, rubefacient, vesicant,
and cauterising, according to the mode and
length of their application. The milder lotion is
sufficiently powerful to produce ooDSiderable
rubefaction and irritation in from 1 to 6 or 6
minutes, vesication in 8 or 10 minutes, and
cauterisation in 4 or 5 minutes longer. For the
latter purpose the stronger lotion is generally
employed. According to Dr Oranville, these
lotions are prompt and powerful remedies in
rheumatism, lumbago, cramp, neuralgia, sprains,
swollen and painful joints, headache, sore throat,
and numerous other affections in which the use
of a powerful counter-irritant has been recom-
mended. They are ordered to be applied by
means of a piece of linen 6 or 7 times folded, or
a piece of thick, coarse flannel wetted with the
lotion, the whole being covered with a thick
towel, and firmly pressed against the part with
the hand, llie stronger lotion is only intended
to be employed in apoplexy, and to produce cau-
terisation. See Ck>inrTBB-iBBiTAHTS.

6. (From bbbquicabbomati op ammonia;

LnriMBKTirM AUXOKUK SBSQUICAItBOirATIB, Ph.

L.) Solution of sesquicarbonate of ammonia,
1 fl. oz. ; olive oil, 8 fl. oz. ; shake them together
nntil mixed. This preparation resembles ordl
nary liniment of ammonia in its general proper-
ties, but it is much less active, owing to the
alkali being carbonated. It is the ' oil and harts-
horn ' and the ' volatile liniment ' of the shops.

7. (With TtrsPBDmiB.) (Dr Coplamd.)
Syn. LiiriKBHTtrv axmokis oux tbbbbik-
THiir^, L. Prep. Liniment of ammonia, H fl.
oz.; oil of turpentine, i fl. oz. ; mix.

Liniment, .^'odyne. See LnriMBirTB ov Bbi.-
iiASOiTHA, MOBPHU, Opixnc, Soap, Ac.
Idniment, Antispaamod'ic. Sf*. LnnxBir-

TirX AiniSPABMODIOTTM, L. OAJBPUTI COMPO-
BITUM, L. Prep. (Svjfeland.) Oils of cajeput
and mint, of each, 1 part ; tincture of opium, S
parts; compound camphor liniment, 24 parts.
Anodyne, stimulant, ard rubefacient.

Idniment, Arcena's. Componnd elemi ointment.

Liniment of Arnica. Sjr». Abnioa opodbi.-
DOC; LurmBNTTm abniob, L. Pr«p. IHs<
solve by heat Castile soap, 4 parts, and camphor,

1 part, in rectified spirit, 10 parts. Add tincture
of arnica, 6 parts.

Liniment of Belladon'na. 8yt. Likikbmtvx
BBli.Al>oira« (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Pre-
pared the same as LuriKBirTUM aconiti. Pre-
scribed with equal parts of soap liniment or
compound camphor liniment, and is an excellent
topical application for neuralgic pain.

2. Extracted belhdonna, 1 dr.; oil of almonds,

2 oz. ; lime water, 4 fl. oz. In eczema, and some
other cutaneous aflections, to allay irritation, Ac

Liniment of Belladonna and Oilorofbrm (Mr.

Squire). Sgn. LlNlXBHTUK BBLLASOKNJB IT

OEroBOiOBMi, L. Prep. Belladonna liniment,
7 fl. dr. ; belladonna chloroform (made by perco-
lating the root with chloroform^ 1 fi. dr. ; sprin-
kled on piline and applied to the loins, excdlent
in lumbago.

Ualmeiit of Borai {Swedianr). Sy*. Lnri-
MBNTTTM BOBACIB, L. Prep. Borax, 2 dr.;
tincture of myrrh, 1 oz. ; distilled water, 1 oz. ;
honey of roses, 2 oz. ; mis.

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Idaiment, Bow's, if » Scotch remedy for cheat
complaints. Pr»p. Opiam, 1 oz.j h«rd soap,
11 oz. ; componnd camphor liniment, 8 oz. Di-
gest for aeveral daya and filter. Instead of this a
mixtnre of opinm liniment, 2 parts ; and solution
of ammonia, 1 part, is sometimes sold.

Uniment of C^'epnt Oil. 8y*. LiNiMSirnni
OLBi CXJBPCTI, L. Prep. 1. (2>r Copland.)
Componnd camphor liniment and soap liniment,
of each, 11 fl. oz. ; oil of cajepnt, 1 fl. oz.

8. (Dr WitUtau.) Oil of ayepnt, 1 fl. dr.;
castor oil, 1 fl. dr. ; olive oil, 4| fl. dr. A warm,
amtispasmodic, diffnsible stimolant and mbe-
fitdent; in spasmodic asthma, colic, chronic
rheumatism, spasms, chest affections, &c. See
Abti8pa8icoj>io L. {ahme).

laaiinentiim CalcU. (B. P.) Solution of lime,
1 part; olive oil, 1 part; mix. The best liniment
for boms and scalds.

Liniment of Cam'phgr. 8y». Cavphobatbd

OTL, CaJCPHOB IKBBOOATIOH; LliriHEHTUU

cufFHOBS (B. p.. Ph. L. E. & D.), Olbux
OAlCFaoKATDx, L. Prep. 1. (B. p.) Camphor,
1 part; olive oil. 4 parts; dissolve.

2. (Ph. li. & E.) Camphor, 1 os. ; olive oil,
4 fl. OS.; ffently heat the oil, add the camphor
(eat (mall), and agitate nntil dissolved. The
Dnblin College orders only 1 the above camphor.
Stimnlant, anodyne, and resolvent; in sprains,
bnuaes, rhenmatic pains, glandnlar enlargements,
Ac.

3. (Componnd : liVfomarvTi oiuraons cox-
POSITVIC. B. P., Ph. L. & D.) a (B. P.)
Ounphor, 5 parts; English oil of lavender, i
part; strong solntion of ammonia, 10 parts;
rectifled spirit, 30 parts. Dissolve the oil and cam-
phor in the spirit, and gradnally add the ammonia.

h. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 21 oz.; oil of lavender,
1 fl. &.; rectified spirit, 17 fl. oz.; dissolve, then
add of stronger liquor of ammonia, 3 fl. oz., and
shake them together nntil they are mixed.

e. (Ph. L. 1836.) liqnor of ammonia, 71 S.oz.;
sjnrit of lavender, 1 pint; distil off 1 pint, and
diaaolve in it camphor, 21 oz. The formula of
fhe Ph. D. 1826 was nearly similar.

4. (Wholesale.) Camphor (clean), 21 oz.;
English oil of lavender, 3} oz.; liquor of am-
monia, H lbs. ; rectified spirit, 7 pints; mix, close
the vcisscl, and agitate occasionally, nntil the
camphor is dissolved. Powerfully stimulant and
mbtffaeient. It closely resembles, and is now
almost nniversalty sold for. Ward's ' Essence for
the Headache.'

e. (Ethereal.) 8yn. LnrncEirrtnc CAiiPHOBiB
BTHXRBrK. Prep. Camphor, 1 dr.; ether, 1 dr.;
oil of vipers, 2 dr.; mix.

TiW—nt sf CMtthar'tdeg. 8gn. LiNnnNTOv

SPAVISB TLTtB; LlttlXRVTVlt LTTIiB, LiN. CAH-

THABisu (Ph. D. & U. S.), L. Prep. 1. (JDr
CoUier.} Tinctnre of cantharides and soap lini-
ment, equal parts.

2. (Ph. D.) Cantharides (in fine powder),
8 oz. ; olive ml, 12 fl. oz. ; digest for 8 hours over
a water-bath, and stiwn through flannel with
expcuanon.

5. (Ph. U. S.) Spanish flies, 1 oz.; oil of
turpentine, 8 fl. oz. ; proceed as last. The above
am irritant and mbefacient, but should be used
caotioasly, lest they produce strangury.

Liniment of Capsiciun. 8jf», LnrnoiirTrH
OAPSioi. Prep. 1. (Dr Copland.) Compound
camphor liniment, 1 fl. oz.; volatile liniment,
1 fl. oz. ; tinctnre of capsicum, 8 fl. oz. ; mix.

2. (Dr l^rMull.) Capsicums, 1 oz. ; rectifled
spirit, 3 fl. oz. Macerate 7 days, and strain for use.

Liniment of Clilo"ride of Lime. Syn. Luri- _

HBKTtTH CALCia OHLOBINATS, L. Prep. 1. ~

Chloride of lime, 1 dr. j water (added gradually),
8 fl. oz. ; triturate together in a glass mortar for
10 minutes, pour off the liquid portion, and add
of oil of almonds, 2 fl. oz.

2. (Kopp.) Solution of chloride of lime (or-
dinary), 1 part ; olive oil, 2 parts.

3. (W^aller.) Chloride of lime (in fine powder),
1 part; soft soap, 2 jMrta; soft water, q. s. to
make a liniment.

Ob: The above are cleanly and excellent
applications in itch, scald-head, herpes, lepra,
foul ulcer«, ice.

Liniment of CUo"rofl)rm. Sgu. Jjuramrrvu.
OHLOBOFOBHi, B. P. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Chlo.
roform, 1 part ; liniment of camphor, 1 part ; mix.
The oil in the camphor liniment prevents the
evaporation of the chloroform. Stimulating on
application to a tender skin.

2. Chloroform, 1 fl. dr. ; almond oil, 7 fl. dr. :
mix in aphial, and agitate it until the two unite.

3. (Tuton.) Chloroform, 1 fl. df. ; soap lini-
ment, 2 fl. oz. ; as the last. Used as an applica-
tion in neuralgic pains, rhenmatism, Ac.

4. (Peter Boa.) (^mphbr, 1 oz. ; chloroform,

5 fl. oz. ; soft pan^n, q. s. Dissolve the camphor
in the chloroform, and add enough of the soft
paraffin to make 10 fl. oz. By increasing or
diminishing the quantity of soft paraffin, a lini-
ment of the desired consistency can be obtained,
and the product will not stain the clothes, as is
the case with the chloroform liniment which is
made with olive (nl, and which is wanting in
consistency.

Liniment of Cod-Uv«r Oil. iSya. "Lrsmxsrtnt.

OLEI MOBBHTT^, L. O. JEC0BI8 ASILLI, L. Prep.

(Dr Brack.) Cod-liver oil, 2 fl. oz. ; liquor of
ammonia, 1 fl. oz. ; mix. Resolvent, dispersive ;
applied to glandular tumours, scrofulous enlarge-
ments, &c.

Idnimont of Colchionm (Ear Infirmary).
Syn. LiiriKBHTUX OOLCHIOI. Prep. Soap
liniment, 1 fl. oz. ; wine of colchicnm seed, 1 fl. oz.;
mix.

Liniment of Coloeynth (Beim). %n. Lnri-
itSHTUic ooLOCYNTHisia. Prep. Tincture of
coloeynth, 1 fl. oz. ; castor oil, 11 oz.

Liniment of Cro'ton Oil. Syn. LnrmBKruK

OBOTOHIB (B. P., Ph. D.), L. OLBI OBOTOITIB, L.

O. Tiaui, li. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Croton oil,
1 part; oil of cajeput, 81 parts; rectifled spirit,
3) parts; mix.

2. (Ph. D.) Croton oil, 1 fl. oz.; oil of tur-
pentine, 7 fl. oz. ; mix by agitation.

3. (J. Allen.) Croton oil and liquor of potassa,
of each, 1 fl. dr. ; agitate until mixed, then add of
rose-water, 2 fl. oz.

4. (Fereira.) Croton oil, 1 part; olive oil,

6 parts.

Obt. The above are used as counter-irritants;
in rheumatism, neuralgia, bronchial and pul-
monary affections, Ac. When rubbed on the

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966

LINIMEirr

akin, redness and a puttnlar eraption eniue, and
in general the bowels are acted on.

liniment, Diuretic {Br ChrittiMou), Soap lini-
ment, tincture of f oxgloTe, and tincture of squills,
equal parts. In dropsies j rubbed over the abdo-
men or loins twice or thrice a day.

Liniment, EmolUMit. iS^. Lnnxnrrrx
ALBiTH, L. BicoLLliKB, L. Prtp. From cam-
phor, 1 dr.; Pemvian balsam, i dr.; oil of al-
monds, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve by beat, add of glycerin,
i fl. oz. ; agitate well, and, when cold, Airther add
of oil of nutmeg, 15 drops. Excellent for chapped
hands, lips, nipples, &c.

liniment of Oarllo. 8j/n. LiNiimmnf ixui,
L. JPrtp. From juice of garlic, 2 parts ; olive
oil, 8 ]wrt8j mix. In booping-coogh, infontUe
convulsions, &c.

Liniment of Qlyoerin. (Mr. Siarti».) Sy».
LlirniBirTUK aLTCSSlKi. JV«p. Soap liniment,
8 oz. ; glycerin, 1 oz. ; extract of belladonna, 1 oz. ;
mix. For gouty, rheumatic, and neuralgic pains.
A, little veratrine is sometimes added.

Liniment, Green. (2>r Campbell.) 8fn. Lnn-
XBVTirM TTBiss. CampboT, 1 oz.; olive oil, 6
oz. ; extract of hemlock, 1 oi. ; spirit of ammonia,
2 oz. ; mix.

Liniment, Ettnga"rian. Sg». Lutembntuv
HraOABlcuii, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Pow-
dered cantharides and sHoed garlic, of each, I dr. ;
camphor, bruised mustard seed, and black pepper,
of each 4 dr. ; strong vinegar, 6 fl. oz. ; rectified
spirit, 12 fl. oz. ; macerate a week, and filter. An
excellent rubefacient and counter-irritant.

Liniment of Hydroclilo"rie Acid. Sf». Lnn-
JfENTtrU VUBIATIOrir, L. acidi uvbiatioi, L.
▲. HTDBOCHLOBtOI, L. Prep. 1. (Hosp. F.)
Olive oil, 2 oz.; white wax, 2 dr. ; dissolve by a
gentle heat, add of balsam of Pern, 1 dr.; hydro-
chloric acid, 2 dr. ; mix well. An excellent appli-
cation to chilblains before they break.

2. (W. Cooley.) Olive oil, i pint; white sper-
maceti (pure) and camphor, of each, i oz. ; mix
with beat, add of hydrochloric acid, 1 fl. oz., and
proceed as hef ore. £!qual to the last, and cheaper.
This was extensively employed among the sea-
men of the Boyal Navy by Mr Cooley with uni-
form success.

Liniment of Iodide of Potas'sinm. Syn. Lnn-

ITBITTUJC lODTTBBTUlI SBLATDrOSTnC, L. i ObL^B

FOUB LB eolTBB, Fr. Pr»p. (Fog.) Iodide of
potassium, 4 dr. ; proof spirit, 2 oz. ; dissolve, and
add the liquid to a solution of curd soap, 6 dr., in
proof spirit, 2 oz., both being at the time gently
warmed; lastly, aromatise with rose or neroli,
pour it into wide-mouthed bottles, and keep them
closely corked. In goitre, &c.

Liniment of Iodide of Fotaacium with Soap.
Prep. (B. P.) Curd soap (cut small), 16 parts;
iodide of potassium, 12 parts ; glycerin, 8 parts;
oU of lemon, 1 part ; water, 80. Dissolve the soap
in glycerin and water by aid of heat, stir in the
iodide ; when cold stir in the oil of lemon.

Liniment of Iodide of Sulphur. (Prof. JB.
Wilton.) 8y». LurlKBKTUK bulfhuxis iodisi.
Prep. Iodide of sulphur, 30 gr, ; olive oil, 1 fl.
dr. ; triturate together.

Liniment of I'odine. Sgn. Ioditbbtted lini-
XBHT; LiiamirTtnf iodi (B. P.), L. iodikii,
h. lOSUBBTCif, h. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Iodine, 6

parts ; iodide of potassium, 2 ; camphor^ ; recti-
fied spirit, 40; dissolve.

2. (DrCopUmd.) Soap liniment, los.; iodine,
8 to 10 gr.

3. (GHtiltoufi.) Iodide of potassium, 1 dr.;
water, 1 fl. dr.; dissolve, and toA to it white soap
(in shavings) and oil of almonds, of each, 10 dr.,
previously melted together. Some perfume may
be added. In scrofula, glandolar enlargements,
rheumatism, &c.

Liniment of Labdannm. (Qfumiji^ &/n. Lm-

ICKSTVH LABDABI, L. OBimSOAin, L. iV«p.

Labdannm, 6 dr.; bear's grease, 2 oz.; honey,
i oz, } powdered southernwood, 8 dr. ; oil of
nutmeg, 1 dr. ; balsam of Pern, 2 dr. ; mix. To
restore the hair.

Uniment of Lead. Syn. LnmaKxrif plvkbi,
L. Ptep. (Oaoteg.) Acetate of lead, 40 gr.;
soft water, 12 fl. os. ; olive oil, 6 oz. ; mix, and
agitate well. Astringent and refrigerant. Useful
in excoriations, especially when accompanied with
inflammation.

Uniment of Ume. Qfn. LnaxBKT vob BrxvB,
Cabboh oil ; liLsntximru oatcib (Ph. L. E. &

D.), L. AQUX OAIOIB, Olbuk Lm CUIt OAI«S,
L. . Prep. 1. From olive oil (linseed oil — Ph.
E.) and lime-water, equal parts, shaken together
until they are mixed. Very nsef nl in bnms and
scalds.

2. (Compound : LnnxxirTtrx oalcib . oox-
POSITUK, li.) a. (Camphorated— v. CooUg.)
Camphor liniment and Ume water, eqnal parts.

i. (Opiated — W. CooUg.) Lime-water and
camphor liniment, of each, 1 oz. ; extract of opium,
6 gr. ; mix. Both are used as anodynes to allay
pain and irritation in severe bnms, culblains, Ac,
for which purpose they are excellent. All the
above liniments with lime-water shonld be used
as soon as possible after being prepared, as the
ingredients separate by keeping.

Uniment of ■aremy. Sgn. HnunnuAzum-
VBirr; LnracBifTtnr etdkabstbi (B. P., Ph. L.),
L. E. ooKPOBiTm (Ph. L. 1886), L. Prep. 1.
(B. p.) (Mntment of mercury, 1 part; solution
of ammonia, 1 part; Uniment of camphor, 1 part.
Melt the ointment in the Uniment, add the am-
monia, and shake them together.

2. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 1 oz.; spirit of wine, 1
fl. dr. ; sprinkle the latter on the former, powder,
add of lard and mercurial ointment (stronger), of
each, 4 oz. ; rub them weU together, then gradu-
ally add of liquor of ammonia, 4 fl. oz.; and mix
well. Stimulant and discntient. It resembles
mercurial ointment in its effects; but though
milder in its operation, it more quickly produces
salivation.

Liniment of Hor'phia. Bjfn. Lumamnc
KOBFEix, L. Prep. (W. CooUg.) Pure mor-
phia, S gr. ; put it into a warm mortar, add very
gradually of oil of almonds (warm), 1 fl. oz., and
triturate nntil the morphia is dissolved ; then add
of camphor liniment, 1 oz. An excellent topical
anodyne and antispasmodic, which often allays
pain when other means have failed.

UnUneat of Kus'tard. Sgu. LnrufBirmt
SOTAPIB, L. Prep. 1. Flour of mustard (beet),
1 oz. ; water, tepid, 2 fl. oz. ; mix, and add of gly-
cerin, Uqnor of ammonia, and olive oil, of each,
1 fl. oz.

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LINIMENT

967

2. (SSfraZ.) Carbonate of ammonia (in fine
powder), 1 x>art; camphor (in powder), 2 parts ;
oil of lavender, 4 parts ; tincture of moitard, 6
parti ; mix, disMilTe by agitation, add of simple
liniment (warm), 66 parts, and again agitate until
the whole is perfectly incorporated.

S. Black mnstard seed (gronnd in pepper-mill
or otherwise well braised), J lb. ; oil of turpentine,
1 pint : digest, express the liquid, Alter, and dis-
solve it in camphor, ^ lb. Stimulant and rnbe-
fitcient. A popular and nsefnl remedy in rheu-
matic pains, lumbago, colic, chilblains, Ac. The
last is a close imitation of Whitehead's ' Essence
of Mustard.'

4. (Lnr. oisi toiiAtiub gnrAPls.) a. From
volatile oil of black mnstard seed, i dr. j oil of
almonds, 1 fl. oi. As a rubefacient.

b. From volatile oil, 1 part; alcohol (sp. gr.
"SIS), 1 to 2 parts. As a vesicant.

Idalmeat of Mttstard (Componnd). %». Lnri-
nirrux anrAvis oo»08iTirii (B. P.), h. Pr»p.
Oil of miutard, 1 dr. ; ethereal extract of mexe-
reon, 40 ^. ; camphor, B dr. ; castor oil, 6 dr. ;
rectified aqririt, 82 dr. ; dissolve.

Idnimamt, Vareotio. (P. Cod.) 8yn. Lnri-
ifxiTE oAxicAKi; LiinirjnrFirx VABOoTiotrv, L.
Prtp. Anodyne balsam, 8 parts ; compound wine
of opium, cold cream, of each, 1 part; mix.

Liniment of Vi'trate of Hercuiy. 8gn. Ci-
TRm xxKiMxm; tioraasTcu htdbasstbi
HITBATIB. L. Frap. {Sir R. Salford.) Oint-
meni of nitrate of mercury and olive oil, equal
parts, triturated together in a glass mortar, or
mixed by a gentle heat. This liniment is stimu-
lant, diacntient, and alterative, and in its general
properties resembles the ointment of the same
namo. For most purposes the quantity of oil should
be at least donbled.

UniBsnt of Olaate of Marenty (6%, 10%).
Prep. Made by dissolving 6 or 10 parts of yellow
oxide of mercury in sufficient oleic acid to make
100 parts. The combination takes a few days,
and it is best to avoid heat.

Uniinent of Olaate of Xereiuy with Horphina.
trap. Fare morphine, 10 f^t. ; oleic acid, 6 dr. ;
cQasoIve, and add oleato of mercnry (10% ), 6 dr.

Liniment of O'plnni. ^a. AiroDTHB Lim-
MBXT ; LnnxsHnrK oFn (B. P., Ph. L. and E.),
Ii. era or L. UfOjyTKW. (Ph. D.), L. bafobib
CPK OFIO, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Tincture of
opinm, 1 part ; liniment of soap, 1 part ; mix and
Biter.

2. 'Hnctare of ojnmn, 2 fl. oz. ; soap liniment, 6
6 fl. ot. ; mix.

5. (li. E.) Castile soap, 6 os. ; opium, \\ oz.
rectified spirit, 1 quart ; mgest for 8 days, then
filter, add of camphor, 8 oz. ; oil of rosemary, 6
fl..dr., and agitata bridcly.

4. (Ph. D.) Soap liniment and tincture of
opium, equal pdirts.

6. (Wholenle.) Soft soap, 1\ lbs. j powdered
opinm and camphor, of each, \ lb. ; rectified spirit,
1 gall. ; digest a week.

Ob*, llis preparation is an excellent ano-
dyne in local pains, rheamatism,neuralgia, sprains,
Ac.

LinlBMtof Fhoa'phom*. Sgn. linraxKHTmc
raosPHOBJlTUif, L. Prep. {Amg%tti».) Phos-
phorus, 6 gr. ; camphor, 12 gr. ; oU of almonds, 1

OK.; dissolve by heat; when cold, decant the clear
portion, and add of strongest liquor of ammonia
10 drops. A useful friction in gout, chronic
rheumatism, certain obstinate cutanecms affec-
tions, tui.

Liniment de Bosan. (P. C.) Prep. Oil of mace,
4 parts, oil of cloves, 4 parts ; oil of juniper, 9
parts ; mix.

Liniment, Sim'ple. Sg». LiNimvTUK siv-
PtBX (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) White wax,
1 oz. ; olive oil, 4 fl. oz. ; melt together, and stir
the mixture until it is cold. Emollient; re-
sembles spermaceti ointment in all except its con-
sistence.

Liniment of Soap. Syn. Oposilsoc, Cak-

PHOBATKD TnrCTT7BE OP SOAP, BaLSAK OP B. ;

LiHUcaHTUK BAPOKI8 (B. P., Ph. L. E. and D.),

L. BAPOHAOBUX, TiyOTTRA BAPOim OAJCPHO-

KATA, Balbamvic-baponib, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Hard soap (cut small), 2 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz. ;
English oil of rosemary, 3 dr. ; rectified spirit, 16
oz. ; distilled water, 4 oz. ; mix the water and
spirit, add the other ingredients, digest at a tem-
perature not exceeding 70° F., agitating occasion-
ally for 7 days, and filter.

2. (Ph. L.) Castile soap (cut small), 2^ oz. ;
camphor (small), 10 dr.; spirit of rosemary,
18 fl. oz.; water, 2 fl. oz.; digest with fre-
quent agitation until the solid substances are
dissolved.

8. (Ph. E.) Castile soap, 5 oz. ; camphor, 2|
oz. ; oil of rosemary, 6 fi. dr. ; rectified spirit, 1
qnart.

4. (Ph. D.) Castile soap (in powder), 2 oz. ;
camphor, 1 oz. ; proof spirit, 16 fi. oz.

5. (LiKiKSVT BAVONNBAn, P. Cod.) Tinc-
ture of soap (P. Cod.) and rectified spirit
('868, or 41 o. p.), of each, 8 parts; olive oil,
1 part.

Obi. This article, prepared according to the
directions of the Pharmacopoeia, from ' soap made
of olive oil and soda ' (Castile soap), is apt to gela-
tinise in cold weather, and to deposit crystals of
stearate of soda. This may be avoided, when ex-
pense is not an objection, by first well drying the
soap, employing a spirit of at least 86%, and
keeping the preparation in well-closed bottles. A
cheaper and better plan is to substitute the ' soft
soap ' of the Ph. L. (" soap made with olive oil
and potassa ') for the Castile soap ordered by the
College. The soft soap of commerce imparts to
the. liniment an unpleasant smell. The following
formula, one of those commonly adopted by the
wholesale druggists, prodnces a very good ar-
ticle, though much weaker than that of the
Pbarmacopoeia.

6. (Wholesale.) Camphor (cut small), li lbs.;
soft soap, 7 lbs. ; oil of rosemary, 3 fl. oz. ; recti-
fied spirit of wine and water, of each, 8^ galls. ;
digest with occasional agitation for a week, and
Alter. This is the ' opodeldoc ' or ' soap liniment '
of the shops.

Vtet. Soap liniment is stimulant, discutient,
and lubricating, and is a popular remedy in
rheumatism, local puns, swellings, bruises,
sprains, &c.

7. f With opinm.) See LnrrifBirT op Opnnr.

8. (Sulphuretted : LnnxBimnc bapokib biix-
PHrBBTCH, L. Bin.PHinio-SAPOirACBT7][, Jadeloi,

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LINOLEIC ACID— LINT

L.) Snlpharet of potssrimn, 8 oc. ; soap, 12 oz. ;
water, q. i. ; melt together, and add of olive oil,
12 ot, ; oil of origpanum, 1 fl. dr. ; mix well. An
excellent remedy for the itch, and some allied
■kin diseases.
LiaimMit «f Svl'pUd* of Carbon. 8j/». Lon-

XBKTUX OABBONtB BULPHtntBTI, L. I'rep. 1.

From bisnlphide of carbon, 1 dr. ; camphorated
oil, 1 oz. ; mix.

2. (Lampadnu.) Camphor, 2 dr. ; bisolphnret
of carbon, 4 fl. dr.; dissolve, and add of recti-
fied spirit, 1 fl. oz. In rbeamatism, goaty nodes,
Ac.

Llalment of Snlphn'rie Add. See LumcsKT,
Acid.

Ltniaieiit, Tripluurm'ie. Sg». LuriKBHTnic
TBIPBABXlcnK (Ph. L. 1746), L. Frep. Take
of lead plaster and olive oil, of each, 4 oz. ; melt,
add of strong vinegar, 1 fl. oz., and stir until
cold. Cooling and desiccative; in excoriations,
bums, Ac

LtalmeAt of Tnr'pontiiie. Syn. Kbhtibh'b
LunnirT; LiirncBiiTUX isBXBivrBxsM (B. P.,

Ph. L. & D.), L. TBBBBIKTHIlfATITIC (Ph. E.), L.

Prap. 1. (B. P.) Oil of turpentine, 16 parts ;
camphor, 1 part ; soft soap, 2 parts ; water, 2
parts; dissolve the camphor in the turpentine,
then add the soap to the water, and mb till
thoroughly mixed.

2. (Ph. L.) Soft soap, 2 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz. ;
oil of turpentine, 10 fl. oz. ; shake them together
until mixed. Stimulant; in lombago, cholera,
colic, Ac

8. (Pb. L. 1824.) Besin cerate, 6 oz. ; oil of
turpentine, 4 fl. oz. ; mix. An excellent applica-
tion to bnms.

4. (Ph. £.) Resin ointment, 4 oz. ; camphor,
4 dr. ; dissolve by a gentle heat, and stir in
oil of turpentine, 5 fl. oz.

6. (Ph. D.) Oil of turpentine, 6 fl. oz. ; resin
ointment, 8 oz.; mix by a gentle heat. This
forms Or Kentish's celebrated application to
bums and scalds. The parts are first bathed
with warm oil of turpentine or brandy, and
then covered with pledgets of lint smeared with
the liniment.

6. Compound, o. (B. P.) LnoxBHTTTK tbbb-
BiiTTHlirjB acbtiouk. Oil of turpentine, 4 parts ;
glacial acetic acid, 1 part ; liniment of camphor,
4 parts ; mix.

b. LiirncBirrrx TBBXBnrTBnriB oompobituv,
L. (Acetic : St Johv Loiro's Liimmri ; Liiri-

HSHTXrX TBBBBIKTEiyX AOBTICITK, L.) Oil of

turpentine, 3 oz. ; rose-water, 2} fl. oz. ; acetic
acid, 6 dr. ; oil of lemons, 1 dr. ; yolk of egg, 1 ;
make an emnlsion. As a counter-irritant in
phthisis.

0. (Ammoniated, Ikitrtjii.) Lard, 8 oz. ; melt,
and add of oil of turpentine and olive oil, til each,
1 oz. ; when cold, further add of camphorated
spirit, 4 fl. dr. ; liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. dr. In
sciatica, lumbago, Ac.

d. (Opiated, Raoamier.) Oil of turpentine, 1
fl. oc; <n\ of chamomile, 2 fl. oc. ; tincture of
opium, 1 fl. dr. In neuralgia, &e.

e. (Sulphuric, Ph. Castr. Ruthena.) Oil of tur-
pentine, 2 oz. ; olive oil, 6 oz. ; mix, and add of
dilute sulphuric acid, li dr. See Acid Lihi-
KEirr.

UBimMit of ▼on'triM. ^». LuiiHJMvuif
yBlu.TBIX, L. Jhrtp. (Brands.) Veratrine, 8
gr. ; alcohol, i fl. oz. ; dissolve, and add of soap
liniment, i fl. oi. In neuralgic and rheumatic
pains, gout, Ac.

Unimont of Ver'dlgrii. Sjra. Oxtxbl o*
TBBSIOBIB; LunXBHTUX XBuanriB (Ph. L.),
OzTKBL svuaivia (Ph. L. 1788), Ozthbk
onPBi SVBAOBTATIB (Ph. D. 1826), L. Fnp.
(Ph. L.) Verdigris (in powder), 1 oz. ; vinegar,
7 fl. OS.; dissolve, filter through linen, add of
honey, 14 oz., and evaporate to a proper con-
sistence.

Obi. This preparation is wrongly named a
' liniment.' The College, after ' beating about
the bush ' for nearly a century, found a right
name for it in 1788 ; but, as in many other case*,
soon abandoned it for another leas appropriate.

Oxymel of verdigris is stimulant, detergent,
and escbarotic. It is applied to indolent ulcers,
especially of the throat, by means of a camel-hair
pencil ; and, diluted with water, it is nsed as a
gargle. Care must be taken to avoid swallowing
it, as it occasions vomiting and excessive pnrging.

Liniment, Taaloatittg. {Dr Jlto»tgomety.) I^u.
LlNiXBHTUJC YBBiCAHg, L. For children. Prep.
Compound camphor liniment, 4 fl. dr. ; oil of tur-
pentine, 2 fl. dr. To produce immediate vesication
in adults. Mix 1 part of the strongest liquor am-
monie with 2 of olive oil, and apply 6 drops on
spongio-piline for 10 minutes.

Uniment, Ware's. JPrep. From camphor lini-
ment, 1 oz. ; solution of carbonate of potassa, 1 dr.
In amaurosis.

Liniment, White. Sg*. Lnoif amnrif albitx, L.
Prep. Rectified oil of turpentine, 2 oz. ; solution
of ammonia, 2 os. ; soap liniment, 8 oz. ; spirit of
rosemary, 1 oz. Mix in the above order, and
gradually add with continual agitation, distilled
vinegar, 8 oz. For chapped hands.

Liniment, White'i. "The old name for sperma-
ceti ointment.

Liniment, WilUason'i. Prep. (Phcsbus.) Pre-
pared chalk, 20 gr. ; sulphur, lard, and tar, of
each I oz. ; mix, and add M Boyle's fuming liquor,
10 or IS drops. In certain chronic skin diseases,
neuralgia, &c.

LDTOLBIC ACID. CmHsO,. This may be ob-
tained by saponifying linseed oil. It is a liquid
acid, and rapidly oxidises when exposed to the
air, becoming converted into oxyUnoleic add,
which is incapable of soUdifloation even at low
temperatures.

US'SSSD. Sy». FLAXBIBD;LllnBBKIKA,

L. The seed of Liitum untatieeimmm, Linn., or
common flax. (Ph. L.) Oily, emollient, demul-
cent, and nutritive. Ground to powder (uirSBBS
HBAL ; lABiiTA UBi), it is usod for poultices. The
cake left after expressing the oil (ubbbbd oakb)
contains, when of average quality, in 100 parts,
moisture, 1270; oil, 11-82 j albuminoids, 28-21;
mucilage, &c., 29*42; indigestible fibre, 12-46;
ash, 6-89. It is used for feeding cattle. Under
the form of tea or infusion it is used as a diluent,
and to allay irritation in bronchial, urinary, and
other like affections. See IirriTBioir op Lixbbbd.

LIHSEED CAKS. See Lirbbbd.

LIHT. Sf». LiHTEVif, L. White linen
cloth, scraped by hand or machinery, so as to

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LIP SALVE— LIQUEFACTION

render it soft and woolly. The hand-made lint is
now little used ; it was prepared from pieces of old
linen doth. The machine-made lint is prepared
from a fabric woven on purpose. A lint made
from cotton (cotton-lint) is now largely mannfac-
tnred ; it is much inferior to the tme lint, being
a bad oondnctor of heat. Lint is need for dressing
Dicers and wounds, either alone or smeared with
some suitable ointment or cerate.

Liati, Kedlcated. A large number of these are
made and sold as antiseptic dressings. The chief
forms are —

List, Bemoio. Idnt soaked in an alcoholic
solution of benzoic acid and dried. Strength, 4%.

Unt, Boile. Lint soaked in a hot saturated
aolntion of boric acid, and dried without wringing.

Lint, OarhoUe. Lint evenly sprayed with pure
carbolic acid. Strength, 5% ..

Ltnt, CoTTMdTe Sublimate. Lint soaked in a
watery solution of perchloride of mercury and
dried. To contain i% .

Unt, Ibdatlmii. IKssolve iodoform in ether,
' Maturate the lint with the solution, then dry.
Strength, 10% iodoform.

Iiiat, Salleylic Lint saturated with an alco-
holic solution of salicylic acid and dried. Strength,
4% and 10% acid.

Idnt, Thymol. Lint saturated with an alcoholic
solotion oi thymol and dried. Strength, 6%
thymol.

UP SALTS. See Salts.

LIQUATIOV. The process of sweating out by
heat the more fusible metals of an alloy. Metal-
lurgists avail themselves of this method in
assaying and re&ning the precious metals, and
procuring antimony and some other metals from
their ores.

UQnE]'A"CIKHTS. S^. RBSOLVXHTBt Ll-
QVXPi.omrTiA, Rrsoltkntu, L. In piarmaejf,
sobrtances or agents which promote secretion and
exhalation, soften and loosen textures, and pro-
mote the absorption or removal of enlargements,
indurations, Ac To this class belong the alka-
■ lies, antimony, bromine, chlorine, iodine, mercury,
sulphur, Ac., and their preparations.

UQITErACTnOH'. The assumption of the
liquid form. It is usually applied to the conver-
sion of a solid into the liquid state, which may
arise from increase of temperature (fusion),
abeorptioa of water from the atmosphere (de-
liqoceeenee), or the action of a body already fluid
(solution).

UqiMfhetion of Gases. Under the combined
influence of pressure and cold, all the gases ma;
be liquefied, and some even solidified. The first
satisfactory experiments in this direction were
made by Faraday, who succeeded in reducing to
the liquid condition 8 bodies which had hitherto
been regarded as permanent gases, namely, am-
monia, carbonic anhydride, chlorine, cyanogen,
hydrochloric add, nitoous oxide, sulphuretted hy-
drogen, and sulphurous anhydride. His method
of proceeding was very simple : — The materials
were sealed up in a strong, narrow glass tube,
bent so as to form an obtuse angle, together with
a little ' pressure gauge,' consisting of a slender
tube closed at one end, and having within it, near
the open extremity, a globule of mercury. The
gas, being disengaged by the application of heat

or otherwise, accumulated in the tube, and by its
own pressure brought about liquefaction. The
force required for this purpose was judged of by
the diminution of volume of the air in the pres-
sure gauge. By employing powerful condensing
syringes, and an extremely low telnperatnre,
Faraday subseqnently succeeded in liquefying
oleflant gas, hydriodic and hydrobromic acids,
phosphnretted hydrogen, and the gaseous flnorides
of silicon and boron. He failed, however, with
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, nitric oxide, carbonic
oxide, and coal-gas, all of which refused to liquefy
at the temperature of —166° F., while subjected
to pressures varying in difiisrent cases from 27 to
68 atmospheres.

Toward the end of 1877 these hitherto refrac-
tory gases were rednced to the liquid, and, in the
case of hydrogen, to the solid state. These results
have been accomplished by subjecting the gases to
a pressure considerably greater than that employed
by Faraday, combined with the expedient of the
sudden removal of this pressure, whereby the
escaping gas (previously enormously reduced in
temperature) in the act of expansion robs the re-
mainder of 80 much of its heat as to leave it in
the fluid condition.

The liquefaction of oxygen was accomplished
independently by M, Cailletet, of Paris, and H.
Pictet, of Qeneva; the French chemist having
effected it on December 2nd, 1877, and the Swiss
one on the 22nd of the same month.

Simultaneously with Cailletet's announcement of
the liquefaction of oxygen, that of carbonic oxide
was made by the same chemist, who, about 3
weeks after, at a meeting in the Paris Academy of
Sdences, stated that he had also rednced hydro-
gen, nitrogen, and atmospheric air to the fluid
state.

In the previous November he had been equally
successful in converting gaseous nitric oxide into
a liquid.

M. Cailletet, in a communication to the Paris
Academy of Sciences, read by M. Dumas at a
meeting of that body on 84th December, 1877,
thns describes the process by which he liquefied
the gases oxygen and carbonic oxide :

" If oxygen or pure carbonic oxide be enclosed in
a tube such as I have before described, and placed
in an apparatus for compression like that which
has already been worked before the Academy, and
the gas be then lowered in temperature to - 29° C.
by means of sulphurous acid, and at a pressure
of about 300 atmospheres, the two gases preserve
their gaseous state. (This apparatus, which con-
sists of a hollow steel cylinder, to which is attached
a strong glass tube, is described in the ' Comptes
Bendua,' tome 85, p. 861. The gas is forced into
it by means of an hydraulic pump with the inter-
vention of a cushion of mercury.)

" But if they are allowed to suddenly expand,
this expansion, according to the formula of
Poisson, reducing them to a temperature at least
800° C. below their initial temperature, causes
them immediately to assume the appearance of an
intense fog, which is caused by the liquefaction
and perhaps by the solidification of the oxygfen or
carbonic acid.

" The same phenomenon is also observed upon
the expansion of carbonic acid, and of protoxide

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LIQUEFACTION

and Hnozide of nitrogen, when nnder (trong
pressure.

" This fog is prodnced with oxygen, even when
the gas is at the or^nary pressure, provided time is
allowed for it to part with the heat it acquires in
the mere act of compression. '

"This I demonstrsted by experiments per-
formed on Snnday, the 16th December, at the
Chemical Laboratory of the £cole Normale
Snp^rieure, before a certain number of toBanU
, and prof essors, amongst whom were'- some mem-
bers of the Aoademy of Sciences, i had hoped
to find in Paris, together with the materials
necessary for the production of a high degree of
cold (protoxide of nitrogen or liquid carbonic
acid), a pump capable of supplying the place of
my conipression apparatus at ChStillon-sor-Seine.
Unfortunately a pump well fixed and suited to
this sort of experiment could not be found in
Paris, and I was obliged to send to ChAtiUon-sur'
Seine for the refrigerating substances for collect-
ing the condensed matters on the walls of the
tube.

" To know whether oxygen and carbonic oxide
are in a liquid or a solid state in the fo^ would
necessitate an optical experiment more easy to

imagine than to accomplish, because of the form
and the thickness of the tubes containing them.
Furthermore, chemical reactions will assure me
that the oxygen is not transformed into ozone in
the act of compression. I shall reserve the study
of all these questions till the apparatus I am now
having made is complete.

" Under the same conditions of temperature
and pressure, even the most rapid expansion of
pure hydrogen gives no trace of nebulous matter.
There remains n>r me only nitrogen to study, the
small BolnbUity of which in water induces me to
believe that it will prove very refractory to all
change of condition" ('Comptes Bendus,' tome
6. p. 1218).

M. Pictefs process for liqneffing oxygen,
although differing in the method of working,
is similar in principle to that of M. Cailletet.
His paper, which was read at the same sitting of
tiie Acadetby as M. Cailletet's, thus describes it :

" A and B, in the accompanying figure, are two
double suction and force pumps, oonpled together
on the compound system, one cannng a vacuum
in the other in such a manner as to obtain the
greatest possible difference between the pressures
of suction and forcing."

The pumps act <tn anhydrous sulphnrous acid
contained in the cylindlieal receiver o. The pres-
sure in this receiver is such that the sulphurous
acid is evaporated from it at a temperature of
66° C. below xero.

The sulphurous acid is forced by the pumps
into a condenser, D, cooled by a current of cold
water ; here it liquefies at the temperature of 26°
above zero, and at a pressure of about 2) atmo-
spheres.

The sulphurous acid returns to the receiver o
as it liquefies by the little tube d.

B and F are two pumps resembling the pre-
ceding, and coupled in the same manner. They
act upon carbonic acid contained in a oylindric^
receiver H.

The temperature in this latter receiver is sack
that the carbonic acid evaporates from it at a
temperature of 140° C. below xero.

The carbonic acid forced on by the pnmpt is

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LIQUEDB

971

driren into the eondeiifar x, endoted in tlie nil-
pharoTu >cid receiver o, which has a temperature
of 65° below zero ; the carbonic acid here becomes
Kqnefied at a pressure of 5 atmospheres.

The carbonic acid, in proportion as it liqnefies,
Tetnms to the receptacle H by the small tube Jc.

J> is a retort of wronght iron, sufficiently thick
to resist a pressore of 600 atmospheres. It con-
tuns eUtnate of potassinm, and is heated in sneh a
manner as to give off pnre oxygen. It com-
mnnicates bj a tnbnlnre with an inclined tnbe, M,
made of very thick glass, one metre in len^h,
which is enveloped by the receiver, a, containing
carbonic acid at the temperature of 140^ below
ten.

. A tapt V, sitoated upon the tnbnhire of the
retort, permits of the opening of an orifice, P,
which leads into the snrronnding air.

After the f o<ir pnmps have been worked for
several honrs by means of a steam-engine of
15-horse power, uid when all the oxygen has been
disengaged, the pressure in the glass tube is 880
atmospheres, and the temperature at 140** below
sero.

Upon suddenly opening the oriflee v the oxygen
escapes with violence, producing, in doing so, so
considerable an expansion and absorption of heat
as to caose a liquefied portion to appear in the
glass tnbe, and to spirt ont from the orifice when
the apparatus is sloped.

It ought to be stated that the qnantity of lique-
fied oxyg^ contained in the tnbe 1 metre long,
and 0-01 m. in internal diameter, occnpied abont
a iliird of its length, and issned from the oriflee, r,
in the form of a liquid jet.

In a communication to M. Dumas, received two
days after the above ratting, M. Pictet described
his exi>eriments more fully, prefacing the account
by the following very interesting remarks: —
" The end to which I have been tending for the
last 8 years has been to seek to demonstrate ex-
perimentally that molecular cohesion is a general
pwperty of bodies without exception.

" If the permanent gases cannot be liquefied, it
most be conelnded that their constituent particles
do not attract each other, and are therefore inde^
pendent of this law.

" To succeed experimentally in bringing the
Budecales of a gas into the closest possiUe proxi-
mity, and thus to obtain its liqne^ction, certain
iodi^wnsable conditions are necessary, which I
ihns smn np :

" 1. To utve a gas that must be perfectly pnre
and without a trace of foreign gas.

"2. To have at one's dii{>osal very powerful
means of compression.

" 3. To obtun an intense degree of cold, and
the abstraction of beat at these low tempera-
tores.

"4. To hare a large surface of condensation
maintained at these low temperatures.

" 6. To have the power of utilising the expan-
sion of the gas undor conriderable pressure to the
atmospheric pressure, which expansion added to
the preceding means compels liquefaction.

" WHh these five conations fulfilled we may
formnlate the following problem.

"When a gas is compressed at 600 or 600
•teospheres, and kept at a temperature of —\W

or 140°, and then let expand to the pressure of the
atmosphere, one of two things must occur.
Either the gas, obeying the action of cohesion,
liquefies and yields its heat of condensation to the
portion of the gas which expands and is lost in
the gaseous form ; or, nnder the hypothesis that
cohesion is not a natural law, the gas passes
beyond absolute xero — that is to say, it becomes
inert, a dust without consistence. The work of
expansion would be impossible, and the loss of
heat absolute."

Spite of M. Cailletefs supposition that nitrogen
would prove a veiy incoercible gas, his experi-
ments showed the contrary, since he found that
it easily condensed under a pressure of abont 200
atmospheras and at a temperature of - 18° C
the conditions as to its sudden expansion being
observed.

Hydrogen, the lightest of all the gases, which
M. Cailletet could only procure in the form of
mist, was unmistakably liquefied by H. Pietet
within less than a fortnight afterwards, under a
pressure of 660 atmospheres snd 140° of cold.

The tap which confined the gas at this pres-
sure being opened, a jet of a steel-blue colour
escaped from the orifice, accompanied by a hissing
sound, like that given off when a red-hot iron is
dipped into cold water. The jet suddenly became
intermittMtt, and a shower of solid particles of the
hydrogen fell to the gronnd with a crackling noise.
The hydrogen was obtainedby the decomposition
of formiate of potash by caustic potash, the gas
thus yielded being absolutely pure.

Cailletet states that he succeeded perfectly in
liquefying atmospheric air, previously deprived of
moisture and carbonic acid, but he omits to men-
tion the pressure and reduction of temperature to
which the air was subjected. He liquefied nitric
oxide at the pressure of 104 atmospheres and at a
temperature of — 11° C.

Carbonic anhydride is liquefied on the large
scale by condensing it in strong vessels of gnn<
metal or boiler-plate. Thilorier was the firrt to
procure it in a solid condition. It requires a
pressure of between 87 and 28 atmospheies at
88° F. (Adatm). The liquefied aeid is colourless
and limpid, lighter than water, and four times
mora expansible than air ; it mixes in all propor-
tions with ether, alcohol, naphtha, oil of tnrpen*
tine, and suljdiide of carbon, and is insoluble in
water and fat oils. When a jet of liquid carbonic
anhydride is allowed to issue into the air from a
narrow aperture, such an intense degree of cold
is produced by the evaporation of a part, that
the remainder freeies to a solid (solid carbonic
anhydride), and falls in a shower of snow. This
substance, which may be collected, affords a
means of producing extreme cold. Mixed with a
little ether, and poured upon a mass of mercury,
the latter is almost instantly frozen. The tem-
perature of this mixture in the air was found to
be — 106° F. ; when the same mixture was placed
beneath the receiver of an air-pump, and exhaus-
tion rapidly performed, the temperature sank to
— 166°. This degree of cold was employed in
Faraday's last experiments on the liqnefaetion of
gases.

LiaUIUB. [Fr.] Sfit. CobdU£. Asttmu.
lating beverage, formed of weak spirit, aromatiaed

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LIQUEUR

•nd iweetened. The manufactare of liqaenra
constitntea the trade of the ' oomponnder,' ' recti-
fier,' or ' liqDoriste.'

The materials employed in the preparation of
liqnearii or cordials are rain or distilled water,
white logar, clean flaronrlesB spirit, and flavonr-
ingf ingredients. To these may be added the
sabstances employed as ' finings ' when artificial
clarification is had recourse to.

The ntensils and apparatus required in the
business are those ordinarily found in the wine
and spirit cellar; together with a copper still,
furniriied with a pewter head and a pewter worm
or condenser when the method ' by distillation '
is pursued. A barrel, hogshead, or rum puncheon,
sawn in two, or simply ' unheaded,' as the case
may demand, forms an excellent vessel for the
solution of the sugar ; and 2 or 3 fluted funnels,
with some good white flannel, will occasionally be
found useful for filtering the aromatic essences
used for flavouring. Great care is taken to ensure
the whole of the utensils, Ac., being perfectly
clean and ' sweejb,' and well ' seasoned,' in order
that they may neither stain nor flavour the sub-
stances placed in contact with them.

In the preparation or compounding of liqueurs,
one of the first objects which engages the opera-
tor's attention is the production of an ilcobolic
solution of the aromatic principles which are to
give them their peculiar aroma and flavour. This
is done either by simple solution or maceration,
as in the manufacture of tinctures and medicated
spirits, or by maceration and subsequent distilla-
tion. The products, in this country, are called
W8IHCI8 or 8FISITB, and by the French urvn-
■lOMB, and are added to the solution of sugar
(STBUF or OAPILI^IBS) Or to the dulcified spirit,
in the proportions requbed. Grain or molasses
spirit is the kind usually employed for this pur-
pose in Enghuid. As before observed, it should
be of the b^t qoali^; as, if this is not the case,
the raw flavour of the spirit is perceptible in the
liquor. Bectified spirit of wine is generally very
free from flavour, and when reduced to a proper
strength with clear soft water forms a spirit
admirably adapted for the preparation of cordial
liquors. Spirit weaker than about 46 o. p., which
hu been freed from its own essential oil by care-
ful rectification, is known in trade under the title
of 'pure,' 'flavourless,' 'plain,' or 'silent spirit.'
Before macerating the ingredients, if they possess
the solid form,, they are coarsely pounded, bruised,
sliced, or ground, as the peculiar character of the
substance may indicate. This is not done until
shortly before submitting them to the action of
the menstruum ; as, after they are bruised, they
rapidly lose their aromntic properties by exposure
to the air. When it is intended to keep them for
any time in the divided state they should be pre-
served in well-corked bottles or jars. The prac-
tice of drying the ingredients before pounding
them, frequently adopted by ignorant and lazy
workmen for the sake of lessening the labour, is,
of course, even more destmctxve to their most
valuable qualities than mere exposure to the air.
The length of time the ingredients should be
digested in the spirit shonld never be less than 5
or 6 days, but a longer period is preferable when
distillation is not employed. In either case the

time may be advantageously extended to 10 daya
or a fortnight, and frequent agitation shonld be
had recourse to during the whole period. When
essential oils are employed to couvey the flavour,
they are first dissolved in a little of the strongest
rectified spirit of wine, in the manner explwned
under £88BircB; and when added to the spirit,
they are mixed up with the whole mass as rapidly
and as perfectly as possible. In managing the
still the fire is proportioned to the ponderosity of
the oil or flaroniing substance, and the receiver
is changed before the faints come over, as these
are unfitted to be mixed with the cordial. In
manj cases the addition of a few pounds of com-
mon salt to the liquor in the still facilitates the
process and improves the product. Ingredients
which are not volatile are, of course, always
added after distillation. The stronger spirit is
reduced to the desired strength by means of either
clear soft water or the chuified syrup used for
sweetening. The sugar employed should be of
the finest quality, and is preferably made into
capillaire or syrup before adding it to the aro-
matised spirit, and not until this last hag been
rendered perfectly 'fine' or transparent, by infil-
tration or clarification, as the case may demand.
Some spirits or infusions, as those of aniseed,
caraway, &e., more particularly require this treat-
ment, which is best performed by running them
through a clean wine bag, made of rather &oe
cloth, having previously mixed them with a spoon-
ful or two of magnesia ; but in all cases clarifica-
tion by simple repose should be preferred. Under
proper management, liqueurs or cordials prepared
of good materials will be fonnd perfectly ' clear'
or ' bright ' as soon as made, or will become so
after being allowed a few days for defecation;
hut in the hands of the inexperienced operator,
and when the spirit employed is insufficient in
strength or quantity, it often happens that tiiey
turn out ' foul ' or • milky.' When this is the
case, the liquid may be ' fined down ' with the
whites of 12 to 20 eggs per hogshead ; or a little
alum, either alone or followed by a little carlxmate
of sodium or potassium, both dissolved in water,
may be added, in the manner described under
FiiniiSB.

An excellent and easy way of manufacturing
cordial liquors, especially when it is inconvenient
to keep a large stock on hand, is by simply ' aro-
matising' and 'colouring,' as circumstances or
business may demand, spirit 60 or 64 u. p., kept
ready sweetened for the purpose. To do this to
the best advantage, two descriptions of sweetened
spirit should be provided, containing respectively
1 lb. and 8 lbs, of sugar to the gallon. From
these spirit of any intermediate sweetness may
be made, which may be fiavoured with any essential
oil dissolved in alcohol, or any aromatised spirit
or ' infusion ' (see baioa), prepared either by
digestion or distillation. As a general rule, the
concentrated essences, made by dissolving 1 ox. of
the essential oil in 1 pint of the strongest rectified
spirit of wine, will be found admirably adapted for
this purpose. These essences, which should be
kept in well, corked bottles, are employed by
dropping them cautiously into the sweetened spirit
until the desired flavour is produced. During
this operation the liquor shonld he frequently and

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LIQUETTE

978

violently shaken to produce complete admixture.

If hy any accident the essence is added in too

large a quantity, the resulting ' miUuness ' or

excess of flavoor may be removed by the addition

of a little more spirit, or by clarification. In this

way the majority of the liqueurs in common use may

he produced extemporaneously, of nearly equal

quality to those prepared by distillation. For

those which are coloured, simple digestion of the

ingredients is almost nniveraally adopted. The

' process by distillation' should, however, be always

employed to impart the flavour and aroma of

volatile aromatics to the spirit, when expense,

labour, and time are of less importance than the

production of a superior article.

The French liquenristes are famed for the pre-
paration of corrals of superior quality, cream-
like smoothness, and delicate flavour. Their
success chiefly arises from the employment of
very pure spirit and sugar (the former in a larger
proportion than that adopted by the English
compounder), and in the judiaons application of
the flavouring ingredients. They distinguish their
cordials as 'eaux' and 'extraits' (waters, extracts),
or liqueurs which, though sweetened, are entirely
devoid of viscidity ; and ' banmes,' ' crimes,' and
' huiles ' (balms, creams, oils), which contain suffi-
cient sugar to impart to them a syrupy consist-
ence. The greatest possible attention is given to
the prepfuation of the aromatised or flavouring
essences, in France called ' infusions.' These are
generally made by macerating the aromatic in-
gredients in spirit at about 2 to 4 u. p. (sp. gr.
■982 to '925), placed in well-corked glass carboys
or stoneware jars or bottles. The maceration is
continued, with occasional agitation, for 8, 4, or
even 5 weeks, when the aromatised spirit is
either distilled or filtered, generally the former.
The outer peel of oedrats, lemons, oranges,
limettes, bergamottes, Ik., a alone used by our
Continental neighbours, and is obtained either by
carefully peeling the fruit with a knife, or by
' oleo-saccbarAm,' by rubbing it off with a lump
of hard white sugar. Aromatic seeds and woods
are bruised by pounding before being submitted
to infusion. The substances employed in France
to odour liqnenrs are — for blue, soluble Prussian
bine, inlph^e of indigo (nearly neutralised with
chalk), and the juice of blue flowers and berries ; —
amber, fawn, and brandy colour, burnt sugar or
spirit colouring j — green, spinach or parsley leaves
(digested in spirit), and mixtures of blue and
yellow; — rod, powdered cochineal or brazil-wood,
rather alone or mixed with a little alum ; — violet,
bine violet petals, litmus, or extract of logwood ;
— purple, the same as violet, only deeper; —
yellow, an aqueous infusion of ssfflower or French
berries, and the tinctures of saffiron and turmeric.
A frequent cause of failure in the manufacture
of liqnenrs and cordials is the addition of too
mud> flaronring matter. Persons unaccustomed
to the use of strong aromatic essences and essen-
tial oils seldom sufficiently estimate their power,
and, oonseqaently, are very apt to add too much
of them, by which the liqueur is rendered not
only disagiwably high-flavoured, but, from the
excess of oil present, also ' milky ' or * foul,'
either at once, or what is nearly as bad, on the
addition of water. This source of annoyance,

arising entirely from bad manipulation, fre-
quently discourages the tyro, and cuts short his
career as a manufacturer. From the viscidity of
cordials they are less readily ' fined down ' than
unsweetened liquor, and often give much tiouble
to clumsy and inexperienced operators. The
moat certain way to prevent disappointment in
this respect is to use too little rather than too
much flavouring ; for if the quantity proves in-
sufficient, it is readily ' brought up ' at any time,
but the contrary is not effected without some
trouble and delay.

A careful attention to the previous remarks
will render this branch of the rectifier's art far
more perfect and easy of performance than it
is at present, and will, in most cases, produce
at once a satisfactory article, ' fine, sweet, and
pleasant.'

The cordials of respectable British 'com-
pounders' contain fully 8 lbs. of white lump
sugar per gallon, and are of the strength of 60 to
64 u. p. The banmes, crimes, and huiles imported
from the Continent are richer both in sinrit and
sugar than ours, and to this may be referred
much of their superiority. Mero sweetened or
cordialised spirits (eaux of the Fr.) contain only
from 1 to 11 lbs. of sugar per gallon.

The purity of liqueurs is determined in the
manner noticed under Bbakdt, Wikx, &e.

The following list embraces nearly all the cor-
dials and liqueurs, both native and imported, met
with in trade in this country :

Absinthe. Sj/n. Kztbait d'^^bhtieb ca
Svieai ; Swiss bxtraot ov wobkwood. iVsp.
From the tops of Ahrinthum majut, 4 lbs,, tops
of Abriitlhttm minut, 2 lbs. ; angelica root,
Calamut aromatietu, Chinese aniseed, and leaves
of dittany of Crete, of each, 15 gr, ; brandy or
spirit at 12 u. p., 4 galls. ; macerate for 10 days,
then add water, 1 gall. ; distil 4 galls, by a gentle
heat, and dissolve in the distilled spirit, of crushed
white sugar, 8 lbs. Tonic and stomachic.

Alker'mes. This liqueur is highly esteemed in
some parts of the south of Europe.

Prep. 1. Bay leaves and mace, of each, 1 lb. ;
nutmegs and cinnamon, of each, 2 oz. ; cloves, 1
oz. (all bruised) ; cognac brandy, 8i gaUs. ; mace-
rate for S weeks, frequently shaking, then distil
over 3 galls., and add of clarified spirit of kermes,
18 lbs. ; orange-flower water, 1 pint ; mix well,
and bottle. This is the original formula for the
' alkermes de Santa Uaria Novella,' which is much
valued.

2. Spice, as last; British brandy, 4 galls.;
water, 1 gall. ; macerate as before, and draw over
4 galls., to which add, of oapillaire, 2 galls., and
sweet spirit of nitre, i pint. Cassia is often used
for dnnamon. Inferior to the last.

An'laeed Cordial. Prep. 1. From aniseed, 8
oz. (or essential oil, 1| dr.), and sugar, 3 lbs. per
gall. It should not be weaker than about 46 u. p.
as at lower strengths it is impossible to produce a
full-flavoured article without its being milky, or
liable to become so.

2. (Abibbtts db Bobdbaux.) a. (Foreign.)
Aniseed, 4 oz. ; coriander and sweet fennel seeds,
of each, 1 oz. (bruised) ; rectified spirit, i gall. ;
water, 8 quarts; macerate for 5 or 6 days, then
draw over 7 pints, and add of lump sugar, 2i lbs.

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b. (Bngluh.) Oil of aniseed, 15 drops ; oils of
cassia and caraway, of each, 6 drops ; rub them
with a little sugar, and then dissolve it in spirit
(45 n. p.), 8 qaarts, by well shaking them toge-
ther; filter, if necessary, and dissolve in the
dear liquor, sngar, 11 lbs. See Pbpfkbicimt
(jbelow).

Balm of Kolaeca. Prep. From mace, 1 dr. ;
cloves, i oz. ; clean spirit (22 u. p.), 1 gall. ; infuse
for a week in a wdl-corked carboy or jar, fre-
quently shaking, coloor with burnt sugar, q. s.,
and to the clear tincture add of lump sugar,
4^ lbs. ; dissolved in pure soft water, 1 gall. On
the Continent this takes the place of the ' cloves '
of the English retailer.

Bif ten. These have generally from 1 to li lbs.
of sugar per gallon. See Bittbbs.

Car'away &)rdial. Prap. Qenerally from the
essential oil, with only 2| lbs. of sugar per gall.
1 fl. dr. of the oil is commonly reckoned equal to
i lb, of the seed. The addition of a very little
oil of cassia, and about half as much of essence
of lemon or of orange, improves it. See BsASOY,

CXBAWAT.

Ce'drat Cordial. JPrep. From essence (oil) of
cedrat (^ oz.) ; pure spirit (at proof), 1 gtdl. ;
dissolve, add of water, 8 pints, agitate well ; distil
8 quarts, and add an equal measure of clarified
syrup. A delicions liqueur. SeeCsiiuandEAV
(jbtloui).

Cin'namon Cordial. Prep. This is seldom
made with cinnamon, owing to its high price,
but with either the essential oil or bark of cassia,
with about 2 lbs. of sugar to the gall. It is pre-
ferred coloured, and therefore may be very well
prepared by simple digestion. The addition of 6
or 6 drops each of essence of lemon and orange
peel, with about a spoouful of essence of carda-
moms per gall., improves it. 1 oz, of oil of cassia
is considered equal to 8 Iba. of the buds or burk.
1 fl. dr. of the oil is enough for 2i galls. It is
coloured with burnt sugar.

Cit'ros Cordial. Prep. From the <»1 or peel,
with 8 lbs. of sngar per gall., as above (see
belov).

Citronelle. Sgii. 'Eav ss BiiBBAJisg. iVap.
1. l^m fresh orange peel, 2 ox.; fresh lemon
peel, 4 oz. ; cloves, i dr. ; corianders and cinnamon,
of each, I dr. ; proof spirit, 4 pints ; digest for 10
days; then add, of water, 1 quart, and distil i
gall. ; to the distilled essence add of white sngar,
1 lbs., dissolved in water, 1 quart.

2. Essence of orange, i dr. ; essence of lemon,
1 dr.; oil of doves and cassia, of each, 10 drops;
oil of coriander, 80 drops; spirit (68 o. p.), 6
pints J agitate until dissolved, then add of dis-
tilled or clear soft water, 3 pints ; well mix, and
filter it through blotting-paper if necessary;
lastly add of sugar (dissolved), q. s.

Clairet. Sjf*. Ro8eui>i8 sbb bin aBAiNss.
Prep. From aniseed, fennel seed, coriander seed,
caraway seed, dill seed, and seeds' of the candy-
carrot (Athamantia areieiuit, Linn.), of each
(braised), 1 oz. ; proof spirit, i gall. ; digest for a
week, strain, and add of loaf sugar, 1 lb., dis-
solved in water, q. s.

Cloves. Sgn.. ClOTB OOBSIAZ. Prtp. From
bruised cloves, I oz., or essential oil, 1 fl. dr., to
every 8 galls, of proof .spirit. If distilled, some

common salt shonid be added, and it alioald be
drawn over with a pretty quick .fire. It requires
fully 8 lbs. of sugar per galL, and is generally
coloured with poppy flowers or burnt sugar. The
addition of 1 dr. of braised pimento, or 5 drops
of the oil for every oz. of cloves improves this
cordial. See Baijc of Moxuooa (above).

Coriander CordlaL I^ep. From corianders, as
the last. A few sliced oranges improve it.

Crime d'Anli. As asubss oosdiax, only
richer.

Crime dw BarbadM. As oitbonbixr, ad^ng
some of the juice of the oranges, and an additional
lb. of sugar per gall.

Crime de Cacao. Prep. Infuse roasted caracca-
cacao nuts (cat small), 1 lb., and vanilla, i oz.,
in brandy, 1 gall., for 8 days ; strain, and add of
thick syrup, 8 quarts.

Crime de Cediat. Syn. Huilb db oxdx&t.
Prep. From spirit of intron, 1 pint ; spirit of
cedrat, 1 quart ; proof spirit, 8 quarts; white sugar,
16 lbs., disaolved in pure soft water, 2 galls.

Crime de Kacarons. Prep. 1. From cloves,
cinnamon, and mace, of each (braised), 1 dr. ; bitter
almonds (bUnched and beaten to a paste), 7 oz. ;
spirit (17 u. p.), 1 gall.; digest a week, filter, and
add of white sugar, 6 lbs. ; dissolve in pure water,
2 quarts.

2. Clean spirit (at 24 u. p., sp. gr. -946), 2
galls. ; bitter almonds, } lb. ; cloves, cinnamon,
and mare, of each (in coarse powder), 11 dr.; in-
fuse for 10 days, filter, and add of white sugar, 8
lbs., dissolved in pure water, 1 gall. ; lastly, give
the liqueur a violet tint with infusion or tincture
of litmus and cochineal. An agreeable, nutty-
flavoured cordial, but, from containing so much
bitter almonds, should be only drunk in small
quantities at a time. The English use only i the
above quantity of almonds.

Crime de Vi^lie. Prep. From sweetened
spirit (60 a. p.) containing 31 lbs. of sug^ar per
gall., 7 quarts; orange-flower water (foreign), 1
quart. Delicious.

Crime de Voyean. See Noybav.

Crime d'Orange. Prep. From oranges (sliced),

8 dozen ; rectified spirit, 2 galls. ; digest for 14
days ; add, of lump sugar, 28 lbs. (previously dis-
solved in water, 41 galls.) ; tincture of saffron, 11
fl. oz. ; and orange-flower water, 2 quarts.

Crime de PortagaL Flavoured with lemon, to
which a little oil of bitter almonds is added.

Corafao. Prep. From sweetened spirit (at
56 a. p.), containing 31 lbs. of sugar per gidl.,
flavoured with a tincture made by digesting the
' oleo-saccharom ' prepared from Seville oranges,

9 in number; cinnamon, 1 dr.; and mace, f dr.,
in rectifled spirit, 1 pint. It is coloured by di-
gesting in it for a week or 10 days brazil-wood
(in powder), 1 oz., and afterwards mellowing the
colour with burnt sugar, q. s.

Delight of the Mandarins. From spirit (22
u. p.), 1 gall.; pare soft water, 1 gall.; white
sugar (crushed small), 41 lbs. ; Chinese aniseed
and ambrette or musk seed, of each (bmisedX
i oz. ; safflower, 1 oz. ; digested together in a car-
boy or stone bottle capable of holding double, and
agitated well every day for a fortnight.

Ban de Cedrat. /^n. Cbi)Iu.x waxhb. As
Caiia SB ombmax, but using less sugar.

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En da dutaaenxs. See Pbppbbxiiit (jkelou).
Xu de Tie d'Andaye. 8yn. Eav sb vie
d'ahib; A^nsBBo uquxub bbaitdy. Frep.
Fxom brandy or proof Bpirit, 1 gall. ; augar, f lb. ;
diaaolved in aniieed water, 1 pint.

Gold Cordial. Frep. f^m angelica root
(diced), 1 lb. ; raisins, | lb. ; coriander seeds,
2 ox. ; caraway seeds and cassia, of each, 11 oz. ;
cloTea, 1 oz. ; figs and sliced liquorice root, of
each, 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 3 galls. ; water, 1 gall. ;
digest 2 days, and distil S galls, by a gentle
heat ; to this add, of sugar, 9 lbs., dissolved in
rose-water and clean soft water, of each, 1 quart ;
lastly, colour the liquid by steeping in it of hay
aa&on, li oz. This cordial was once held in
much esteem. It derives its name from a small
qnantatj of gold leaf being formerly added to it.

Enlle d'l^ia. See CBKm d'Amib (above).

Hoile de Vanilla, flavoured with essence or
tincture of vanilla. It is kept in a decanter, and
used to flavour liqueurs, grog, &c.

Hnile de Vinos. JVsp. From the flowers of
the wild carrot, 21 oz., and sugar, 3 lbs. to the
galL It is generally coloured by infusing a little
powdered cochineal in it.

Jargonelle. 8g». JABaoHBiu) cobsial.
Flavoured with essence of jargonelle pear (ace-
tate of amy I). Pine-apple cordial and liqueurs
from some other fruits are also prepared from the
new fruit essences. See Essbkob.

Lem'on CordiaL Frep. Pigest fresh and dried
lemon-peel, of each, 2 oz., and fresh orange-peel,
1 OL, in proof spirit, 1 gall., for a week ; strain
with expression, add of clear soft water, q. s. to
redace it to the desired strength, and lump sujgpar,
8 \\». to the gallon. The addition of a little
orange-flower or rose water improves it.

TiiqnffdfPn. Flavoured with oranges and lemons,
of each (alieed), 3 in number ; with sugar, 2i lbs.
pergaU.

Ituf'tift Cwdtal. Frep. From the freah roots
of lovage^ 1 oz. to the gallon. A fourth of this
quantity of the fresh roots of celery and tweet
fennel are also commonly added. In some parts
a little fresh valerian root and oil of savine are
added before distillation. It is much valued by
the lower classes in some of the provinces for its
stomachic and emmenagogue qualities.

(Ml of Ce'diat. See (SAua db Cbdbat {above).

Orange Cordial. lake lbkon ooxdial or
CXBKB d'okahob, &om fresh orange-peel, i lb.
to the gallon.

Parfitit Amonr. Syn. Pbbfbot lotb. Frep.
Flavoured with the yellow rind of 4 lemons, and
a teaspoonf ul of essence of vanilla to the gallon,
with sogar, 8 lbs., and powdered cochineal, q. s.
to colour.

Pep'pegrmiiit. Syn. PEPPiBXHfT cobsiai.,

SFOBTSXAX'S O., X. JCIHT ; EaU db OBAaSBUBS,

Fr. Thia well-known compound is in greater de-
mand in every part of the kingdom than all the
other cardials put together.

Fnp. 1. From peppermint water and gin or
plain spirit (2S u. p.), of each, 1 pint; lump
sugar, I lb.

S. (WhoJeaale.) English oil of peppermint,
6 OS., is added to rectified sinrits of wine, S pints,
and the miztore is agitated well together for some
time in a corked bottle capable of holding 4 pints

or more ; it is then emptied into a cask having a
capacity of upwards of 100 galls., and perfectly
white and flavourless proof spirit, 36 galls., is
poured in, and the whole well agitated for ten
minutes; a solution of the best double-reflned
lump sugar, 2) cwt^ in about 35 galls, of pore
filtered rain-water, is then added, and the con-
tents of the cask well ' rummaged up ' in the
usual manner for at least 16 minutes ; sufficient
clear rain-water to make up the whole quantity
to exactly 100 galls., and holding in solution
alum, S oz., is next added, and the whole is again
well agitated for at least a quarter of an hour,
after which the cask is bunged down, and allowed
to repg(M for a fortnight before it is ' broached'
for sale.

Obt. The last formula produces a beautiful
article provided the ingredients are of good
quality. Care on this point is particularly neces-
sary in reference to the essential oil, which should
only be purchased of some known respectable
dealer. The sugar should be sufficiently pure to
dissolve in a wine-glassful of clear soft water
without ii^uring its transparency, and the cask
shoold be a fresh-emptied gin pipe, or one pro-
perly prepared for gin, as, if it gives colour, it
will spoil the cordial. When these particulars
are attended to, the product is a bright trans-
parent liquor as soon as made, and does not re-
quire fining. Should there be the slightest
opacity, the addition of 2 oz. of salt of tartar,
dissolved in a quart of hot water, will have the
effect of ' clearing it down ' in the course of a
few days. The product is 100 galls, of cordial at
64 a. p.

Pimen'tO. Sgn. PlIONTO OOBDIAS, FnCBMTO

DBAX. Rather strongly flavoured with allspice,
or pimento. It has obtained a great repute in the
West Indies in diarrhoea, cholera, and bowel com-
plaints generally.

Basp'beny Cordial. Prep. From raspberry
brandy, capillaire, and water, equal parts. A
similajr article is prepared by flavouring sweetened
spirit with the new ' raspberry essence.'

Satafi'a, The numerous liqueurs bearing this
name are noticed in another part of this volume.
See Batavia.

Shrub. See the article Shbub in another part
of this work.

Sighs of Lore. Frep. 1, From proof sinrit
flavoured with otto of roses and oapilhure, equal
parts.

2, From sugar, 6 lbs., pure soft water, q. s. to
produce a gallon of syrup, to which add, of eau
de rose, 1 pint ; proof spirit, 7 pints. It is stained
of a pale pink by powdered cochineal. A very
pleasant cordiaL A drop or two (not more) of
essence of ambergris or vanilla improves it.

Tears of the Widow of Kalabar, Frep. As
BALK ov MoLTTOOA, but employing doves
(bruised), 1 oz. ; mace (shredded), 1 dr, ; and a
teaspoonfnl of essence of vamlla for flavouring.
Some add of orange-flower water, i pint. It is
slightly coloured with burnt sugar.

Tont. From plain spirit (2^ u. p.) and port
wine, of each, 1 quart ; sherry and soft water, of
each, 1 pint ; orange-flower water and lemon-juice,
of each, i pint ; essence of ambergris, 2 drops (not
more) ; sugar, 2 lbs. See Wrax.

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LIQUEUE— LIQUOR

Ui'qnebaogli. See the article UsQUBBAtrsE in
another part of this work.

UQUEira DE UL HOTTX. [Fr.] See Dbofb,
GotDEN, and TnroTTJBB.

LIQUEUR BE PSESBAVIK. [Fr.] Prep.
From oxide of mercury (freably precipitated) and
cream of tartar, of each, 1 oz. ; hot water, 1 quart ;
dissolve and Alter. For ose 8 spoonfuls of this
liquor are added to 1 quart of water. — Don. A
wine-glassful 3 or 4 times a day, avoiding the use
of common salt. This is simply a solution of
potassio-tartrate of mercury, and may be taken
in the usual cases in which mercury is admin-

UQUEUB BOUSE. [Fr.] Prep. Take of
cinnamon, bitter orange-peel, and Peruvian bark,
of each, 1 oz. ; hay saffron, i oz.; brandy and
Malaga wine, o'f each, 3 quarts ; digest for a week,
strain, and add of lump sugar, 2 lbs. Tonic,
stomachic, and stimulant; chiefly used as an
agreeable alcoholic dram.

LIQUIB-AXBAS. A fluid balsamic juice ob-
tained from the Itiquidamber ttyraciflua, an
American tree. By keeping, it dries to a pale
amber-coloured resin It closely resembles
LlQiras BTOBAZ in its properties, and may be
applied to the same purposes. See Sttbax.

UQUODnrTrA. See Liqubttb.

UQ'UOR. Syn. Liqvob, L. ; liiQnBUB, Fr.
This term is given in the Pharmacopoeia to those
aqueous solutions commonly though improperly
called ' WATBBS ;' ammonite, liquor potassee, &c.

The term ' liquor ' has also, of late years, been
applied to certain concentrated preparations, most
of which would be more correcUy termed ' flvid
SXTBAOIS,' as they merely differ from solid ex-
tracts in their conHstence, and from ordinary ex-
tracts in containing leas starchy matter, albumen,
and gum. There is also usually a little spirit
added to them to prevent decomposition. Liquors
of this kind may be prepared of the finest quality
by the same processes tiiat are required for the
preparation of good soluble extracts ; observing to
stop the evaporation as soon as the consistence of
treacle is acquired, and when cold, to add l-4th
or l-5th part of their volume (after evaporation)
in rectified spirit. The liquors, which are merely
concentrated infusions or decoctions, and which,
in their consistence, do not even approximate to
extracts, may he made in the manner directed
nnder those heads. It is now the practice to pre-
pare fluid extracts of such a strength that 1 fl.
part of the finished extract is equal to 1 solid part
of the dry drug.

Much confusion would be prevented if the terms
'concentrated decoction,' 'concentrated infusion/
&c., were adopted for those vegetable preparations
possessing 8 times the usual strength ; ' liquors '
for those of a higher strength, but still sufficiently
liquid to be treated as such in dispensing, lua. ;
and ' fluid extracts * for those possessing con-
siderable consistence, and approaching the com-
mon extracts iu their degree of concentration and
mode of preparation. See Dbcooiion, Ebsbhob,

EZTKAOT, iBTUBIOir, SOLUTIOIT, &C.

*«* The following formnlte present some illus-
trations of the preparation of this class of medi-
cines:

Liquor of Anunonia. ;^ii. Li<ifroB ahxonlb.

L. Prep. Strong solution of ammonia, 1 pint ;
distilled water, 2 pints; mix and preserve in a
stoppered bottle. Sp. gr. '959.

liquor of Ammonia, Stronger. Sgn. Liqvob
AKKONLS FOBTIOB, L. Prep. Mix chloride of
ammonium (in coarse powder), 8 lbs., and slaked
lime, 4 lbs., and introduce the mixture into an.
iron bottle placed in a metal pot surrounded by
sand. Connect the iron tube which screws ur-
tight into the bottle in the usual manner, by
corks, glass tubes, and caoutchouc collars, with a
WouU's bottle capable of holding a pint ; connect
thb with a second Woulf 's bottie of the same size,
the second bottie with a matrass of the capacity
of 3 pints, in which 22 oz. of distilled water are
placed, and the matrass, by means of a tube bent
twice at right angles, with an ordinary bottle con-
taining distilled water, 10 oz. Botties 1 and 2
are empty, and the latter and the matrass which
contains the 22 oz. of distilled water are furnished
each with a siphon safety-tube charged with a
very short column of mercury.

The heat of a fire, which should be very gradn-
ally raised, is to be now applied to the metal pot,
and continued until bubbles of condensable gaa
cease to escape from the extremity of the glass
tube which dips into the water of the matrass.

The process being terminated, the matrass will
contain about 43 fl. oz. of strong solution of
ammonia. Bottles 1 and 2 will now include, the
first about 16, the second about 10 fl, oz. of a
coloured ammoniacal liquid.

Place this in a flask closed by a cork, which
should be perforated by a siphon safety-tube con-
taining a littie mercury, and also by a second
safety-tube bent twice at right angles, and made
to pass to the bottom of the terminal bottle used
in the preceding process. Apply heat to the flask
until the colonred liquid it contains is reduced to
8-4ths of its ori(^naI bulk. The product now
contained in the terminal bottle will be nearly ct
the strength of solution of ammonia, and may be
made exactly so by the addition of the proper
quantity of distilled water, or of strong solution
of ammonia. Density '891, contains 32'5% of
ammonia.

Ante. Vinegar and water followed by acidu-
lated demulcent drinks.

Liquor, Anodyne. See Spibit or Etebb.

Liqaor. Antinephritie. Sg*. Liqvob amti-
irBFEBiTiOTTB, L. Prep. {Adamt.) Poppy-heads,
6 oz. ; water, \\ pints ; boil to l-8rd, stnun with
pressure, and add of nitrate of potassa, 1 oz. —
Hoie, 1 to 2 teaspoonftils night and morning ; in
gravel and painful affections of the kidneys and
bladder.

Uquor, Antlpodag'rie (Begnln's). Sgn. Hopp-

HAITN'B OOVT liquid ; LlQVOB ANTIPODAOBIOUa

HoFFMAlTHIl, L. Prep. From Boyle's fuming
liquor, 1 part ; spirit of wine, 3 parts. Sudorific.
— Doee, 20 to 30 drops ; or externally, in gout
and other painful affections, either alone or com-
bined with camphor. See AmcomnH, PsBBTrL-

FEtDI OF.

Liquor, Bleaching. SeeSoLincioiroFCELOBtDB

OF LiKB.

Liquor, BUatering. (B. P.) 8g%. Liqvob bfi-
BFABTICUB LUTIKBirTXTX cahthabidbb, L. Prep.
Mix cantharides in powder, 6 oz., and acetic ether.

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a mffiaency. Pack in a percolator, and pais the
ether ilowly throngh nntil 20 fl. oz. are obtained.
Keep in a stoppered bottle.

Llqiunr, Boyle'i Fn"iniiig. The perhydroeul-
pbate of ammonia.

Liqnor of Calnm'ba. Syn. Liqvob oaxvicbje,
L. Same aa cohobhtbaikd mruBion of oa-

LUXBA.

Liqiunr of Cam'phor. See Ebsbnob.

loqnor of Chiref ta. Same ai oohcbntbatkd

IHTUSIOir Ot CBIBBTTA.

Lienor Cinchona (B. P.). Sgn. Liquid
BZTBAOT o* cnroROVA. I'rep. 1. Made by ex-
hausting 20 oz. of red cinchona bark with a mis-
tnre of 6 pints water, 6 dr. hydrachloric acid, 2i
oz. glycerin ; then evaporating the fluid to 20 oz.
50 gr. of this liquid is shaken with caustic soda
and benzolated amylic alcohol. Separate the
alcohol, evaporate, dry, and weigh the residue,
which mnltiplied by 2 will give the percentage of
alkaloids present. From the result adjust the
liquid, either by evaporation or addition of water,
so that 85 gr. contains 5 gr. of alkaloids ; flnaUy,
add 124 gr. rectified spirit, and enough water to
make the product weu;h 100 gr. The finished
product will contain 6% alkaloids.

Utm. Tonic, febrifuge, astringent. — Data, 8
to 10 mina.

2. Yellow cinchona hark (bruised), 66 lbs., and
water holding in solution sulphuric acid, li lbs.,
are macerated together, with occasional agitation,
in a covered earthen vessel, for 48 hours, after
which the liquor is expressed, and the residuum
or marc is treated with fresh water ; the mixed
strained liquid is then evaporated as rapidly as
poanble in earthenware to exactly 6 lbs. ; to this
rectified spirit, 1^ lbs., is added, and the whole is
set aside for a week or 10 days ; the clear portion
is, lastly, decanted and preserved in well- closed
bottles. The product is very rich in quinine. It
is 96 times as strong as the dbcxmstiov ob our-
CHOKA (Ph. L.), and 12 times as strong as the
above preparation of the Ph. L. This prepara-
tion resembles the ' LiQiroB cihohons ' sold by
certain houses in the trade at Zii. per lb. whole-
sale.

8. Exhaust the bark as above by maceration
in 3 successive waters without acid, filter, eva-
porate the mixed liquors to 7 lbs., and proceed
as before. Inferior to the last, and less rich
in the cinchona alkaloids. Very thick, scarcely
Hquid.

4. From falb babe (Liqvob aiHOKOxa

PAUJBS ; INBCBTTK OnCOBONS BFIBBATVH, Ph.

L.). From pale bark, as the last. See Ibvubion
01 CnrcHoxA.

Liqvor, Sisinfact'lng. See Solution (Chlo-
rides of Lime, Soda, and Zinc), and DuimrBCTiNa'

COKPOUKSS.

Uqnear dn Soctenr Laville. Prep. Alcohol, i
oz.; water, 3 oz.; colchicin, 2 gr. ; quinine, li
gr. ; extract and staining material, 40 gr. ; mineral
sobstences, 8 gr.

Uqnor of Jbfgot. Sgn. Liquid bztbaot os
IB6OT; LiQUOB 8BOAI.B, L. Prep. Crushed
ergot, 1 lb.; distilled water, 6 ^ts; rectified
spirit, 6 fl. ox. Digest the ergot in 4 pints of the
water for 12 hours, draw off ihe infusion, and re-
peat the digestion with the remaining water.

TOZ. II.

Press out, strain, and evaporate the liqnora to 1 1
oz. ; when cold, add the spirit. Filter and make
up to 16 fl. oz. with water. — 2)o*e, ^ to 1 dr.

Liquor of FUnts.' See SoLunoH.

liquor of Ontta Fercha. Syn. Liquob
auTTA PBBcaA. Prep. Ontta percha in thin
slices, 1 oz. ; carbonate of lead in fine powder, 1
oz. ; chloroform, 8 fl. oz. Add the gutta percha
to 6 fl. oz. of chloroform in a stoppered bottle, and
shake them frequently till solution has been
effected. Then add the carbonate of lead pre-
viously mixed with the remainder of the chloro-
form, and having several times shaken the whole
together set the mixture aside, and let it renuun
at rest until the soluble matter has subsided.
Lastly, decant the clear liquid and keep in a
well-stoppered bottle.

Liquor, Libavlns'i. Bichloride of tin.

Liquor of Xaf ico. Sgn. Covobittbatid lir-

VUBION OV MATIOO ; LiQUOB MATIOOHIB, ISVUSUX

XATiooms ooircK<rTBATUX, L. Prep. From
matico leaves, 1 lb. ; rectified spirit, i pint ; dis-
tilled water, 82 fl. oz. ; digest 10 days, express, and
filter. 1 fl. dr. added to 7 fi- dr. of water is equal
to 1 fl. oz. of the oemmon ufFUBloir.
Liquor of Xyrrh. Sg». SoLurioir of kybbh;

LiQUOB XTBBHA, LOOO LIQUAKIHIB XTRBMS,

L. Prep. (Bh. Bor.) Extract of myrrh (Ph.
Bor.), 1 oz. ; distilled water, 6 fl. oz. ; mix tho-
roughly, decant, and strain. It should be of a
brownish-yellow colour, and turbid. — Dote, i to
1 fi. dr.
Liquor of O'pium. Syn. Liquob OFn, L. o.

OOHCBNTBATDB, L. 0PIATU8, L. See BlACK

Dbof (under Dbopb).

Prep. 1. {Meter* Smith.) Opium, 4 01., is
made into an extract, and ' denarcotised ' by ether ;
it is then dissolved in alcohol, filtered, evaporated
nearly to dryness, and redissolved in water, q. s.
to furnish 12 oz. of solution ; to this is added, of
rectified spirit, 2} oz., with water, q. s. to make
the whole up to 16 oz. — J)ote, 8 to 12 drops.

2. (Acetic : LiQuoB OFli aobtioub, l!) See
Laudavum {Moulton^e).

5. (Citric: LiQUOB OFII OITBICUB, L.) a.
Powdered opium, 1| oz. ; lemon-juice, 11 pints ;
evaporate to ), cool, add of rectified spirit 6 fl.
oz., and the next day decant or filter ; same
strength as ' LAUDAirtm.'

b. (Liquob KOBPHiirji CITBAIIB, L. ; Dr Por-
ter.) Opium, 4 oz. ; citric acid, 2 oz. ; triturate,
and add of boiling water, 16 fl. oz. ; digest with
agitation for 24 hours, and filter. This last has
above 8 times the strength of ' lavdanuk.' It
is sadly misnamed.

4. (Hydrochloric : Solution of xubiatb ov
OPIUK ; Liquob ofh btdboohlobioub, L. ; Dr
Niehol.) Powdered opium, 1 1 oz. ; distilled water,
1 pint; hydrochloric acid, 1^ fl. oz. ; digest a
fortnight, and strain with expression. Same
strength as ' lausahttm.' According to DrNichol,
this is preferable to every other preparation of
opium.

6. (Sedative: Battlby'b bbdatiyb bolutioh
OFOFIUK; LiQUOBOFnsBDATiTirs, L.) a. Hard
oqneons extract of opium (bruised), 8 oz., is
boiled in water, 1| pints, nntil dissolved; to
the solution, when cold, rectified spirit, 6 oz., is
added, together with water, q. s. to make the whole

63

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978

lilQUOB— LIQUOBICB

meagiire exactly 1 qoart; the liquor is, Uatly.
filtered.

b. from hard extract of opinm, 22 oi.; boiling
water. 13 pinte ; rectified spirit, 3 pinta j aa the last.

c. From extract of opium (Ph. L.), 4^ oz.;
water, 1 quart ; boil till reduced to 34 fl. oz.; cool,
filter, and add of rectified spirit, 6 fl. oz., and
water, q. t. to make up exactly 1 quart.

Oit. The first two formnls, which vary only
in their quantities, are identical with that em-
ployed by Mr Battley. As hard extract of opinm
u not always at hand, we have introduced a
formula in which the ordinary extract is ordered.
It gives a precisely similar product to the others,
provided the cold aqueous decoction is filtered
before adding the spirit. Battley's LIQVOB opn
SEDATiruB is an excellent preparation, less excit-
ing than opinm or hiudanum. — Vote, 10 to 30
drops. Dr Christison states that 20 drops of
Battley's aolutioa are equal to SO drops of the
common tincture.

. Idqnor, Pancreatic, Si/n. Lkjttob pajcoksaii-
OUS. JPrep. Fresh pig's pancreas (well minced),

1 part j distilled water, 18 parts ; rectified spirit,

2 parts. Macerate for 2 days with frequent stir-
ring, filter. — Dote, 1 to 2 dr.

UqnOT of Pepsin ( Jfr Squire). ^Sya. LiQUOB
CBPSIMI. Prep. 1 dr. of Boudalt's pepsin in 1
oz. of distilled water. Salt must be added if it
is to be preserved, — Doie. A teaspoonful.

Liquor of Bhn'barb, Syit. Liqvob bhbi. In-
rvavx BHBI coNOBiTTBATiTU, L. Prep. 1. Rhu-
barb (well bruised), 6} oz, ; water, q. s. ; rectified
spirit, i pint; proceed as for ivraiiov ov oa-
LUKBA (cone.) ; to produce a quart. 8 times the
usual strength.

2. See Ibbusion op Rhvbabb (Concentrated).

9. See ExTBAOT op Rhttbabb (Fluid),

Liquor of Saisaparilla. Sv». Flvid bztbaoi

OP 8AB8APABIXI.A ; LlQUOB 8ABZ£, ESSBNTIA

8AB8APABUiL£, L. Pfep. Sarssparilla (in pow-
der), 40 oz, ; proof spirit, 2 pints ; sugar, 5 oz. ;
water, 12 pints. Macerate the aarsaparilla and
spirit for 10 days, press out 20 ox., and set aside.
Mix the pressed residue with the water and mace-
rate at 160° F. for 16 hours; then strain, and
press and dissolve the sugar in tite fluid; evapo-
rate in a water-bath to 18 oz. Mix the two
liquids and make up to 40 oz. with water, — itoie,
2 to 4 dr.

Liquor of Sen'na, Sg*. Liquob aBtnfB.L,
Both the VLUiD bxtbaot and the ooncbitikatxd
IHPUBIOM OP BBHKA are called by this name, but
inore generally the former. The following are
additional formulte :

Pr^, 1, (Duncan.) SennA, 16 lbs. t boiling
water, 6 galls, i proceed by the method of dis-
placement, evaporate the product to 10 lbs., add
of molasses, 6 lbs. (prevtoosly ooncentrated over
a water-bath until it begins to congeal on cool-
ing), dissolve, and further add of rectifled spirit,
li jiints, together with water, q, s, to make the
whole measure exactly 12 pints. Every fl. M,
represents 1 oz. of senna,

2, (Dr Tioeedg.) As the last, but using tinc-
ture of ginger (prepared with rectified spirit), li
pints, instead of the spirit there ordered.

Liquor of Soap, i^. Liqvob bapohib, L.
See TnroiuSB.

Liquor, Styp'tic. ^. LiQUOBBTXPTicin^L.
Prep. (Ph, Slevico-Holsat. 1881.) Alum and
sulphate of copper, of each, 11 oz,; sulphuric
acid, 1 OS.; watier, 1 lb. ; dissolve and filter.

Liquor of Tarax'aeam. S^n. Fluid bxibact

OP SASSBUON; EZTBAOTUKXABAXAOIPLUtSVIC,

LiQCOB TABAZAOi, L. Prtp. 1, Dry dandelion
roots (in powder), 40 oz. ; proof spirit, 4 pints ;
water, a sufflaency. Mix the dandelion with the
spirit { macerate for 48 hours, then press out 20
oz. of fluid and set aside. Mix the pressed resi*
due with the water, macerate 48 hours, press, and
strain ; evaporate the fiuid to 18 oz, Muc the two
liquids .and make to 40 oz. with water. — Do*e,
i to 2 dr.

2, The expressed juice of dandelion is heated to
near the boiling-point, strained, and evaporated,
as the last, to a proper consistence ; l-4th or 1-fith
of rectifled spirit is then added, and the liquid is
otherwise treated as before. Very odorous and
pale coloured.

3, Dried root (coarsely powdered), 1 lb. ; water,
li pints; rectifled spirit, i pint; digest a week,
express the liquor, pass it through a hair-sieve
into a battle, and in 10 days decant the clear
portion.

4, (Ph. Bor.) Extract of dandelion, 3 parts ;
water, 1 part (or q. s.) ; triturated together.

6. (IT. Pro«i0r.) Fresh root, 2 lbs., is sliced
and reduced to a pulp, and macerated with l-6th
of its bulk of reotified spirit for 24 Itours ; it is
then subjected to strong pressure, the marc is
treated with water containing a little spirit, 1
pint, and the liquid is again expressed ; the mixed
product is evaporated to 12 fl. oz., and when cold,
rectified spirit, 4 fl. oz., is added, and the whole
filtered.

Obt. Xiiquor of taraxacum has a very large
sale. The dose is 1 to 2 fl, dr. See £2.tbact.

Liquor of Tale'riaa. See Ezxbaoi. op Va!.!*
BlAir (Fluid),

Uquar of Vanilla. 1^. Fi.uis bxtbaot op

YAITELLA; LiQVOB TAKUIiS, BXTRACTUX T,

pliUiBUK, L. Prep. 1. Vanilla (slioed), 1 lb. ;
rectified spirit, 3 pints ; prepare a tincture either
by displacement or maceration, and reduce it, by
distillation at the lowest possible temperature, to
11 lbs. ; put this into a strong bottle whilst hot,
add of white sugar-candy (in powder), 1 lb., oork
down, and agitate the whole until it is nearly oold.
Very fine. Used chiefly for its odour and flavour.
It represents half its weight of vanilla.

2. ( W. Procter.) VaiuUa (cut into this trans-
verse slices), 1 oz. ; sugar, 8 o>.; triturate until
reduced to fine powder, put it into a strong pint
bottle, along with syrup, 1 pint ; water, 2 oz. ; tie
down the cork, and set the bottle for \ an hour
in boiling watw ; cool, strain, and treat the reu-
due in a like manner with a mixture of water, S
fl. oz., and rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz. ; lastly, mix the
two products. Greatly inferior to the last.

LIQTIOSICE, 8$: Snox uqvobiob; Li-

QUOBITIA, QlTCTBBHIZ£ BADIZ (B. P.), OX.T>

OTBSBizs BASix, OiiTOTBBHizA (Ph. L,and D,),
O. eiABBA (Ph. £.), L. "The root or under-
ground stem of the CHycyrrhita glabra, fresh and
dried, cultivated in Britain." " The recent and
the dried root of Olgagrrhita glabra," or common
liquorice. " The fiesh root is to be kept buried

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LISBON DIET SSINK-^LITBABGE

»79

mdriBdaudforqae''(Ph.L.). Ithaaanreetuh
taster ud ia alighUy aperient, ezpeetorant, and
ditnetic It is a popular demolcent and pectoral.
Its extract and eolation are mneh nsed aa a
domestic remedy for congh. As a masticatory it
allays thirst and irritatioD.
Ckanposition of Uie f tesh root of liquorice :
Olyeyrrhizin . . . 8-60

Gam 26'60

Hatter lolable in alof^Kil,

chiefly resin . . 0^6

Albomen .... 0-97

Starch 28-91

Woody fibre . . 18-86

Moistaie .... 26-81
Ash, 8-07% . . . . —

aoe-00

(JSttnall.)
Boosain asserts that the sweetness of liquorice
root is not doe to glycjTiiia3da, as has been hitherto
•Ssnmed, bat to an ammoniacal oomponnd of
tiiat substance. Olyeyrrhizin, when porified 4
snrw— JTe times by disaolring it in alcohol, and
imcipitatiiig the foreign^ matter accompanying It
by ether, is a yellowish substance, insoluble in
cold water, and almost tasteless. Ideated with
dilate eolation of potash or soda, it n{>idly de-
velopa a sweet taatsL In liquorice root, however,
it is not contained in oombinatioa with either of
these two alkalies, but appears to exist as an am-
moniacal compound, for solutions of potash and
aoda liberate ammonia, both from the root and
the extract. In its oomponndi with the alkalies
glyayrrbiain plays the part of an acid, as it forms
feroe salts capable of midergoing decomposition
with most of the metalUo salts, and also with the
salts of the organic alkaloids. With ammonia
it forms two compounds, a basic salt, which yields
a deep yellow solution, and another oontidning
less asunonia, the solution of which has an amber
ooloar. The former is produced by dissolving
gly^yrzhizin in water with an excess of ammonia.
Upon eraporating the resulting deep yellow solu-
tion to dryness it leaves a yellowish, scaly, shin-
ing^ brittle, non-hygroscopic residue, which oonsti-
totes the second ammoniacal compound. This
is rea^y soluble in cold water, to which it im-
parts a pale yellow colour and a very sweet taste.
The sdntioD turns deep yellow on the addition of
a t»w drops of solution uP ammonia, owing to the
CocBation of the basic compomd. The pale
yellow solntion possesses, in a marked degree, the
taste of iiqnoriee root, which, indeed, owes its
xreeteess to tiiis gly<9zrhizate of ammonia, or
ammoniacal glycyrrluzm, as the author prefers to
call it. 1 grm. of this oompoand imparts the
sweet tsste of the root to 2 litres of water.

Hie anthor grvas the following process for the
preparation of the ammoniacal glycyrrhixin in
the pure state: — ^lle carefully-selected roots,
freed from aU portions presenting a dark f ncture,
are soaped, and then well pounded, so as to re-
duce them to a kind of string tow. This sub-
ttanee is macerated in cold distilled water for
some hours, premtd, and treated a second time in
the same manner, ^e two liquors are mixed and
•Uowsd to staad for some time to deposit the
starch. The supernatant liquor is then boiled

and filtered, to separate the ooagnlated albomen.
After cooling, salphuric add dilated with its
weight of water is added gradually, with .brisk
stirring, until a precipitate is no longer formed.
The precipitate, at first gelatinous and flocealent,
after standing some time, forms a compact semi>
solid mass at the bottom of the vessel. The super-
natant liquor is rejected, and after roughly wash-
ing the precipitate several times with pure water,
it is finally kneaded repeatedly in distilled water
until all trace of acidity has disappeared. The
mass is then well drained and agitated in a flask
with 8 times its weight of 90° alcohol until dis.
solved, when a similar quantity of 96° to 96°aloo*
hoi is added to the srnjij liquid so prodaoed. A
little peetic acid is thus predpitate^ which is re-
moved by filtration. Etiier is then added to the
alcoholic liqnor aa long as a precipitate ia formed.
After standing 24 or erven 48 hours a blackish
}utchy substance is deposited, which adheres to
the glass, and allows of the clear liquor being de-
canted. To this clear liquor is added, in small
quantities at a time, alcohol of 90^ charged with
gaseous ammonia, which determines the forma-
tion of a yellow, rather heavy, flocealent precipi-
tate of glyeyrrhizate of ammonia. The precipi-
tate is washed rapidly on a fine doth with a mv(-
tnre of equal parts of alcohol and ether, pressed
and dried in a current of warm air, or over sul-
phuric acid.

The author suggests the addition of ammoniacal
glyeyrrhizin to pill masses, powders, or mixtures,
and states that its power of mssking the taste ot
nauseous medicines is equal to 100 times its
weight of sugar. Sulphate of quinine, sulphate
of magnesia, iodide of potassium, and ipecacu-
anha, lose much of their taste by such an addi-
tion.

A dose of cod-liver oil or syrup of iodide of
iron is rendered more palatable bylwing preceded
by a small dose of the solid ammoniaoaJ glycerin
(' Journal de Pharmade et de Chimie,' xii, 6-11).
Its extract is the common liqfobiob, Spaitibh
MQVOxiOB, or Spahish jrriCB, of the shops. See
BxTitAor, tee.

LI8B0B DOT BBBTK. Prep. 1. (Ft^.)
Guuacnm wood (rasped), 1 oi. j sanaparilla
(bruised), 8 oz. ; meiereon (sliced), i oi. ; crude
antimony (in a rag), 2 oz. ; water, 12 pints. BoQ
down to 8 pints, and add, red sanders (rasped),
white sandal (rasped), of each, 8 oz.-; rosewood,
rasped sassafras bark (sliced), of 'each, 1 oz. j
liquorice root (sliced), i oz. ^fuse for 4 hours,
strain, and add symp according to taste. — Doie,
1 to 2 pints a day.

2. {jPearton.) Sarssparilla (bruised), 4 o2. :
dried walnut peel, 4 oz. ; guaiacum (rasped), It
oz. ; crude antimony (in a rag), i oz. ; water, 4
pints. Boil down to 8 pints.

LIST. The border or selvage torn off a piec6
of cloth. It is osed by the French polishers and
law stationers to form their rubbers, and for
numerous other purposes.

LTTHABOS. 8tfn. Snn-TTTBimD oxioa

0» LEAS; PlCHBI OITBTriC (Ph. L.), PlTTltBI
OXYDUU SBKI-VTTBBtTM (Ph. D.), LlTBABeTBUX

(Ph. E.), Ij. The litharge of commerce is semi-
vitrified monoxide of le»4, PbO, obtained chiefly
by scraping off the drops that form on the surface

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980

LITHIUM

of melted lead exposed to a current of air (droaa
of lead ; plumbum ustum), and heating it to a full
red, to melt out any nndecomposed metal. The
fused oxide, in cooling, forms a yellow or brownish
semi-crystalline mass, which readily separates
into scales; tbese, when g^und, constitute the
' powdered lithargre ' of the shops. The yellow
variety is obtained when the metal is only mode-
rately heated ; it is usually called massicot (q. v.).
Litharge is also prepared by exposing red lead to
a heat sufficiently high to fuse it, and ' English
litharge ' is obtained as a by-product, by liqne-
&ction, from argentiferous lead ore, when it is
often odled ' sUrer stone.'

Prop, Litharge is a strong base ; it forms a
large class or salts often called plumbic salts. It
is very resdily soluble in dilute nitric and acetic
acids, also in hot solutions of potash and soda.
The acid solutions are blackened by sulphuretted
hydrogen. It is easily reduced y>b.«li heated with
ot^ganic substances.

iVr. Digested with a cold sohition of ammo-
nium carbonate will remove any oopper oxide.
Heating in air will remove metallic lead. It is of
great importance to the pharmaceutist to obtain
pure litharge, as the slightest impurity will often
colour and spoil his lead plaster (bxf. FI.VXB1),
and solution of diacetate of lead (liq. eIiUmbi

SIAOBTATIS).

UtM. Litharge is employed -in pharmacy, to
make plasters, Ac. ; by painters ss a ' drier for
Unseed, poppy-seed and other oils j in the mana-
f acture of flint and crystal glass ; as a glaze for
earthenware; as a flux in glass and porcelain
staining; in very dilate solution as a hair dye; for
producing iridescent colours on brass, &c; and
in the preparation of red lead, lead acetate, lead
nitrate, white lead, putty, &e, ; and for various
other purposes in the artt,

Ob: The litharge ofcommerce is distinguished
by its colour as ijthabob ov gold (lithab&tbuk
AVBI, L. AVBIUK, Tj. 0HBT8ITIB), which is dark
edonred and impure, and liiTBAKO-i or sixtbb

(SIIiTXB BTONB; LITHABGYBUIC AB&BIITI, L.

ABOBBTBtv, L. asciybitib), which is purer, and
paler coloured. Commercial litharge generally
contains red oxide of lead and from 1% to 3% of
the metal. Foreign litharge generally contains
copper and iron oxides, and not iafi«qnently a
little silver and silica. These are readily detected
by the usnal tests. In grinding Utharge, about 1
lb. of olive oil is usually added to each 1 cwt. to
prevent dust. As it slowly absorbs carbon dioxide
from the air, it generally effervesces slightly
when treated with acids, and this effervescence is
stronger in proportion to its age. The carbon
dioxide and any absorbed water may be removed
by ignition. When fused in a clay crucible at a
red heat litharge forms an easily fusible silicate
which perforates the sides.

LTCE'IUK. Li. At. wt. 7-01. Discovered by
Arfvedson in 1817 in several Swedish minerals.
It is widely distributed throughout the animal
and vegetable kingdoms, and is found in the waters
of many mineral springs, of which those at
Karlsbad and Marienbad are typical. Lithinm
compounds have been detected by the spectroscope
in sea and river water ; Lockyer has proved its
presence in the solar atmosphere, and it has been

found In meteorites. The chief sources of thia
metal are lepidolite, petalite, and spodnmene.

Prep. I^vy fint obtained lithium by elec-
trolysis, but the quantity was too small to allow
of the properties being examined. Bnnsen and
Hatthiesen in 1866 obtained lithinm in consider-
able quantity and carefully investigat(>d its pro-
perties. It is now obtained by fusing pure
chloride of lithium in a small, thick porcelain
crucible, and decomposing it while in a fused state
by a current of electricity. For details of the
process vida Bunsen's account in 'C!hem. Soe.
Journal,' viii, 143.

Prop. It is a white metal possessing a silver
lustre, fusing at 180°, and having a sp. gr. of
0-69. It is {he lightest solid known. It belongs
to the ' alkali group,' of which potassium, sodium,
ccBsium, rubidium, and the hypothetical am-
monium are the other members. It is not so
oxidisable as potassium or sodium, but it soom
tarnishes on exposure to the air. When thrown
on water it oxidises without fusing. Heated in
ur above its melting-point it bums with a white
light. Nitric add has a very violent action on
it; dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric adds dia-
solve it readily.

Tettt. Litiiium forma salts analogous to thoae
of Bodium, but usually somewhat less soluble.
They can be distinguished from thoae of potas-
sium and sodium by the phosphate and carbonate
being only sparingly soluble in water; from thoae
of barium, strontium, and calcium by forming
crystalliaable and soluble salts with sulphuric acid
and oxalic acid ; and from thoae of magnesinm
by the solution of its carbonate exhibiting an
alkaline reaction. Heated on platinum, thn-
tinge the flame of the blowpipe carmine-red.
" To detect lithium in mineral waters evaporate
part of the water to a small bnlk, add baryta
water, and, on cooling, ammonium carbonate^ and
fllter; add sodium j^osphate to the filtrate, evn-
porate to dryness, and treat the residue with a
very small quantity of water- Lithium phoaphato
remains behind, and may be tested in the spectro-
scope" {Thorpa and Mmr).

The salts of lithium may generally be formed
by dissolving the hydrate or carbonate in dilute
acids.

Lithium Besioate. LiC^HiO^H^. (Fkiis
Pharm. Society.) Benzoic add, 188 grma.;
lithium carbonate, 87 grms. Suspend the benzoic
add in 10 parts of water, add the lithium carbo-
nate, and heat. Solution takes place with efferves-
cence, and upon evaporation, handsome, mndi
flattened, more or less elongated prismatic ctyi-
tals are obtained.

Lithium benzoate is very soluble in water. 1
gr. of the salt calcined, and then treated with
slight excess of sulphuric add and heated to
redness, should give 0*876 grm. of lithium mil-
phate.

Lithinm, Biomlde od LiBr. To 87 gims. of
carbonate of lithium suspended in 800 grma. of
distilled water, 80 grma. of bromide are added.
A current of sulphuretted hydrogen is then paaaed
through the miztare nntil the whole o^ the
bromide has disappeared. Hydrohromic acid is
thus formed, which decomposes the carbonate of
lithium, bromide of lithium being produced and

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LITHOFRACTE UB— LITHOGKAPHT

981

anlpIiTir «et free. The miztnre is then gently
heated to drive off the exoeu of aalpharetted hy-
drogen and to aj^lutiiuite the salphor. After
Altration the liqnor is concentrated, and if it be
derired to obtain the biomide in cryitals, the
danccation ia finished nnder a bell-jar by means
of salpharic acid.

Uthinm, Carltonate of. Li,CO,. Sgn. Cab-

BOKATB 0» IiTTHIA; ItlTBIS OAKBONAB (B. P.),

L. Prep, To an aqneons solntion of sulphate of
lithimn add a strong solntion of carbonate of
ammonium, collect the precipitate, drain and
press, waah with a little rectified spirit, and dry,
■Avp., Jfv. It resembles carbonate of mag-
nenam in appearance; is but slightly soluble in
oold water, and is insoluble in alcohol. The tests
for its purity given in the B. P. are — ^in giving
DO preripitate with oxalate of calcium or lime-
water, and leaving, when 10 gr. are neutralised
with sniphnric add and ignited, 14*86 gr. of
dry sulphate. It has been proposed by H. Lipo-
witi, D^ Oanod, and others, as a solvent for nrie
acid calenli. According to Biswanger, 1 part of
carbonate of lithia in 120 parts of water takes up,
at blood-heat, nearly 4 parts of uric acid. Mr
Alexander Ure recommends a dilute solntion of
this substance as an injection in lithic calculus,
as it is a better solvent of uric acid than either
borax or the alkaline carbonates. "Of all the
variona menstrua hitherto recommended, none
appear to promise more favourably than the car-
booate of Uthia." ** If by means of injections "
(of this solution) "we can reduce a stone at the
rate of a grain or more an hour, we shall not
moely diminish the bulk of the calculos, hot
fiirthsr loosen its cohesion, disinteg^te it, so to
speak, eannng it to crumble down and be washed
away in the stream of urine" (Jfr A, Vira). —
Sotg, 2 to 6 gr., twice or thrice a day; as an in-
jection, 1 gr. to water, 1 fl. oz.

Ittliiam Chloride. LiCL One of the most de-
liquescent salts known. Prepared by dissolving
the oxide or the carbonate in hydrochloric add.
It occus naturally in the waters of the Mnr
spring at Baden-Baden. Miller found 372 milli-
grma. in 1 litM of water from a spring in the
Wheal CUSord mine at Bedruth, in Cornwall.

lithium. Citrate of. Li,C,H,07. 5jrs. Lrasra
CITRA8 (B. p.), L. A white deliquescent amorphons
powder, made by acting on 50 grains of lithium
carbonate with 100 of citric acid. It is readily
soluble in 2i parts of water.

Tutt, ife. 20 gr. bnmt at a low red heat until
white leave 10-6 gr. of carbonate of lithium. Its
medical properties are similar to those of the
earbonateL — JJoMe, 6 to 16 gr., largely diluted.

lithium. Citrate of. Effervescing. (Paris Pbanu.
Society.) Citric acid, 40 grms. ; sodium bicar-
bonate, 60 grms. ; lithium bicarbonate, 10 grms.
Mix this powders and place them in a flat-bottomed
vessel having a large snrf ace ; heat to abont 100°
C, stirriiv the powder continually until it takes
the grant&r form, then by means of appropriate
■eras obtain granules of suitable and uniform
sise, and preserve the preparation in well-closed
bottlas.

IdtUum litnte. LiNQ,. Obtained from the
carbonate and nitric add.
litUsjB, Oxid« of . lafi. Sgn. Lithia. An

alkaline earth found in petalite, Ac., and in small
quantities in most mineral waters.

Prep. Petalite (a silicate of aluminum and
lithium) in powder mixed with twice its weight
of fluor-spar is heated with strong sulphuric add
as long as acid vapours are given off. The residue
is treated with ammonia, boiled and filtered,
evaporated to dryness, and heated to redness.
The residue consists of sulphate of lithium, from
which the oxide is obtained by decomposing it
with acetate of barium, filtering and heating aiter
having evaporated the solution to dryness.

This yields the so-called oxide, which is in
reality the hydrate, LiHO, a white, non-volatile,
soluble, caustic solid. The true oxide is a white
powder, sometimes coloured yellow by a small
quantity of a higher oxide ; it is decomposed by
water, forming the hydrate, and is obtained by
igniting the metal in oxygen. Dry oxygen does
not act upon lithium at the ordinary tempera-
ture.

Lithium Phosphate. Normal, LifPO^. A crys-
talline powder precipitated by addmg phosphate
of soda and caustic soda to any lithinm salt.

lithia, Iffervesdng Solution of. 8gn. Liqvob
LiTHug iiFnBTMOBNa, L. Comp. Water charged
with carbonic add and holding in solution carbo-
nate of lithinm. 10 fl. oi. contain 6 gr. of the
carbonate. — Propt. Colourless liquid, possessing
powerful diuretic properties. — {7m. Antilithic,
for dissolving calenli of uric acid. — Dote, 6 to 10
fl. oz.
LIT HOFBACTZUB. See BiiAB-mra Powsaiu.
UTHOO'BAFHT. The art of tracing letters,
figures, and other designs on stone, and trans-
ferring them to paper by impression. Our notice
of this beautiful and nsefnl art most necessarily
be brief.

There are two methods of lithography in
general use. In the one, a drawing is made on
the stone with a lithographic crayon, or with
lithographic ink ; in the other method the design
is made on lithographic paper, which, on being
moistened and passed through the press, leaves
its design on the surface of the stone, reversed.
In dther method, water acidnlated with nitrous
acid, oil of vitriol, or hydrochloric acid, is poured
over the stone, and this, by removing the alkali
from the chal]( or ink, leaves the design on it in
a permanent form, at the same time that it
' etches ' away a portion of the lights, and renders
the exposed surface more absorbent of water, and
therefore incapable of taking the ink.

The process of lithograpluc printing is as fol-
lows : — Water is thrown over the stone, the roller
charged with printing ink is passed over the
surface, the paper is applied, and a copy is ob-
tained by the action of the lithograpUc press.
The same process must be had roconrse to for
each copy. The nature of the stone is such that
it reteins with great tenacity the resinous and
oily substances contained in the ink or crayon
employed to form the design, and also absorbs
water freely; this, combined with the peculiar
affinity between resinous and oily substances, and
thdr mutual power of repelling water, occasions
the ink on the printing roller to adhere to the
design, and to leave untouched the lighte.

The stones are prepared for lithography by

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LITHONTETPTICS— LIVEB

polishing in the ordinary way, the ityle of work
for which they are intended detennining the
degree of lahour bestowed upon them. For
crayon drawings the snrfaee should have a fine
grain, but the finish of the stone must depend
upon the desired softness of the intended drawing t
for writing or drawing on in ink the surface mast
receive a higher polish, and mnit he finished oft
with pumice-stone and water.

The best Uthogrraphic stones are obtained from
Solenhofen, near Munioh, and from Fappenheim,
on the hanks of the Danube. The white lias
which lies immediately under the blue, near Bath,
also yields good lithographic stones, and furnishes
the principal portion of those employed in thia
codntry. If a gelatin mixture such as is used
for the hektograph be written upon with a strong
solution of alum or other salt which renders
gelatin insoluble, the writing, after damping the
snrfaoe, will be found to take lithographic ink in
mnch the same way as the stone. A little patience
is required, but the process is worthy of more ex-
tended use. See Cbatosb, Iite, and Papsb.

LITKOBTBTP'TICS. Sgn. Litrotsxttics;
LiTHOiTTBTPriOA, L. Under this head are in-
tended numerous substances (liteiob; uthioa,
L.) used to prevent the formation of nrinaiy cal-
culi, or to dissolve them when already formed.
Those employed with the former intnition are
more correctly termed ahtiuthios (avtiuthioa,
L.), and those with the latter, utkoktryptiob,

or UTHOKLTTIOS (MTHOUTETPTIOA, HTSOH-
IiTTIOA, L.).

The fbllowing are the principal sufaatances
included nnder thia head by pharmacological
writers : — Alkalies and their carbonates, beuBOic
acid, bonx, carbonate of lithia, effervescing solu-
tion of lithia, carbonic acid, cinnamio acid,
diluents (generally), diuretics (generally), juniper,
itaalle acid, Malvern waters, mineral acids, nitro-
saccharate of lead, opium, phosphate of soda,
phoaphoric add, poppies, turpentines, nva ursi,
vegetable acids, vegetable astringents, vegetable
bitters, Vichy waters, wall pellitory, water
(pure).

LITlftrB. Bgn. TimKBOLB j Laokvb, Laooa
aaxtrttA, L. virgrvA, L. kuboi, L. A blue sub-
Stance prepared by the united inflnence of water,
air, ammonia, and either potassaaor soda, from
Soeetlla iinetoria, Laeanora tartarea, or any of
the tinctorial lichens orseaweed, capable of yield-
ing archil, by a process essentially similar to that
adopted for the latter substance, except that
gypsum or chalk is generally used to form the
paste, whidi is moulded into cakes and dried.

Litanus is soluble in both water and alcohol.
Its bias colour is reddened by acids, and is re-
stored by the ad^tion of alkalies. Hence it is
much used as an indicator in alkalimetry.

The colouring matter of litmus is related to
orcein, wliich is the chief constituent of the com-
mer<!ial orchil dye; when purified as much as
possible it may be kept for an indefinite period
unaltered in glycerin. Litmus is treated with
hot water, and the solution, after concentration,
is mixed with a gnfficient quantity of alcohol (of
80 per cent.) to precipitate the colouring matter.
After standmg for 20 honrs the alcohol is poured
off, and carries with it a dirty bine foreign sub-

stance, which frequently occurs in Utmus, and is
not altered by adds. The sediment is treated
with hot water, wliieh dissolves it on aocoont of
the potassiam carbonate which is present.

To remove this carbonate, snlphnrie acid ia
added till the Uquid assumes a faint wine tint ;
it is then heated to boiling for a few minntea,
and again rendered blue by the addition of a few
drops of lime-water. After the lapse of 24 houra
the liquid is filtered and evaporated to a syrup,
and left all night in a oool place, when the jiotas-
sium sulphate crystallises out in the form of •
crust. It is then filterad through moist cotton,
mixed with glycerin, and earefnlly preserved from
damp. Nentral litmus solution may be prepared
for use in chemical analysis by the following
method, which is due to Thorpe and Muir. " 6 to 6
grms. of coarsely powdered litmus are digested
with about 200 c.c. of distilled water for a few
hours. The clear solution is decanted from the
sediment, and very dilate nitric acid added drop
by drop, until the colour changes to violet. The
solution must neither be red nor bine, but between
the two in colour. .... The solution should be
kept in a wide-mouthed bottle, the oork of which
is so cut that the air has ready access to the in-
terior of the bottle, otherwise the liquid qoicUy
loses its colour."

Slips of blotting-paper saturated with litmus
solution are convenient tea1>-papers for rough use.
Litmus has been extensiv^y used by dyeis, but
the colour imparted to textile falxics is- rather
fugitive. It has also been employed for imparting
a bluish tinge to whitewash-lime, in the maoa-
facture of confectionery, and for colouring cham-
pagne, Ac., red. See Abohil, Ctobxab, &c

LITE-LOVa. Digestive candy. See Ctx-
BYHta.

LIVSS. <%•. HaPAX, L. A large abdo-
minal organ sitnated on the right side of tlie
body immediately beneath the diaphragm. The
liver varies in weight from 4 to 6 lbs. Its func-
tions are the secretion of bile and the formation
of glycogen (animal starch). The liver probably
takes an active part in the chemical changes by
which the nitrogenous food-stuffs are broken
down and reduced to less oompdieated forms. It
is a common seat of disease, tiioogh by far tiie
greater part of such disease is of the patient's
own causing. Over-feeding, irregular feediagv
rich and indigestible foods, and, above all, i£e
abuse of alcohol, tend to produce a state of
engorgement of the liver and a blocking of the
portal circulation, as a result of which piles aad
other intestinal troubleti arise, besides the efltect
produced on the general system by the failnre of
aitt important organ to do its work. Judidoos
abstinence from food and a saline purgative wiU
generally cure the liver trouble which arises frant
any individnal indiscretion in eating or drinking.
Exercise is a sovereign remedy for those who
suffer from what is commonly called "torpid
liver," which is generally the result of over-
feeding and sedentary habits. The liver* of
drunkards, especially spirit drinkers, are espe-
cially liable to inflammation of the interstitial
connective or supporting tissue, which by enlarg-
ing_ crushes the proper liver celb out of place, and
oltimtttely destroys their function.

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9SS

UV«r. £t)r*- Hbpas, L. In ehemUtrg and
jikifrtfuteg, a term formerly applied to nnmei'oas
snMances, on aceoant of their colour ; aa liver
of antimony (axpAB ASTlitOini), livef of sulphur
(hxpab Buii^Hmtis), &e.

IilTer, Sdible. The liTers of animals, such as
the banock, the calf, and the sheep, contain a
large amonnt of nitrogfenous matter (hence the
instinct that leads man to cook it with a food
rich in carbon, snch as fat bacon), as may be seen
from the f oHowing analysis by Payen :
ConpotAfioa of Ca^» Liver.
Nitrogenoos matter .... 20*10

Fat 8-68

Carbo-hydrates (amyloid matter) . 0'45

Saline matter 1*64

Water 73-83

98-03

They are generally r^arded as indigestible
articles of diet, and as snch should be aroided by
dyspeptics.

It ia of great importance to have the liTers of
animals thorongbly cooked, so as to ensure the
destroetion of a duigerons parasite — the DMoma
htpatica, the liver toke— that frequently infests
them.

Liver nsed as food shonid be cat up into slioes
and carefully ezaitained for signs of disease, local
or general ; cavities, hard lumps, %hite, chalky-
kioking particles, and discolourad patches shonid
be r^arded with suspicion, and the te^U rejected
unless of perfectly nniform texture, of a bright,
healtliy colour, and entirely free from blemish.
This particularly applies to the livers of animals
mniung wild or red on wild pasture, but the
precaution shonid not be neglected even with
Kver bought from the butchers in towns. Even
healthy animals may have purasites in their livers
capable of produdng serious consequences if taken
into theliaman body.

Thiefoie grot, of which the celebrated Stras-
bourg pie is made, is the abnormally enlarged or,
rather, diseased Irver of the goose, brought to its
enoimotu rixe and ftitty coidition by subjecting
the bird to close confinement in a hot place and
overfeeding it.

LIVES An> BAOOir. The liver must be
washed, not soaked, then wiped dry and cut into
slices. Flour each slice. Remove the rind from
the bacon, and cut it into rashers. Let the bacon
be fried first, then stand it in a hot dish before
the fiite daring the time the liver is being fried in
the melted fat from the bacon. When the liver
is cooked plaee it on the bscon. Kext mix a
dessert-spoonfnl of flour into a smooth paste with
a cupful fA water, stir in it a pinch of pepper and
fait, and pour it into the frying-pan; let it just
b^ stirring it meanwhile, and, lastly, strain it
Over the' liver siid bacon.

UUVIATIOV. The process of dissolving
ont or exttsetiiig the samie matter of bodies,
more especially of ashes, the residua of distilla-
iiona, Ac, by means of abhition or digestion in
water. The aolntion so obtained is called a ' i.3rB,'
'i»T,' or ''ZJXrrfwit,' ' and the salts resulting
from' the ev^MMttic^ of sttch sohttions ' cixrvxtL

vlatka: 4^ OtfiKAoo; laiu, l. a

genus of animals of the family Sovida and tribe
OamtliHa. The llama is confined to South
America, and may be regarded as the representa-
tive of the camel in the New World. The most
important species are Lama vicugna (the victnrA)
and L. guanaetu (the OTTAitaco). The wool of
llamas is woven into stuffs for ponehoi, and made
into cords, sacks, &c. See Alpaca.

IiOAS'BTOHE. Sfn. LaoxsTOirB, Maoits.
BlAif 8T0NI, Massstio iboitbtoni. Native mag-
netic oxide of iron {Vefi^). It is often found
massive, frequently crystallised, and occasionally
in beds of considerable thickness. Its colour
varies from reddish black to deep grey. Native
magnets from Arabia, China, and Bengal are
commonly of a reddish colour, and are powerfully
attractive. Those found in Germany and England
have the colour of nnwronght iron ; those from
Macedonia are more black and dull.

LOAK. A native mixture of clay, sand, and
oxide of iron, with more or less chalk. Lolmy
soils are of this description. They are calltid
heavy or light, according td th6 proportion of
clay ; and sandy, calcareous, or gravelly, just as
sand, gravel, or chalk forms a characteristic por-
tion of them.

The term is also applied to the mixtures of
earth, sand, and other materials used by metal
founders.

I0BS1X&.. 8yn. ImiiAir tobacco ; Lobilia
(B. P., Ph. L. E. k D.), L. "The flowering
herb Lobelia injlata" (B. P.), or bladder-
podded lobelia. The herb has an unpleasant
odour, and an acrid, burning, nauseous taste,
somewhat resembling that of tobacco. In small
doses (1 to 8 gr.) it is expectorant and diapho-
retic; in larger doses (6 to 15 gr.) nauseant and
emetic; and in excessive doses poisonous. Ac-
cording to Dr. Pereira, its principal value is that
of as antispasmodic. It has been highly recom-
mended by Dr Elliotson in spasmodic asthma.
He commences with small doses, and gradually
increases them unless headache or nausea occurs.
Others give a full dose at or before the com-
mencement of tiie flt. It has been also tried in
croup, hooping-cough, spasmodic asthma, and
other diseases of the respiratory organs, with
variable effect.

Lobelia is the panacea of Dr Coffin, the anthor
of Qie pretended system of medicine irreverently
called ' Coffinism.' Large doses of this drug are
given by the Coffinites, sometimes with fatal
results.

LOBSUVS. i%«. LOBILIS-A, L. A light
yellowiah-brown oily substance, found in Lobelia
htflata. It is volatile, soluble in alcohol, ether,
and water; and in oil of turpentine, oil of
almonds, and some other fixed oils; with the
acids it forms oiystaUisable salts, which are
soluble. It may be obtained from the seeds by
the action of alcohol acidulated with acetic acid,
evaporating, treating with magnesia and then
with ether, and again evaporating. 1 oz. of the
seeds furnishes 8 gr. When perf ecUy pure, 1 gr.
will kill a large dog.
LOB'BTSBB. See 8Hn£-vteH.
LOCK'BOT. Bice boUed to a paste and drawn
into threads. Used to thicken soups. It ia im>
ported from China.

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984

LODGING-HOUSES

LOSOnrG-EOUSXS. Tho foUofftDg Rections of
the Public Health Act of 1876 embody (he rega-
latioDB in force with regard to common lodging-
faooaes:

(8. 76.) Every local authority shall keep a
register, in which shall be entered the names and
residences of the keepers of all common lodging-
hooses within the district of saeh authority, and
the ntnation of every such house, and the number
of lodgers authorised according to this Act to be
received therein.

A copy of any entry in inch register, certified
by the person having charge of the register to be
a true copy, shall be received in all courts and
on all occasions as evidence, and shall be suffi-
cient proof of the matter registered without pro-
dnction of the register, or of any document or
thing on which the entry is founded; and a
certified copy of any such entry shall be sup-
plied gratis by the person having charge of the
register to any person applying at a reasonable
time for the same.

(S. 77.) A person shall not keep a common
lodging-house or receive a lodger therein until
the house' has been registered in accordance with
the provisions of this Act, nor until his name as
the keeper thereof baa been entered in the register
kept under this Act ; provided thst when the per-
son so registered dies bis widow or any member
of his family may keep the house as a common
lodging-house for not more than 4 weeks after
his death without being registered as the keeper
thereof.

(S. 78.) A house shall not be registered as a
common lodging-house until it has been inspected
and approved for the purpose by some officer of
the local authority ; and the local authority may
refuse to register as the keeper of a common lodg-
ing-house, a person who does not produce to the
local authority a certificate of character in such
form as the local authority direct, signed by 8
inhabitant householders of the parish respec-
tively rated to the relief of the poor of the parish
within which the lodging-house is situated, for
properly of the yearly rateable value of £6 or
upwards.

(S. 79.) The keeper of every common lodging-
house shall, if required in writing by the local
authority so to do, affix and keep nndefaced and
le^ble a notice, with the words ' Registered com-
mon lodging-house,' in some conspicuous place on
the outside of such house.

The keeper of any such house who, after
requisition in writing from the local authority,
refuses or neglects to affix or renew such notice,
shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding £6, and
to a further penalty of lOt. for every da^ that inch
refusal or neglect continues after conviction.

(S. 80.) Every local authority shall from time
to time make bye-laws :

1, For fixing from time to time, varying the
number of lodgers who may be received
into a common lodging-house, and for the
separation of the sexes therein ; and —

2. For promoting cleanliness and ventilation
in such houses; and —

8. For the giving of notices and taking pre*
cautions in the case of any infections dis-
ease; and —

4. Generally for the well-ordering of such
houses.
(S. 81.) Where it appears to any local authority
that a common lodging-house is without a proper
supply of water for the use of the lodgers, and
that such a supply can be furnished thereto at a
reasonable rate, the local authority may by notice
in writing require the owner or keeper of such
bouse, within a time specified therein, to obtain
such supply, and to do all works necessary for
that purpose ; and if the notice be not complied
wich accordingly, the local authority may remove
such bouse from the register until it is complied
with.

(S. 82.) The keeper of a common lodging-house
shall, to the satisfaction of the local authority,
Umewash the walls and ceilings thereof in the
first week of each of the months of April and
October in every year. Penalty for neglect, £2
or less.

(S. 83.) The keeper of a oommoo lodg^g-hoase
in which beggars or vagrants are received to
lodge shall from time to time, if required in
writing by the local authority so to do, report to
the lood authority or to such person as the local
authority direct, every person who resorted to
such house during the preceding day or night, and
for that purpose schedules shall be furnished by
the local authority to the person so ordered to
report, which schedules he shall fill up with the
information required, and transmit to the local
authority.

(S. 84.) The keeper of a common lodging-house
shall, when a person in such house is ill of fever
or any infections disease, give immediate notice
thereof to the medical officer of health of the local
authority, and also to the poor-law relieving officer
of the union or parish in which the common
lodging-house is situated,

(S. 86.) The keeper of a common lodging-hoose,
and every other person having or acting in the
care or management thereof, shall, at sdl times
when required by any officer of the local authority,
give him free access to such house or any part
thereof. Penalty for refusing such access, £6 or
less.

(S. 86.) Any keeper of a common lodging-house,
or other person having or acting in the care or
management thereof, who—

1. Receives any lodger in such house with-
out the same being registered under this
Act ; or —

2. Fails to make a report after he has been
furnished by the local authority with
schedules for the purpose, in pursuance of
this Act, of the persons resorting to such
house ; or —

8. Fails to give the notices required by this
Act, where any person has been confined to
his bed in such house by fever or other in-
fections disease —
shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding £6, and
in the case of a continuing offence to a further
penalty not exceeding £2 for every day during
which the offence continues.

(S. 87.) In any proceedings under the pro-
visions of this Act relating to common lodging-
houses, if the inmates of any house or part of a
house allege that they are members of the same

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LOGWOOD— LOTION

986

family, the burden of proving roch allegation
■hall lie on the persona wmUng it.

(S. 88.) Where the keeper Of a common lodg-
ing-honae is convicted of a third offence against
the provisions of this Act relating to common
lodging-honses, the Court before whom the con-
viction for snch third offence takes place may, if
it thinks fit, adjudge that he shall not at any time
within 6 years after the conviction, or within
such shorter period after the conviction as the
court thinks fit, keep, or have, or act in the care
or management of a common lodging-house with-
out the previous licence in writing of the local
authority, who may withhold or grant on such terms
or conditions as they think fit

(S. 89.) For the purposes of this Act the ex-
pression ' common lodging-house ' includes, in any
cue in which only part of a house is used as a
common lodging-hoose, the part so used of such
hoDse.

Sga-laiBM at to SbuiM let a* Lodging*.

(S. SO.) The Local Oovemment Boaurd may, if
they think fit, by notice published in the ' London
Gazette,' declare the following enactment to be
in force within the district or any part of the dis-
trict of any local anthority, and from and after
the pnbKarfion of snch notice such authority shall
be empowered to make bye-laws for the following
matter (that is to ssy) :

1. For fixing the number, and from time to
time varying the number, of persons who
may occupy a house or part of a house
which ii let in lodgings, or occupied by
member* of more than one family, and for
the separation of the sexes in a house so
let or occupied.

2. For the reg^tration of houses so let or
occupied.

3. For the inspection of snch houses.

4. For enforcing drainage and the provision
of privy accommodation for such houses,
and for promotiug cleanliness and ventila-
tion in snch houses.

6. For the cleansing and limewashing at
stated times of the premises, and for the
paving of the courts and courtyards
thereof.
6. For the ^ving of notices and taking of
precautions in ease of any infections dis-
ease.
This section shall not apply to common lodging-
houses within the provisions of this Act relating
to snch houses.

LOO'WOOS. Sgn. C.aj(T>i.cht wood ; Hxka-
ToxTLUx (Ph. L. £. & D.), Hjhutoxtu -Liavmi

(B. P.), LlGHTTK CAXPBCEIirBB, L. CAUPBOEI-

AHinc, L. The heart-wood of Hamatoxglo»
eampeelkianmm, a native of Central America, but
now common in the West Indies and India, It
is a valuable astringent, and its decoction, extract,
and infusion are useful remedies in chronic diar-
rhcea and dysentery, and in htemorrhages, Ac.
The extract is an efficient substitute for cateehu
and kino.

Logwood is extensively employed in dyeing and
calico printing, for the production of reds, violets,
purple*, blaclu, drabs, &c The colouring matter
which it contains is hsBmatoxylin, CuHuOg.3H,0;
it is d<^o*i(ed from a boiling aqueous solution in

yellow needles, which are soluble in alcohol and
ether. It resembles the phenols by dissolving in
alkalies to a purple solution which absorbs oxygen,
forming the red colouring matter hematin. The
colouring matter requires a large quantity of
water to dissolve it, but when dissolved can be
concentrated to any degree by boiling down.
Extract of logwood should be made in vacuum
pans withdrawn from the oxidising action of the
air. The infusion is of a fine red, turning on the
purple or violet ; acids turn it on the yellow, and
alkalies deepen it. An intense black colour is
yielded with potassium chromate, but it is fugi-
tive. To staffs mordanted with alum it gives
various shades of violet and purple, according to
the proportions of the materials. By using solu-
tion of tin as the mordant, various shades of red,
lilac, and violet may be obtained. The addition
of a little Braxil-wood is commonly made to
brighten the red. With a mordant of sulphate
or acetate of iron it dyes black; and with the
addition of a little sulphate of copper greys of
various shades. It is, however, chiefly employed,
in conjunction with gall-nuts, for blacks, to which
it imparts a lustre and velvety appearance. Silk
is usually turned through the cold decoction, but
for wool the decoction is used either hot or boiling.
Logwood is one of the cheapest and most easily
managed of the dye-stuffs. It is also used to
make ink, and sometimes as an indicator in alka-
limetry. See HncATOXYiiiir, Ivk, Mioboboopb,
Ac.
LO'HOCE. See LnrCTXTB.
LOBICA. A species of lute applied as a coat-
ing to chemical vessels before exposing them to
the fire. Its application is called iiOBlCATIOH.
See LuTB.

LOTIOH'. 8g». LoTio,L. An external applica-
tion, or wash, consisting of water holding in
solution or suspension medicinal substances. Lo-
tions may be prepared of any soluble medicaments
that are capable of exerting their action by con-
tact with the skin. Writers on pharmacology
have arranged them in classes, as sedative, ano-
dyne, stimulant^ Ac., according to their effects.
Sedative and refrigerant lotions are commonly
employed to allay inflammation; anodyne and
narcotic lotions, to relieve pain ; stimulant lotions,
to induce the maturation of tumours, &c. ; deter-
gent lotions, to clean foul ulcers; repellent and
resolvent lotions, to discuss tumours, remove
eruptions, &c. ; counter-irritant lotions, to excite
a secondary morbid action, with the intention of
relieving one already existing. Lotions are usually
applied by wetting a piece of lint or wool with
them and keeping it on the part affected; or, in
slight cases, by moistening the part with the fingers
previously dipped into them. Lotions are more
agreeable if made nith rose-water, but are not
thereby rendered more efficacious. In all cases
distilled water, or filtered soft water, is alone ad-
missible as the solvent.

As lotions are, in general, mere extemporaneous
or majpMral preparations, it will, of course, be
only necessary here to give the formula for a few
of those which are the moat useful or the most
f reqnentiy employed. These will serve as examples
from which oilers may be prepared . As a general
mle, the medium dose of any substance dissolved

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LOTION

in s fluid ounce of distilled water forms a lotion
of the proper atrength nnder all ordinary cir-
cumstances; or, what is the same thing, the
mediam dose in grains, taken in acrnples, is
sufficient for a pint of such a lotion. Thus
the dose of sulphate of zinc is 1 to 3 gr., there-

1 + 9
fore : ^-2~ " 8 gr., which is tiie proportioB of

sulphate of zinc to be taken for 1 fl. oz. of
water, or 40 gr. for 1 pint. Again, the dose
of perchloride of mercary >■ A ^ i gr- > there-

fore:

2

o •

■ff gr., or nearly 3 gr. per pint.

In this method extreme or unusual doses, as, for
instance, those of sulphate of zinc, as an emetic,
in poisoning, Ac, are not taken into the calcu-
lation. In all cases in which lotions are in-
tended for extremely susceptible parts it is
proper to dilute them with an eqaal bulk of
water. When intended for eye-waters (COL-
IiTBi^) they should be diluted with at least 8 to
4 times their bulk of water. See EirBBoci.Tlov»
LnnicBiTT, Ac.

lotioiiof Ac'etataof Aiiimo"iilft. Sj/n. hono
XimcanM acitaxis, L. Prep. I. Solution of
acetate of ammonia, 1 part ; water, 9 parts.

2. (Hosp. F.) Solution of acetate of am-
monia, rectified spirit, and water, equal parts.
Discntient and refrigerant. In ordinary inflam-
mations.

lotion of Ac'etate of Lead. Syn. Lono
FIiUXBi AOSTATIB, L. Prtp. 1. [Collier.)
Acetate of lead, 1 dr. ; distilled water, 8 fl. oz.
Sometimes a little vinegar is added. In excoria-
tions, bums, sprains, contusions, Ac. See SoLir>
noir 07 DiAosTATs at Lbas.

2. Acetate of lead, 2 gr. ; distilled water, 1 os.
(Ophthalmic Hospital).

Lotion of Ac'etate of Xerenry. 8fn. Lorio
ETDRAitaTBi ACBTATI8, L. Prep. Acetate of
mercury, 1 scruple ; distilled water, 1 pint. Mix.

Lotion of Ac'etate of Zinc. %<•. Iionoznroi
ACITAT18, L. Prep. 1. {BSral.) Acetate of
zinc, 11 dr. ; water, 1 pint. Astringent, similar
to lotion of sulphate of zinc.

2. Acetate of zinc, 1 to 2 gr.; water, 1 os. An
astringent collyrium in ophthalmia, and as injec-
tion in gonorrhcBa after the acute stage has
passed. Neither tincture nor wine of opium gives
a precipitate with this lotion.

Lotion, Acetic. Syn. Lorio aobti, L. Prep.
1. Vinegar, 1 part; water, 2 or 3 parts. For
bruises, contusions, Ac., and as a general refHg^
rant application to sound parts.

2. Yinegar, 1 fl. oz.; cold water, \, pint ; as a
wash in chronic ophthalmia, Ac.

Lotion, Acid. See LoTioitB Of kOKTto, NiTBIO,
and Pbosphobic Aoid, Ac.

Lotion of Acon'itine. Sy: Lono Aooirrrnrx,
Ii. Prep. (Titrnlmll.') Aconitine, 8 gfr.; recti-
fied spirit, 2 fl. oz. In neuralgia; applied by
means of a small piece of sponge mounted at the
end of a stick. It must never be employed when
the skin is broken or abraded; and it would be
wise, in most cases, to dilute it with double its
volume of jproof spirit.

Lotion, Afki^e. ^. Louo tfXXLOtk, L.
POTABSiB CAKBOVATIB, L. Prep. (I>. Cod.) EVom

salt of tartar, 1 oc, ; water, 1 pint Stimulant
and detergent. Dilated witii an equal balk of
water, it forms an excellent cosmetic wash to
remove scurf from the hair. Sometimes it ia
made with almond milk instead of water.

Lotion, Almond, Alkaline. {Dr A. T. Thorn-
te».) 8gn. Solution of potash, 4 fl. oz. ; emulsion
of bitter almonds, 6) fl. oz. To remove the scurf
in porrigo furfnrans, applied twice a day dilated
with warm water.

Lotion of Al'nm. Sgn. Lotto ALUimrn, L.
Prep. From alum, 1} dr. ; distilled or rose water,
1 pint. Astringent. For sore gums, nipples,
excoriations, Ac.

Lotion, Ammoni'aeat £^». Lono axvovlb,
L. AMKOHIACALIS, L. Prep. 1. Liquor of am-
monia, 3 fl. dr. ; cold water, 5 fl. oz. As a stimu-
lant to indolent nlcera, and in certun skin
diseases.

2. {Smediaur.) Liquor of ammonia, spirit of
^yme, and spirit of camphor, equal part*. In
headaches, applied to the forehead and temples,
and in other cases, as a counter-irritant. Inmost
cases it should be used diluted.

3. (Opiated— X>r mrUand.) Sal volatne, 8|
fl. oz. ; tincture of opium, \ fl. oz. ; water, 4 fl. oz.
Anodyne, stimulant, and resolvent.

Lotion, ABUnonio-cmmphorated. £ya. Aqva

BBDATIYA, L. ; EaT7 BCdATIVB SB BABPATL, EaIT

ov LOTION AKMOHiACAUi caicpex£b, Fr. No. 1.
Liquor ammoniss (-923), 6 parts; camphorated
spirit, 1 part; salt, 6 parts; water, 10 parts.
No. 2 contains 8 parts, and No. 8 10 parts of
ammonia.

Lotion, AntipUogii'tic. Syn. Lono ahti-
PHIOSISTICA, L. Prep. 1. {Copland.) Solu-
tion of diacetate of lead, 3 fl. dr. ; solution of
acetate of ammonia, 2 fl. oz. ; distilled water, 1
pint. Befrigerant, sedative, and repellent. Used
to allay inflammation, Ac.

2. {A. T. Thornton.) Opium; 2 dr. ; distilled
vinegar, \ pint. Anodyne and refrigerant; in
swelled joints, Ac.

Lotion of Ar'niea. Syn. Lotio abvicjb, L.
Prep. 1. Tincture of arnica, 1 fl. dr.; rose-
water, 2\ fl. oz. In contusions, bruises, extrava-
sations, Ac.

8. {Niemann^ Arnica flowers, \ oz.; hot
vinegar, 3 fl. oz. ; boiling water, 6 fl. oz. ; infiise
until cold, and strain. In acute hydrocephalics,
or with water, q. s. to measure a pint, as a com-,
mon lotion.

Lotion, Anenlcal. 8yn. Lotio assbnicalib,
L. acidi ABSBinoBI, L. Pr^. 1. Arsenious
acid, 6 gr. ; water, 1 pint. In psoriasis, Ac.

2. (Compound— If. le Pebre.) Arsenious add,
8 gr. ; boiling water, 16 fl. oz. ; dissolve, and add
of extract of hemlock, 1 oz. ; aolntion of diacetate
of lead, 3 fl. oz.; tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr.
Bvery morning, in cancer.

Lotion, Astrin'gent. 8yn. Lono ABTBiir.
9BB8, L. See LonovB o» Aivx, StrtPHAra at
Znro, Ac.

Lotion, Barlow's. Prep. From sulphuret of
potassium (in powder), 8 dr.; soap (sliced), 1\.
dr. ; lime-water, 7i fl. oz. ; proof spirit, S fl. os.
In itch, ringworm, Ac

Lotipn, Batsman's. Prep. From perdaoride
<# mercury, 8 gr.; oompoond spirit of lavender,

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LOTION

987

1 fl. OS. : dinolTe, and add of diatilled water, 4 fl.
ox. In obsUnate cutaneooi emptions, more espe-
cially those of a papular ohaiaoter.

Lotfam of BaUadon'na. ^n. IiOTio bhla-
SOHSK, Ii. iVwp. {Gfra^.) Bztraot of bella-
danna, i dr. ; dilnte Bolntion of diaeetate of lead,
I pint. Applied to tamooTS and glandular en-
largemanta.

Lotion of Bouolu. Sgn. Lono BmrEonri, L.
Tincture of benzoin, 1 part ; rose water, 40 parts.
A nice lotioa to protect the Cmm from ^e heat of
the son.

Lotfam of nnanth. Sgn. Lono bisicvthi, L.
Nitnte of bismntb, 6 gr. ; carmsiTe snbliraate, |
gr.f (pirits of camphor. If minims; water, 1 oz.
A soothing lotion in chronic skin affections,
lotion, Nask. Soe Lonoir, MntovBiAi..
Lotion of Boiaz. Sj/n. hano boraois, I/.
BOUMaoA, L. iVvp. 1. (Dr. Abererombie.)
Borax, S^ dr.; dtotilled rinega^ ^ {rint. In
nngworm.

3. (OopUaid.) Borax (in powder), 1 dr. ; rose-
water and onuig»-flower water, of each, 8 fl. oz. ;
diMoWe. A fr^rant and effeotiTe application to
■ore gums, sore nipples, excoriations, oc.

5. {Dr JoiMoa.) Borax, 8 dr.; predintated
chalk, 1 ox.; rose-water and rectified spirit, of
each, 8 oi. For sore nipples.

4. (^Dr Xeifft.) Borax, i oz. ; snlphate of
morphia, 6 gr. ; rose-water, 8^ oz. To allay
it<dihig and irritation, especially pmritns toIts.

6. Boras, 1 part; rose-iAiter, 24 parts. Cos-
inetic.

Lotion of Borie Acid. 8yn. Lono Aomi
BOSIOI. A satoiated solution of bono acid in
water, about 1 in 23. Valuable as a mild anti*
septic wash for ulcerated parts.

Lotion, Bro'Bdne. Sg». Lono BBOKnrn, L.
JVsp. (Dr Oloegr.) Bromine, 1 dr. ; water, 1
pint. As an application to scrofulous nkers.

Latica fbr Bonn. See LnriMKir.

Lotion of Calamine. Sgn. Lono ouAimrx, L.
J^«p. Calamine, 40 gr. ; zinc oxide, 20 gr. ;
glycerin, 20 minims; water to 1 oz. Astringent
and sedatire ; allays irritation in sUn diseases,
especially osefnl in eczema.

letian, Camphora'ted. See Lonojr, Stafo-
BAnvs.

Lotion of Oap'zieam. Sgn. Lono OAnioi,
li. Prep. {OrijffUh.) 'Rnetnres of capsicum
and camphor, of each, 4 fl. oz. ; liquor of am-
monia, 2 fl. oz. A powerful mbebeient and
counter-irritant.

LoUoBofCarbdieAeid. {Sir JT. LitiMr.) I^n.
IiOnoAcn>lOABBOUCi,L. Pnp. 1 part of acid
in 20 of water is used to promote the healing of
wounds, abscesses, nicer*, and bamsi A wmker
solution of 1 in 40 is in common use in the
LendoD hos]Htal& 6 drops to.l fl. oz. of glyce-
rin ibrm* a good application to eruptions of the

Lotion of Car'bonsto of So'da. Ss/m. Lono
■ODJi OABBOVATI8, L. Pttp. From carbonate
of soda, i oz. ; water, 1 ]^nt. To allay itching
and irritation. See LonOV, AisALDTB.

Lotion HChg^ij Lanrel. Syn. Lono pkwo-
0BVA8I, L. JVap. 1. Cherry-laurel water (dis-
tiDed), li fl. oz. ; distilled water, | pint. Ano-
dyne; naefiil to allay irritation, &c. Some

persons with delicate skin employ it as a wash
after sharing.

2. Cherry-laurel water (distUIed), 4 oz. ; recti-
fied spirit and ether, of each, 1 S. oz. ; extract of
belladonna, 2 dr. i agitate well together in the
odd. An excellent application in neuralgia,
painful tumours, &c.

Lotion for Chilblains. See Chii.bi,a», Lnri-

KBVT, Ac.

Lotion of Chlo"rato of Soda. Sgn. Lono
(ODS OHLORAns, L. JVvp. (Darling.) Chlo-
rate of soda, 6 dr.; water, i pint. In pm-
ritns, Ac.

Lotion of CUo"rid« of Ammoniom. Lono
AXMOiin OHiioaiDi, L. Chloride of ammoniom,
1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 oz. ; water, 10 oz. To
this vinwar is sometimes added. Used as a
dressing far bmisas. See also LonoR 0* Htdbo'

0HI.OBATB OV AlCIfOnA.

Lotion of Chlo"Tld« of Load. S^. Lono
FLVHBi OHLOBWi, L. Prt^. (nuoM.) Chlo-
ride of lead, 1 dr.; hot distilled water, 1 pint;
dissolre. In cancerous ulcerations, punfn) nen-
raigio tnmours, Ac

Lotion of Cklorido of BBft ifyn. Lono mioi
OKUMTDj, L. Prtp, Chloride of zino, la gr. (or
solution, i fl. dr.); water, 1 jnnt. As a disinfect
taht and preventive lotion.

Lotion, CaOorina'ted. Sgn. Lono CHUttl-
iTATA, L. JVsp. 1. (Lono OALcn CBxxmX!-
XATM.) a. From chloride of lime, 8 dr, ; wat«r,
1 pint ; agitate together for some time, and strain
thronffh mnalin.

h. (D*rltnm».) Chlorinated lime, 1 oi. ; water,
1 quart ; triturate and filter.

2. (Lono ■on.B OHLonnrATJt.) From chlori-
nated soda, as the last. They are both exeeUent
washes for foul ulcers, the itch, Ac. ; and, when
diluted for the teeth, to sweeten the breath, re-
more the smell of tobacco smoke, to prevent in-
feetion, and for various purposes. When intended
for application to very tender or abraded sur-
faces, they must be largely diluted with water;

Lotion of CUo"x«llnin. Sgm. Lono oeoobo-
■osm, L. Prtf. Chloroform (pure). If fl.oz.;
rectified sj^t and ooM £stilled water, of eadi,
} pint. Anodyne. A piece of oiled silk should
be laid over the rag to prevent evaporation. TIm
lotion made with water as commonly prescribed
is inert.

Lotion fbr Corns. See Coiar.

Lotion of Orea'soto. Arts. Lono omiAgoin,
L. Pr»p, 1. Creasote, 2 fl. dn ; Uqnor of po-
tassa, S fl. dr. ; water, i pint.

2. Creasote, 8 fl. dr.; vinegar and water, of
each, i pint. In boms, itch, phagedenic aloera-
tions, ringworm, ehisncre, Ac.

Lotion of CT'aalde of Fotas'siam. Sgn. Lono

POSASBI CTAKIDI, If. Prtp. 1. (CoMMWa.)

Cyanide of potassium, 10 gr.; emulsion of bitter
auaoads, & fl. oz. In cfai^c oxnptions and other
cases attended with much itching or irritation.

8. (.Tbjr.) Cyanide of potassinm, 8 gr.;' dis-
tilled water, 1 fl. oz. In neuralgia, acute rheu-
matism, Ac. ; applied by means cf compresses of
linen. Beth the above are p<naonous if swaUotMd,
and should never be used- except under medical
supervision.

Lotion of Diao'otnto of Lead. Sgn. Ctov-

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LOTION

LAXD'fZionov; Lono flttkbi ttrakcwrixu, L.
Tlie dilate liqaor of dUcetate of lead (liq. plvkbi
SIAOITATU DiLUTiri, Ph. L.). See SoLonoir.
Alio Bolntion of labacetate of lead (B. P.), 3
minims, with 7 minimii to 1 oz. water.
haOoa, Zrtig'anMag. Syt. Lono itapo-

BAS«, L. TAPOBAXa, L. aPIBTIVB DILVTI, L.

Prtp. 1. {Copland.) Solpharie ether, reetifled
apirit, and tolntion of acetate of ammonia, of each,
H fl. oz. ; roae-water, 31 fl. oz.

2. (Qny's Hoep.) Bectifled ipirit, I part;
water, 6 part*.

8. (jBrat. IFilton.) Bectifled (pint, I part;
water, 4 to 6 parte.

4. (CAKPHOBAtlD, Wart.) Camphor, i dr.;
elder flowen, | oz.; reetifled ipirit, 4 oz.; digest
24 houn and (tnun.

Ob*. The above are eoothing and refrigerant
if allowed to evaporate by free exposure ; itimn-
laat if the evaporataon ia prevented by covering
the part with toe hand or a piece of mled nlk.
Thej are nsetol application* in nervon* headaches,
Testiesme**, itching and irritability of the akin.
See. "A little rose-water added to the aimple
water makea an agreeable addition, and some-
timea camphor water (jolep), or a little Oonlard's
extract) may be deemed advantageous when a
greater degree of calming effect is required"
{JErat. mUon). Ban de Cologne, diluted with
an equal quantity of water, is often used as an
evaporating lotion.

LetioB of Qall-But*. 8j/n. Lono SAU.S, L.
Prtp. From gall-nuts (bruised), i ox.; boiling
water, 1 pint; tnfnae unnl cold, and atrain. As-
tringent. An excellent application to lore nipples,
or to strengthen them before anckling; apirit
<rf wine, 8 fl. oz., may be advantageously added to
the cold infusion, and a like portion of water
omitted. See DxooonoK.

Lotion of G'lyo'erln. 8jfn. Lono aLTosBnn,
L. OLTOBBIWIX, L. Pr»p. 1. Qlyoerin, 1 ox. ;
water, 1 pint. To allay itehing, and remove dry-
ness, kc., in various skin diseases ; also in chaps
of tiie nipples, lips, and hands. For the latter
pnrpoae the addition of 2 to 8 dr. of borax is
recommended by aome writers.

2. Glycerin, 1 oz. ; thick mucilage, 2 oz. ; lime-
water, 7 oz. In bums, scalds, chaps, excoriations,
tec

8. {Starlin.) Glycerin, 1 oz. ; extract of bella-
donna, 1 dr. J aoap liniment, 8 oz. ; triturate
together. In bruiaea, spnuus, and awelled jointa ;
gonty, nenralgic, and rheumatic paina, &e.

4. (Startin.) Trisnitrate of bismuth, i dr. ;
tinetnre of foxglove and cUInto nitric acid, of
each, 1 fl. dr. ; glycerin, 4 dr. ; rose-water, 8) fl. oz.
To allay the itching in prurigo, and some other
■kin diseases.

Obt. Various lotions may be prepared by dis-
solving active medicinal substances in glycerin.
Lotton, Oonlvd'i. See LonoH of DucaTAxa

ov LXAD.

lotion, Oont. %». Lono ASTABTHBinoA,
L. Pnp. 1. Qlyoerin, 1 ox. ; extract of bella-
donna, S dr. ; veratrine, 10 gr., dissolved in recti-
fied spirit, 2 fl. OS. ; mix, and f orther add, of water,
17 fl. M. It ia poiaonous if awallowed.

5. (' SovDAllOB^s a. L.') From camphor mix-
tnrei 9 fl. 01.; reetifled q>irit, 8 fl. oz. Theabove

are applied on rags or oompre**es, or are poared
on the anrfaee of ponltioea.

Lotion, Oowland's. This celebrated nostrmn is
prepared as follows : — Take of Jordan almonds,
1 oz. ; bitter almonds, i oz. ; blanch them, and
make an emulsion in soft water, 1 pint ; to this
add of bichloride of mercury, 16 gr. ; previonaly
dissolved in reetifled spirit, 2 fl. dr., together with
enough water to make the whole measure 1 pint,
and put it into bottles.

Obt. This preparation is chiefly used as a
cosmetic to improve the complexion; and also
as a wash for obstinate eruptions and minor
glandular swellings and indurations. As a bean-
tifier of the complexion it is employed by simply
wetting the skin with it, either by means of the
comer of a napkin or the flngers dipped into it,
after which it ia gentiy wiped otC with a dry
cloth. Dr Paris represents this nostrum to con-
tain I dr. of corrosive sntdimate in every pint,
wliich is not the case.

Lotion, OTanTiUe** Connter-irritanb See
LiiriiCBiiT ov AmtOBlA (Compound).

Lotion, Hemlock. S/f. Lono oomi, L. Prtp.
(Mid. Hosp.) Extract of hemlock, 3 c^. ; opium,
1 dr. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; digest until cold,
and strain. Anodyne and resolvent ; in glandular
enlargements, painful ulcers, cancer, indurations,
rheumatism, neuralgia, Ac

Lotion, Eoopii^-congh. (fiVmes'*.) Bjfu. Lono
AXnPBBnTBBlOA, L. Prep. (Paris.) Potaario-
tartrate of antimony, 1 dr.; tincture of can-
tbarides, 1 ox.; water, 2 ox. This is a powerful
counter-irritant, and should be used with cau-
tion, as it ia apt to induce a troublesome erup-
tion on the parte to which it is frequently
applied.

Lotion of Eydrachlo''rate of Awiimwiia. ^|^.

LOTIO AXKOHLS HTDBOOHLOBAnB, L. J^tp,

1. (Wbazbb.) From sal-ammoniac, 1 to 4 dr. ;
water, 1 pint. As a wash in itch, ulcer*, tender
feet, swelled jointe, &c.

2. (Stbov&bb.) From sal-ammoniac, 1 to
8 oz. ; water, 1 pint. In contusious, chronic tu-
mours, extravasations, chilblains, Ac, when the
akin is not broken. Both are stimulant and re-
solvent or diacutient. Vinegar is often aubsti-
tnted for the whole or part of the water, and
sometimes a flfth or sixth part of rectified spirit
is added. See also Lonox ov Chiabidb op
AxxoNnrx.

Lotion, HydrocUo"ric 8gn. Lono aoidi ht-
SBOCHLOBIOI, L. Prtp. 1. Hydrochloric add,

1 fl. oz. ; water, 1 pint. In lepra and several
other skin diseases.

2. (.Fby.) Hydrochloric add, 1 part ; water,
16 parts. In chilblains, when the skin i* un-
broken.

Lotion, Hydrocyao'le. Sys. Lono htsbo-

CTAHIOI, L. AOIDI HYSBOOTABIOI, L. Prtp. 1.

{Magt»dit.) Uediciual hydrocyanic acid, 1 to

2 fl. dr. ; lettuce water, 1 pint. In hepatic
affections.

2. (Sntidtr.) Medicinal acid, li fl. dr. ; reeti-
fled apirit and water, of each, 6 fl. ox.

8. {A. T. Tiomton.) Medicinal acid and rec-
tified siprit, of each, 2 fl. dr.; aceteto of lead,
16 gr.; distilled water, 7| fl. ox. In impetigo,
Ac

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LOTION

Ob*. Loiaons of pruasic acid are employed to
allay pain and irritation in Tariooa chronic skin
diiaues, especially tihe acaly and itchy emptiona ;
and in cancer, &c., with variable ancceas. See
Htdboctahio Aoid.

Lotion of Eypocia'pMta of Soda. Sgn. Lono
aODM HTPOBTTLPBrns, L. Pnp. {Startim.) Hy-
poaolphite of soda and alum, of each, 1^ dr. ; eaa
de Colognie, i fl. oi.; roae- water, 7) A. oz.; in the
advanced stages of acne.

lotion of I'odide of Ar'ianic and Kor'cniy.
Sfn. Lono Axsasioi bt ktshassyhi htdbio<
9ATI8, L. Prap. From Donovan's solution, 1
part; water, 9 parts. In lepra, psoriasis, and
other scaly skin diseases. See Soiimoir.

Lotion of Iodide of Fotas'liiim. Sgn. Lono
roTASSii lODlDi, L. Ftrep. 1. From iodide of
potassinm, 1 to 3 dr. ; water, 1 ]nnt. In the
oanal cases in which iodnretted preparations are
emplOTed.

2. (Dr O. Ward.) Iodide of potassinm, 1 dr. ;
water, f pint. In itch. (See baUna.)

Lotion of Iodide of Zinc. Sgn. Lorio zmoi
lODDOi, L. Prep. (£(M«.) Iodine, \\ dr. ; zinc
filings, 1 dr. ; water, 8 fl. oz. ; digest with heat
nntiT the liquid becomes coloured, then filter. In
enlarged tonnls.

Lotion of I'odine. Sg*. Lorio losnra, L.
Prep. From iodine, 2 gr. ; rectified spirit, 1 fl.
dr. ; dissolve, well agitate the solution with dis-
tilled water, 1 pint, mA filter. An excellent wash
for scrofnlons ulcers, and in chronic ophthalmia,
CDtaneons scrofula, and several chronic skin dis-
eases, partienlarly in highly sensitive habits.

Lotioa of Iodine, Compound. Byn. Lono lost
COKP., L. Prep. 1. Iodide of potaasium, 80
gr. ; iodine, 60 gr. ; water, 1 oz.

2. (CoseiiaM.) Iodide of potassium and iodide
of sulphur, of each, 1 dr. ; water, 1 pint. In itch,
either alone, or diluted with an equal bulk of
water.

8. {Damergiu.) Iodine, 3 dr. ; iodide of potas-
sium, 6 dr. ; water, 8 fl. oz. j dissolve, and label the
bottle No. 1. Sniphnret nf potassium, 4 oz.;
ynXxr, 8 fl. oz. ; dissolve. For use, a teaspoonful
of No. 1 and a table-spoonful of No. 2 are to be
added to about a pint of water. In itch and
several other skin diseases.

4. {LagoV) Iodine, 1 to 2 gr.; iodide of
potasmam, 8 to 6 gr. ; water, 1 pint. In scrof u-
lona opbtlialmia, fistulas, &c. ; and as a wash in
numerona skin diseases.

6. {Bighan.) Chloride of lime, 4 dr. ; water,
2i fl. oz. ; tritjorate together, filter into a stop-
pered bottle, and add of tincture of iodine, 1 dr.
Witti a pint of water it forms an effective appli-
cation in itch.

6. (JBonbeiran.) Iodide of potassium, 1 oz.;
iodine, i oz. ; water, 6 oz. ; dissolve. Used as
iodine paint ; also as a caustic to touch the sur-
faces of scrofulous ulcers, and the eyelids in
scrofnlons ophthalmia.

7. Iodide of potassinm, \ dr.; iodine, 16 gr. ;
water, 1 pint. This is the common and best form
of iodine lotion, but for certun purposes it is uaed
mneh stranger (see above).

httUm, Itch. i^. Lono ABnPBOKiCA, L.
Ptep. (Caxenave.) Sniphnret of potassium, 1
dr.; soft sosp, 2 dr.; water, 8 fi. oz.; dissolve.

An excellent remedy for the itch. It leaves
little smell behind, and does not soil the linen.
(See above.)
■ Lotion, Kirkland's. See Lonoir of Myxbh.

Lotion of Lemon Juiea. 8gn. Lono bfooi
LIM0KI8, L. iVop. From the freshly expreased
juice of lemon, diluted with 4 or 6 times its bulk
of water. To render it more agreeable, rose-
water may be employed, or a few drops of eau de
Cologne added. It is cooling and detergent, and
forms an excellent applicatition to foul ulcers,
and to allay the itching in numerous cutaneous
affections.

Lotion of Lime Wa'ter. 8ym. Lono Oixois
BVismroBA, L. Prep. (Ph. Chirur.) Rectified
spirit, 4 oz.; lime water, 8 fi. oz. See Bvapo-
BATIKG- LonoK (above).

Lotion, Locook'*, for tiia Hair. Prep. 1. (Inoe's
formnUe.) The external application called
Locock's Lotion for the Hair was devised by Mr
Alexander, the celebrated oculist, for the use of
his wife. It was seen by Dr (afterwards Sir
Charles) Locock, who recommended it to his
friends, and thus it gained ita name. The for-
mula marked 2 was the original in Alexander's
handwriting. The proportion of oil of mace, Jss
(i oz.) to a 4-'oz. lotion, was found too large, and
was soon altered.

The h^ lotion supplied to Sir Charles Locock
and others was made according to the following
working formula: — 01. macis, 6 oi. ; ol. olivn,
20 oz.; aq. ammon. fort., 20 oz.; sp. roaemar.,
60 oz. s aq. rosn, ad 2 galls. imperiaL

2. 01. macis, i oz. ; oL oUvib, 2 dr. ; aq. am-
monie, i dr.; sp. rosmarini, 1 oz.; aq. rosa,
2i oz.

Lotion, I[ereii"rial. Prep. 1. (Black wash.
Black LonoK, Miu> PEAGBDXino l. ; Lono

iriSBA (B. P.), L. HTSKABSTBI OimBBA, L. H.
NieBA, L. H. OHLOBEDI CTTK OALCB, L. HBB-

oinuAi.18 v., Aqtta PHAaBDXiricA, Mins, L.)

a. (B. p.) From calomel, 8 gr. ; lime water, 1
oz. ; well shaken together.

b. (Mid. Heap.) To the last add of thick
mucilage, 1 fi. oz.

o. (Guy'a HoapitaL) IVom calomel, 1 dr,
lime-water, 8 fl. oz.

Obt. Black wash is a favourite application to
all kinds of syphilitic and scrofulous sores. The
bottle should be well shaken before the lotion is
applied.

2. (TBLLOW WABB, Y. LOnON, PHA6XD.BinO

L. ; Lono PLATA, L. psAaBD.siracA, Aqtta p.,

Lono EYBBABOXBI PLAVl, L. H. BIOELOSIDI

cm OALCB, L.) a. (B. p.) Corrosive subli-
mate, 18 gr.; lime-water, 10 oz.; well shaken
together.

b. (St B. Hosp.) Corrosive sublimate, 20 gr.j
lime-water, 6 fi. oz. Used as the last, but it is
stronger and more active, from containing a little
undeoomposed bichloride.

Lotion of Kyrrh. Sm. EtBKLAirs'B LOnOK;
Lono ICYBBKB, L. Prep. 1. {Dr Kirkland.)
Tincture of myrrh and lime-water, equal parts.
In scorbutic ulcers and gums.

2. (Compound : Lono kybbej: cokpobita, L.,
Ph. Uhirur.) Honey of roses and tincture c^
myrrh, of each, 2 fl. dr.; lime-water, 2\ fl. oz.
As No. 1 ; also used as a dentifrice.

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990

LOTION

Lotfon of Vi'tnte of BU'uratii. i^fn. Lono
BISKVTHI KII&1.TIB, L. Prep. (Catan. Hosp.)
Sabnltrate of bismuth, i dr. ; corrosive gublimate,
12 gr. ; spirit of ouuphior, ) fl. dr. ; water, 1 pint.
In itch, and some other eruptions.

Kotlon of Vitrate of SU'ver. S^, Lono
ABSBHXI HiT£A.Ti8, L. Pr»p. 1. Nitrate of
■ilver, 15 gr. ; nitric acid, 10 drops; distilled
water, i pint. As a wash for indolent olcen,
sore le^, oc.

2. {Jackto*.) Nitrate of silver, 10 gr. ; water,
1 fl. oz. For bedsores ; applied, at &nt, tmce or
thrice a day.

8. {Seireider.) Nitrate of silver, | dr. ; nitric
acid, 10 drops; water, 1) A. oz. In chilblains,
soft corns, Ac.

lK>tlon of Nitrate of SU'ver, Sthereal. Syn.
LoTio ABaBNil NiTBi.iu JiTEBBZA. Nitrate of
silver, 20 gr.; distilled water, 1 dr.; spirit of
nitrous ether, 1 oi.

Lotion of Nitrate of Silver (Strong) i^w. Lotio
Axaxim KiTBA.Tia vobtib. Nitrate of silver,
60 gr. ; distilled water, 1 ox.

Lotion of Ni'tre. ^n. Lorio potabbji vi-
TBAsls, L, Prep. 1, Nitre, 8 dr.; vinegar, i
pint; water, ) pint.

2. Nitre, 2 cGr. ; sal-ammoniac, 1' dr. ; vinegar
and water, of each, | pint. In sprains, contu-
sions, extravasations, trader feet, chilblains, &c.
Diluted with an eqnal bnlk of wateri it is a
popular application to ' black eyes.'

Lotion of Ni'tric Add. 8gn. Lono aoidi, L.
iciDi BITUCI, L. iVsp. 1, {Collier.) Nitric
acid, 1 fl. ox. ; water, 1 pint. In lepra, and other
scaly skin diseases.

2. {Phcebut.) Nitric acid,l fl. dr.; Undannm,
H fl* dr.; rose-water, # pint. For venereal
nioera.

Lotion of Nitro-mnriat'lo Add. Sj/n. Lonov
0> AQVA BsaiA. Prep. {Ooplamd.) Nitro-
muriatic acid, li dr.; water, 1 pint. In gan-
grene and mortification.

Lotion of Nnz Vom'loa. 8y». LoTio irucia
TOKIOJI, li. JVa^. 1. Alcoholic extract of nnx
vomica, 10 gr. ; rectified spirit and water, of
each, 2| fl. 01. In adtanrosLi.

2, {iaditu.) Alcoholic extract of nux vomica,
8 gr. ; liquor of ammonia (stronger), i fl. oz. ;
rectified spirit, 8 fl. oi. In paralysed limbs.

Lotion of O'pinm. Sgn. Loxio OPn, L. on-
ATA.L. Prep. 1. (CAnXwoa.) Opium, 40 gr.;
water, ^ pint; infuse, add to the Stored liquid
a solution of sugar of lead, 40, in water, \ pint,
and filter.

2. (St B, Hosp.) Opium, 1} dr. ; boiling water,
1 pint ; triturate and strain. Anodyne ; Uie first
is also refrigerant and discutient.

Lotion of Oz'lde of Zlae. ^a. LoTio nsoi
0XI9I, L. Prep. 1. {AMgnitm.) Oxide of
line, 1 dr.; elder-flower water, li fl. oi. In
pustular erysipelas.

2. (Hosp. F.) Oxide of line, i dr. ; mndlage,
8 fl. dr. ; water, 6 fl. dr. As an astringent and
desiccant in scrofulons eruptions, exooriatJOBs,
moist chaps, &,c.

Lotian of f aroUmido of McMnzy. By*. Lotio
HTSKABsrai VKBcaaMtaXDi. A ablution of per-
chloride of meroory in distilled water. Strengths,
1 in 1000, 2000, or 6000. A most powerful and

valuable antiseptic, much used a* n general
dressing for wounds, by immersing lint or wool
in the lotion.

Lotion, Fhagedasn'ie. See MsxouBXix LoTiwr
{above).

Lotion of Fhosphor'ie Add. Bjftt, Lotio
AOtDi FKOBPHOBioi, L. Prep. (Pereifo.) Di-
lute phosphoric acid (Ph. L.), 1 fl. OS.; water,

1 pint. In caries and fistula.

Lotion of Fotaa'sa. Syn. Lorio fotabbx, L.
Prep. From liquor of potassa, 1 fl. oz. ; water, I
mn£ Detergent; in scorbutic eruptions and
TOul ulcers, and to prevent infection.

Lotion of Potaa'sio-tar'trato of An'tinumy.
8yn. Lotio astixoviaub, L. AHXixoitn fo-

TASSIO-TABTSATM, L. BVBBPAOIBNB, L. Prep.

1. Tartar emetic, 1 dr.; tincture of camphor,

2 fl. dr. ; water, 1 pint. As a local stimulant.
Diluted with twice or thrice its weight of water,
it is employed as a oollyrinm in chronic ophthal-
mia, and in speaks on the cornea.

2. {Sir Wm. Blixard.) Tartar emetic, 20 gr.;
boiling water, 1 fl. oz. Used to cleanse iovH
ulcers, to repress fungous growths and warts, and
in ringworm, &o.

8. (Pereira.) Tartar emetic, 1 dr.; bailing
water, 1^ fl. oz. ; dissolve. Employed as a local
irritant Instead of the ointment. All the above
are rube&cient and counter-irritant. See Asn-

XOBT.

Lotion of Ouin'ine. Sgn. LoTio Qinxx, £k-
BBOOATIO q., L. Prep. From disnlphate of
quinine, I dr. ; rectified spirit, 6 fl. oz. Applied
over the spine in intermittents.

Lotion, Sapona'ceons. Sj/n. Lono bafokis,
L. SAPOITACBA (Ph. L. 1746), L. Prep. From
liquor of carbonate of potassa, i oz. ; olive oil, 4
oz.; rose-water, 12 oz. ; agitate togetiier. Emol-
lient; chiefly as a cosmetic.

Lotion, SavJazd's. Prep. {Poj/.) Caustic
potassa, 1 dr. ; camphor, 20 gr. ; sugar, 1 os. ;
water, 1 pint. As a wash for indolent ulcen.

Lotion, Strnva'a. See Boopore-ooiraB
Lonoir.

Lotion of Sul'phata of Cop'par. Sfif.. Lono
otrPBi 8V£PBAIib, L. Prep. 1. Blue vitriol, 1
dr. ; camphor jiUep, 1 pint. For phagedssnic
ulcers, and in itch, &c.

2. {Dr Graeet.) Sulphate of copper, 10 gr. ;
water, 1 fl. o*. In cbilblaina, lingwozm, to.

8. {Lloj/d.) Sulphate of copper, 1 os.; water,

1 pint. In itch ; either alone or diluted.

. Lotloa of Bnl'i^ta of Iron. Sf». Lono
VBBBi BOLPHAna, L. Prep. Sulphate of iron,

2 gr. ; water, 1 os.

Lotion of Snl'phate of Zino. £jra. Lono

ZIVOI BTTLPHATIB, L. Prep. 1. Solphste o(

zinc, f dr.} water, 1 pint. Astringent; in some
ehrooio skin disease*, as a wash for loose, flabby
granulations, and for nlcen that discharge pro-
fusely, Ac.

2. {Collier.) Sulphateof zine,2dr.; water, 1
pint. As a oonnter-iiritant in painaof the j<unt8,
perioeteum, old sprains, &e.

Lotion of Snlphar. Sf». Lono BULPRVBiBy
L. Prep. Precipitated sulphur, 10 dr.; reeti<
fled spirit, 6 os. ; water, 10 os. Stimnlant «lid
panaitidde.

Lotion of Sidplmret of Sodium. {Dt SarlMt.)

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LOZENGE

091

4w- I<OTio ecoMX em^Busaa, L. I^ep.
Sulphide of sodiam, 8 dr. j white soap, 2^ dr. ;
rectified spirit, 2idr. ; lime-water, 7 of. For ring-

Lotion of Tannin. (MrDruitt.) Sgn. Lorio
XlBnsi, Ii, JV^. Tannic add, 6 gr. ; diitilled
water, 1 oz. ; mix. On lint, covered wiUi oil-«ilk,
to sore nipples.

lAtian Qf Tar. <S^». Lotio fioib avniDM,
I>. iVep. {Saanderi.) Qnicklime, 6 oz.;
water, 2^ pints; slake, add of tar, 4 oz., and hoil
to one half. This liqaid may be advantageously
employed in varioas chronic akin diseases, eepe-
eiaUy those affecting 'the heads of children^ See
IvpvBioK or Tab.

I«tion of Ter'digila. &m. hono ABUS-nriB,
L. ciTPsi cixBAiiB, L. Prtp. From verdigris,
3 dr. ; vinegar, i pint ; water, } pint. As a wash
for indolent, scrofoloos, and venereal ulcers.

Lotion of 71n'egar. See Aoaxio Loxios
(above).

lotioa, Tollow. See Hixofsiaii Loiioh
(above).

LOVSS. ^w. Fkhiovlvs. There are several
species of this offensive parasite infesting the
hodies of man and domesticated animals. The
three varieties< of lice found on the hmnan skin
are — (1) The PedumUu eorforie, (8) th» P.
eapitU, (3) the P. pubi*.

^ 1. The P. eorporii, the body loose, is of •
dirty white colour, and varies from i to 2 lines
in length. Its bod; is broad and elongated,
with the margins divided into lobes, and covered
with minute hairs; but it has a narrow tliarax,
fnniished on each side with three legs, which
terminate in claws. This creature produces great
irritation of the akin, giving rise to a nnmber of
little pimples on it, which frequently discharge a
watery fluid. It mnltiplies with extraordinary
qtiridity.

8. The P. eapUi*, the head loose, is mueh
simtller than the above. It is devoid of hairs,
with 1^ large in proportion to its body. It
gives rise to a very troublesome eruption, at-
tended with a watery discharge. It is propagated
by means of the ova or nits, which are glued to
the hairs of the head.

8. The P. pitbit, the crab louse, is a small,
round variety, which attaches itself with con-
siderable tenacity to the hairs of the stomach and
lower part of the body more particularly, and,
like the preceding parasite, glnee its «ggs to the
lutim.

Various applieationa have been reeommended
for the dotrnction of these loathsome parasites j
amongst which we may mention sulphur, staves-
»ere, white pteaqntate, and oocetdos indioos, in
the form of ointments; carbolic acid and pw-
dUeside of mercury. lotions, and tobacco. Ben-
zoic add has been found of service in allaying
tka initatkn. SiUgent washing with soap and
Hater slionld he kad recourse to previous to ap-
plying an^ of the above rsasedies, and should the
Mad be infested, the hair should be cut short,
■■d frequently oombed with a small-tooth comb.
. Fedionli are sometimes conveyed. from filthy to
eleanly pencms by means of dirty water-closets,
efaaiia, SDeeti^ teoahaa and combs, and in varioas
other ways.

School children frequently obtain them in con-
sequence of their heads being brought into too
dose contact with the heads of ot£ar children
infested by them.

LOZIIHOE. Sfn. Tboohi ; Tsooeibcvb, Ta-
BELLA, L. ; Tablbtth, Ft. A Small cake, often
medicated, consisting principally of powdered
sugar, made into a mass with some glutinous
liquid, without tlie aid of heat, and dried. The
form given to lozenges (iboohb iabella,
IBOOHIBOI, tablbtxbb) is generally that of a
small round tablet or flattened cylinder; but
originally they were ezdus'ively made in the shape
of a lozenge or rhomb, from which circuputauce
their familar name is derived. LozBKaBS aro
distinguished from dbofb or pabtUiLBB by the
non-employment of heat in their preparation;
and from pabisb, by the latter being formed of
vegetable juice or pulp, and having a softer con-
sistence. The lozenges of the Throat Hospital
PharmacopoBia have a basis of either red or black
currant paate.

They are intended to be used by placing them
in the mouth and permitting them to remain
until dissolved. They are valuable where pro-
longed local contact of a drug is required, as in
disorders of the mouth and throat. Very power-
ful or disagreeable remedies should not be ad-
ministered tiiis way.

In the preparation of lozenges the dry ingredi-
ents, separately reduced to a very fine powder,
are first perfectly mixed together, and then beaten
into a stiff paste with the glutinous liquid em-
ployed to give them form; the mass is next rolled
out to a desired thickness, and cut into pieces of
the proper shape by means of a small cylinder or
punch of steel or tin-plate, called a 'lozenge
cutter.' The newly formed lozenges are lastly
dried by placing them on an inverted sieve or
frame covered with paper in a dry, warm, and
airy situation, and are frequentiy turned until
they become hard and brittle, due care being taken
to preserve them from dust and dirt. To provent
the mass adhering to the fingers and ntonuls dur-
ing the process of manufacture, a little finely
powdered starch, or a very little olive oil, scent^
with the same aromatic as that contained in the
lozenges, may be used. Mncilags of gum-arabic
or of gum-ingacanth, thin isinglass .sue, and the
strain^ white of egg, are the substances usually
employed to make the pnlvemlent materials
adhere together. A strained decoction of Irish
moss is now frequently vsed for the. same pur-
pose, for inferior qualities. The larger the pro-
portion of gum which enters into the oranposition
of lozenges, the slower they dissolve in the month ;
hence powdered gum is frequently added to the
other materials to increase their qnali^ in this
respect, as well as to give an additional solidity tq
those which, like chalk, for instance, are of a
peculiarly dry or crumbly nature. Starch and
pototo flour are often added to lozenge-masses in
ilea of a portion of the sugar, and even plaster of
Paris is not nnfrequentiy emplc^ed togive them
weight — ^frauds which are readily detected in the
manner noticed under Gim and Sitoab.'

As a general rule, mbdioatbb LozBifaBB should
weigh £rom 8 to 10 gr. each, and a medium doae
of tiieir active ingredient should be dkiributed

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LOZENGS

through the bulk of 6 to 8 of them, in which caie
8 to 6 of them may be safely taken aa a dose, or
mcked dDring the lapse of 3 or 4 hours. This
will be nsefol in the preptuation of those for
which no established proportions are given. In
' sending out ' compounds of this class containing
active medicaments, as morphia or opium, the re-
tailer as well as the manufacturer shauld be care-
ful that the quantity contained in each lozenge
is plainly marked on the label.

In lozenges intended for mottth ooaioiTiog or
to perfume the bnath, ambereris is generally re-
garded as the most appropriate perfume; bat
hard smokers frequently prefer cloves and cinna-
mon, and some ladies give the preference to roses,
orange flowers, and orris or violets.

Lozenges are coloured with the same stain* as
are used for liqueurs and sweetmeats.

Lozenges, as well as all other similar articles
of confectionery, should be preserved in well-
dosed glass bottles or jars, or in tin canisters, so
as to be perfectly excluded from the air and damp.

Lozenges, Absor'bent. Sgn. Tbochisoi avt-
AOIDI, L. Prep. 1. Take of precipitated chalk,
i lb. i gum-arabic, 2 oz. ; donble refined white
sugar, 14 oz., all in impalpable powder; oil of
natmeg, 1 fl. dr. ; pass the mixture through a fine
sieve, beat it up with mucilage, q. s., roll the
mass into a thin sheet, and cut it into lozenges ;
lastly, dry them by exposing them on a sheet of
white paper to the air, out of contact with dust.

2. As the last, but substituting heavy carbonate
of magnesium, 1| oz,, for an equal weight of
chalk. In diarrhoBa, heartburn, acidity, &e. See
LozBHSBB, Chalk, MAeicxsiA. L., Soda, Ac,

IiOiengea, Aca'oia. See Lozbvobb, Qvu.

Loienges, Add'nlated. iS^. Aoidulates
LXHON lAZSHOEa, Tabtabio aoid l. ; Tboohibci
AOiDi TABTABioi (Ph. K.), L. Prep. From tar-
taric acid, 2 dr. ; oil of lemon, 10 drops ; white
sugar, 8 oz. ; mucilage, q. s. to make a lozenge
mass. The same ingredients mixed with heat
form AOiDVLATio or acid dbops. Both are use-
ful in coughs, hoarseness, sore throats, jcc. See
LozaNO-BB, Catevice, Citbio Aon>, Robe, &c.

loMBgea, Al'kallne. See LozmaiB, Soda,
ViOHT, *c.

LozengsB, Al'nm. Sj/n. Tboohmoialitkikib,
L. Each lozenge con tuns H gr. of alum. As
an astringent. See Lozenoes, Abtbihqskt.

Loiengat of Ammonlnm Chloride. Sgn. Tbo-
ohibci AKXoini OHLOBioi, L. (Throat Hospital.)
Ammoniom chloride, 2 gr. ; blsick currant paste,
q. 8.

LOBBBges, An'iBeed. 5jra. Tboohiboi Ainsi,
L. Prep> From oil of aniseed, 1) fl. dr. ; finest
wlute sugar, 1 lb. ; mucilage, q. s. Carminative
and stomacUc In colic, griping, &c. ; and as a
pectoral.

Lozenges, Anthelmin'tie. See Lozbs&sb,

WOBM.

LozangBs, AstlmoniaL 5jnt. Tboohiboi ah-

TJMOKIALEB, MOBBULI BTIBII KuVKBLn, L. ;

Tablbtibb de Kuhxbl, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.)
Levigated sulphuret of antimony and cardamom
seeds, of each, 1 oz. ; almonds (blanehed), 2 oz. ;
cinnamon, ^ oz. ; sugar, 18 oz. ; mucilage of tra-
gHcantb, q. 8. ; to be divided into 15-gr. lozenges.
As an alterative.

LoieBgM, Ap«"rieBt. Sga. Tbochibci apb-
BIBBTB8, L. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. each
of calomel and scammony, and 2 gr. of jalap;
or, instead of the last, i gr. of jalapine. 2 to 8
for a dose.

LosengBB, Astria'g«Bt. Syn. Tboohiboi as-
TBlHOBHrBB, L. Each lozenge contains 1^ gr.of
alum and 2 gr. of catechn. In spitting of blood,
relaxed nvula, sore throaty ic. See LozBXaiB,

AXUK.

Lozenges, Bark. i^. Tboohiboi cnrcHOHJB,
L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Cinchona, 2 oz. ; cinnamon, 2
dr. ; white sugar, 14 oz. ; mucilage of gum tra-
gacanth, q. s. ; mix, and divide into 16-gr.
lozenges. Tonic.

LozengBB, Bath. Sj^. Dawboh'b roziHeu.
From extract of liquorice and gum-arabic, of
each, 1^ oz. ; sugar, 17 ox. It is both rolled into
lozenges and formed into pipes. Demulcent ; in
tickling coughs, Ac.

Lozenges, Benzoic Aeid. (Th. Hosp.) jjyn.
Tboohiboi aoidi bbitzoioi. Prep. 1. Benzoic acid,
in ponder, 176 gr. ; tragacanth, in powder, 70 gr. ;
refined sugar, in powder, 280 gr. ; red currant
paste, a sufficient quantity to make 1 lb. Divide
into 860 lozenges, and diy at a moderate heat in
a hot-air chamber. A valuable stimulant and
voice lozenge in nerro-muscnlar weakness of the
throat.

2. (B. P.) Benzoic add, 860 gr. ; sugar, 25
oz. ; gum, in powder, 1 oz. ; mudlsge of acacia,
2 oz. ; water, a snffidency. Mix the first three
ingredients ; add the mucilage and water to form
a mass ; divide into 720 lozenges, and dry.

Lozenges, Bicarbonate of Soda. (B. P.)
Tboohiboi bodx bioabbohatib. Birarbonato of
soda, in powder, 8600 gr. (8i oz.) ; refined sugar,
25 oz. ; gum acacia, in powder, 1 oz. ; mudlage,
8 oz. ; distilled water, 1 oz.; mix, and form in
720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 6 gr. of bi-
carbonate of soda. — Dote, 1 to 6 lozenges.

Lozenges, Bis'mnth. St/n. Tboohiboi bts-
UUTHI. Prep. (B. P.) Snbnitrate of bismuth,
1440 gr. ; carbonate of magnesia, 4 oz. ; precipi-
tated chalk, 6 oz. ; sngar, 29 oz. ; gnm acacia, 1
oz.; mucilage, 2 oz. ; rose-water, a snffidency;
make 720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 8 gr.
of subnitrate of bismuth. — Dote, 1 to 6 lozenges.

Uiee. Tonic and antispasmodic; in chronic
dyspepsia, gastrodynia, nausea, cramp of the
stomach, &c.

Losengss, Black Cnr'nuit. Tboohiboi bibzs
HIOBI, L. Prep. From inspissated juice of black
currants and sngar, of each, in powder, 1 lb.;
tartaric acid, ^ oz. ; mucilage, q. s. In hoarse-
ness, &c.

Lozenges, Bo"ru. S^. Tboohiboi bobaois,
L. Each lozenge contsLis 8 gr. of borax. One
occasionally in aphthous sore mouth, sore throat,
&c.

Lozenges, Bromide of ABunonlnm. Each lozeng*
contains 2 gr. of bromide of ammonium. — Dote,
1 to 8 lozenges. In hooping-oongh.

Lozenges, Burnt Sponge. ^». Tboohiboi
BPOKOlf, T. B. UBTJi, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Burnt
sponge, 4 oz. ; sugar, 12 oz. ; mucilage of traga-
canth, q. B. ; divide into 12-gr. lozenges. la
scrofula, glandular enlargements, Ac.

LosengeB, Caca'o. S^. Tbochibci bvtxu

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LOZENGB

OAOAO, L. Each lozenge oontaina l-8rd of iU
weigbt of pore cacao butter. In habitual oon-
atipation ; and In phthisia, scrofola, &e., instead
of eod-llTer oil; taken ad IWtum. They are
usually scented with rosea.

LoMngw, CaJb'ine. ^n. Troohiboi oav-
WwaM, h. Each lozen^ contains i gi. of caffeine
and 1 gpr. of dtrio acid. In hemicrania, hypochon-
diiaaia, Ac.

LossBgvc, Cal'ameL S^. Waax lozbvsbb;
Tkochiboi oaiom jtLuros, T. htdraxotbi ohlo*
XIDI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Each lozenge con-
tains 1 gr. of calomel. AlteratiTe, Ac. They
afford a simple way of introducing mercury into
tlie system. Daring their use salt food and acid
Uqaon sboold be aroided. When given for
worms they should be foUoved, in a few boon,
by a purge.

bnaagaa, Cam'phgr. Sya. Tboohiroi OAlt-
PHOKS, L. Biach lozenge contains f gr. of (finely
powdered) camphor. They must be kept in a
wall-corked bottle.

Lofenges of Carbolic Aeid. (Th. Hosp.) Syn.
Tbochisoi acidi cabbolioi, L. iV«p. Car-
bolic acid, 350 gr. ; gam-aiabic, 220 gr. ; reflned
•agar, ISfoz. ; mucilage,! ox.; disulled water,
q. s. to make 1 lb. Kvide into 860 lozenges, and
iinish as with benzoic acid lozenges.

Lozenges, Carbonate of Lime. Bee Lozbksbs,
Chalk.

Loamgea, Cat'aehn. Syn. Caobou xozevsis ;
Tboobibci oaibohv (B. P.), T. j>i tbssa Ja-
KnncA, li. : TABurrm s> oaohov, Fr. Pr*p.
1. (Ph. K 1741.) Catechu, 2 oz. ; tragacanth,
( OS. ; white sugar, 12 oz. ; rose-water, q. s.

2. (P. Cod.) Extract of catechu, 4 oz. ; sugar,
16 oz. ; mucilage of gum tragacanth, q. s. ; for
10-gr. lozenges.

3. (Tbo. cATBOHir XV iiAengui, P. Cod.)
lf«gnMri«, 2 oz. ; powdered catechu, 1 oz. ; sugar,
13 OS. ; mucilage of gum tragacanth (made with
cinnamon-water), q. s. to mix.

4. (Pkbfuxed.) See CAOEotr AsoxATisi and

PAaXtLB.

5. (B. P.) Pale catechu,, in powder, 720
gr. ; refined sugar, in powder, 25 oz.j gum-
aimbic, in powder, 1 oz. ; mncilage, 2 oz. ; distilled
water, a sufficiency; divide into 720 lozenges.
Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of catechu. — Vott,
1 to 3 lozenges.

Obt. An the above are taken in diarrhoea, in
relaxation of the uvula, in irritation of the larynx,
and as cosmetics to fasten the teeth and dis-
guise a fetid breath. The one containing mag-
nesia (No. 3) is also sucked in dyspepsia, acidity,
and heartbnm.

Loaenges, Cayenne'. %». Tboobiboi oaf-
sici, L. Flavoured ^th essence or tincture of
eapsienm or cayenne, with a very concentrated
Chili vin^^r, or a little pure soluble cayenne
pepper.

2. (AxuDULATKB.) To each lb. add of tar-
taric acid, i oz. Both are nsed in dyspepna,
•ad to promote digestion and create an appetite.
Th^ have also been recommended in temporary
deabess arising from exposure to cold. They are
generally tingled of a light pink or red colour.

Lonages, Clialk. 8^. Hbabtbubit i>o-
ZBVSM; Tboohuoi crbtx (Ph. E.),T. oakdial-
TOL. ir.

eioi, TabkiiUb oabsialoiob, L. iVsp. (Ph.
E.) Prepared chalk, 4 oz. ; gnm-anbic, 1 oz.;
nutmeg, 1 dr.; white sugar, 6 oz.; rose or
orange-flower water, q. s. Antacid and absor-
bent. 8 or 4 sucked ad IMtum ; in heartburn,
dyspepsia, diarrhoea, acidity of the stomach and
bowels, Ac.

LosengsB, Char'eoal. Syn. Tboohuoi oab-
BONIS, li. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Prepared char-
coal, 4 oz. ; white sugar, 12 oz., mncilage, q. s. to
mix. In diarrhoea, cholera, dyspepsia, Ac.

2. (Tbo. oabbokas cuh ohooolata, Jf.
Chevallier.) Charcoal and white sugar, of each,
1 oz. ; chocolate, 8 oz. ; mucilage of gum traga-
canth, q. s. to mix. Nutritious ; used as the last.

Lossngss, Ching's Worm. Prep. 1. (Tbliow.)
From uffron, t oz.; boiling water, 1 }nnt;
infuse, strain ; add, of calomd., 1 lb. ; powdered
white sugar, 28 lbs.; mix well, make a mass
with mucilage of tragacanth, and divide it into
7000 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of
calomel.

2. (BBOWir.) From calomel, 7 oz. ; resinous
extract of jalap, 8} Ihs. ; white sugar, 10 _lh«. ;
mncilage of tragacanth, q. s.; mix, and divide
into 6125 lozenges. Each lozenge contains ^ gr.
of calomel and 8^ gr. of resinous extract of jalap.
1 to 6 of the yellow lozenges, overnight, as a
vermifuge, followed by an equal number of the
brown ones the next monung fasting.

Lozenges, Chlo"i»t« of PotaHliun. %». Tbo-
oaiBCi POTASBii OHLOBATIB, L. Prep. 1. Each
lozenge contains H gr. of chlorate of potassa.
In phthisis, sore throat, &c 6 to 12 a day.

2. (B. P.) Chlorate of potaah, in powder,
3600 gr. (8i oz.) ; refined sugar, in powder, 25
oz. ; gum acacia, in powder, 1 oz.; mucilage, ) oz. ;
diatilled water, 1 oz., or a anfficiency; mix the
powders, and add the mncilage and water to form
a proper mass; divide in 720 lozenges. Each
lozenge contains 5 gr. of chlorate of potash. —
Dote, 1 to 6 lozenges.

Lozenges, Chlmlde of Ammoainm. Each
lozenge contains 2 to 3 gr. of chloride of
ammonium. Used in broncUtis. — Dote, 2 to 4
lozenges.

Lozenges, Chlo"ride of Gold. Prep. 1. (Tbo-
OHiBOJ AUBi CHLOBiDi, L.) Each lozenge
contains -^ gr. of neutral chloride of gold. 2 to
4 daily ; in scrofula, cancer, &c.

2. (With soda: Tbochibci aubi bt bodh

OHLOBIDI, T, BODII ArBO-OHLOBISI, L. — Chret-

tie».) Each lozenge contains -^ gr. of soda-
chloride of gold. Two daily; as the last.

Lozenges, Chloride of lime. iSfys. Tboohiboi
OAi«iB OHLOBIDI, T. 0. 0HLOBnrAT.x, L. Each
lozenge contains i gi. ot dry chloride of lime.
They are frequently tinged with a little carmine.
Used to sweeten the breath and whiten the teeth.
They do not keep well.

Lozenges of Chlorinated Soda. Syn. Tbo-
chibci BOS^B ORLOBINAT.B, L. Prep. Solution of
chlorinated soda, 1 fi, dr. ; sugar, 10 dr.; gum-
arabic, 2 dr. ; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. (i dr.
of camphor may be added). To be held in the
mouth dnring infection.

Lotenget, Choc'olate. 8gn. Tboohibci oho-
0OLAT.S, L. From vanilla chocolate pressed into
sheets, and cut into pieces whilst hot.

63

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964}

itOZEKOB

Iioiengsa, Cinclio'iuL. Sj/h. Tbochiboi cih-
OHOira BZTa^OTi, L. Each lozenge contains
li gr- of dry extiact of bark. A little cinna-
moD or nutmeg ii often added. See Bask
LOZIHOBS.

ItOMoagm, Cin'tuunon. %». Tsochibci cin-
HAMoici, L. From cinnamon (in fine powder),
1 OS., or the enential oil, 1 fl. dr. to each lb. of
aagar. Carminative and atomachic. Cassia
KOzaireKS are made in the same way, and are
frequently substituted for them.

Loienges, Cif rate of Iron. Sy». Tsoohibci
nasi oitbatis, L. Each lozenge contains Hgt.
of aramonio-citrate of iron. As. a mild chaly-
beate tonic. They are sometimes made with
equal parts of sogar and vanilla chocolate.

Lozenges, Citrate of Hagneslnm. Sgn. Tuo-

OHIBCDE XAAHBBII OITRATIg, h. Each 15-gr.
lozenge contains 6 gr. of pure citrate of magne-
sinm. Laxative.

Jiozengei, Cit'ric. Add. Syn. Tboohisoi
AOIDI oiTBloi, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Citric acid,
8 dr. i sugar, 16 oz. ; essence of lemon, 16 dropa j
mucilage of tiagacanth, q. s. ; mix, and divide
into 18-gr. lozenges. In coughs, hoarseness, &c.

Lozenges, Clove. Sg*. Tbochisci oabto-
PHYLLi, L. From cloves (powdered along with
sogar), 2 oz., or essential oil, 1 fl. dr., to each lb.
of sugar. They are frequently colour^. Car-
minative and stomachic ; also used as a restora-
tive after fatigae, added to chocolate to improve
its fli^vour, and sucked to sweeten the breath.

Lozenges, Congh. Sj/n. Fectobal lozsnobs,
PuxMoirio X. ; Tbochisci anticaiibbeaJ'BS, L.
iVop. I. Black currant lozenge mass, 1 lb.;
ipecacuanha (in very fine powder), 2 dr. For
yi-gr. lozenges. .

8. To the last add of powdered opium and
ckmphor, 1^ dr.

S. To either No, 1 or 2 add of oil of aniseed,
U fl. dr.

4. (Tablbttbs db Tbohcbik.) From pow-
dered gum-arabic, 8 oz.; oil of aniseed, 16 drops;
extract of opium, 18 gr. ; kermes mineral, 1 dr. ;
pure extract of liqnorice, 2 oz. ; white sugar, 32
oz. ; water, q. s.; mix, and divide into lO-gr.

6, (Tablbttbs db Vamsaicicb.) From ben-
zoic acid, 1 dr. ; orris powder, 2 dr. ; gum-arabic
(powdered), 1 oz. ; starch, 2 oz. ; sugar, 16 oz.;
water, q. s. ; mix, and divide into 16-gr. lozenges,

6. Bach lozenge contains i gr. of lactucarinm,
l-8tb gr. of powdered ipecacuanha, and 1-1 2th gr.
of powdered squills, together with 1-Srd of their
i^eight of pure extract of liquorice.

Ob*. To render the above serviceable in
congbs, hoarseness, tc, the bowels should be
kept gently open with some mild aperient, and a
light diet adopted, with abstinence from stimu-
lating liquors. See LozBNaBB, Embtiitb, Ifeoa-

OVAHEA, &0.

Lozenges, Cro'ton OU. 8g». Tboohisoi obo-
TONIS, L. Prep. ^Soubeiran.) Croton oil, 6
drops ; powdered starch, 40 gr. ; white sugar, 1
dr. j chocolate, 2 dr. ; divide into 30 lozenges; 6
or 6 generally prove cathartic.

Lozenges, Cnliehine. l^n. Tbochisci ocbb-
BIMI, L. Prep. (Fh. Hamb.) Copaiba and
eztittct of cnbebs, of each, 6 oz, j yolks of 8 eggs ;

mix, add of powdered marsh-mallow root, 6 oc. ;
make it into pipes of 12 gr. each, and roll them
in sugar. In gleet, &c., and in allections of the
mucous membranes of the throat and tauces.
Lablonye orders them to be made of sugar, and
flavoured with oil of peppermint.

Lozenge of Cn'bebs. 8v». Tbochisci cu-
BBBJi, L. Prep. (Throat Hospital.) Fowdered
cubebs, i gr. ; black currant paste, q. s. Cseful
in bronchitis. Closely resembles Brown's bron-
chial troches.

Xozenges, Cn'bebs. S^. Tboohisoi oitbbbs,
L. Prep. 1. (S^itta.) Cnbebs, 2 dr. ; balsam
of tolu, 6 gr.; mix, and add of extract of liquor-
ice, 1 oz. ; syrup of toln, 1 dr. ; powdered gum,
q. 8. ; divide into 10-gr. lozenges. One of Uiese,
allowed to melt gradually in the mouth, is said
to alleviate the obstroction in the noae in
ooryza.

2. (U. S.) Oleo-resin of cnbebs, 60 gr.;
oil of sassafras, 16 gr. ; extiact of liquorice in
powder, 400 gr. ; gum-arabic in powder, 200
gr.; syrup of toln, q. s. Divide into 100 lo-
zenges.

Lozenges of Cyanide of Gold. (Cknttien.)
^K. Tboohisoi aubi ctanioi. Prep. Cya-
nide of gold, 2 gr. ; chocolate paste, 1 oz. Made
into 24 lozengos. From 1 to 4 in the d^.

Lozenges, S'Arcet's. See Lozbnoks, Vicbt.

Lozenges, Siges'tive. See Lozbnobs, Rhv-
babb, Oiksbb, Cakdt, Disbstitb, &C.

Loseages, Edinburgh. Prep- From extract
of poppies, 2 oz; powdered tragacanth, 4 oz.;
sugar, 10 oz. ; rose-water, q. s. to form a lozenge

Lozenges, £m'etlne. %•. Tboohisoi bkb.
TlK.fi, L, Prep. {Magendie.) 1. From impure
or coloured emetine, 32 gr. (or pure emetine, 8
gr.) ; white sugar, 2 oz.; mucilage, q. s. to mis;
divide into 64 lozenges. Emetic. — J9o««, 1 for •
child, and 4 for an adult. They are generally
tinged of a pink colour with carmine.

2. From impure or coloured emetine, 32 gr. (or
pure emetine, 8 gr.); sugar, 4 oz.; mucilage,
q. s, ; divide into 256 lozenges. PectpraL One
every hour, or oftener, for an adult. The last are
intended to take the place of ipecacuanha lozen-
ges, but are rather stronger.

Lozenges, Sscharot'ic. iS.yit. Tbochisci bs-
chabotici, li. Prep. (F. Cod.)' Corrosive
sublimate, 2 dr. ; starch, 4 dr. ; mucilage of tra-
gacanth, q. a.} mix, and divide into 3-gr. oat-
shaped granules. For external use only. See
Caustic (Zinc).

Lozenges, Feirocy'anide of Iron. Sjf». Tbo-
chisci IBBBI FBBBOOTAiriDI, T. aBBVI.BI, L.
Each lozenge oontaius 1} gr. of pure Prussian
blue. Alterative, febrifuge, and tonic; in epi-
lepsy, intermittents, diseases of the ganglionic
system, &c.

Lozenges, Fruit. Prep. From juice of black
currants (boiled to the consistence of an extract),
1 lb. ; juice of red currants (similarly treated), 4
lb.; powdered gum tragacanth, i lb.; sugar, 8
lbs. ; raspberry syrup, q. s. ; pear essence, a few
drops. Resemble black currant lozenges, bat are
more agrepable.

Lozenges, Oarana'. See Lozbhobs, Pavii-
iiUriA.

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LOZENOe

999

tiOMBgts, Gtai'ger. Sgn. Tboohiboi znrei-
BBUB, L. Prep. From the best unbleached
Jsniaica g{nj^r and gum-arabic, of each, in very
fine powder, li ob. ; doable refined lump sugar, 1
lb.; roae-water (tinged with saffron), q. s. A
still finer quality may be made by using an
eqniTalent proportion of essence of ginger in-
stead of the powder. Inferior qualities are pre-
p«red with coarser sugar, to which some starch is
often added. Qinger lozenges are carminative
and stomachic, and are usefnl in flatulency, loss
ot appetite, Ac.

IiOMngw, fiflld. £^11. Xboohisoi tvia, h.
Bad lozenge contains l-16th gr. of pulverulent
gold.

Lomige of Giulacam. Syn. Tboobisoi avA-
lACl, L. JPrtp. (Throat Hospital.) Qoaiacum
re«n, 8 gr. ; Uack cnmnt paste, q. s. One
every two hours in acote inflammation, and three
timoe a day in chronic affections of the throat.

Lemigea, Gum. Sg». Tboobisoi aoaoui
(Ph. S.), T. avuMi ABABioi, T. oumkosi, L.
^ep. 1. (Ph. £.) Oum-arabic, 4 oz. ; stuch,
1 OS.} white sugar, 12 oz. (all in very fine
powder) ; rose-water, q. s.

2. (P. Cod.) Oum-arabic, 1 lb. ; sugar, 8 Iba.;
onnge-flower water, 2 fl. oz.

a. (Transparent.) From the same materials,
Imt emploTinif a gentle heat. Demulcent ; used
to aUay tickling coughs. ■

Loiaagea, Sun Tra'gaoanth. Sgn. Tbo-
ORiBci TBA«A(iurrns, T. enniui i., L. Prtp,
(Fh. E. 1744.) Compound powder of traga-
canth, 8 oi. ; sugar, 12 oz. ; rose-water, 4 fl. oz.
Basflinble the last, bat are more dunble in the
moatii.

Louogw, Heartlnuii. See Lozxiran, Chalk,
ftc.

KoMiigaa, laeUmd Xom. Sjfn. Tboohisoi
vcamwna, L. (P. Cod.) Contain half their
wmght at dried and powdered lichen jelly.
-KeMmble gam lozenges.

Kozeagw, Indian Hemp. Sf». Tboohisgi
GurarABls, T. o. Iirsioi, L. {Sbriard.) Each
ioaenge contains -ff gr. of extract of Indian hemp.

LoMBges, I'odUe of Iron. 8gn. Tsoohisoi
yssBl lOSiDi, L. Each lozenge contains ^ gr. of
dry iodide of iron. 12 to 20 daily ; In amenor-
riKea, chlorosis, serofulons debility, &c. They
are generally flarooAd with a little nutmeg or
cinnamon.

ISMBgea, Iodide of Fotaatium. ay. Tbo-
etawoi voiAflUi iodisi, L. Each lozenge con-
tahia 1 gr. «f iodide of potassium, flavoured with
nutoMg or einnaman. lOtol&daily; inscrofola,
indvratiom, &o. Ohe of the best ways of taking
iodide of potassium. '

LoteBgea, ^ecacBaalia. Syt. TaooBnoi
amcACOAirBM, L. Prap. 1. (B. P.) Mix ipe-
cacoaalia in powder, ISO gr. ; reflned sagar in
powder, X oz. ; gum aeada in powder, 1 oz. ; add
mucilage of acacia, 2 fl. oz., and distilled water, 1
o(.,arsnfflcienttofonnapiot>ermass. Divicleinto
720 UMeages, and dry in a oot-idr chamber with
a Boderate beat. Each lozenge contains } gr. of
ipeemeatsibM.

2. (P. Cod., Hamb. do., and Ph. U. S.) Each
loMoge eontoina i gr- of ipecacuanha.

8. (Tte. nnoAa oux oaxihoxX.) Each

lozenge confadns i gr. of camphor and i gr. of
ipecacuanha.

4. (Tbo. ifscac. cum chooolatA, p. Cod.)
Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of ipecacuanha and
li gr. of chocolate i la vanilla. The above are
puctoral and expectorant, and are very useful in
tickling and chronic coaghs, hoarseness, &e.

Lozrages, Ipeeaonaaha and Morphia. Sy».
Tbochiboi umoaovauhji bt kobpbix (B. p.).
Each lozenge contains -^ gr. ipecacuanha and
t^ gr. hydrochlorate of morphia. — Xloge, 1 to 6
lozenges. See LozKiraBS, Mobfbia and Ipb-

OAOUAKHA.

Lozenges, I'ron. Sgn. Tbqoeibci vbbbi, T.
CHALTBBATI, L. 1. Each lozenge contains 1 gr.
of Quevenne's iron. See Lozbvqbb, Kbdcobd
Ibob.

2. (Tbo. bbbbi oabbohatu.) Each lozenge
oontains It gr. of saccharine carbonate of iron.
They are both mild and ezcellent chalybeates.
See Lozbkobs, Stbbl.

LoMngea, Ju'jnbe. See Pabts, Jcnma.

LoMiiges, Kermes Mineral. 8gn. Tboohiboi
xbbkris, L. Pttp. 1. (P. Cod.) Each
lozenge contains ^ gr. of kermes mineral, and
about ) gr. of gum, made up with sugar and
orange-flower water. Diaphoretic and expec-
torant.

2. (Compound.) As the last, but with the
addition of ^ gr. of opium, i gr. of squills, and
i gr. of ipecacuanha. Anodyne and expectorant ;
both are very usefnl in catarrhs.

Lozenges, Lactate of Iron. 5yii. TBOCBtsoi
VBBBi l,AOTATU, L. Pnp, ' (Cap.) Each
lozenge contains 1 gr. of lactate of iron. Tonic.
Useful in delnlity accompanied by a diseased
state of the organs of digestion.

Loiengei, Lae'tic Ae'id. Sgn. Tbochisci
AOisi LAOTioi, L. Each lozenge contains 1 gr.
of lactic acid to about 12 gr. of sugar. They are
best flavoured with vanilla or nutmeg. In dye-
pepsia, &e., especially in gouty subjects. Those
prepared by Hagendie's fbrmulte contain a larger
proportion of acid, but are much too sour for
frequent use.

Lozenges, Iiaetaca"rliim. Ssm- Tkoohisoi
LAonroAxn, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Prepared
with Uctucarium in the same manner aa the
opium lozenges, Ph. E. Each of these lozenges
contains from ^ to f gr. of lactucarium. Ano-
dyne and demulcent. Used to allay tickling
oolighs, tc.

Lozenges, Lavender. Sgn. Tboobibci i.a-
■VAUjiVhS, L. From f fi. dr. of Mitcham oil
of lavender to each lb. of sugar, and tinged red
with liquid lake or carmine, or violet with
litmus or indigo. Used chiefly to scent the
breath. Those of the shops are generally defi-
cient in odour.

Lozenges, Lem'on. %a. Tboohiboi uxoinB,
T, LlKOinnc, L. Prep. 1. Prom 14 fl. dr. of
oil of lemon to each lb. of double refined white
sugar.

2. (Acidulated.) See LozairaBB, Citbio and
Tabtabio.

Ob*. Lemon lozenges and drops are agreeable
sweetmeats, and those that are acidulated are
often very Useful to promote expectoration in
coughs, &c. The last are also made Into drops

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OQA
WO

LOZENGfi

w well w lozengei, when they form the '^oiDU-
LXTiD LBMON DuoFB ' of the ihopa. Those that
are made of citric acid are by far the most whole-
some. Both lemon lozenges and drops are
generally coloured with infusion of saffron or
tormeric.

LoMiiget, Lettuce. 8gn. Tboohiboi lao-
TVOX, L. Prep. From extract of lettuce, ex-
tract of liquorice, gum, and sugar, equal parts.
Anodyne and demulcent; in ohstinate cough
without expectoration. See LozBiieiiB, Laott;-
OABnnf.

Losengei, Lidien. See LozsKesi, Ioklwv
Moss.

Losengea, Uqnorioa. Syn. Black lozbhobs ,-

TbOOHUOI eXYOTBBHIZX, T. O. SLASKS, T.

BBOBici KiSBi, L. Prtp. 1. (Ph. E.) Extract
of liquorice and gum acacia, of each, 6 ox. ; white
sugar, 12 oz. ; dissolve in water, q. s. ; evaporate
into a paste, and form into lozenges. Pectoral
and demulcent. Useful to allay tickling coughs
and remove hoarseness.

2. (With OPIUM.) See LozBiroxB, Oprm.

Loienges, Hagne'si*. Syn. Heabtbubh ix>-
ZBKOBS; TbOCBISOI ItAOKBSIJ! (Ph. S.), L. Prap.
1. (Ph. E.) Carbonate of magnesium, 6 oz.;
powdered white sugar, S oz. ; oil of nubneg, 80
drops ; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. to mix.

2. (Ph. U. S.) Calcined magnesia, 4 oz. ;
sugar, 12 oz. ; nutmeg, 1 dr. ; mndlage of traga-
canth, q. s. ; for lO-gr. lozenges.

8. (Wholesale.) Calcined magnesia, 8 oz. ;
powdered gum tragacanth, 1 oz. ; double refined
lump sugar, } lb. ; rose or orange-flower water,
q. s. to make a lozenge msss.

Ott. Magnesia lozenges are very useful in
heartburn, acidity, and indigestion. The confec-
tioners generally omit the nutmeg, and make
their macilage with either rose or orange-flower
water, or else add the dry gum to the mass, and
then mix up the powders with one or other of these
liquids. It is also an improvement to use calcined
magnesia, which is about twice as strong as the
carbonate, and consequently less need be em-
ployed.

Lozenges, Manna. Syn. Tboobibci uasvs,
L. Prep. {Van Mont.) Powdered tragacanth,
1 dr. ; wUte sugar, 12 oz. ; manna, 3 oz. ; orange-
flower water, q. s. to mix. Demulcent, and in
large numbers slightly laxative.

Lozenges, Marsh-mallow. Sgn. Tbochisoi
ALTHJMi, L. ; Tablbttxb SB OVllCAirvB, Fr.
Prep. (P. Cod.) Marsh-mallow root (decorticated
and finely powdered), 2 oz. ; sugar, 14 oz. ; muci-
lage of tragacanth (made with orange-flower
water), q. s. Demulcent and expectorant. Use-
ful to allay the irritation in cough, te. The pre-
parations of marsh-mallow have i^wsys been
highly esteemed as pectorals by the vulgar.

Lozenges, Morphia. Syn. Tbochisci mob-

rniS (Ph. E.), T. M. HTDKOOBLOBATIB, L. Prep.
1, (Ph. E.) Hydrochlorste of morphia, 20 gr. ;
tincture of tolu, | fl. oz. ; powdered white sugar,
25 oz. i dissolve the hydrochlorate in a little warm
water, mix it with the tincture and the sugar,
make a mass with mucilage of gum tragacanth,
q. s., and divide it into 15-gr. lozenges. Each
lozenge contains about ^ gr. of hydrochlorate of
morphia. Used as opium lozenges, but are plea-

santer. The morphia lozenges of the shop gene-
rally contain ^ gr. of hydrochlorate of morphia

{Pereira).

2. (With IPBOAOUAXHA : TBOOHIBOI ItOBPHtX

BT XPBOAOUAiiHf , Ph. E.) As the last, adding
of ipecacuanha, 1 dr. Each lozenge contuns
about ^ gr. of hydrochlorate of morphia and
-^ gr. of ipeeacoanha. Anodyne and expecto-
rant ; in tickling conghs, Ac., and to allay pain.

8. (B. P.) Hydrochlorate of morphine, 20 gr. ;
tincture of tolu, i oz. ; refined sugar,' in powder,
24 oz. ; gum-arabic, in powder, 1 oz. ; mucilage,
2 oz., or a sufficiency; boiling distilled water,
ioz. Divide the mass into 720 lozenges. Each
lozenge contains ^ gr. of hydrochlorate of mor-
phine.— Dote, 1 or 2 occasionally, for cough.

Lozenges, Morphine and IpecacnaBha. Ar*.

TbOOHIBCI KOBPEIHf BT IPBCACUAITBf (B. P.).

Hydrochlorate of morphine, 20 gr. ; ipecacuanha,
in fine powder, 60 gr.; tincture of tolu, i_o«;;
refined sugar, in powder, 24 oz. ; gum-srabie, in
powder, 1 oc. ; mucilage, 2 oz., or a sufficiency ;
distilled water, i oz. ; divide the mass into 720
lozenges. Each lozenge contuns -^ gr. of hydro-
chlorate of morphine and -j!, gr. of ipecacuanha.
— Dote, 1 or 2 occasionally, for cough.

Lozenges of Vaphthalla (Dapasjinar). Sj/n.
Tbochiboi irAPHTHAi.lKl. P»ip. Naphtbaliu,
5 scruples ; sugar, 20 oz. ; oil of amseed to flavour ;
form a mass with mucilage of tragacanth, and
divide into lozenges of 16 gr. each. Expecto-
rant, and may be taken to the extent of 20 »
day.

Lozenges, Vi'tre. 8fn. Tboohiboi mitbici.
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1783.) Nitre, 8 oz.; white
sugar. 9 oz. ; mucilage of tragacxnth, q. s. to mix.
Diuretic ; but chiefly sucked, without swallowing,
to remove incipient sore tliroat.

2. (Camphorated : Tboohiboi hitbi oampbo-
bati, ChauttUr, L.) Each lozenge contains
i gr. of opium, i gr. of camphor, and 1 gr. of
nitre. In hoaneness, sore thitiat, &e.

Lozangea, Knfaieg. Sfn. Tboohiboi vt-
BiBTiCf , L. From oil of nutmeg, 1 fl. dr., to
each lb. of sugar, and coloured with infunon
of saffron. Carminative and stomachic; in
colic, &c.

Lozenges, Cpinm. Syn. Ahodtitb LOZBKaBB ;
Tboohiboi opii (Ph. E^, T. eLTOTKBHizx omc
OPio, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Opium (strained),
2 dr. ; tincture of tolu, i oz. ; tritnrate together;
add of powdered sugar, 6 oz. ; extract of liqno-
rioe (soft) and powdered gum acacia, of each,
5 oz. ; mix, and divide into 10-gr. lozenges. Each
lozenge contains ^ to f gr. of opium. Used to
allay tickling cough and irritation of the fauces,
and as an anodyne and hypnotic.

8. (Ph. U. S.) Opium (in fine powder), 2 dr.;
extract of Uqnorice, gum-arabic, and sugar, of
each, 5 oz. ; oil of aniseed, i fl. dr. ; water, q. s. ;
divide into 6-gr. lozenges. Each lozenge con-
tains -^ gr. of opium. As the last.

8. Extract of opium, 72 gr. ; tincture of tola,
i oz. ; refined sugar (in powder), 16 oz. ; gum (in
powder), 2 oz. ; extract of liquorice, 6 oz. ; dis-
tilled water, a sufficiency. Divide the mass into
720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 1-lOth gr.
of extract of opium. — Dote, 1 to 2 lozenges.

LoMBgea, (ta^aage. Syn. Tboohiboi AVHAiran,

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LOZKNQE

997

Ik frtp. From oil of orange, H fl. dr. to each
lb. of mgar, and infusion of nffron for colouring.
By adding nitric or tartaric acid, 8 dr., ■ AOisu-
iiATis OBAHSB rozsvan ' will be formed.

Lmeagaa, Orange-llow'er. Sv*. Tbochisoi
AiTKAnn >ioBUX, L. Pnp. (P. Cod.) Pow-
dered mgar. 1 lb. ; neroli, 1 dr. ; orange-flower
wmter> q. i. ; make it into drop* (pastilli); or
omit the water, and make it into lozenges with
mndlage of ttagaeanth made with orange-flower
wmter. Delightfully fragrant.

IiOMagea, Or'ria-root. Sgn. Tboohi80I nusis,
!<■ Pnp. From onrii-rooit (in very fine powder),
1 OB. ; sagar, 1 lb. ; mneilsge of tragacsntb, q. s.
to mix. Used to perfnme the breath.

LoMnges, Farsgor'ie. Sg*- Tbochisoi pjibb-
•owci, L. Pnp. Medicated with 2 fl. oi. of
paregoric and 2 dr. of tartaric acid to each lb. of
sugar, and tinged of a pink colonr with lake or
eochineaL As a pectoral in catarrhs, ie.

LoMngas, Fee'toiaL Si/n. Tboohisci pbo-
TOBll.n,T.BBCHlOl,L. Pnp. 1. (Dr Orunn.)
Powdered squills, 4 parts ; extract of lettuce, 8
parts ; ipecacuanha, 18 parts ; manna, 125 parts ;
Migar, 2^0 parts ; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. to
mix.

8. (XoftmUe.) See LozBNaBS, Ekbtiitb.

S. (BiMiox: T. BBOBioi NISEI.) See Lo-

mKOBS, LlQVOBIOB.

4. (Whitb: T. BBOBIOI AJJU.) Orrfs-root, 4
dr. ; liquorice powder, 6 dr. ; starch, li oz. ; sugar,
18 01. ; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. to make a
lozenge mass.

5. (YBiiOW: T. BSCHioi FLATi.) Powdered
orris-root, 6 dr. ; starch, 4 dr. ; liquorice powder,
8 dr. ; safFron, 2 dr. ; sugar, 8 oz. ; mucilage of
tragacanth, q. s. to mix.

Ob*. All the above are nsed as demulcents in
coughs, colds, Ac. Nos. 1 and 2 are anodyne as
well as demulcent. ¥ot other formula see Lo-
zMgvBa, CoueH, LiQtroBiox, Orrcx, &e.

lenBgea, PdlHrnrj. Syn. Tbochisoi vy-
WRHKI, L. Pnp. From pelUtory, mastic, and
tragacanth, of each (in' flne powder), equal
ports; orange-flower wat«r, q. s. to mix. In
toothache.

Lemigea, Pep'permint. 3yn. Tboohiboi
MMXTBM rmvriM, L. Pnp. 1. (P. Cod.) Oil
of peppermint, 1 dr.; powdered sugar, 16 oz.;
mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.

2. (Ph. TT. 8.) Oil of peppermint, 15 gr. ;
■agar, 1200 gr. ; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. to
make 100.

8. (Wholesale.) 1 fl. dr. of the finest Hitcham
oil of peppermint to each lb. of the finest double
refined white sugar, with mucilage of either gum-
arabic or tragacanth to mix.

Mt. The best peppermint lozenges are made
of the Tery finest double refined sugar and of
English oil of peppermint only, carefully mixed
sp with very cl^n mucilage. The commoner
qualities are made by employing inferior lump
sugar and foreign oil of peppermint, or, what is
b^tar, Snglish oil of peppermint, but in a less
propoiikm than for the better sorts. The addition
of starch, in quantities varying from l-6th to
2-9tbs of the whole mass, is also oommouly made
to them ; and in the cheapest varieties even plaster
of Paris or ebaXk is occasionally introduced by

unprincipled maken. The addition of a very
small quantity of blue smalts, reduced to an im-
palpable powder, is commonly made to the sugar,
to increase its whiteness. ' TRUiSPASBirT ' or

' aBltl-TBAHBPABBMTFBPFBBmin LOZBHOBS ' aie

made from the same materials as the opaque ones ;
bnt the sugar is not reduced to quite so fine a
powder, and the cake is rolled thinner before
cutting it. A little oil of almonds or of olives is
also occasionally mixed with the ingredients, to
promote the transparency ; but it tends to render
the losenges less white.

Peppermint lozenges and drops are useful in
flatulency, nausea, and griping ; and judging from
the enormous and constantly increasing demand
for them, they are more highly esteemed by the
public than sJl other lozenges and confections.

IiOiengM,Pont«fraet(PoitPBXTOAKB8). These
are made of the purest refined juice or extract
of liquorice, and have long been esteemed as a
demulcent.

JjMvig**, Pop'py. 8fn. Tboohiboi fapxybbib,
L. Pnp. From extract of poppies, S os.;
sugar, 16 oz. ; powdered gum tragacanth, 2 oz. ;
rose-water, q. s. to mix. Used in coughs as an
anodyne and demulcent, in lieu of opium lozenges.

Losenges, Fnlmon'ic. See Lozbnsbb, Coush,

PXCTOBAL, WaVBBB, ftc.

Loiengas, QoiniBe'. Sy- Tboohiboi qm-
niVM 817LFHATIB, L. Prep. (Soubeir<t».) Each
lozenge contains about 1-lOtb gr. of sulphate of
quinine. Tonic and stomachic, in dyspepsia,
&e. ; but to render them useful the quantity of
the alkaloid should be doubled.

LoiengeB of Bed Oum. Syn. Tboohiboi
avHiu bitbbi. Pnp. Bed gum', 2^ gr. ; tinc-
ture of capsicum, } min. ; black currant paste, q. a.
Useful for relaxed sore throat. — Don, 2 to 6 dally.

Losenges, Bednoed Iron. Sjf». Tboohiboi
PBBBi BISAOII (B. P.), L. iVap. Reduced
iron, 720 gr. ; refined sugar, in powder, 25 oz. ;
gum-arabic, in powder, 1 oz. ; mucilage, 2 oz. ;
distilled water, 1 oz., or a sufficiency. Mix the
iron, sugar, and gum, and add the mneilsge and
water to form a proper mass. IHvide into 720
lozenges, and dry them in a hot-air chamber with
a moderate heat. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of
reduced iron. — Don, 1 to 6 lozenges.

Lozenges, Seduced Iron, wlfh Chocolate (Sou-
chardat). Sgn. Tboohiboi chocolate bt
TBBBi, L. Pnp. Hue chocolate, 14 oz.; iron
reduced by hydrogen, 1 oz. Soften the chocolate
by heat, mix with the iron, and divide into
lozenges of 15i gr. each. Levigated iron filings
are sometimes snbstitnted for the reduced iron ;
others direct the peroxide.

Lozenges of Bhatany (Th. Hosp.). Sgn. Tbo-
ohiboi EBAKBBIJB. Pnp. Extract of rhatany,
3 gr. ; black currant paste, q. s. Astringent. —
Dote, 2 to 6 duly.

Lozenges, Bhn'baTfa. S/fit. DiaBSTrrz ro-
ZBHOXB ; Tboohiboi brbi, L. Pnp. (P. Cod.)
Powdered rhubarb, 1 oz. ; su^r, 11 oz. ; mucilage
of tragacanth, q. s. ; divide into 12-gr. lozenges.
Stomachic and laxative. Sucked bdore dinner
they excite the appetite, and, after it, promote
digestion. They are frequently aromatised with
a little cinnamon or vanilla. See Candt (Di-
gestive).

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MS

LOZENGE

LoiMgM, B«M. BjfU. Tboohhoi bocx, L.
Prtp. 1. (AoiDVLATZD : T. B. AOIDJC.) From
otto, 5 to 10 dropf ; citric or tartaric acid, 8 dr. ;
tagta, 1 lb. ; mucilage, q. ■.

S. (Ph. B. 1746.) Bed rose lesTe* (powdered),
1 oi. ; sng^, 12 oi. ; mucilage q. t,

8. (PAtb db xobb lonHeu.) At No. 1,
omittilig one half of the acid.

4. (Rbd: T. b. BtTBBi.) Ai No. 1, bat eolonred
with liquid lake, or inftuion of cochineal.

Obi, Some maken add of starch, 4 os. ; nib-
stitate oil of rhodiam for otto of rote*, and use
mneilage made with rote- water; bat the quality
of coarse saffers. They are ohiaily used to per-
fume the breath.

LoMnget, Saffhm. Sj/n. Tboohiioi oboci,
L. Prtp. From hay saffron (in fine powder),
1 01. 3 white soear, 1 lb. ; macilage of gam tra-
gacanth, q. s. to mix. Anodyne, pectoral, and
emmenagogae ; bat chiefly ased to raise the spirits
in hypochondriasis.

Loieages, San'tonin. 8fn. Tboosisci turso-
irnn, L. Pnp. Santonin, 720 gr. ) refined
•ogar,-86 oi. j pDwdeted gam, 1 oz. ; mncilage of
•cada, 2 oi. ; distQled witter, a safflciency. Di-
ride into 780 lozenges.— JTom, 1 to 6 daily, a« a
rennifnge.

Lozenges, Boammony (Boiwiiret). Sgu. Tso-
ORnci BOAVKOirn. iVwp. Resin of soammony,
4 dr. ; calomel, 4 dr. ; sagar, 6 oz. ; tragacanth,
i dr.; tinetnre of TanilU, 40 minims. Hake
into 800 lozenges. 1 or 2 fbr a ehild ; 8 to 4 for
an adult.

Iiozenges, So'da. 8f». Tboohooi sods bi-
OABBOITATIS (Ph. E.), L. iVq). 1. (Ph. E.)
Bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz. ; powdered gom-arabic,
f at. ; sugar, 8 oz. ; mucilage, q. s.

2. (Wholesale.) From bicarbonate of soda
and powdered gam tragacanth, of each, 8 oz. ;
doable refined lamp sugar, } lb.; rose-water, q. s.
to mix. In acidity, heartburn, Ac. See Lozinobs,

ViOHT.

8. (With OIVOBB : TB00HI80I BODS >T ZIKei-

.BBBia, L.) To the last, add of ginger (in very fine
powder), H oz. ; powdered gum, i oz.

Lozeiigea of flolnble Tartar (GviboMH). 8fn.
Tbooeiboi tabtabi S0LVBILI8, L. JV«p. Boro-
tartrate of potash, 1 oz. ; sugar, 7 oz. ; mucilage of
tragacanth, q. s. ; flavoured with lemon.

Lozenges, SqalUs. Sj/n. Tbochisci scilub,
Ii. Prtp. 1. Each lozenge contains | gr. of
powdered squills and 2 gr. of extract of liquorice.

8. (With TPBOACtTAHRA*: TBOCRIBCI BCHLS

BT iPBOAOITAirBS, L.) As the last, adding for
each lozenge ^ gr. of powdered ipecacuanha.
Both the above are useful cough lozenges.

Losengei, Starch. Sy*. Tboohibci axtii, T.
bbobioi albi, L. See Pbotobal Lozbitobb.

Loiengei, Steal. Syn. Tbochiioi vbbbi, T.
OHALTBBATi, L. iVsp. (P. Cod.) Levigated
irbn filings, 1 oz.; sugar, 10 oz. ; cinnamon,
8 dr.; mncilage of tragacanth, q. s.; mix, and
divide into 480 lozenges. Tonic See LozBiroBB,
Ibov.

LoiengM, Snyplmr. Syit. Tbooriboi buk-
FBVBra, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From sulphor
(pure precipitate), 2 oz. ; sugar, 16 os. ; mucilage
of tragacanth (made with rose-water), q. s. to
mix. Usef al in piles and some skin diseases.

a. {Dr O-arrod.) Preci^tatad snlphar, 6 gr.;
cream of tartar, 1 gr. ; tinctare of orange, 'q. a.
Make one lozenge. Very usefol in constipation.
— Vou, 8 to 6 daily.

Loaeiigas, Tannic Add. 8y%. Tboohiboi
AoiDi TAiririci (B. P.), L. Pnp. Tannic aeid,
800 gr. ; tincture of toln, \ oz. ; refined sugar, 26
OS. ; gum acacia, 1 oz.; mucilage, 2 oz. ; distilled
water, 1 o*. Dissolve the tannic and in the
water ; add first the tincture at toln previonaly
mixed with the mucilage, then the gum and Um
sugar, also previously - well mixed. Form the
whole into • proper mass, divide into 720 lozenges,
and dry them in a hot-air chamber with a mode-
rate heat. Each lozenge oontuns i gr. of taanie
acid. — Don, 1 to 6 lozengea.

LsBeages, Tarta'rle Add. Bee LoznraBS,

AOIDUIiATBD.

Losangta, Tola'. Syn. BAi«Aino. voaMemt
Tboohiboi toltttavi, T. BAtoAxias, L. Prap.
1. (P. Cod.) Balsam of toln and rectified spirit,
of each, 1 oz. ; dissolve, add of- water, 8 fl. OB.,
heat the mixture in a water-both, and filter j m»ke
a mucilage with the filtered liqaid, and gam tnt*
gacanth (in powder), 80 gr.; add of angar, lOoa.;
make a mass, and cut it into lozenges.

2. (Wholesale.) As the last, -but using enly
one half the weight of balsam of tola. Pectoral
and balsamic

LossBgea, TroacUn's. By. Tablbitbb db
Tbovobiv, Ft. See LozBvaBB, Cotish.

LoBeagaa, TaoU'la. 8gn. Tboohiboi vAimui^
L. Prtp. 1. Essence of vanilla, 3 >. dr. to each
lb. of Bogar.

2. (OsAotirf.) From vanilla triturated to •
fine powder with 7 times ita weight of sugar.
Antispasmodic, nervine, and stomachic Used
to sweeten the breath, to flaromr chocolate, Ac.

LoiengBa, Tldiy. 8gn. ECAbcbt's loZBiraBB ;
Tboohiboi bods, L. ; Pastillbb db Vioxt, Fr.
Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz. i
powdered sugar, 19 oz. ; mncilsge of gum tragv
canth, q. s. ; mix, and divide into 80-gr. lozenges.

8. (iyA.reet.) As the last, adding a little oil
of peppermint to give a slight flavour. Antaeid
or absorbent ; in heartburn, Ac.

LoBsagaB, Ti'olet. 8gn. Tboohiboi vioub,
T. vioLAsrit, L. Prep. Orris lozenges eolonred
with the juice of violets.

Lozenges, IHstar's Congh. Prep. 0am-
anbic, extract of liquorice, and sugar, of each,
ii ex. ; powdered opium, 1 dr. ; oil Si aniseed, 40
drops ; for 60 lozenges. One, three or four times
a day.

Lezsnges, Worm. Bgn. Tboohiboi abthbe-
mimoi, MoBBTTU cobtba vbbmbs, L. Most of
the advertised nostrums under this name have a
basis of calomel (about 1 gr. per lozenge), and
require to be followed by a purge a few honrs
afterwards.

Prup. 1. (Ph.Anstr.l8Se.) Etbereat extract of
wormseed, 1 dr. ; jalap, starch, and sugar, of each,
8 dr. ; mucilage of gam tragacanth, q. s. ; divide
into 60 lozenges.

2. (Ph. Dan. 1840.) Wormseed, 1 oz. ; ethiops
mineral and jalap, of each, 8 dr. ; ' cinnamon,
8 dr. ; sugar, 7 oz. ; rose-water, q. a. See
LozBir&BB, CALOMXii, CHnts's, SAHTOrar, Ac
(eiow).

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LUBRICATING COMPOUNDS— LtTTE

999

loatagw, tiaio. 89%. Tboohiboi znroi, T.
z. BDUH^na, li. Prtp. (Dr Copland.) Each
IcKCOge oonUinB ^ gr. of nilphate of line. Anti-
spasmodic, expectorant, and tonic, and in quantity
emetic.

ITTBBICATUIS COKFOtnTOB. See Anti-

lycgMta. See Matohh.

ItnEBA'OO. Rheumatism of the loins. It is
diatiogniahed from nephritia, or inflammation of
the kidneys, by the pain being aggravated on
■tooinng. The treatment consists of strong
stimnlknt embrocations or liniments, or of bli'sters-
over the parts affected, with actire aperients,
wmruilh, and diaphoretics (as Dover's powder) at
bedtime. The hot or vapour bath often gives
almost immediate relief. The wearing of a broad
flaanel belt next the sUn over the loins is of
great service in ptotecting the individnal against
attacks of Inmbago. The greatest care shoald be
taken to avoid chill. See LnrnaiNT or Billa-
iwwrA aad CgLOBOiOMt ; Khiuvatish.

liVmimOna PHIAL. See Phospbokiib.

imrAOOSHIA. [L.] Sf*. UOBNaiLVXK.
Posed chloride of silver.

IiiniAS CAUSTIC. Posed nitrate of sOver.
See CAvano and Sam.

UnrCHBOVB, hot, hj the Biver Sid*. We
extract the following from ' Land and Water :' —
** In cold weather, by river side or on monntain
er moor, whan not too far from home, a hot Innch
ii often a Sendemtum, bnt one not earily acoom-
pUahed without a more or less complicated appa-
ratus and the tronble of lighting a ftre — often an
impossibility from the want at diy wood. A
hot, snfaatantial meal at the end of a hnd day's
woA is often dMIoult to get when the time of
letam home msiy depend entirely on the humour
of the flah ; and for either purpose nothing will
beat the homely Hot Pot, or ' P&te de I^nca-
slnre,' as I have seen it pretentiously termed,
tfaoogb the latter name does not convey any of
the comforting, cheering sensation to the inner
man contained in the simpler denomination. I
Laive never seen a good recipe for it, so append
my own. Take a strong glaized earthenware jar
of a cylindrical form, ten inches deep and twelve
kcoad. At the bottom of this place a layer, about
aa iBch thick, of potatoes out into pieces, sprinkle
irith a little salt; on these place a layer of four
or five motton chops, season with salt and pepper,
and a teaapoonfnl of Worcester sauce. Pour in
enm^i broth, stock, or water to nearly cover the
chops ; then add another layer of potatoes (rather
tUeker than the first), on which place two or
three chops and two Udneys, cut into smallish
pieces for the sake of the gravy. If mushrooms
are procmsUe, add a few with each layer of
mea^ or, in place of these, a few oysters. Season,
aad eontinaa the meat and potatoes tn alternate
lajren mitil within an inch of the top, when cover
with snail potatoes whole, or large ones cut into
halves or qnorters ; bake slowly in the oven till the
potatoes are qnite soft inside and brown and well
cooked at the top, when the dish is ready. If it
is not wanted at once it may eanly be kept hot,
sod the addition of a little stock will prevent its
getting dry. To serve oat of doors, wrap up in
dotfai^ and carry in a small hamper Imed with

straw, when it will keep steaming hot for an
hour or more. One of the great excellences of
this dish lies in the fact that all the aroma of the
meat is retained, while the potatoes absorb any
superfluous gravj'. Sliced onions will improve
the flavour for those who like them, especially
when mushrooms cannot he got. I have tested
the appreciation of this dish among a grouse-
driving party on the Yorkshire moors on a raw
December day, and there was no disaeotient voice
as to its merits when thankfully discussed over
the subsequent pipe. I have found it not un-
grateful, atter a long day's fishing, nearly up to
my waist in water, when the dinner ordered for
six, with a view of taking an evening basket,
would have been ruined before my arrival at
eleven had it consisted of aught else ; nay, I have
assisted at more than one bachelor supper in
chambers where it formed the dish of the even-
ing, and mid-day, evening, or night I hare always
found it good."

LUHOB. In anatomg, the organ of respiration
occupying the thorax or chest. See Bibpiba-

TIOF.

LTT'PXrLnr. Syn. LtrptnnrA, LiTPVi.iKa.
Under this name two products are known,
namely — 1. (Lvpuuirio SBAiira, L. aLASsa.)
The yellow powder obtained from the dried stro-
biles or catkins of the hops, by gently rublnng
and sifting them. — Doie, 6 to 10 gr. ; as an ano-
dyne, tonic, &c,

2. The aromatic bitter principle of hops.

Pnp. The aqueous extract of the yellow
powder or Inpulinic grains of the strobiles, along
with a little lime, are treated with rectified
spirit ; the filtered tincture is evaporated to dry-
ness, redissolved in water, and the solution is
again filtered, and evaporated to dryness; the
residuum is, lastly, washed with ether, and
allowed to dry.

Pfop;^ 4f'- The latter product is a yellowish-
white, bitter, nncrystalUsable substance, soluble
in 20 parts of water, very soluble in alcohol, and
slightly so in ether. The yellow powder above
alluded to (No. 1) is improperly called lupulin;
a name which appears more appropriate to the
pure bitter principle than to the lupulinic grains.

Adult. The lupulin, sold to brewers is largely
adulterated with quassia. In some samples,
lately examined, the quassia amounted to 70 per
cent. ^

LVVn. In pathology, a disease affecting the
skin, remarkable for eating away the parts which
it attacks with extreme rapidity. It u generally
confined to the face, and commences with small,
sipreading ulcerations, which become more or less
concealed beneath bran-like scabs, and end in
ragged ulcers, which gradually destroy the skin
and muscular tissue to a considerable depth.

LUBTBX. See Pluhbaoo.

LUTE. 8gn. Lutihq ; LVTDll, CXMSSTVU,
L. A composition employed to secure the Joints
of chemical vessels, or as a covering to protect
them from the violence of the fire.

Prtp. 1. Linseed meal, either alone or mixed
with an equal weight of whiting, and ihade into
a stiff paste with water. It soon becomes very
hard and tongh.

2. Ground alinond cake, from which the oil has

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LTCOPODIUM— MACHINERY

been pressed, mixed op as the last. Both the
above are mnch naed for stills, retorts, and other
vessels that are not exposed to a heat higher than
abont 320° F. They are capable of resisting the
action of the fnmes of volatile oils, spirits, weak
acids, &c., for some time.

3. Fresh-slaked lime made into a paste with
strained bullock's blood or size. As the last.

4. Plaster of Paris made into a paste with
water, and at once applied. It bears a nearly
red heat, bnt becomes rather porons and friable.

5. Powdered clay or whiting made into patty
with water and boiled linseed oil. This is com-
monly known as ' fat lute.'

6. A mixture of powdered clay and ground
bricks, made up with water or a solution of
borax. For joining crucibles, &c., which are to
be exposed to a strong heat.

7. Pipe-clay and horse-dung made into a paste
with water. As a coating for glass vessels, to
preserve them from injury from exposure ta the
fire. This composition is used by the pipe-
makers, and will stand unharmed the extremest
heat of their kiln for 24 hours. It is applied by
spreading it on paper.

8. As the last, but employing shredded tow or
plumbago for horse-dimg,

Obt. For the joints of small vessels, as tubes,
&c., especially those of glass or earthenware,
pieces of vulcanised Indian tubing, slipped over
and tird above and below the joint, are very
convenient substitutes for lutes, and have the
advantage of lasting for a long time, and bearing
uninjured the heat at which oil of vitriol boils.
Flat rings or ' washers ' of vulcanised rubber are
also excellent for still heads, A«., whenever the
parts can be pinched together by screws or
clamps.

LTCOFCDnm. The fine powder known in
commerce imder this name consists of the
minute spores of the common club-moss, or
Ljfcopodium clavai»m. It is exceedingly com-
bustible ; thrown suddenly from a powder-puff or
bellows across the flame of a candle, it produces
the imitation flashes of lightning of our theatres.
The powder is also employed as a ' dusting pow-
der ' in excoriations, and to roll up boluses and
pills.

According to M. Paul Cazeneuve, pine pollen is
occasionally substituted for lycopodium.

HACASCKI. This only difCers from VBBm-
oai'Li in the size of the pipes, which are about as
large as a goose- quill. When properly dressed it
is very wholesome and nutritious. A pleasant
dish may be made by boiling macaroni in water
until soft, either with or without a little salt,
draining off the water, and then stewing it with
a>1ittle butter, cream, or milk, and grated cheese,
adding spice to palate. It may be made into a
* form ' and browned before the fire.

lUC'ABOOHB (Xngliah). ttep. Take of
tweet almonds, 1 lb. ; blanch and beat them to a
paste, add of lump sugar, 1^ lbs. ; whites of 6
eggs; the grated yellow peel of 2 lemons; mix
well, make it into 'forms,' cover with wafer-
paper, and bake in a moderate oven.

■ACE. ^<^*. MA0I8, L. The tough, mem-
branous, lacerated covering (arillode) of the

Hurma. It has a flavour and odonr more agree-
able than that of nutmeg, which in its general
properties it resembles. It is used as a flavour-
ing by cooks, confectioners, and liqnenristes ; and
in medicine as a carminative. See Oil, te.

HACEBAIIOK. 8yn. Macsbatio, L. The
steeping of a substance in cold water, for the
purpose of extracting the portion soluble in that
menstruum. The word is also frequently applied
to the infusion of organic substances in alcohol
or ether, or in water, eitlier alkalised or addu-
lated.

KACEOrBST, Elactrie Light, Bslting for.
Various kinds ot belts have been used from time
to time for the purpose of driving machinery, but
all must yield the palm to leather, for there seems
to be 'nothing like leather' as a material for
driving-belts. It is most important to have the
best belts for driving machinery, especially dy-
namos. The choice and care of driving-belts is
a matter of consequence. The best belts are
made of raw hide, with seamless joints, manofac-
tured by an American firm. The joints are made
by cementing the long chamfer«l edges of the
leather together under pressure. These are some-
times made stronger, with a flat leather lace em>
bedded in the leather. The joints are so neatly
made as to present no additional thickness, and
very little difference in suppleness from any other
part of the belt. The leather is sent out oiled
ready for use, and therefore the belts will retain
their suppleness for many years whilst working
in ordinary temperatures. Oiled belts take a
better grip on the pulleys than dry belts, and
therefore need not be run so tight as the latter.
This lesseuB the strain on the grain of the leather,
and conduces to the long life of the belt. Dry
belts are apt to slip on the pulley, and the fric-
tion on the leather, caused by slipping, canses it
to heat, and thus ' bums the life' out of the belt.
Belts should always present a clammy side to the
pulley. In dry situations, such as in an engine-
room or hot workshop, the clammy state of the
belt should be kept up by giving it a dressing of
dubbing and a coat or two of boiled linseed oil
at least once a year. Always choose a belt wide
enough to do the work withont undue tightness.
There is economy in using moderately wide belts
running slightly slack, as against narrow ones
put on as tight as they will bear. Run the flesh
side of the leather next the pulley, and the
grain side outside, because experience of both has
shown that a belt run this way lasts longer than
one run with the grain aide next the pulley. It
is also the natural bent of the leather. Small
belts working light machinery run fairly well
with butt-joints linked with double tee brass links
(Oreen's patent belt fasteners) inserted in the
leather, but these are apt to tear out if the belt
has to do heavy work. These joints have the
advantage of being easily and quickly made.
Sewn lap-joints should be used for heavy driving-
belts. Laced lap-joints with the laps well thinned
down, and the lace-holes punched in diamond-
shaped tows, do fairly well. All lumps accumu-
lating on the pulleys or the inside faces of the
belts should be promptly removed as soon as
discovered, as they overstrain the belt and cause
jerks in the machinery (' Work ').

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UACKEBBL— MADDER BED

1001

KA.CKKREL. The Seomber teomhnu, Linn.,
• well-known spiny-flnned sea-fish, much es-
teemed kt certain seasons for the table. Thongh
nntritioiu it is very apt to disagree with delicate
■tomachfl, and occaaionallj indnoes symptoms
reramblingf those of poisoning.

KASDEK. iSjfn. Bubia, Bubi^b basix, L.
The TOOt of SiMa tinetomm. Linn., or dyer's
madder. The beat madder has the size of a com-
mon gooae-quill, a reddish-yellow appearance, and
s strong odonr. As soon as the roots are taken
from the gronnd they are picked and dried, and
before use they are gronnd in a mill. Levant,
Turk^, and Smyrna madder is imported whole.
It ia obtained from the species S. peregrina.
Ymaeh, Dutch, and Zealand madder is imported
gronnd. The finest quality of gronnd madder is
called' crop 'w'grappe;' 'ombro' and 'gamene'
are inferior aorta, and 'mnll' the worst.

Madder eontuns several distinct principles, «. g,
madder red (alizarin), madder purple (purpnrin),
madder orange (mbiacin), madder yellow (zan-
thin), &c. llie first of these (noticed below) is
by far the most important. In addition to
colouring matters madder contains a quantity of
sugar; 8tein fonnd as much as 8%. From
recent researches it appears that the frak root
only containa two oolomring substances, viz. zan-
thia and pnipnrin. According to Dr Bochleder
the alixarin is produced under the influence of a
peeoliar nitrogenous substance present in the root,
and which converts part of the zanthin into ali-
aarin and sugar.

' Flowers at madder ' is a commercial prepara-
tion made from the pulverised root by steeping
it in water, inducing fermentation of the sugar,
and waabing the residue first with warm water,
tiuD with cold. Hydraulic pressure is used to
remove the water, after which the substance is
dried and again pnlverised. This process elimi-
nates the peetinons substances of the root, which
otherwise become insoluble during the operation
01 dijiAugM

Ar., <f». Madder is frequently adulterated
with logwood. Brazil-wood, and other dye-stuffs
«t inferior value; and also, not unfreqnently,
irith brickdust, red ochie, clay, sand, m^ogany
sawduat, bran, &c. These admixtures may be
detected as follows :

1. When dried at 212° F., and then incine-
nted. not more than 10% to 12% of ash should
be left.

2- It should not lose more than 60% to 56%
by ezhaoation with cold water.

3. When assayed for alizarin (see beUne), the
quantity of this substance obtained should be
equal to that from a sample of the same kind of
mdder which is known to be pure, and which
has been treated in precisely the same manner.
The operation maybe conducted as follows : — 600
gr. of the sample are weighed, and, after being
joried by the beat of boiling water or steam, are
gradually added to an equal w«ght of concen-
trated siUphnric acid, contuned in a glass vessel,
and stirred with a glass rod ; after a few hours
the charred maas is washed with cold water, col-
lected on a filter, and dried by the heat of boiling
water; the carbonised mass ('garacine') ia next
powdered, and treated with successive pcnrticms of

rectified spirit, to which a little ether has been
added, at first in the cold, and afterwards with
heat, until the liquid is no longer coloured by it,
when the mixed tincture is filtered, and evapo-
rated (distilled) to dryness; the weight of the
residuum, divided by 5, gives the percentage of
red colouring matter present. Or — The dried
carbonised matter is exhausted by boiling it in a
solution of 1 part of alum in 5 or 6 parts of
water, and the decoction, after being filtered
whilst in the boiling state, is treated with sul-
phuric acid as long as a precipitate falls, which
is washed, dried, and weighed as before.

U»et, (fv. Madder is principally employed as
a dye-stuff. It has been given in jaundice and
rickets, and as an emmenagogue. — Don, J dr. to
2 dr., twice or thrice a dav. See Bas Dim,
Itobt, PVBFiTKiir, &c, also Mom.

KASSKB BID. 8gn. AuzABnr. Cxfifi^.
The most important constituent of the red dye <i
madder-root, first obtained in a separate form by
Robiqnet.

Prep. 1. The aqneous decoction of madder is
treated with dilnte sulphuric acid as long as a
precipitate falls, which, after being washed, is
boiled in a solution of chloride of aluminium as
long as it gives out colour; the liquid is then
filtered, precipitated with hydrochloric acid, and
the precipitate washed and dried. It may be
parified from any adhering purpnrin by dissolving
it in alcohol, again throwing it down with hydrate
of aluminium, boiling the precipitate with a
strong solution of soda, and separating the ali-
zarin from its combination with alumina by
means of hydrochloric acid; it if lastly crystal-
lised from alcohol.

2. {Meillat.) Alum, 8 parts, is dissolved in
water at 140° F., 30 parts, and madder, 18 parU,
added to the solution ; the whole is then gently
boiled for 80 or 40 minutes, after which it ia
thrown upon a filter, and submitted to strong
pressure; this treatment is repeated with fresn
solutions a second and a third time ; the mixed
filtrates are then decanted, and when nearly cold,
oil of vitriol, 1 part, diluted with twice its bulk
of water, is addad, care being taken to stir the
liquid all the time ; the supernatant fiuid is next
decanted, and the residuum well washed, and,
lastly, dried in the air. If required quite pure,
it is dissolved, whilst still moist, in a solution of
li times its weight of potassium carbonate in 16
parts of water, and, after reprecipitation with
sulphuric acid, is washed and dried as before.

8. {Robiquet and Oa2»a.) Powdered madder
is exhausted with water of a temperature not
exceeding 68° F., and after being dried, 1 part of
it is boiled for 16 or 20 minutes in a solution of
alum, 8 parts, in water, 40 parts ; the liquid is
filtered whilst boiling, the marc well washeid with
a fresh solution of ^um, the mixed liquids pre-
cipitated with sulphuric acid, and the precipitate
washed and dried as before.

Ob: Alizarin has been produced artificially by
Qraebe and Liebermann from anthracene (Cj^Hio),
a hydrocarbon existing in coal-tar. For a de-
scription of the process see Alizasin, ABTinoiAii.

4. Madder, exhausted by 2 or 8 macerations
in 6 or 6 times its weight of cold water, is sub-
mitted to strong preekure, to remove adhering

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ICAGILP— MAONBSIUSC

water, and the marc, whilst still moist, is mized
with lialf its weight of oil of vitriol diluted with
an eqnal quantity of water ; the whole is kept at
the temperatnre of 212° for an hoar, and, after
being mixed with cold water, is thrown on a
linen strainer, well washed with cold water, and
dried.

6. From powdered madder and oil of Titriol,

2aal parts, without heat, as described under
ASDBS.

6. (F. SMntr.) The 'used madder' of the
dye-works is run into filters and precipitated
with lulphoric acid; the matter thus obtsined
is put into bags and rendered as dry as pos-
sible by hydraulic pressure; the pressed cake
is next crumbled to pieces, placed in a leaden
vessel, and treated with l-5tii of its wright of
oil of vitriol, afterwards aaristing the action of
the acid by introducing steam to the mixture;
the resulting dark brown carbonised mass is,
lastly, well washed, dried, powdered, and mixed
with about 6% of carbonate of soda, when it is
ready for sale.

Om. The last three formuliB produce the
'SARAHOl' or 'aABAMOiiTB' of commerce, now
■0 eztenrively used in dyeing.

Prop., ife. Pure anhydrous alixarin crystal-
lite* in magnifleant orange-red crystals, which
may be fused at 288° C., and sublimed ; it is freely
soluble in alkalies to a violet-red solution, and in
oil of vitriol, giving a rich red colour ; water
throws it down from the last unchanged ; it is
also solnble in hot-alcohol, a hot solution of alum,
and less freely in hot water. Hydrated alixarin
occurs in small scales resembling mosaic roM.
When impure it generally forms shining reddish-
brown scales. Commercial ' garandne ' is a deep
brown or puoe-colonred powder, and will probably
ere long entirely auperaede crude madder for dye-
ing. The properties of garancine as a dye-stufF
are precisely similar to those of madder. A solu-
tion of alum added to a solution of alizarin, and
precipitated by potassium carbonate or borax, fur-
nishes a rose lake; the tin lake is a fine red
colour, the iron lake violet-black, and the lime
lake bine. The so-called madder lake is prepared
by flrst making madder with water free from
lime, and then proceeding as in the manufacture
of the rose lake.

HAOHF'. £yit. MlsiLLOP. A mixtun of
pale linseed oil and mastic varnish, employed
by ajftists as a ' vehicle' for their colours. The
propOTiaons vary according to the work. It is
thinned witii turpentine.

KAO^BTXST. Si)%. MAeiarsBnrx, L. The
old name of precipitates. The f(dlowing are the
prin<npal substances to which this term has been
applied : — ykjtswaxi o> axux, hydrate of alu-
mina ; M. or VUXVSB., subnititkte of bismuth ;
x. or DlAYBOBXTio AKmcoiTT, washed diapbo-
Mtie aniimony ; m. o* ofittx {Lmdolph't), crude
morphia; M. or lafib oaiiAXIXAkib or x. op
zilro, hydrated oxide of line.

XAGHISIA. See ICAOVMimi, Ozidb o>.

Kagneaia. Hydrate of. (P. Cod.) Sfn. Mao-
mUM HT9BAS. Obtained by boiling magnesia
in 20 or SO times its weight of water for 20
minutes, draining on a linen cloth, and drying.
It «Mitain* 81% of water.

Xagaari*, Lactate of. (Ph. Oer.^ 4r«. Kao-
msix LACTAB. Frtp. lux 1 oz. (by weight) at
lactic acid in 10 oz. of distilled water, jost made
slightly warm, and add light carbonate of mag-
nesia enough to neutralise it. Filter and evapo-
rate till crystals form.

KagnesU Levis (B. P.). Syu. Liosn XAO-
vasiA. Prtp. (B. P.) Light carbonate of mag-
nesium heated in a Cornish crucible until all the
carbonic anhydride is driven off.

A bulky white powder, diflfering from the mag-
nesia (B. P.> only in its density, the volume
occu{ded by the same weight being 3) to 1.

The properties of the two varieties of mag-
nesium oxide are identical, and are used in
medicine as antacids, laxatives, and antilithics,
and much used in dyspepsia, heartburn, Ac —
2>ow, 10 to ao gr. as an antacid, and 20 to 60 gr.
as a purgative.

■AOn'SIAV AFE"BIEn (ESBrvewdag).
Pnp. 1. Heavy carbonate of magnesia, 2 Ibe. t
tartaric add and double reflned lump sugar, of
each, li lbs. ; bicarbonate of soda (dried without
beat), 1 lb., mch separately dried and in very fine
powder ; essential oils of orange and lemon, of
each, 1 fl. dr. ; mix well in a warm, dry situation,
pass the whole through a sieve, put it into warm,
dry bottles, and keep them well corked.

2. As the last, but substituting calcined mag-
nesia, 1 lb., for tiie heavy carbonate, and adding
sugar, f lb. The preceding furnish a very plea-
sant effervescing saline draught.

3. (MoxoH's.) a. Take of sulfate of mag-
nesia, 2 lbs. ; dry it by a gradually increased beat,
powder, add of tartaric acid (also dried and pow-
dered), 1^ lbs. ; calcined magnesia, i lb. ; finely
powdered white sugar, 8 lbs. ; bicarbonate of soda
(dried without heat), 1 lb. ; essmoe of lemon, 1
dr. ; mix, and proceed as before.

b. (Dmrande.) Carbonate of magnesia, 1 part;
bicarbonate of soda, tartrate of soda and potassa
(sel de Seignette), and tartaric acid, of each, 2
parts ; mix as before.

e. ('Pbarm. Joum.') Sulphate of magnesia
and bicarbonate of soda, of each, 1 lb. ; tartaric
amd, i lb. ; mix as before. The last tvro are much
less agreeable than the others.

4. Carbonate of magnesia, 2 parts; calcined
magnesia, 4 parts ; citric add, 18 pares ; lump
sugar, 26 parts ; essence of lemon, q. s. to flavour.
Very agreeable. This is known as ' Boete Pos-

OATII.'

Obt. The above mre very useful and popular
medidnes in indigestion, heartborn, nausea, ha-
bitual costiveness, dyspepria, Ac. — I>o$t, i to 2
dessert-spoonfuls, thrown into a tumbler 8 parts
filled with cold water, rapidly stirred and dirunk
whilst efferveadng, early in tne mon^g fasting,
or between Iweaknit and dinner.

HAOBISIAB hEUOXkaW. See ClXBAn m
Haokbsia and Lbhohadb (Aperient).

UXQimaVU. Hg- 28-94. Sgn. UAQimnt,
Tauudx. The metallic radical of magnesia. The
existence of this metal was demonstrated by Sir
H. Davy in 1808, but it was first obtained in suffi-
cient quantity to examine its properties by Buasy
in 1830.

iV<g». ( or 6 pieces of sodium, about the aiae
of peas, are intooduced into a test-tube^ and

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MAaNSSIUU

1008

eorered with inikU fragmente of eUoride of m*^
nerinm ; the latter ia then heated to near it( point
of fnaion, when the flame of the lamp ii applied
to the sodinniiBO that its vaponr may pass throagh
the (tratam of heated chloride ; when the vivid
incandcBCence that foUowe is over, and the whole
has become ootd, the mass is thrown into water,
and the iniolnble metallic portion oollected and
dried.

Commercial maguesfnm is prepared by evapo-
rating solatdons of the chlorides of sodium and
magDesinra, in the proportion of 1 to 8, to dry-
ness, mixing with one quarter of its wright of
fluor-spar and a like amount of godiam, and heat-
ing to bright redness in an iron crucible of proper
construction.

On a larger scale it is prepared by heating to
redness a mixture of chloride of magnesium, 9
parts; fused chloride of sodium, 1^ parts ; fluo-
ride of calcinm, li parts; and lodinm in slices, 1)
parts.

The Magnesium Metal Company at Fatricroft,
near Manchester, and the American Magnesium
Company at Boston, U.S.A., prepare the metal on
the large scale.

Prop., i(9. In colour and lustre it resembles
silver, but in chemical properties is more like
sine; its sp. gr. is only 1*76; it is malleable,
fusible at a red heat, and can be distilled like .
lino; unaffected by dry air and by cold water;
bums with brilliancy when heated to dull red-
ness in air or oxygen gas, yielding oxide of mag-
nennm ; inflames spontaneously in chlorine, yield-
ing eUoride of magnesium ; dissolves in the adds
with the evolution of hydrogen gas, and the
formation of pare salts of magnesiom,

ZWs. It Is distinguished from the metals
generally by the non-precipitation of its sulphide,
and by the tendeney of its salts, except the ar-
ssnate and phosphate, to form soluble compounds
with the siJts of ammonium. It is not precipi-
tated faj ammooinm carbonate in presence of sal-
ammoniac. Its presence is readily detected by
the addition of sodinm phosphate to any solu-
tion containing it. On standing a crystalline
peeipitate is deposited, the fbrmation of wfaidi
IS greatly accelerated by scratching the sides of
the test-tube with a glass rod.

Vf. It has been osed somewhat extensively
as an illnminating agent for photographing at
night, for the light emitted by homing magne-
Bum is eapalile of indndng chemical changes
dmilar to those caused by snnHght, and also for
the purpose cf affording a hriUiant light for mi-
ooaeopie, pyioteohnicsl, and magic - hmtem
effects. The metal is prepared for these purposes
in the form of ribbon, wire, or powder ; tiw latter
is nsed for '■ flash ' lights, and should be handled
with aare. It was extensively used in the Abys-
rinian campaign for signalling at night. It has
been sug^fested to alloy magnesium instead of
liae witii copper ; uetaUio magnesinm is also used
in tozioologieal invertigations, in the. estimation
of oitiatas and mtritea in cbinking-water, and
other ehemioal operatioDS.

Xagaeiism Bromide. MgOr^. ^{ya. MASinsti
IBomsnc. To bromide <rf iron in solution add
calcined magnesia in excess, heat the mixture, Al-
tar, and evkpoiate the dear solntiaa to .dryness.

It occurs free in sea-water and many brine
springs,
HagBsatnm, Carbonate of (Heavy). Bg*.

HSATT OABBOITATB OV MASITBtlA ; lAtMBWKm

CAaBOKAB(B.P.),L. SMgOO,.Mg0.6H,0. Prtp.
1. (Apothecaries^ Hall.) A saturated solution of
sulphate of magnesium, 1 part, is diluted with
water, 8 parts, and the mixture heated to the
boiling-point; a cold saturated solution of car-
bonate of sodinm, 1 part (all by measure), is then
added, and the whole is boiled with constant agi-
tation until effervescence ceases ; boiling water is
next freely poured in, and after assiduous stirring
for a few minutes, and repose, the clear liquid
is decanted, and the precipitate thrown on a litaen
doth and thoroughly washed with hot water ; it
is, lastly, drained, and dried in an iron pot.

2. (Pli. D.) Dissolve sulphate of magneuum',
10 OS., in boiling distilled water, \ pint ; and car-
bonate of sodium (ervst.), 12 oi., in boiling dis-
tilled water, 1 pint ; mix the two solutions, and
evaporate the whole to dryness by the heat of •
sand-bath ; then add of boiling water, 1 qmui^
digest with agitation for ) an hour, and waut the .
insoluble leaidoum as before ; lastiy, drain it, and
dry it at the temperature of boiling water.

8. (B. P.) White g^rannlar powder precipitated
from a boiling solution of sulphate of magnesinm
by a solution of carbonate of sodium, the whole
evaporated to dryness, and the dry residue di-
gested in water, collected on a filter, and washed.

Pmp. The ordinary or light carbonate of
magnesia is a white, inodorous, tasteless powder,
possessing similar properties to calcined magnesia,
except effervescing with acids, and having less
saturating power. An ounce measure is filled by
46 to 48 gr. of the powder lightly placed in it. The
heavy carbonate is sometimes fully thrice as dense
(see oclow), but in other respects is similar.

Bote. As an antadd, ( to a whole teaspoonful,
8 or 4 times daily ; as a laxative, i to 8 dr. Itis
commonly taken in milk. It is apt to produce
flatulence, but in other respects is preferable to
caldned magnesia.

Otneral Stmarlt. Althongh commonly dilled
' carbonate of magoeda,' the above substance,
whether in the light or heavy form, appears to be
a compound of carbonate with' hydrate, in pro-
portions which are not perfectly constant. In the
preparation of these carbonates if thesolntioni
are very dilate the predpitate will be exceedingly
light and bidky ; if otherwise, it will be denser.
I By employing nearly saturated solutions, and then
heating them and mixing them together whilst
very hot, a very heavy precipitate is obtained,
but it is apt to be nitty or crystkUine. The
same oconrs when odd solutions are mixed, and
no heat is employed. The lightest predpitate ' is
obtained from cold, highly dilute solutions, and
subsequent ebullition of the mixture.

Mr Fattinson, a chemist of Gateshead, prepares
a vei7 beautiful and pure heavy carbonate from
magnesian limestoua. "nie latter is caldned at a
dull red heat (not hotter) for some time, by whidi
the carbonic. anhydride is expelled from ike car>
honate of magnesium, but not frooa th* oarboaate
of calcium, which hence continues insoluble. The
calcined mass is next reduced to a milk witb
water' in a anitable oisteiay and CMimnio-aahj-

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MAGNBSIUM

dride renilting frnm iti own calcination ia forced
into it under powerful pressure. The result is a
saturated solution of carbonate of magnesia, the
lime remaining unacted on so long as the
magnesium is in excess. The solution by evapo-
ration yields the heavy carbonate, whilst carbonic
anhydride is expelled, and may be again used in
the same mannfacture. The heavy carbonate
appears to be fuUy thrice as dense as the light
carbonate. The bicarbonate of magnesium (itta-
irsBUR BICABB0HA8, L.) exists only in solution.
The so-called ' fluid magnesias ' of Murray,
Dinneford, Husband, Ac., are solutions of this
salt. The small prismatic crystals which are
deposited when ' fluid magnesia ' is exposed to
the air for some time consist of hydrated neutral
carbonate, and not bicarbonate, as is sometimes
stated,
■agsssiiiai, Cubonat* of (Light). 9gn. Lisht

OABBOKATB OV KASITBgU, CiUBOX^TI OV KAO-
HMIA, MAe-irXSIA; MAOITBSIiB CABBOHAB LSTIg

(B. P.). 8MgCO,.Mg0.5H,0. iVep. 1. (Ph.
L.) Sulphate of magnesinm, 4 lbs., and carbonate
of sodium, 4 lbs. 9 ox. ; boiling distilled water, 4
galls. ; dissolve the salts separately in one half
the water, filter, mix the solutions, and boil for
2 hours, constantly stirring with a spatula, dis-
tilled water being frequently added to compensate
for that lost by evaporation ; lastly, the solution
being poured off, wash the precipitated powder
with boiling distilled water, and dry it.

2. (B. P.) Similar to the foregoing, except
that precipitation takes place in the cold.
The formula of this compound is (Mg.CO^),.
Mg(H0)^4H,0.

3. (Bemy't.) Ordinary carbonate of mag-
nesia, the washing of wiuch has been finished
with a litde rose-water.

4. Add a solution of carbonate of potassium or
todinm to the bittern or residuary liquor of the
iea-salt works, and well wash and dry the precipi-
tate as before. This is known in commerce as
' Scotch magnesia.'

Obt. The carbonate of magnesia of commerce
ia usually made up into cakes or dice while dry-
ing ; or it is permitted to drain and dry in masses,
which are then cut into squares with a thin knife.
It is powdered by simply rubbing it through s
wire sieve. The presence of iron in the solution
of the sulphate of magnesium, when the crude
salt is employed, and which is destructive to the
beauty of the preparation, ma; be got rid of by
the addition of lime-water until the liquor acquires
a slight alkaline reaction, and subsequent de-
cantation after standing.

Hagnetinm, Chloride »f. MgClj. S^. Mas-
XI8II OHLOBISTTK, L. OconTS in sea-water, in
many brine-springs and salt beds; it is at present
prepared in large quantities at Stassf urt.

Avp. (Liebiff.) By dissolving magnesia in
hydrochloric acid, evaporating to dryness, adding
an equal wtight of chloride of ammonium, pro-
jecting the mixture into a red-hot platinum
cmeible, and continuing the heat till a state
&t tranquil fnsion is attained. On cooling, it
forma a transparent, coloarleas, and very deliques-
cent mass, which is anhydrous, and soluble in
alcohol.

Oil. Without the addition of the chloride of

ammonium it is impossible to expel the last por>
lion of the water without at the same time driving
ofT the chlorine, in which ease nothing but mag-
nesia ia left. The fused mass should be poured
out on a clean stone, and when solid broken
into pieces, and at once trans rened to a warm,
dry bottle. The P. Cod. orders the solution to
be evaporated to the sp. gr. 1*884, and to be put,
whilst still hot, into a wide-mouthed flask to
crystallise. — Dote, 1 to 4 dr. ; as a laxative.

Magnesium, Cit'rata of. Hg,(C,H,0;)^ Syn.
HAOHBgLB CITBA8, L. JVrp. There is some
difficulty in obtaining this salt in an eligible form
for medicinal purposes. When precipitated from
a solution it is insoluble. The following formnUe
can be highly recommended :

1. (PorrisA.) Dissolve crystallised citric acid,
100 gr., in water, 16 drops, and its own ' water
of crystallisation' by the aid of heat; then stir
in calcined magnesia, 85 gr.; a pasty mass will
result, which so»n liardens, and may be powdered
for use.

Ois. The chief practical dUBcnlty in this pro-
cess results from the great comparative bulk of
the magnesia, and the very small quantity of the
fused mass with which it is to be incorporated.
A part of the magnesia is almost unavoidably lelt
uncombined, and the salt is conseqnentiy not
neutral. The uncombined earth should be dnated
ofif the mass before powdering the latter. A high
tempieratnre must be avoided.

2. (Soiijutt.) Citric acid, 85^ parts, is
powdered and dissolved in boiling water, 10}
parts ; when the solution is cold, and before it
crystallises, it is poured into a wide earthen vessel,
kept cold by surrounding it with water; then, by
means of a sieve, carbonate of magnednm,
21^ parts, is distributed evenly and rapidly
over the surface without stirring; when the
reaction ceases the mixture is beaten rapidly as
long as it retains its pasty consistence. The salt
should be dried at a temperature not exceeding
70° F.

8. (Effervescing; ICAexxBUt oitbas >mB-
yasOBHS, L.) a. Citric acid (dried and pow-
dered), 7 parts; heavy carbonate of magnesium,
5 parts ; mix, and preserve in well-corked bottles.

b. (Sllit.) Mix powdered citric acid, 2i oz.,
with powdered sugar, 8 ox. ; triturate to a fine
powder, and drive oB the water of crystallisation
by the heat of a water-bath ; add citrate of mag-
nesium (prepared by fusion), 4 ox., and oil of
lemons, 10 drops, and mix intimately ; then add
bicarbonate of sodium, 3 ox., and again triturate
until the whole forms a fine powder, which must
be preserved in stoppered bottles. From 1 to 8
table-spoonfuls, mixed in a tumbler of water, fur-
nishes an effervescing draught in which the un-
dissolved portion is so nicely suspended that it
can be taken without inconvenience.

c. (Fh. Qerm.) Light carbonate of magnesia,
26 ox. ; citric acid, 75 ox. ; distilled water, q. s. t
mix into a thick paste and dry at 86° F. With

14 ox. of the dried mass mix bicarbonate of soda,

15 ox. ; citric acid, 6 ox. ; sugar, 8 ox. Sprinkle
over the mixture snfBcient rectified spirit to make
it moist enongh to be granulated by rubbing it
through a tinned iron sieve.

d. (Extemporaneous.) Citric add (cryst,), 20

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MAONESinit

1005

gr. ; carbonate of magnesium, 14 gr. ; mix in a
tombleT of cold water, and drink the miztnre
whilst eifervewnng. A pleasant saline.

Obt. A diy white powder, sometimes sold as
eitrate of magnesia in the shops, is qnite a differ-
ent prepamtion from the above, and does not con-
tain a particle of citric acid. The following
formula is that of a wholesale London drug-honse
that does largely in this article :

Caldned magnesia (magnesinm oxide), li lbs.
(or carbonate, 2 lbs.) ; powdered tartaric acid,
ii Iba.; bicarbonate of sodiam, 1 lb. ; dry each
article by a gentle heat, then mix them, pass the
miztnre through a fine sieve in a warm, dry room,
and keep it in well-corked bottles. A few drops
of essence of lemon and 8 lbs. of finely powdered
sogar are commonly added to the above quantity.
This addiUon renders it more agreeable.

Prop., S(e. CStrate of magnesinm is a mild and
agreeable laxative ; its secondary effects resemble
those of the carbonate. — Dote. As a purgative,
I to 1 oz. The dose of the effervescing citrate
most depend on the quantity of magnesia
present. A solution of this salt in water,
sweetened and flavoured with lemon, forms mag-
nesian lemonade.

Kagaednm, Boro-ciVrate of. Syn. Mjloitislb
BOBO-ciTBAB, L. Pr«p. (Codtt.) Boracic acid
(in powder), 113 gr. ; oxide of magnesium, 80
gr. ; mix in a porcelain capsule, and add enough
of a solution of citric acicU 260 gr., in water. Si
pints, to form a thin paste; then add the re-
uiunder of the citric solution, and gently
evaporate, with constant stirring, to dryness. A
cooling saline, and in small doses, emmenagogne
and Uthontriptic. — Ikue. As an aperient, 3 to 6 dr.

■agnealam. Oxide of . MgO. 8yn. Cajxibid
llAavMBiA, Mashbsia (B. p.. Ph. L.).

Prep. Forms when the metal burns in the
air. Magnesium carbonate, heated in a crucible
nntil all the carbonic anhydride is driven off. It
is also produced by the ignition of any magnesium
salt containing a volatile add.

2Vop., ^e. White heavy powder, scarcely
soluble in water, but readily soluble in acids
without effervescence. It is tasteless, but in the
moist state turns litmus-paper bine. Its solution
in hydrocliloric acid, neutralised by a mixed
solution of ammonia and ammonium chloride,
. gives a copious crystalline precipitate when
sodium phosphate is added to it. See Masmbsia
Lbtib.

Xagoeelnm, Fhoa'phate of. UgHPO^eAq.
Sgn. HAaXBglf PH08FHA8, L. A-«p. From
the mixed solutions of phosphate of sodium and
sulphate of magnesinm, allowed to stand for
some time. Small, colourless, prismatic crystals,
which, according to Graham, are soluble in about
- 1000 parts of cold water. Phosphate of mag-
neriom exists in the grains of the cereals, and in
considerable quantity in beer. It is also found
in guano.

Kagneiiun and Ammo"giTun, Fhosphats of.
l[gNH4.P04 + 6Aq. Sg». Ammosio-pbosphatk

OV MAeVXBIA; HAdlttaiM 11 AMKOHUB FH08FHAB,

L. This oomponnd falls as a white crystalline
preci|ntate whenever ammonia or carbonate of
ammonium i* added, in excess, to a solution of a
salt of magnesinm which has been previously

mixed with a soluble phosphate, as that of soda.
It subsides immediately from concentrated solu-
tions, but only after some time from very dilute
ones.

Prop., te. Ammouio-pbosphate of magnesium
is very slightly soluble in pure water; when
heated, it is resolved into pyrophosphate of mag-
nesium, and is vitrified at a strong red heat. It
is found in wheaten bran, guano, potatoes, Ac.,
and also frequently in urinary calculi.

Kagnesinin, SU'ieatei of. There are several
native silicatM of magnesium, more or less pore,
of which, however, none is directly employed in
medicine. Meerschaum and steatite or soapstone
are well-known varieties. Serpentine is a com-
pound of silicate and hydrate of magnesium. As-
bestos is a silicate of magnesinm and calcium.
The minerals aogite and hornblende are double
salts of silido acid, magnesium, and calcium, mth
some ferrous ozide. The beautiful crystallised
mineral called chrysolite is a silicate of magne-
sium, coloured with ferrous ozide. Jade is a
double silicate of magnesium and aluminum,
coloured with chromic oxide. Olivine and tour-
maline are also silicates of magnesium.

Kagnesium, Sulphate of. HgSO, + 7Aq. ^».

EPBOX BAXT; MAeSXgIJi gVLFEAS (B. P., Ph. L.

E. and D.), Sai. Efboxbnbu, L. This compound
was originally extracted from the saline springs
of Epsom, Surrey, by Dr Grew, in 1696. It is
now exclusively prepared on the large scale, and
from either magnesian limestone, the residual
liquor of the sea-salt works, or, as at Stassfurth,
from kieserite, which is found in salt beds.

Prep. 1. From dolomite or magnesian lime-
stone, a. The mineral, broken into fmgments,
is heated with a sufficient quantity of dilute sul-
phuric add to convert its carbonates into sul-
phates ; the sulphate of magnesium is washed out
of the mass with hot water, and the solution,
after defecation, is evaporated and crystallised.

b. The ' limestone,' either simply broken into
fmgments or else calcined, and its constituents
quicklime and magnesia converted into hydrates
by slaking it with water, is treated with a suffi-
cient quantity of dilute hydrochloric acid to dis-
solve oat all the calcium hydrate without touching
the magnesium hydrate; the residuum of the
latter, after being washed and drained, is dis-
solved in dilute sulphuric acid, and crystallued as
before.

2. From bittern, a. The residnal liquor or
motber-water of sea-salt is boiled for some hours
in the pans which are used during the summer
for the concentration of brine ; the saline solution
is then skimmed and decanted from some common
salt which has been deposited, after which it is
concentrated by evaporation, and finally run into
wooden coolers ; in about 36 hours l-8th part of
Epsom salts usually crystallises out. This is
culed ' singles.' By re-dissolving this in water,
and re-ctystaHisation, ' doubles,' or Epsom salts
fit for the market, are obtained. A second crop
of crystals may be procured by adding sulphuric
acid to the mother-liquor and re-concentrating
the solution, but this is seldom resorted to in
England. Bittern yields fully 6 parts of sulphate
of magnesia for every 100 parts of common salt
that has been previously obtained from it.

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ItAQN^— MAGPlS MOTB

b. A coneenfawted solotion of snlphaie of
Bodiam ia added to bitterPf in eqaivslent propor-
tion to that of the chloride of magnesiam in it,
and the mixed solution is evaporated at the tem-
peratore of 122° S. ( Ure) ; cabical crystals of
common salt are deposited as the evaporation
proceeds, after which, by further concentration
and repose, regular crystals of sulphate of mag-
nesia are obtained.

0. A sufficient qoantilty of caldned and slaked
magnesian limestone is boiled in bittern to de-
compose the magnesium salts, and the liquid is
evaporated, Ac, as before. This is a very econo-
mi(»l process.

Prop. Small adcular crystals, or, by slovr
crystallisation from concentrated solutions, large
four-sided rhombic prisms, which are colourless,
odourless, transparent, slightly efflorescent, ez-
tremeW bitter and nanseous. When heated, it
fuses in its -water of crystallisation, the larger
portion of which readily passes off, but one eqni-
Talent of water is energetically retained; at
s high temperature it runs into a species of
white eoameL It dissolves in its own weight
ot cold water, and in 3-4ths of that quantity of
boiling water; it is insoluble in both alcohol
and ether. Sp. gr. 1*68. It is not deliquescent
in air.

Pur., ifo. Sulphate of magnesium is tolnbie in
an equal weight of water at 60° F., by which it
may be distingnished from sulphate of sodium,
which is much more soluble.

An aqueous solution in the cold is not precipi-
tated by oxalate of ammonium. The precipitate
driven by carbonate of sodium from a solution of
IQO gr. should, after well washing and healang to
redness, weigh 16-26 gr. (B. P.).

Digested in alcohol, the filtered liquid does not
yield a precipitate' with nitrate of silver nor bum
with a yellow flame, and evaporates without re-
sidue. 10 gr., dissolved in 1 fl. oi. of water,
and treated with a solution of carbonate of
ammonium, are not entirely precipitated by 280
minims of solation of phos^iate of sodium
(Ph. E.).

Cm*, IfOi, Solphate of magnesium ia an excel-
lent cooling purgative, and sometimes proves
diuretic and diaphoretic. — Dote, 1 dr. to 1 ox., as
a purgative, or an antidote in poisoning by lead.
Large doses should be avoided ; instances are on
record of their having proved fatal. l>r Christi-
son mentions the ease of a boy 10 years old who
swallowed 2 oz. of salts, and died within 10
minutes. The best antidote is an emetic. A
small quantity of Epsom salts, largely diluted
with water (as a drachm to i pint or ) pint), will
usually purge as much as the common dose. This
increase of power has been shown by Uebigto
result rather from the quantity of water than the
salt. Pure water is greedily talcen up by the ab-
sorbents; bat watw holding in solotion saline
matter ia rejected by those venels, and conse-
quently passes off by the intestines.

Epsom salt is also used as a dressing fbr cotton
goods, and in dyeing with aniline ooloors.

Ob*. Oxalic BOid has occasionally been mis-
taken for Epsom salt) with fatal results. They
my be readily distinguished from each other by
tiie following diaawiteristioa :

Efsom Sii«.
Tastes extremely bitter

and nauseous.
Does not volatilise when

heated on platinum

foil.
Does not produce milki-

nets when dissolved in

hard water.

Kagneainm, Tar'trata of. Sf».

TABIBAS, MAOHBSIA TABTAXIOA, L.

OXAIIO Acis.

Tastes extremely aonr.

Volatilises when heated
on platinum foil.

Producesmilkinesa when
dissolved in hard
water.

Prep. By

saturating a solution of tartaric acid with car-
bonate of magnesiam, and gentiy evaporating to
dryness. It is only very slightly solable in water.
— Dote, 20 to 60 gr, or more ; in painful chronic
maladies of the spleen {Pereira, ex Sadmaeher),
The effervescing tartrate of magnesium, commonly
sold under the name citrate, has already been
noticed.
Magnesium and Fotas'ainm, Tartrata ot Bfn.

POTASBIO-TABTKATB OV XAOViaiA ; MASiragLX
FOTASSIO-TASTBAS, H. IT POTABBJI TABTKA8, h.

Prep. From acid tartrate of potaasium (in
powder), 7 parts; carbonate of magnesium, 8
parts; water, 166 parts; bmled until the solu>
tion is complete, snd then evaporated and orxs-
tallised. A mild aperient.— Dm*, 1 to 6 dr. ; in
scurvy, 4c.

UAG'VST. Sfn. Maokbs, L. Besides its
application to we loadstone, this name waa
formerly given to several compounds used in
medicine. Absbkioaii if aokbt (XAeNBB Asasin-
OAUg), a substance once used as a caustic,
consisted of common antimony, sulphur, and
arsenious acid, iiised together until they formed
a sort of glass. MAaKBB bpiuepbijb was native
cinnabar.

HAeNOLIA BILK. The analysis of Hager
and F. M. Clarke says that the balm consists of
zinc oxide (coloured with carmine) in suspension
in a little dilute glycerine, and perfumed with oil
of bergamot, oil of lemon, snd perhaps one other
odour. The following formula makes a prepara-
tion substantially the same as the proprietary
artide : — Zinc oxide, 4 dr. ; glycerine, li fl. ox. ;
water, S fl. oz.; carmine, i gr.; oil bergamot, 1
minim ; oil lemon, 1 minim.

XAGFIS HOTH, The {Atramat grotmUa-
riata, Stephens). This is styled the ' Magpie'
moth on account of its black and white markings,
and it is known to fruit producers aa mainly
injurious to gooseberry and currant bushes. It
ia perhaps more destructive to black enrranta
than to red currants. Sometimes it is found
upon apricot trees and various forest trees, and
it is especially fond of the blackthorn, JVwhm
tpinota.

Ossual observers confound the attack of the
Airaxat upon gooseberry and currant bashes
with that of the gooseberry saw-fly, Xematut
gronularite. In 1^6 and in 1881 there was
curious confusion between these insects, and it
was necessary to request correspondents to send
specimens of the foes that had come upon their
gooseberry bushes in order to discover which was
the culprit.

The attack of this AJbramu is not so serious aa
t^t of the NemaUu, and is easily distingniahedi
aa the tw« insects ate utterly different. In tJie

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ilAOPIE MOTfl

1007

winged state there are no pointa of reaemblsnce.
In we larval state the caterpillar of the former
differs essentially iu'size, colour, and conforma-
tion from the grih of the latter. The cater-
pillars of the Ahraxtu, as they pass the winter in
this gnise, are ready for action directly the
weather invites them to quit their winter qnar-
ters, or as soon as there is a vestige of green
upon the bashes. Thus they get a good start of
the grubs of the Sematut, which are hatched
from eggs laid by the female flies in the spring,
and do not appear upon the scene until vegeta-
tion is far advanced.

Fortunately, however, the Ahraxat is not
nearly so abundant as the Semaltu, at least in
fruit plantations. When it gets a footing in
these it is most important to take active steps to
check its progress.

In the year 1876 there were many and grave
complaints of injury caused by this insect to
black and red currants in gardens as well as in
plantations in Kent and in Cambridgeshire, where
black currants are extensively produced. Also
in 1876 several large gooseberry growers in Kent,
in which connty it is not by any means unu»ual
for individual growers to have from thirty to
eighty acres planted with gooseberry bushes,
reported that large variegated caterpillars were
at work in their plantations, liaving fixed upon
boshes here and there, and that the area of their
operations extended from day to day. They bad
come as soon as the leaves began to anfolc^ and
cleared off these and the incipient blossoms so
that the bashes were as bare as in winter.
Without any dii&culty these were declared to be
the caterpilusrs of the Magpie moth.

ikgain in 1881 there were great outcries from
froit growers and gardeners from many coonties
in England and from several in Ireland, as to the
destruction caosed by it, though in some in-
stance* it was proved that the Saw-fly was the
offender.

German coltivators suffer from this moth,
which they term Harlequin (Harlekin) ('Prak-
tiache Insekten-Kunde,' von £. L, Taschenberg),
though KSUar does not allude to it. In France
it is well known, particularly in the central
departments. Fitdi speaks of it as very destmc-
tive to gooseberry and cnrrant crops in America
(third, foorth, and fifth ' Beports on the Noxious,
Beneficial, and other Insects of the State of Kew
Tork.' 1859, by Asa Iltch, M.D.}.

lAft SUtoTg. The Abrtueaa gronulariata
belongs to the Nat. Ord. Lifidoptiba, and to
the family Oeometridm. In its perfect, or moth
form, it is about 20 lines across its expanded
wings, with a leugth of body of from 12 to 14
fines. The typic^ Magpie moth has a yellow
body and a black head, with a row of 6 black
spots down its back. The fore-wings have a
white gronnd with many black spots dotted
irregularly npon them. Some specimens have
these black spots in patches, while in others the
black spots are very few and indistinct, so that
the moth appears to be of a yellowish or creamy,
hoe. At Stephens, Westwood, and Miss Ormerod
lisre shown, there are great and unusual variations
of eoionr and mark* in different specimens of this
pretty insects

One of the distinctions between the sexes is
that the antenns of the male are slightly
feathered, but those of the female are simple
threads.

At the end of Jnly, or in the beginning of
August, the moth emerges From the chrysalis
which has lun since Msy in the ground, and
pairing takes place. Shortly after this the eggs,
of a pale straw colour, are placed in Uttle groups
of 3 to 6, close to the midribs of the leaves of
the gooseberry and currant bushes, or in the
angles made by their nerves, and are liatched out
within 10 days. At this time there is but little
succulence in the leaves, and the caterpillars are
obliged to put up with what they can get ; bat
they quickly attain their full growth, and faU to
the ground before the leaves come off, where they
pass the winter under leaves, weeds, and rubbish,
and actually under the surface. It is stated that
some of the caterpillars remain snugly ensconced
in the leaves during the winter, having fastened
the under surfaces over their bodies with silken
webs, and further, having bound the leaves tightly
to the branches in order that they may not fall
off or be blown away by wintry blasts. I have
never found caterpillars in these aSrial quarters.
Mr. Newman, in his ' British Moths,' concludes
that these are their natural and ordinary resorts
for hibernation.

Although it is most exceptional for caterpillars
to resemble their parents in distinctive markings
and colourings, those of the Ahrawatgrouvlariaia
are singularly like the moths in these respects.
They have black heads and rows of black spots
down their backs ; while the bodies are yellowish,
with a line of darker yellow on both sides. Like
other caterpillars of the Oeometrida, they have
only pectoral and anal feet, and are therefore
'loopers,' making loops when they proceed.

At the beginning of April, or as soon as the
leaves begin to show, the caterpillars come forth
from their winter abodes, and crawl up the bushes
under which they have been concealed. By this
time their appetites are keen, and the young
leaves and blossoms are more tempting and grate-
ful to their taste than the witbered-np foliage
in September, and they rapidly clear up all vege-
tation before them, and change in due time to
black chrysalids with three rings of golden colour
at their extremities. Some of these are fixed to
the loif -stalks by means of threads. Other cater-
pillars fall or let themselves down to the gronnd,
and their transformation takes place there under
leaves or weeds or clods.

Prmention. Unusual premonitory indications
are given of a coming attack from this moth.
The strange arrival of its caterpillars in September
npon gooaebeny and carrant bushes should serve
to point out phunly what may be expected in the
spring.

After this has been noticed, the ground for
some distance round the hashes should be well
covered with quicklime or gas lime, and dug in
the early winter. Agun, in the beginning of
March, the soil should be well pulverised with
prongped hoes, and another dressing of lime put
on; or wood ashes or soot may be used instead of
lime, and put thickly just round the bushes to pre-
vent the caterpillars from crawling to the stems.

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MAHOGANY

It ia efficacious, but costly if carried out upon
a large scale, to boe away tbe surface soil round
the bushes in November, and to put fresh tan
close to them just before the approach of spring.
Ureaeings of farmjard manure have also been pot
round the trees in this manner with good results.
Ashes or finely powdered soil, or sawdust saturated
with paraffin and water, have been put round the
bushes in 3 or 4 cases.

Trial was made in a small plantation in
Olouceatershire of Stockholm tar and cart-grease
daubed round the stems near to the ground after
a bad attack in 1881, and it was thought with
considerable advantage, as the bushea wei-e nn-
distnrbed.

Assuming that • part of the caterpillars do
remun, as ia alleged, upon the bushes, it would
be desirable to have them hand-picked in the
winter after the pruning has been accomplished.
A deal of wood is cut away every year from these
fmit bushes, especially from black currants,
whose fruit is formed upon young wood. All
these cuttings should be collected and homed if
there ia the alightest suspicion that any cater-
pillars are harboured upon them. I have asked
many tree-cntiers, as the pruners are called in
Kent, whether they have ever noticed caterpillars
upon the fruit bushea in tbe winter, and have
been assured .that they have never seen any. It
must, however, be admitted that labourers are by
no means observant.

Semediet. In gardens hand-picking or shaking
the branches to dislodge the invaders may be
practiaed in April or May when they are actively
engaged. This could hudly be carried ont upon
a large scale in fruit plantationa.

A mixture of lime and aoot was thrown upon
infeated buahes in 1881, before the dew was off
the leavea, by aeveral growers, who ezpreased
themselves well aatiafied with tbe effect. Lime
or soot by itaelf would, it ia thought, be of equal
advantage.

Powdered hellebore may be sprinkled over the
treea, aa it ia for the gmbs of the saw-Sy. This
is effectual when put on properly, but as it is a
moat deadly poison it is most dangerons to use
it if the fruit is formed, though it be ever so
small.

During the seaaon of 1881 waahing or ayring-
ing the buahea waa tried aucceasfuUy in Kent.
By far the best mixture was soft soap and quaaaia
with water, in the proportion of 7 lbs. of aoap
and 6 Iba. of quaaaia to 100 galls, of water. (The
quaaaia chips muat be well boiled in order that
the bitter principle may be thoroughly extracted.)
After ayringing, which may be done with hand
syringes and paila, or with hydronettes, the
earth under the bushes mnst be hoed over and
beaten down in order to kill the caterpillars which
have been dislodged. It baa been found, however,
that they do not much reliah the leavea and
blosaoma after theae have been watered with in-
fusions of quaaaia retained upon them by the aoft
aoap. The fruit would not be injured, nor would
it retain any flavour of quaaaia, nnleaa it were
ripe, or nearly ripe (' Reporta on Inaects Injurious
to Cropa," by Chaa. Whitehead, Eaq., F.Z.S.).

HAHOO'AST. This is the wood of Swietema
mahagoni, Linn,, a native of the hotter parts of

the New World. It is chiefly imported from Hon-
duras and Cuba. Tbe extract is astringent, and
has been uaed in tanning, and aa a aubatitnte for
cinchona bark. The wood ia chiefly employed for
furniture and ornamental purpoaes, and, occa-
aionally, in ahipbuilding.

Imitationa of mahogany are made by abuning
the aurface of the inferior wooda by one or other
of the following methoda :

1. Warm the wood by the Ore, then wash it
over with aquafortis, let it ataud 24 houra to dry,
and polish it with llnaeed oil reddened by digest-
ing alkanet root in it ; or, instead of the latter,
give the wood a coat of varnish, or French polish
which baa been tinged of a mahogany oolonr with
a little aloes and annotta.

2. Socotrine aloes, 1 oz. ; dragon's blood, \ oz. ;
rectified spirit, 1 pint; diaaolve and apply 2 or 8
coats to the surface of the wood, previoualy well
smoothed and polished; lastly, finish it off with
wax or oil tinged with alkanet root.

8. Logwood, 2' oz. ; madder, 8 oz. ; fustic,
1 oz. ; water, 1 gall. ; boil 2 hours, and apply it
several times to the wood boiling hot ; when dry,
slightly brush it over with a solution of pearl-
ash, 1 oz., in water, 1 quart ; dry, and polish as
before.

4. Aa the last, bat using a decoction of log-
wood, 1 lb., in water, 6 pints. The tint may be
brightened by adding a little vinegar or oxalic
acid, and darkened by a few grains of copperas.

Staina and apots may be taken ont of mahogany
fnrnitnre with a little aquafortis or oxalic acid
and water, by rubbing the part with the liquid
by meana of a cork till the colour ia reatored ;
obaerving afterwarda to well waab the wood with
water, and to dry it and polish it aa before.

The best mahogany cornea from the West
Indies and America, and ia yielded by the tree
Stsietenia mahagoni, one of the Nat. Ord.
Ckdbklaosj!. Ita growth is slow, and from the
immense aize of aome of the teees, which often
reach 80 to 100 feet in height, with a trunk 6
feet thick, it has been calculated that many of
them must have been growing for approximately
SCO years. As has been incidentally mentioned,
those grown on low swampy ground produce
inferior timber. Perhaps owing to the great
difficulty of transportation from the place of
growth to the port of shipment, there is an in-
creasing tendency to deterioration in quality.
The most accessible trees have been felled, and as
distance from the coast increases there ia less
poaaibility of picking and choosing ; the trees are
now taken as they come.

East India mahogany is prodnoed by the
Sogmida febrif^ga, at Rohnna tree ; as its name
almost implies, it, or rather its bark, ia occaaion-
ally used medicinally aa a febrifuge. The bark
of the mahogany tree has also been used for the
same purpose.

African mahogany is the produce of the Klkof/a
tenegaUntit. West Indian cedar, or, aa it ia often
ianiUiarly called, though erroneonaly, mahogany,
ia supplied by the Cedrela odorata.

All of them belong to the Nat. Ord. Cbdbb-
LAOXJE, which includes many other kinds of woods,
that best known perhaps being satin-wood, which,
apart from its distinctive colour, bears a very

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MAIZti— MALIC ACID

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loarked Tesem'blance to nuthogtmy in figure and
general marking.

Everyone who is aceoatomed to handle it
knows that mahogany is a reliable wood, pleasant
to work, and sasceptible of a high degree of
finish. It is obtainable in large planks clean and
■oand, t. «. free from knots and shakes. Really
fine mahogany is said to be difficult to procare
nowadays, but there is no doubt whatever that by
care, and the payment of sufficiently high prices,
mahogany of the rery finest figure is still to be
purchased. Naturally, it will not have the fine
dark ooloor of old mahogany, bat that will come
in time, unless, indeed, the stains which, at the
request of ignorant purchasers, are so freely used
to give an artificial appeanuice of age have a pre-
judicial effect. Stains may produce a pleasing
appearance on new wood, but it may very reason-
ably be supposed that the benefit is only a tem-
porary one, and that instead of improving as time
goes on the colour will be anything but agreeable.
If any mode of artificial darkening be resorted to,
that by ammonia vapour is the least harmful,
and gives a nearer approach to the colour of old
mahogauy than any other process. Of few woods
can it be said that they improve with age, but
mahogany is certainly one of them; the wood
should be simply oiled, or at most French polished
witbont any staining.

■ahogany, FoliaUng. The best way to finish
mahogany is to French polish it if a bright
glossy surface is required. The process embraces
staining if necessary, to darken the colour, oiling,
filling or stopping the grain of the wood, bodying
it with polish, and finally ' spiriting off' to get a
fine smooth surface without marks. For stain use a
solution of rather bichromate or permanganate of
potash, the strength depending on the colour
required. Rub down with fine glass-paper after
staining to remove roaghness caused by the
moisture. Oil with raw linseed oil, rubbing it
wen in with a piece of rag, but not saturating the
wood with it. Allow the work to stand by till
the oil has become fairly dry, and as long as pos-
sible afterwards before beginning to fill in. The
best filling is one composed of whiting and
turpentine with a little rose pink to colour. Mix
these into a stiffish paste, and then rub some of it
well into the wood. When this has been suffi-
ciently done to stop up the grain, wipe the surplus
away before it gets hard with a clean cloth. The
wood is then ready for ' bodying in ' at any
time, thongh it is always advisable not to
burry on too fast with any polishing process.
To ' body in ' use a pad formed of cotton wadding
enclosed in a piece of soft rag. Moisten the
wadding with French polish and cover it with
one fold of the rag. Give this just the least
touch of Unseed oil, and go over the wood till
there is a good body of polish on it. As the
mbber dries add more polish, and be careful to
cover the wood evenly, rubbing the polish till the
Sfnrit evaporates. If necessary, bodying in may
be repeated several times at intervals of a day
or two. At this stage the surface is smeared
and dall-lookiug, and the final polish is got by
'spindng off.' This is much the same as ' bodying
in,' only spirit (methylated) alone is used instead
of polish. ITnlesa care be used, instead of getting

VOL. II.

a highly finished surface, the previously laid body
is apt to be removed. ' Spiriting oft ' u the most
difficult part of the process, and requires consider-
able skill to manage it properly.

MAIZE. iSys. IimiAii COHN. The seeds of
Zta may, Linn. Like the other com plants, it
belongs to the Orass family (Oiuminaobji), and
has albuminous grains sufficiently large and
farinaceous to be ground into flour.

Maize is extremely nutritious, and although it
is poorer in albuminoid matters than wheat, it is,
of all the cereal grains, the richest in fatty oil, of
which it contains about 9% (Dumat and JPayen).
It is remarkable for its fattening quality on
animals, but is apt to excite slight diarrhoea in
those unaccustomed to its use. Its meal is the
' POLBNTA ' of the shops. The peculiar starch
prepared from it is known as ' coair VLOVS.'

In America the young ears aire roasted and
boiled for food.

The centesimal composition of maize is as
follows: — Albuminoid bodies, 9*9; starch, dex-
trin, and fat, 71-2; fibre, 4-0; ash, 1-4; water,
13-5.

Lethehy says of maize : " The grain is said to
cause disease when eaten for a long time, and
without other meal — the symptoms being a scaly
eruption upon the hands, great prostration of the
vital powers, and death after a year or so, with
extreme emaciation. See Pbllagba.

" These effects have been frequently observed
amongst the peasants of Italy, who use the meal
as their chief food, but I am not aware of any
such effects having been seen in Ireland, whero
it is often the only article of diet for months
together."

Millions of bushels are grown every year in the
Cnited States of America, and large quantities
are continually imported into England, where it
is held in high esteem by cattle breeders, it being
much cheaper than many of our home-grown
productions. It is occasionally given to horses
as a substitute for oats.

HALAQ'MA. In pharmacy, a poultice or emol-
lient application.

MAXIC ACn). CtHA. Sif». AciDUX ka-
LiouM, L. Hydroxysuccinic acid. This acid
exists in the juice of many fruits and plants,
either alone or associated with other acids, or
with potash or lime. In the juice of cherries
and the garden rhubarb it exists in great abun-
dance, being associated with acid oxalate of potas-
sium. Tobacco, gooseberries, currants, apples,
pears, &c., contain malic acid.

Prep. 1. (Everitt.) The stalks of common
garden rhubarb are peeled, and ground or grated
to a pulp, which is subjected to pressure; the
juice is heated to the boiling-point, neutralised
with carbonate of potassium, mixed with acetate
of lime, and the insoluble oxalate of lime which
forms is removed by filtration ; to the clear and
nearly colourless liquid, solution of acetate of
lead is next added as long as a precipitate con-
tinues to form ; this is collected on a filter,
washed, diffused through water, and decomposed
by sulphuric acid, avoiding excess, the last por-
tion of lead being thrown down by a stream of
sulphuretted hydrogen; the filtered liquid is,
lastly, caref uUy evaporated to the consistence of

64

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M ALLEABILITY— MALT

a tynip, and left in a dry atmosphere until it
becomes conrerted into a solid and somewhat
crystalline mass of malic acid. If perfectly pure
malic acid is required, the malate of lead must
be crystallised before decomposing it with sul-
phuretted hydrogen.

2. From the Juice of the nearly ripe berries of
the mountiUn ash (Sorbtu aueuparia), as fol-
lows : — The juice is expressed, boiled and filtered,
nearly neutralised with milk of lime, and again
boiled. Calcium malate now forms in minute
crystals ; these are dissolved in hot aqueous nitric
add. On cooling hydrocalcium malate separates
out in crystals, which are now dissolved in hot
water and decomposed by lead acetate. Finally,
the Relation, which now contains lead malate, is
treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, which preci-
pitates lead sulphide, leaving malic acid still in
solution, from which it may be obtained by crys-
tallisation after evaporation.

8. Malic acid is also produced by the deoxida-
tion of tartaric acid with hydriodic acid.

Prop., S^e. Malic acid crystallises in groups
of colourless prisms ; it is slightly deliquescent,
very soluble in water, soluble in alcohol, and has
a pleasant acidnlous taste. Two varieties exist,
one being active, the other inactive with polarised
light. The aqueous infusion soon gets mouldy
by keeping. When kept fused for some time at
a low heat, it is converted into fumaric acid ;
and when quickly distilled, it yields maleic acid,
while fumaric acid is left in the retort. By the
action of reducing agents, e.g. strong hydriodic
acid, it is reduced to succinic acid. With the
bases malic acid forms salts called malates. Of
these the acid malate of ammonia is in lai^e
beautiful crystals; malate of lead is insoluble in
cold water, but dissolves in warm dilute acid,
from which it separates on cooling in brilliant
silvery crystals ; acid malate of lime also forms
very beautiful crystals, freely soluble in water ;
neutral malate of lime is only sparingly solnble
in water ; the first is obtained by dissolving the
latter in hot dilute nitric acid, and allowing the
solution to cool very slowly,

HALLEABIL'ITT. The peculiar property of
metals which renders them capable of extension
nnder the hammer.

HALT, Syn. Bika, Byitb, BsABruH, Mal-
trnt, L, The name given to different kinds of
grain, such as barley, here or bigg, oats, rye,
maize, &c., which have become sweet from tbe
conversion of a portion of their starch into sugar,
in consequence of incipient germination artificially
produced. Barley is the grain usually employed
for this purpose.

Var. Independently of variations of quality,
or of the grain from which it is formed, malt is
distinguished into varieties depending on the heat
of the kiln employed for its desiccation. When
dried at a temperature ranging between 90° and
120° F. it constitutes ' pals halt ;' when all the
moisture has exhaled, and the heat is raised to
from 12B°— 135°, 'tkllow' or 'pale akbbb
If ALT ' is formed ; when the heat ranges between
140° and 160°, the product receives the name of

' AMBKB KAIfl? ;' at 160° — 180°, ' AUBBB-BBOWN '

or ' PALS BBOWH MALT ' is obtained. Roasted,

PATBNT, or BLAOX MALT, and OBTBTAUISBD MALT,

are prepared by a process similar to that of roast-
ing coffee. The malt is placed in sheet-iron
cylinders over a strong fire, and the cylinders
made to revolve at the rate of about SOrevolntiopa
per minute if roasted malt is required, or 120 for
crystallised malt. In the former case the finished
malt has a dark brown colour ; in the latter the
interior of the grain becomes dark brown, whilst
the hnsk assumes a pale amber hue. The tem-
perature must never exceed 420°, or the malt will
become entirely carbonised.

Qua}. Good mslt has an agreeable smell and
a sweet taste. It is friable, and when broken dis-
closes a flowery kernel. Its husk is thin, clean,
and unshrivelled in appearance, and the acrospire is
seen extending up the back of the grain, beneath
the skin. The admixture of nnmalted with
malted grain may be discovered and roughly
estimated by throwing a little into water ; malt
floats on water, but barley sinks in it. The only
certain method, however, of determining the value
of malt is to ascertain the amount of soluble
matter which it contains by direct experiment.
This varies from 62% to 70% , and for good malt
is never less than 66% to 67% . If we assume
the quarter of malt at 324 lbs., and the average
quantity of solnble matter at 66% , then the total
weight of soluble matter will be fully 213| lbs.
per quarter ; but as this, " in taking on the form
of gum and sugar" during the process of mash-
ing, "chemically combines with the elements of
water, so the extract, if evaporated to dryness,
would reach very nearly 231 lbs. ; and this, reduced
to the basis of a barrel of 36 galls., becomes in the
language of the brewer 87 lbs. per barrel, which,
however, merely means that the wort from a
quarter of malt, if evaporated down to the bulk
of a barrel of 36 galls., would weigh 87 lbs. more
than a barrel of water" {Ure).

Attati. 1. A small quantity of the sample
being groimd in a coffee or pepper mill, 100 gr.
are accurately weighed, and dried by exposure for
about 1 hour at the temperature of boiling water.
The loss in weight, in grains, indicates tlie quan-
tity of moisture per cent. This, in good malt,
should not exceed 6} gr.

2. A second 100 gr. is taken and stirred up
with about i pint of cold water ; the mixture is
then exposed to the heat of boiling water for
about 40 minutes i after which it is thrown on a
weighed filter, and the undissolved portion washed
with a little hot water ; the nndissolved portion,
with the filter, is then dried at 212° F., and
weighed. The loss in weight, less the percentage
of moisture last found, taken in grains, gives the
percentage of soluble matter. This should not
be less than 66 gr. The same result will be
arrived at by evaporating the filtered liquid and
'washings' to dryness, and weighing the resi-
duum.

8. A third 100 gr. is taken and mashed with
about 1 pint of water at 160° F., for 2 or 3 hours ;
the liquid is then drained off, the residue gently
squeezed, and the strained liquid evaporated to
dryness as before, and weighed. This gives the
percentage of saccharine matter, and should not
be less than about 71 gr., taking the above
average of malt as the standard of calculation.

Viu, Ifo. Malt is chiefly employed in the arte

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ICALT

lOU

at brewing and diatillation. Both routed and
eTTttallised malt are merely nted to colour the
worti produced from pale malt. 1 lb. of roasted
malt maahed with 79 lbs. of pale malt imparts to
the liquor the colour and flavour of ' porter.' The
paler Tarieties of malt contain the largest quan-
tity of saccharine matter. After the malt has
been Idln-dried, the rootlets may he remored by
means of a sieve. Before malt is mashed for
beer it must be broken np, and the law requires
that it be bruised or crushed by smooth metal
rollers, and not ground by millstones. It has
also been proposed to employ malt, instead of
raw grain, for fattening domestic animals, and as
tooA fcft that young and those in a sickly state.
Infusion of m^t (sweet wort, malt tea) is laxa-
tave, and has been recommended as an antiscor-
batio and tonic. It lias been ^ven with great
advantage in scurvy ; but for this purpose good,
wdl-ho^>ed, mild beer is equally serviceable and
more agreeable. See BBJBwms, D18TIIJ.ATIOH,
Fbbkbittatios, &c.

For the processes of malting see under Bbbw-
TS9.

Kdt, Iztraet of, and its Kanufluitiire. The
foDowing extracts from a paper by J. L. Irwin
read at the annual meeting of the Ohio State
Pharmaceutical Association, Cincinnati, will be
of interest:

Apparafm* luaL, For the manufacture on a
large scale two principal kinds of apparatus are
at present in use, viz. the hot-air blast and the
ordinaiy vacuum apparatus, the latter l)eing the
one with which the writer is more familiar. It
includes an air-tight copper still, a cooler, a re-
ceiver or air-chamber, and a good air-pump,
capable of producing a 27-inch vacuum. There
are also required a thermometer, wood masb-tub,
wood percolator, a good press, a platform for
damping the malt, and the necessary buckets,
dippersi Ac.

Tettt for Malt. Where the operator has not
tlie &cikty to malt bis own barley, some care in
aejecting a good article should be used. An
ancient custom of determining n good sample was
to take a glass nearly full of wster, and put in some
malt ; if the grains swam the sample was con-
sidered good, but if any should sink to the bottom
it was not considered true malt. I think the best
test is the general appearance, &c. First notice
whether the grains have a round iiody, break
soft, are foil of flour their whole length, smell
well, and have a thin skin. Masticate some of
the gruns, and if sweet and mellow they should
be eoradered good ; but if hard and steely, and
retMning something of the barley nature, the malt
is not properly made, and weighs heavier than
good malt.

To Grind tie Malt. To obtain the extract, it
is best to merely break the grain. For this pur-
pose the malt is paned between revolving stones
placed at such distances apart tliat each grain
may l>e emsbed withont redudng it to a powder,
for if ground coo finely it thickens the solution-
and is difficult to percolate, wliile if not broken
at ■]] the extract is not all obtained. Pale malts
are generally ground coarser than aml>er or brown.
Ibit sboold oe used within 2 days after being
ground to obtain the l>est results. Crushing

mills or iron rollers may be substituted for the
revolving stones, and on a small scale the malt
grains can be broken by wooden rollers, or even
with an ordinary coffee mill.

Moitfening the Malt. Take a convenient
quantity of the ground selected malt, and having
placed it upon a clean wooden platform, prepare
a menstruum for it consisting of 1 vol. of 94%
alcohol to S vols, of water. For a bushel of malt,
3 galls, of such menstruum is sufficient. After
having thoroughly damped the malt with the
menstruum cover it with a rubber blanket to pre-
vent loss of alcohol, and allow it to stand about
12 hours, working it np with a shovel every 8
hours.

Sxtraotinff the Diattan. The writer has found
that the best results are obtained when the dias-
tase of the malt is first eliminated before pre-
ptmng the starch for conversion into sug^ by the
former, so the damped g^n is transferred to a
conical percolator, cold water is gradually poured
over it until the liquid liegins to flow from the
fitucet of the percolator, then return the percolate
and repeat until the liquor runs clear and free
from starchy grannies. Continue the percolation
with fresh cold water until a quantity of liquid
equal to 4 times the amount of the malt is ob-
tuned. Then by means of a rubber hose and air-
pump transfer the percolate to the vacunm-stiU
in order to have the spirit slowly recovered.

Recovering the AUohol. Having exhausted
the still-cooler and air-chamber by means of the
air-pump until the vacuum-gauge registers 27
inches, open the steam-valve leading to vacuum-
pan and evaporate off the alcohol, which will
condense in a cooler and can be collected in the
air-chamber. A temperature of 100° F. is gene-
rally enough to recover the alcohol with the
vacuum. The time required for the recovery of
the spirit varies according to the apparatus,
amount of malt worked, &c., but for the working
of 1 bushel the time generally required is about
i an hour. In case the starch liquid is not ready
for the still in time, it is best to allow some of
the alcohol to remain with the diastase to pre-
serve the latter until the starch liquid comes in
contact with it. When the starch liquid is all
prepared for evaporation, and having evaporated
off all the remaining spirit, then stop the pump
and remove the pressure by allowing the air to
enter through the valve on top of the still. When
the gauge registers zero, open the valve in the
base of the air-chamber and remove the recovered
spirit, which is usually quite weak.

Mttthing the Malt. While the alcohol is l>eing
recovered from the diastatic percolate, the opera-
tor should give his attention to the separation of
the starch Uquid. To this end the malt is trans-
ferred from the percolator to the mash-tub, where
the starchy matter must first be gelatinised be-
fore it can be acted on by the diastase now in the
still. A volume of water about 4 times the weight
of the malt employed is then added, and the whole
mixed thoroughly. By means of the steam-valve
at the base of the mash-tub the water is heated
under constant stirring until it arrives at the
boiling-point, at which temperature it is kept for
2 minutes under constant stirring, in order to in-
sure the perfect coagulation of albuminoids not

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MALT LIQUORS

extracted in the first percolation, and to gela-
tinise and dissolve every particle at starch. The
mixture b then allowed to cool, and an amount
of water eqnal to i the weight of the malt is
added, and the whole, after being well mixed, is
allowed to stand for about 16 minutes. The
outlet-valve of the tub is then opened, the liquid
re-percolated until clear, and then collected in a
receiver to be cooled down to at least ldO° F. It
is then transferred to the still by means of the
hose and air-pump, and it is there converted by
the diastase into malt sugar.

Evaporation. When the liquids are mixed in
the still the whole is to be rapidly evaporated as
soon as the vacuum-gauge registers 27 inches.
The temperature necessary for rapid evaporation
ranges from 110° to 140° F., the temperature
rising above 110° as the extract begins to thicken.
In no case should the temperature be allowed to
rise above 160°, as it would impair the flsvour,
although the diastase may not be injured at a
higher temperature, and the evaporation should
never be stopped when once started until at least
10% of the liquid has been evaporated oft.

The proper consistence for the extract depends
upon the season of the year, that which would
answer for summer not being suitable for winter;
hut the writer has found that a malt having a sp.
gr. of 1-4, while a little difBcult to handle in
winter, will keep well in summer, and hence is of
a desirable density.

Fretting the Math. After the liquid has en-
tirely drained from the mash-tub the malt is
next transferred to a press, and the remaining
liquid entirely pressed out and allowed to settle,
the clear liquid poured off and mixed with the
starch liquor in the still by means of the hose
and air-pump, an equal volume of warm water is
again added to the malt in the press, and the

eressing repeated until the malt is entirely ex-
austed.

PraoamtioTU. While the operator should ob-
serve all the general precautions necessary to
operate a vacuum apparatus, yet there are some
in the manufacture of malt extract deserving
special attention.

In the first place, unless the operator gives
close attention to the apparatus while running on
the malt, he will find that in nine cases out of ten
the resulting product will be worthless as a di-
gestive agent. From the time the malt is first
moistened to the time it is in the form of a
finished extract, quickness in detail and constant
attention are essential for a good product.

The percolating process is quite often found
troublesome. In the first percolation, after the
process has proceeded far enough to drive out all
the alcohol, it is possible that the malt has been
so finely ground that when the water men-
struum has been poured on, the latter will swell
the small particles of the grain sufficiently to
either cause the percolation to proceed so slowly
as to impede progress, or to stop up altogether
and thus incept fermentation ; and again, even
after this percolation has been successful, trouble
may arise in the mash-tub, should the heat be
allowed to continue longer than merely to coagu-
late the albuminoids and gelatinise the starch;
especially when the malt has been finely ground

a paste is liable to form and again interfere with
percolation; in such a case the best course to
pursue is to transfer the whole to the press and
squeeze out the liquid as quickly as possible^
Care should also be taken that the starch liqaid
is cooled down below 160° F. before it be allowed
to come in contact with the diastase.

Under no circumstances should the evaporation
be stopped until the extract is or the consistence
of simple syrup at least ; even in that condition it
should not be allowed to stand any length of time
before the evaporation is completed and the ex-
tract is of the proper consistence.

Sufficient time should also be allowed in boil-
ing, so that the albuminoids in the mass are en-
tirely coagulated, and hence letuned in the drega
after percolation, as with their presence In the
finished extract there is liable to set up a fer-
mentation.

In the process of evapomtion the operator
should note the rate of distillation by glanmng
every few minutes through the eye-piece of the
air-diamber, and regulate the same by the time
available to complete the process, and should
keep the distillation at as constant a rate as
possible. Sspeeial care should here be used, as ttie
writer has observed that a peculiar stony sub-
stance may at times be formed by the foam from
the malt, and collect in the channel between the
cooler and air-chamber in sufficient quantity
either at least to stop up the latter entirely or
diminish the rate of distillation. In such a
case it will be readily seen that should the heat
and pressure be allowed to continue, not only
disaster to malt and apparatus might result, but
even loss of life. The writer has noticed this
trouble even with a high vacuum as shown by
the gauge, and everything apparently going on
all right except the rate of distillation.

The operator will find that there are many
minor points which should be borne in mind
while running extract of malt, and which expe-
rience alone can teach.

HALT LIQirOSS. The qualities of ale, beo'.
and porter, as beverages, the detection of their
adulteration, and the methods of preparing them,
are described under their respective names, and
in the article upon ' bbewxho ; ' the present article
will, therefore, be confined to a short notice of
the cellar management, and the diseases of malt
liquors generally.

AoB. The appearance and flavour to which
this term is appli»l can, of course, be only given
to the liquor by properly storing it for a si^cient
time. Fraudulent brewers and publicans, however,
frequently add a little oil of vitriol (diluted with
water) to new beer, by which it assumes the cha-
racter of an inferior liquor of the class 1 or 2
years old. Copperas, alum, sliced onions, Seville
oranges, and cucumbers are also frequentiy em-
ployed by brewers for the same purpose.

BoTTliiira. Clean, sweet, and dry bottles, and
sound and good corks, should be had in readiness.
The liquor to be bottled should be perf ectiy dear ;
and if it be not so it must be submitted to the
operation of 'fining.' When quite fine and in
good condition the bung of the cask should be left
out all night, and the next day the liquor should
be put into bottles, which, after remaiuing 12 or

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MALT LIQUORS

1013

24 honra, eorered with sheets of paper to keep out
the flies and dost, mnst be securely corked down.
Porter is generally wired over. The wire for this
pnrpoae should be ' annealed,' and not resilient.
If the liquor is intended for exportation to a
hot climate the bottles should remain filled for 2
or 3 days, or more, before corking them. The
stock of bottled liquor should he stored in a cool
■itnation ; and a small quantity, to meet pre-
sent demands only, shonld be set on their sides in
a warmer place to ripen. October beer should not
be bottled before Midanmmer, nor March beer till
Christmas.

Cixiusnrsss. Add a handful of hops boiled
in a gallon of the beer, and in a fortnight fine
it down.

Forixs. See Clabification and Bbswino.

Flathbss. When the liquor is new or has
■till mnch undecomposed sugar left in it, a suffi-
laent remedy is to remove it into a warmer situa-
tion for a few days. When this is not the caxe 2
or 3 pounds of moist sugar (foots) may he ' rum-
maged ' into each hogslieod. In this way a second
fermentation is set up, and in a few days the liquor
becomes brisk, and carries a head. This is the
plan commonly adopted by publicans. On the
■mall scale the addition of a few grains of car-
bonate of soda, or of prepared chalk, to each
gtaaa, is commonly made for the same purpose ;
bat in this case the liquor mnst he drunk within
a few minutes, else it becomes again flat and in-
npid. This may be adopted for home-brewed
beer which has become sour and rapid.

FoxiHO- or BucKiica. The spontaneous souring
of worts or beer during their fermentation or
ripening, to which this name is applied, may gene-
rally be remedied by adding to the liquor some
fresh bops (scalded), along with some black mus-
tard-seed (bruised). Some persons use a little
made mustard, or a solution of alum or of catechu,
and in a week or 10 days afterwards further add
■ome treacle or moist sugar.

Frosted beer is recovered by change of situa-
tion, by the addition of some hops boiled in a little
■weet wort, or by adding a little moist sngar or
treacle to induce a fresh fermentation.

HBADnre. This is added to thin and vapid
beer to make it bear a frothy head. The most in-
npeent, pleasant, and effective addition of this sort
!■ a mixture of pure ammonio-citrate of iron and
aiUt of tartar, about equal parts in the proportion
of only a few grains to a quart.

IXFBOnii&. This is the trade synonym of
' ADVloMULTioii' and ' sootobtko.' Keverthe-
leas there are cases in which * improvement ' may
be made without affecting the wholesome charac-
ter of the liquor. Of this kind is the addition of
hops, spices, &c., during the maturation of beer
that ediibita a tendency to deteriorate. For this
pnrpoae some persons cut a half-quartern loaf
into slices, and, after toasting them very high,
place them in a coarse linen bag along with ) lb.
of hops and 2 oz. each of bruised ginger, cloves,
and mustard-seed, and suspend the bag by means
of a string a few inches below the surface of the
bser (a hogshead), which is then bunged close.
Hie addition of a little ground capsicum in the
Mne war is also a real improvement to beer when
jndieioosly made.

MusTiNESs. To each hogshead, racked into
clean caaks, add 1 lb. of new hops boiled in a gallon
of the liquor, along with 7 lbs. of newly burnt
charcoal (coarsely braised, and the fine dust sifted
off), and a 4-lb. loaf of bread cut into thin slices
and toastrd rather black ; ' rouse up ' well every
day for a week, then stir in of moist sngar 8 or
4 lbs., and bung down for a fortnight.

RiooTBBlira. This is said of unsaleable beer
when rendered saleable, by giving it ' head ' or
removing its ' tartness.'

RiPSiriHS. This term is applied to the regular
maturation of beer. It is also used to express the
means by which liquors already mature are ren-
dered brisk, sparklmg, or fit and agreeable for im-
mediate use. In the language of the cellars malt
liquors are said to be ' up ' when they nre well
charged with gaseous matter and bear a frothy
head. These qualities depend on the undecom-
posed sngar undergoing fermentation, which,
when active, can only be of comparatively short
duration, and should, therefore, be repressed
rather than excited in beers not required for im-
mediate consumption. When we desire to give
' briskness ' to these liquors, whether in cask or
bottle, it is only necessary to expose them for
a few days to a slight elevation at temperature,
by removing them, for instance, to a warmer
spartment. This is the plan successfully adopted
by bottlers. The addition of a small lump of white
sngar to each bottle of ale or beer, or a teaspoon-
ful of moist sugar to each bottle of porter, just
before corking it, will render it fit for drinking
in a few days in ordinary weather, and in 2 or 8
days in the heat of summer. A raisin or a lump
of sugar-candy is often added to each bottle witn
a like intention. The Parisians bottle their beer
one day and sell it the next. For this purpose, in
addition to the sngar as above, they add 2 or 8
drops of yeast. Such bottled liquor must, how-
ever, be drunk within a week, or else stored in a
very cold place, as it will otherwise burst the
bottles or blow out the corks.

RopiirESB. A little infusion of catechu or of
oak-bark, and some fresh hops, may be added to
the beer, which in a fortnight should be mm-
maged well, and the next day ' fined ' down.

SoiTBHESg. Powdered chalk, carbonate of
soda, salt of tartar, or pearlash, is commonly
added by the publicans to the beer until the
acidity is nearly removed, when 4 or 6 lbs. of
moist sugar or foots per hogshead are 'rum-
maged ' in, together with sufScient water to dis-
burse double the amount of the outlay and trouble.
Such beer must be soon put on draught, as it is
very apt to get flat by keeping. Caster-shells
and ^g-shells are also frequently used by brewers
for the same purpose. To remove the acidity of
beer on the small scale, a few grains of carbonate
of soda per glass my be added just before drink-
ing it.

STOKlKe-. The situation of the beer-cellar
should be such as to maintain its contents at a
permanently uniform temperature, ranging be-
tween 44° and 50° F., a condition which can only
be ensured by choosing for its locality an under-
ground apartment, or one in the centre of the
basement portion of a large building. -

VAurma. Half fill casks with the old liquor,

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1014

ICALTIK— MANQANESE

fill them up with some newly brewed, and bong
ekMe for 8 weeks or a month.

KALTIB. A nitrogenoas ferment obtuned
from malt, which it is ^Ueved by Dubrnnfant to
be the active principle, and is more energ>etic than
diastaw. The above chemist states it may be
precipitated from extract of malt by the addition
of 2 molecules of alcohol at 90% . According to
Dabronfaut maltin exists in all cereal grains, and
in the water of rivers and brooks; but not in the
well water of Paris.

XALTnTG. The method of oonverting barley,
wheat, oats, or any other description of grain into
malt. There are foor saccessive stages in the pro-
cess of malting, vii. steeping, conching, fiooring,
and kiln-drying ; for a description of which see
Bbbwiko^

HAirCHimKL TKXE (^B^pomane maneiiulla,
Linn.). Native of tropical South America and
the West Indies. Though of a poisonous character,
its power, like that of the upas, has been much
exaggerated.

]LAH"aAm;SE. Mn = 66. Sgn. Makoaiib-
twit, h. A hard, brittle metal, resembling iron
in some of its physical and chemical characters,
discovered by Qahn in the black oxide of man-
ganese of commeree. In an oxidised state it is
tolerably abundant in nature, entering into the
oompoaition of several interesting minerals.
Traces of it have been found in the ashes of
plants and in mineral waters. It chiefly occurs
as pyrolusite, braunite, and manganese spar.

Prep. 1. Reduce manganous carbonate to flue
powder, make it into a paste with oil, adding
about i-lOth of its weight of calcined borax,
place the mixture in a Hessian cmcihle lined with
charcoal, late 'on the cover, and expose it to the
strongest heat of a smith's forge for 2 honrs ;
when cold, break the cmcible and preserve the
metallic bntton in naphtha. The product is
probably a carbide of manganese, just as steel is a
carbide of iron.

2. Deville has lately prepared pure manganese
by reducing the pure oxide by means of an in-
sufficient quantity of sugar charcoal in a crucible
made of canstic lime.

Prop. As prepared by Deville, metallic man-
ganese is grey with a reddish lustre, like bismuth ;
it is very hard, brittle, and very difficult to fuse
when powdered ; it decomposes water, oven at the
lowest temperature. Dilute sulphuric acid cUs-
solvea it with great energy, evolving hydrogen.
It scratches gla« and hardened steel, and its sp.
gr. is 7-18.

Hie salts of manganese may be easily prepared
in a state of purity by dissolving the precipitated
carbonate in the acids. Host of them are soluble,
and several are crystallisable.

Ttttt. Manganous salts are diftingnished as
follows : — The hydrates of potassium and sodium
give white precipitates insoluble in excess, and
rapidly turning brown. The presence of ammo-
nium salts interferes with these tests. Ammonia
gives similar mults.

Ferrooyanide of potassium gives a white preci-
pitate. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives no precipi-
tate in acid solntions, and precipitatea neutral
solntiona only imperfectly ; but in alkaline solu-
tions it gives a bright, flesh-coloured, insoluble

precipitate, which becomes dark brow^ cm expo-
sure to the air. Sulphide of ammonium, in aw-
tral solntions, also yields a similar predpitate,
which is very characteristic. A compound of
manganese fused with borax in the outer flame
of the blowpipe gives a bead, which appears of a
violet-red colour whilst hot, and upon cooling
acquires an amethyst tint ; this colour is lost by
fusion in the inner flame. Heated npon platinum
foil with a little carbonate of sodium, in the outer
flame, it yields a green mass whilst hot, wUch
becomes bluish green when cold.

Uiei. The metal itself has not been applied to
any useful purpose. Spiegeleisen and ferro-
manganese are alloys largely used in the produc-
tion of Bessemer steel. Various ores of man-
ganese are industrially employed in making
oxygen, bromine, chlorine, and iodine, in the
manufacture of glass and enamels, for producing
mottled soaps, in puddling iron, and in dyeing and
calico printing. Most of the manganese of com-
meroe comes from Qermany.

Kanganate of Bariom. BaMnO^. Green in-
soluble powder, obtained by fusing barium hy-
drate, potassium chlorate, and manganic peroxide
together, and washing the product. It forms the
pigment known as Cassel green.

Hanganate of Fotaaainn. E^nO^. Finely
powdered manganic peroxide, potassium chlorate,
and potassium hydrate, made into a thick paste
with water, and heated to dull redness. He
fused product is treated with a small quantity of
water, and crystallised by evaporation m> eoeno.

Prop. Dark green, almost black crystals,
readily soluble in water, but decomposed tqr
excess or by acids into manganic peroxide and
potassium permanganate.

Kanganate of Sodium. Na,Mn04. Prepared
on the large scale by heating a mixture of maii«
ganese peroxide and sodium hydrate to redness in
a current of air. Used in strong aqueous solu-
tion as a disinfectant under the name of ' Candy's
green fluid.'

Xaagaiiie Acid. HtHn04. This acid has not
yet been obtuned free, but some of its salts are
extensively employed as disinfectants, as ' green
Condy's fluid.' The chief oomponnds are the
following ! —

Xaaguie Hydiate. Mn,0,(HO)~ iS^yit.
HrDBATBD asBQVioxisB OF icAiraAHBsa.
Found native as 'manganite,' in reddish-brown
crystals. Prep. By passing a current of ur
through recently precipitated and moist manga-
nous hydrate. It is a soft brown powder, and is
converted into the oxide by heat. May be dis-
tinguished from MnO„ with which it is often
found associated, by its giving a brown instead at
a black streak on unglazed porcelain.

Permanganic Add. H^n,0,. Prep. Ob-
tained in a hydrated crystalline state by decom-
posing barium permanganate with sulphuric add
and evaporating t» cocno. Brown colour; dis-
solves in water, giving a red solution.

Permanganate of Bariam. BaMnjOg. Blade
soluble prisms, formed by decomposing silver per-
manganate by means of barium cUorida^ and
cautiously evaporating.

Paraanganate of fetaaiiuai. K|Mn/},. Prtp.
With 4 parts of black oxide of manganese, 8|

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MANGANESE

1016

pMts of potwaium chlorate, and 6 ports of caastic
potash dusolTed in a little water are mixed. The
paate which results is dried by being heated to
dull redoesa on an iron tray. This operation pro-
daoes potasaimu manganate, which, when the
oold mass is treated with water, forms a dark
green solution. A stream of carbonic acid gas is
now passed into this solatioa nntil no further
change of colour is observed. The liquid now
contains potassium permanganate, manganese di-
oxide, and potassium carbonate. The dioxide
settles as a precipitate from which the liquid,
which is red, is de^nted. It is then concentrated
and cooled. The permanganate crystallises out,
irhilst the more soluble carbonate remains in
solution.

iVop. Dark por^e, almost black, elongated
rhombic prisms which are red by transmitted
light, but reflect a dark green colour. Soluble in
80 paits cold water, forming a purple solution,
which becomes green by contact trith some sub-
stance capable of taking up oxygen. Thus an
aqueous solution is easily decomposed and bleached
by the action of sulphurous acid or a ferrous salt.
CMfensire emanations from putrescent organic
. matter are easily oxidised by potassium perman-
ganate, which is extensirely used for this purpose
onder the name of ' Coddy's red disinfecting fluid.'
Die*. As a dirinfectant (mde tapra), in dye-
ing, and for staining wood. It is a most important
reagent in rolnmetric analysia, and is especially
osefol in the estimation ox iron. In preparing
the solution about 6 grms. of pure crystallised
permangate are dissolved in a small quantity of
water, and then diluted to 1 litre; it is Uien
standardised by means of pure iron wire, ferrous
sulphate, or oxalic acid. The solution must be
contained in a well-stoppered bottle which, when
not in use, shonld be kept in a cool dark place.

FannaBgaaate of SUvar. AgMnOf. Prep.
Precipitate a strong solution of silver nitrate by
means of a concentrated solution of potassium
permanganate. Small black prisms, soluble in
100 parts of water, with a pnrple colour.

Peraanganate of Sodium. NajHn^C^. ■ Ob-
tained as a dark purple liquid by passmg a our-
reot of carbonic anhydride through sodium man-
ganate. It may also be made by heating the
black oxidd of manganese with caustic soda in a
faaUow vessel to dull redness for 48 hours. The
mass is then bcnled with water. It is often used
aa a disinfectant, being cheaper than the potas-
sium salt. Candy's nd fluid is chiefly sodium
permanganate dissolved in water.

Hangaaaos Ae'etata. Mn(C,H,03)r 8gn.
AawtiTX or pbotoxisb op itAS^AirssB ; Man-
eum AOBTAB, L. Prtp. By neutralising
•onoentrated acetic acid with manganons car-
bonate, and evapraatiog the solution so that
crystals may form.

Prop., tfe. The eiystals, when pure, are of a
pals red colour, permanent in the air, soluble in
alcohol, and Si parts of water, and possess an
astringent and metallic taste. — Dote, 6 to 10 gr.,
as an attentive^ hssmatinic, &c.

Kangaaoas Cai'bonata. MnCO,. Syn. Cab-
BOSATi o> PBOTOXIDB 01 MAireAiriaB j Uan-
•Ajmn OAsaoBAa, L. Prep. 1. Bednce the
black oxide of manganese of commerce to fine

powder, and after washing it in water addulated
with hydrochloric acid, dissolve it in strong
hydrochloric acid, and evaporate the resulting
solution to dryness; dissolve the residue in water,
and add to the solution sufficient sodium car-
bonate to precipitate all the iron present ; digest
the mixed precipitate in the remainder of the
liquid, filter, add ammonium sulphide until it
begins to produce a flesh-colour^ precipitate,
then filter, and add sodium carbonate as long aa
a precipitate falls; lastly, well wash the newly
formed carbonate in water, and dry it by a gentle
heat.

2. By directly precipitating a solution of the
chloride with sodium carbonate, and washing and
drying the powder as before.

Prop., l(e. A pale butF or cream-coloured
powder, insoluble in water, freely soluble in
acids ; exposed to a strong heat, it loses its car-
bonic acid, absorbs oxygen, and is converted into
the red oxide. It is chiefly employed in the
preparation of the other salts of manganese.
Kanganons Chlo"ride. MnCU. ^. Pboto-

OHIAKIDB OF KAKaAVBSS, MlTBJATB 0> K. ;

MAnaANBSii CRiiORisuK, L. Prep. 1. By
saturating hydrochloric acid with manganoua
carbonate; the solution is greatly concentrated
by evaporation, when crystals may be obtained,
or it is at once evaporated to dryness ; in either
case the product must be placed in warm, dry,
stoppered bottles, and preserved from the air.

2. From the dark brown residual liquid of the
process of obtaining chlorine from binoxide of
manganese and hydrochloric acid j this liquid is
evaporated to dryness, and then slowly heated to
dull redness in an earthen vessel, wiui constant
stirring, and kept at that temperature for a short
time. The greyish.looking powder thus obtained
is treated with water, and the solution separated
from the ferric oxide and other insoluble matter
by filtration; if any iron still remains, a little
manganous carbonate is added, and the whole
boiled for a few minutes ; the filtered solution is
then treated as before. This is the least expen-
sive and most convenient source of this salt.

Prop., i^c. Bose-coloured tabular crystals;
inodorous; very soluble both in water and alco-
hol ; very deliquescent ; when gradually heated to
fusion the whole of the water is expelled, and at
a red heat it slowly suffers decomposition. As-
tringent, tonic, htematinic, and alterative. —
Doie, 3 to 10 gr.; in scorbutic, syphilitic, and
cert^ chronic cutaneous affections ; aneemia,
chlorosis, &c.

Kanganons Hydrate. Mn(HO),. Sgn. Ht-

DBATBS PBOTOXIDB OP MAKSAXBgK. Prep.

Formed by adding potassium hydrate to man-
ganous sulphate, and filtering and diying the
precipitate in vac*o. A white powder rapidly ab-
sorbing oxygen, and burning first green and then
brown from formation of higher oxides.

■anganons I'odide. Mnl,. By*. Hanoa-
KBgn lODiBUK, li. Prep. By dissolving the
carbonate in hydriodic acid and evaporating the
filtered liquid t» cocno or out of contact with
air. — Dote, 1 to 8 gr. ; in anssmia, chlorosis, &c,
ooctirring in scrofulous subjects.

Kanganons Oxide. MnO. Syn. Pbotozidx
OP xAirOAxriBB. Prep. By passing a current

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1016

MANGANESE

of hydrogen over maiiganons carbonate or man-
ganese dioiide heated to whiteness in a porcelain
tube. An olive-green powder, rapidly oxidising
on exposure to air, and soluble in acids forming
manganous salts. It has been found native in
manganif erons dolomite.

Hanganlc Oxide. Mn.0,. Syn. SssQirioxtDa
Oi KANaANKSB. Found native as ' braunite,' and
readily formed by exposing manganous hydrate
to the action of air and drying, or by heating any
of the oxides of manganese to redness in a enrrent
of oxygen.

Hanganle Peroxide. MnO,. Syn. Pkbvan-
OANio oxiDB, Buroxms ot kanoahssi, Pbr-

OXIDl OF MANaAItBSK, BLACK OXIDB OF HAIT-
QANISB, Oxide of VAKaANSSB; MAiraANEBII

oxiDUK mawsu (B. P.), MAxeAitBsii bikoxt-

DUU (Ph. L.), MANaAVBSB OXTSUX (Ph. £.), L.
Occurs massive and in prismatic crystals as
pyrolosite ; it is also found amorphous as peilo-
melane, and in the hydrated state as wad.

It is the only oxide of manganese that is directly
employed in the artt. It is a very plentiful
mineral prodaction, and is found in great abun-
dance in some parts of the west of England, in
Germany and Spain. Manganese is prepared by
washing, to remove the earthy matter, and grind-
ing in mills. The blackest samples are esteemed
the best. It is chieHy used to supply oxygen gas,
which it evolves when treated to redness without
fusing, in the manufacture of glass and bleaching
powder, in dyeing, and in preparing the salts of
manganese. It luw been occssionally employed in
medicine, chiefly externally in itch and porrig^,
made into an ointment with lard. It has been
highly recommended by Dr Erigeler in scrofula.
Others have employed it as an alterative and
tonic with variable success. When slowly intro-
daoed into the system during a lengthened period,
it is said to produce paralysis of the motor nerves
{Dr Coitpar). — Dote, 3 to 12 gr., or more, thrice
daily, made into pills.

Pur., ^e. Native binoxide of manganese (py-
rolusite) is usually contaminated with variable
proportions of argillaceous matter, calcium car-
bonate, ferric oxide, silica, and barium sulphate,
all of which lower its value as a source of oxygen,
and for the preparation of chlorine. The rich-
ness of this ore can, therefore, be only determined
by an assay for its principal ingredient.

Altai/. There are several methods adopted for
this purpose, among which the following recom-
mend themselves as being the most accoiate and
convenient.

1. A portion of the mineral being reduced to
very fine powder, 60 gr. of it are put into the
little apparatus employed tor the analysis of car-
bonates already described, together with about
i fl. oz. of cold water, and 100 gr. of strong
hydrochloric acid, the latter conteined in the
little tnbe (A) ; 60 gr. of crystallised oxalic acid
are then added, the cork carrying the chloride of
calcium tnbe fitted in, and the whole quickly and
accurately weighed or counterpoised ; the appa-
ratus is next inclined so that the acid contained
in the small tube may be mixed with the other
contents of the flask, and the reaction of the in-
gredients is promoted by the application of a
gentle heat; the disengaged chlorine resalting

from the mutual decomposition of the hydro-
chloric acid and the manganic peroxide converts
the oxalic acid into carbonic acid gas, which is
dried in its passa^^e through the chloride of
calcium tube before it escapes into the air. As
soon as the reaction ia complete, and the residual
gas has been driven off by a momentary ebullition,
the apparatus is allowed to cool, when it is again
carefully and accurately weighed. The loss of
weight in grains, if doubled, at once indicates the
pereentage richness of the mineral examined in
manganic peroxide; or, more correctly, every
gr. of carbonic anhydride evolved represent
1*982 gr. of the peroxide.

2. (Frtteniut and Will.) The apparatus em-
ployed is the ' alkalimeter* figured at p. 70. The
operation is similar to that adopted for the assay
of alkalies, and is a modification of the oxalic
acid and sulphuric acid test for manganese
originally devised by M. Berthier. The standard
weight of manganic peroxide recommended is
2'91 grms., along with 6-6 to 7 grms. of neutral
potaasinm oxalate. The process, with quantities
altered to adapt it for general employment, is as
follows: — Manganic peroxide (in very fine pow-
der), 60 gr. ; neutral potassium oxalate (in pow-
der), 120 gr. ; these are put into the flask A
along with sufficient water to about l-4th fill it ;
the flasks A and B (the latter contuning the
sulphuric acid) are then corked air-tight, and
thus connected in one apparatus, the whole is
accurately weighed. The opening of the tube a
being closed by a small lump of wax, a little sul-
phuric acid is sncked over from the flask 3
into the flask A ; the disengagement of oxygen
from the manganese immediately commences,
and this reacting upon the oxalic add present,
converts it into carbonic anljydride, which pass-
ing through the concentrated sulphuric acid in
the flask B, which robs it of moisture, flnally
escapes from the apparatus through the tube d.
As soon as the disengagement of carbonic acid
ceases, the operator sucks over a fresh portion of
sulphuric acid, and this is repeated at short inter-
vals until bubbles of gas are no longer disengaged.
The little wax stopper is now removed, and soc-
tion is applied at d until all the carbonic acid
in the apparatus is replaced by common air.
When the whole has become cold it is again
weighed. The loss of weight, doubled, indicates
the amount of pure manganic peroxide in the
sample, as before.

8. (Otto.) 60 gr. of the sample reduced to
very fine powder are mixed in a glass flask, with
hydrochloric acid, li fl. oz., diluted with i os. of
cold water, and portions of ferrous sulphate, from
a weighed sample, immediately added, at flrst in
excess, but afterwards in smaller doses, until the
liquid ceases to give a blue precipitate with red
prussiate of potash, or to evolve the odonr of
chlorine; heat being employed towards the end
of the process. The quantity of ferrous sulphate
consumed is now ascertained by again weighing
the sample. If the peroxide examined is pure,
the loss of weight will be 817 gr. ; but if other-
wise, the percentage of the pure peroxide may
be obtained by the rule of three. Thus, suppose
only 298 gr. of the sulphate were consumed, then
817 : 100 :: 298..- 94,

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MANGE— MANGEL- WTTKZEL

1017

and the riehnen of the sample would be 94% .
The percentage value of the oxide for eirolTing
chlorine may be obtained by multiplying the
weight of the ferrous sulphate consumed by
0-8588, which, in the above case, would give 76%
of chlraine. For this purpose, as well as for
chlorimetry, the ferrous sulphate is best prepared
hy precipitating it from its aqueous solution with
almhol, and drying it out of contact with air
ontil it loees its alcoholic odour.

Oft*. Before applying the above processes it
ia abaohitely necessary that it be ascertained
whether the peroxide examined contains any
carbonates, as the presence of these would vitiate
the results. This is readily determined by treat-
ing it with a little dilute nitric acid : — if efferves-
cence ensues, one or more carbonates are present,
•nd the sample, after being weighed, must be
digested for some time in dilute nitric acid in
ezeeis, and then carefully collected on a filter,
washed, and dried. It may then be assayed as
b^bre. The loss of weii;ht indicates the quantity
of carbonates present, with sufficient accuracy for
teehnical purposes. The determination of this
point is the more important, as these contamina-
tiona not merely lessen the richness of the mineral
in pare manganic peroxide, but also cause a con-
aiderable waste of acid when it is employed in
the manufacture of chlorine. For other methods
of testing manganese, vida Crookes's 'Select
Methods in Chemical Analysis.'

MmagMnma-nuuigaaie oidde. Mn,04, or MnO,
Mn,0^ ^rs. Rbd oxidi or KABSAintgz, Pbo-
ToaxaguioxiDK ov XAireAirMB. Found native
as ' hausmanite.' It is produced by igniting
maoganons carbonate, or manganic oxide, or
manganic peroxide. Reddish-biown coloured
crystals or powder, and communicates an ame-
thjat colour to glass when fused with it. It
seems probable that the true formula of this
oxide is 2HnO.MnOr

Ma«g«iiona-nianga.ii1c Peroxide. Mn^O;, or
MnO|.Mn,Q|. Sfu. Ivtsbhsdiats oxisb ov
MAKeAxisB. Found native as ' varricite,' com-
bined with water as a black hard crystalline
mass. Decomposed, when heated, into a lower
oxide and oxygen.

ManganoM Fhotphate. MnH.PO^-t-eAq.

Sjpt. PhOBPHATE ov FBOTOXm OT XAKOA-
WBM; MAK&AViail VHOSFHAB, L. FtVp. By

precipitating a solution of manganous sulphate
with a solution of sodium phosphate. It most
be preserved from the air. — Dom, 8 to 12 gr.;
in anssmia, rickets, Ac.

Xangaium* Snl'phata. MnS04,?H,0. Sy».
Svjjjurm or pbotoxisb of xavsanbsi ; Hav-
•man sdxfbab, L. Fnp. 1. By dissolving
manganoos carbonate in dilute sulphuric acid,
and evaporating the filtered solution so that
crystals may form, or at once gently evapoiating
it to dryness. Pure.

2. (Commercial.) By igniting manganese
peroside (pyndnsite) mixed with about 1-lOth of
it* weight of powdered coal in an iron crucible
or gas retort, and digesting the residnnm of the
calcination in sulphuric acid, with the addition
after a time of a little hydrochloric acid; the
solution of manganous sulphate thus obtained,
after defecation, is evaporated to dryness, and

heated to redness as before ; the mass, after igni-
tion, is crushed small and treated with water ;
the solution is nearly pure, the whole of the iron
having been reduced to the state of insoluble
peroxide.

Vm. Used by the calico printers and dyers
in the production of black and brown colours.
Cloth steeped in the solution, and afterwards
passed through a solution of chloride of lime, is
dyed of a permanent brown.

Prop., ife. Pale rose-oolonred crystals of the
formula MnS04,7Aq.: MnSO^SAq.; or MnSO„
4Aq. ; according to the method of crystallising,
readily yielding with water a solution of a rich
amethyst colour. With sulphate of potassium it
forms a double salt (' manganese alum '). — Dote,
As an alterative and tonic, 6 to 10 gr. ; as a eho-
lagogne cathartic, 1 to 2 dr., dissolved in water,
either alone or combined with infusion of senna.
According to Ure, its action is prompt and soon
over ; 1 dr. of it occasions, after the lapse of an
hour or so, one or more liquid bilious stools. In
large doses it occasions vomiting, and in exoesnve
doses it destroys life by its caustic action on the
stomach (Dr &. C. MiUchtrlieh). It has
been administered with manifest advantage in
torpor of the liver, gout, jaundice, syphilis, and
certain skin diseases ; and, combined with iron, in
annmia, chlorosis, rickets, &c.

■angamons Snlphlda. MnS. Occurs as man-
ganese blende in steel-grey masses. May be
obtained as a greenish powder by heating
any of the oxides of manganese in a current of
H^.

Xanganoiu Tar'trate. MnC^H^O,. ^n.
MAiraAMBgii TABTBAS, L. Prep. By saturating
a solution of tartaric acid with most manganous
carbonate. Alterative and tonic. — Dote, 4 to 12

gr-

MAVGE. An eruptive, parasitic, contagions
disease, common to several domestic animals,
more especially the dog and horse. The causes
are confinement, dirt, and bad living. The treat-
ment should consist in the immediate removal of
the cause, the frequent use of soft soap and
water, followed by frictions with sulphur <nnt-
ment, solution of chloride of lime or sporokton,
the administration of purgatives, and a change
to a restorative diet. I>un states that in India a
very efficient remedy for mang>e is employed by
the native farriers, which consists of castor-oil
seeds well bruised, steeped for 12 hours in sour
milk, and rubbed into the skin, previously tho-
roughly cleansed with soap and water. "The
itchiness disappears almost immediately." A
dressing consisting of 1 oz. of chloride of zinc
(Bametfs disinfectant fluid) and 1 quart of
water may also be applied with advantage. See
Doo.

HAir"OKL-VUS'ZEL. S^. MAireou>-wirB'
zBi^, Htbbis bibt. Soot of boaxoitt. The
Beta vmlgarit, var. campettrit, a variety of the
common beet. The root aboonds in sugar, and
has been used in Germany as a substitute for
bread in times of scarcity. In these countries
it is chiefly cultivated as food for cattle. The
young leaves are eaten as spinach. The per-
centage composition of mangold-wurzel is as
follows :

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1018

MANGEL-WURZEL FLY-MANURES

Albuminoid bodias
Sugar, Ac. .
Indigestible flbie

. 1-64
. 8-60
. 1-12
. 0-96
. 87-78
See AVTHOXTIA

Water
KANeBL-WUSZEL ILY.

BITS.

KAir'HEIK SOLD. A gold-coloured braw.
See Oou) (Dntch).

■AITHA. 8g». MuniA (B. P, Ph. L., E.,
and D.), L. A concrete exudation from the stem
of Fraarinmi ommt and F. roiund^olia, obtained
by indrion (B. P.). " The juice flowing from the
incised btfrk" of "Fraxiitut rottmdifoUa and F.
omiu, Iiardened by the air " (Ph. L.). The finest
variety of this drag is known as flake manna, and
occurs in pieces varying from 1 to 6 inches long,
1 or 2 inches wide, and i to 1 inch thick. It has
a yellowish- white or cream colour ; an odour some-
what resembling honey, but less pleasant, a sweet,
mawkish taste; and is light, porous, and friable.
It is laxative in doses of I to 2 oz.

Hanna, Faetitions, made of a mixture of sugar,
starch, and honey, with a very small quantity of
scammony to give it odour and flavoar, and to
render it purgative, has been lately very ex-
tensively offerd in trade, and met with a ready
fal&'

XAWACBOITF. A granular preparation of
wheat deprived of bran, used as an article of food
for children and invalids {BramU).

HAJT'KITE. C,Ha(UH)r Sj/n. Maitvixol,

'ilASMJL SPSXB, MUSHBOOK 8. ; MA51CITA, L. A

sweet, cryatallisable substance, found in manna,
in the sap of the common ash, larch, apple, cherry,
itc i in the leaves of the syringa and privet ; in
certain lichens, seaweeds, and fungi; in celery,
asparagus, sugar-cane, olives, onions, rye-bread,
and the root of the monkshood (^ooattem napel-
Uu). Mannite is also a product of the viscous or
'ropy' fermentation of sweet liquids, beetroot
juice being especially liable to this cha'nge. It is
now genttally regarded as a hexhydric alcohol,
and is an impwtant substance in vegetable
chemistry, and in several other vegetable produc-
tions. It has been formed artifidally by the action
of sodium amalgam upon an alkaline solution of
cane-sngar.

JVsp. 1. Digest manna in boiling rectified
spirit, and Alter or decant the solution whilst hot ;
the mannite crystallises as the liqnid cools in tufts
of slender, colourless needles.

2. (^upimi.) Manna, 6 lbs.; cold water (in
which the white of an egg has been beaten), 8
lbs. ; mix, boil for a few minutes, and strain the
■ymp through linen whilst hot ; the strained
liquid will form a semi-crystalline mass on cool-
ing ; submit this to strong pressnre in a cloth,
mix the cake with its own weight of cold water,
and again press it; dissolve the cake thus ob-
tained in boiling water, add a Httle animal char-
coal, and Alter tiie mixture into a porcelain dish
set over the Are ; lastly evaporate the Altrate to a
pelUcle, and set the syrop aside to crystallise.
Large quadrangular prisms, perfectly white and
transparent.

>. ArtiAciaUy from glucose or, still better, from
fruit-sagar by treating an aqueona lolntion of it
irithsownm amalgam ; the glneose takes np 8

atoms of hydrogen. The same transformaiion of
glucose takes place under the action of certain
ferments. This leads to the inference that gv^M-
sngar is the aldehyde of mannite.

Prop., 4*0- Mannite has a moderately sweet
and agreeable taste ; dissolves in 6 parts of cold
water and about half that quantity of boiling;
water ; freely soluble in hot, and slightly so in cold
alcohol i insoluble in ether ; fuses at 166° without
loss of weight. By oxidation in contact witb
platinum-black it is converted into maanitic add,
C,HuOf, and mannitose, C,Hi,0,, a sugar iso-
meric with glucose. By oxidation with nitric
acid it yields saccharic acid, CiH^O^ and nlti-
mately oxalic acid. The nitrate is a crystaUin«
body which explodes violently by percussion or
when suddenly heated. Heated with organic
acids mannite forms ethereal salts after the manner
of alcohols; generally the resulting compound
has a considerable resemblance to the &ts. Heated
to 200° C. it forms mannitane, a viscous sub-
stance very similar to glycerin. It is distinguished
from the true sugars try its aqueous solution not
being susceptible of the vinous fermentation, in
not reducing an alkaline cupric solution, and nst
possesung the property of rotary poUurisation.
When pure, it is perfectly destitute of purgative
properties. It is now extensively imported from
Italy, and is chiefly used to cover the taste at
nauseous medicines, and as a sweetmeat.

HASUSXS'. SubsUnces added to soils to
increase their fertility. Xlie food of vegetables,
as far as their organic structure is concerned,
consists entirely of inorganic compounds; and no
organised body can serve for the nutrition of
vegetables until it has been, by the process at
decay, resolved into certain inorganic substancea.
These are carbonic acid, water, and ammonia,
which are well known to be the final prodncta of
putrefaction. But even when these are applied
to vegetables, their growth will not proceed unless
certain mineral substances are likewise fnmiohed
in small quantities, either by the soil or the water
need to moisten it. Almost every plant, when
burned, leaves ashes, which commonly contain
silica, potassa, and phosphate of lime; often,
also, magnesia, soda, snlphates, and oxide of iron.
These mineral bodies appear to be essential to. the
existence of the vegetable tissues ; so that plants
will not grow in soils destitnta of them, however
abundantly supplied with carbonic acid, ammonia,
and water. The carbon of pfamts i« wh(dly de-
rived from carbonic acid, which is dther absorbed
from the atmosphere, and from niin-water, by
the leaves, or from the moisture and air in the
soil, by the roots. Its carbon is retained and
assimilated with the body of the plant, while ita
oxygen is given out in the gaseous form; thia
decomposition being always efFected nnder the
influence of light at ordinary temperatures. The
hydrogen and oxygen of vegetables, which, when
comlnned with carbon, constitute the ligneous,
starchy, gummy, saccharine, oily, and resinous
matters of plants, are derived from water chiefly
absorbed by the roots from the soil. The nitrogen
of vegetables is derived chiefly, if not ocelnsivMy,
from ammonia, which is supplied to tiiem in rain,
and in manures, and which remains in the soil tall
absorbed by the roots.

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MANUSCRIPTS

1019

Aeeoi^ng to the celebrated 'mineral theory'
of kgricaltnre advanced by Liebig, a soil is fertile
or baneu for any given plant according as it
oontaini thoae mineral sabatancea that enter into
ita eompoaition. Thna " the aabes of wheat-rtraw
contain mnoh silica and potaiaa, wbilst the aahea
of the geeda contain phoaphate of magnesia.
Hence, if a soil is deficient in any one of theae,
it will not yield wheat. On the other band, a
good crop of wheat will ezhaoat the soil of these
anbatancea, and it will not yield a second crop
till they have been reatored, either by mannre, or
by the gradoal action of the weather in diain-
tagimting the subaoil. Henoe the benefit derived
fran fallows and from the rotation of crops.

'' When, by an extraordinary sapply of any one
mineral ingredient, or of ammonia, a large crop
has been obtained, it is not to be eipected that a
repetition of the same individual mannre next
year will produce the same effect. It must be
remembered that the nnosnal crop has ezhaosted
the soil probably of all the other mineral ingre-
dients, and that they also must be restored before
a aeoinid crop can be obtained,

"The salt most essential to the growth of the
potato is the double phosphate of ammonia and
magnesia; that chiemr required for hay is phos-
phate of lime; while for almost all plants potasea
and ammonia are highly beneficial."

From theae principlea we " may deduce a few
Tsloable oonclosions in regard to the chemistry
of sgricnltnre. First, by examining the ashes <^
m thrinng {dant we discover the mineral ingre-
dienta which mast exist in a soil to render it
fertile for that phmt. Secondly, by examining a
soil, we can say at once whether it is fertile in
regard to any plants the ashes of which have been
examined. Thirdly, when we know the defects
of a soil, the deficient matters may be easily ob-
tained and added to it, unmixed with such as are
not required. Fourthly, the straw, leaves, Ac, of
any plant are the best manure for that plant,
ainee every vegetable extracts from the soil such
matters alone as are essential to it. This im-
piwtant principle has been amply verified by the
■noceaa atten&ig the nae of wheat-straw, or its
ashes, as manure for wheat, and of the chippings
of the vines as a manure for the vineyard.
When these ore used (in the proper quantity) no
other mannre is required. Fifthly, in the rota-
tion of crops, those should be made to follow
which require different materials; or a crop
which extracts little or no mineral matter, soch
aa peas, should come after one which exhausts
the soil of its phosphates and potassa " {Liehig).

The experiments of Hessn Lawes and Qilbert
ta»Te forad npon them opinions differing from
tiKise of Boron Liebig on some important p<dn(s
ia relation to his 'mineral theory,' which en-
deavoors to prove that " the crops on a field
JtitttUK or increase in exact proportion to the
diaiiBiition or increase of the mineral substances
conveyed to it in mannre." The results obtained
by the English investigators appear to prove that
it is impossible to get good crops by using
mineral mannres alone, and that nitrogenous
inaanres (farmyard manure, guano, ammoniocol
salts, Ac) are fertiliiiiig agenU of the highest
order*

Of the chemical mannret now so mach used

bone-dust is, perhaps, the most important, as it
supplies the phosphates which have been ex-
tracted by successive crops of grass and com, the
whole of the bones of the cattle fed on these
crops having been derived from the soil; ita
gelatin also yields ammonia by putrefaction.
Gnano acts as a sonrce of ammonia, oontuning
much oxalate and nrste of ammpuia, with some
phosphates. Night-soil and urine, especially the
latter, are most valuable for the ammonia they
yield, as well as for the phosphates and potassa ;
but are very mnch neglected in this country,
although their importance is fully appreciated m
Belgium, France, and China. Nitrate of soda is
valued as a source of nitrogen.

All organic substances may be employed aa
mannres ; preference being, however, given to
those abounding in nitrogen, and which readily
decay when mixed with the soil.

The analysis of manures, soils, and the ashes
of plants, for the purpose of ascertaining their
composition and comparative value, is not easily
performed by the inexperienced; but a rough
approximation to their contents, sufficiently
accurate for all practical purposes, may be gene-
rally made by any intelligent person with propel
core and attention. See Bomsusi, Gu^jro, dkc

Xannres, ArtifidoL Various fonnuUe belong-
ing to this head will be found dispersed, under
their respective names, throughout this work.
The following ore additional ones : —

1. {Audvrto*.) Sulphate of ammonia, com<
mon salt, and oil of vitriol, of each, 10 parts ;
chloride of potassium, 16 parts j gypsum and sul«
phate of potassa, of each, 17 parts; saltpetre, 20
parts ; crude Epsom salts, 86 parts ; sulphate of
soda, 83 parts. For clover.

2. (HturtdbU.) Crude potash, 28 lbs.; com-
mon salt, 1 cwt. ; bone-dust and gypsum, of each
2 cwt. ; wood ashes, 15 bushels. For either com,
turnips, or grass.

3. {Joluutont.) Sulphate of soda (dry), 11
lbs. ; wood ashes, 28 lbs, ; common salt, f cwt. ;
crude anlphate of ammonia, 1 cwt. ; bone-dnst» 7
bushels. As a substitute for guano.

4. (Law^ ' Snperphosphi^.') See CoFXO-

UTI.

6. (Fertilising powder,) A mixtnre of very
fine bone-dust, 18 parts ; calcined gypsum and
sulphate of ammonia, of each, 1 part. The seed
is ordered to be steeped in the ' drainings ' from
a dunghill, and after being drained, but whilst
still wet, to be sprinkled with the powder, and
then dried. See FlAWXBS, Limb (Superphos-
phate), Ac.

The 'plant fertilisers' sold under varioo*
names require to be used with caution, or an
artificial condition is produced which cannot be
sustained unless the manure is continued. Gar-
deners ' get up ' plants for market in this way,
and the purchaser is frequently disappointed by
their beginning to wither a few days after they
are bought. Great care is required in order to
save them, and more fertiliser must be used,
gradually reduced till the plant reaches a noraoal
state, when it will too often be found to have,
been hardly worth the trouble.

KASUSCSIPTSt Yaded, t« Sestor*. One of

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1020

MAPS— MARBLING

the method in ose for the rectoration of old or
faded writing is to expose it to the vapours of
hydrosnlphate of ammODia (bydrosulphide of
ammonium) until the ink becomes darkened by
the formation of sulphide of iron. Another con-
sists in carefnlly washing or sponi^ing the faded
manoBcript over with a weak solution of the am-
monic snlphide, and as soon as the characters
become legible, soaking it in water so as to re-
move the remaining sulphide, and then drying it
between folds of blotting-paper. A third plan,
and one attended with less risk to the paper, is to
brash over the manuscript with a moderately
strong aqueous solution of gallo-tannic acid, to
wash with water, and afterwards to dry it at a
temperature of ahout 150° F.

The solution of gallo-tannic acid may be ob-
tuned by making a strong infusion of bruised
nnt-galls in boiling water, and when cold strain-
ing it. Some old and medisBval manoscripts are
written in inks made of carbon. To such the
above treatment is inapplicable, being suited
only to those traced in or^nary writing ink. For
parchments the latter method is preferable.

MAPS. These, as well as architects' and en-
gineers' designs, plans, sections, drawings, Ac,
may be tinted with any of the simple liquid
colours mentioned under ' Vsltit Coi>ouii8,' pre-
ference being given to the most transparent ones,
which will not obscure the Unes beneath them.
To prevent the colours from sinking and spread-
ing, which they osiully do on common paper, the
latter should be wetted 2 or 8 times with a spongpe
dipped in alum water (3 or 4 oz. to the pint), or
with a solution of white size, observing to dry it
carefully after each coat. This tendB to give
lustre and beauty to the ooloars. The colours for
this purpose should also he thickened with a little
gum water. Before varnishing maps after colour-
ing them, 2 or 8 coats of clean size should be
applied with a soft brush — the first one to the
back.

KASABCHI'VO (-keno). Syn. Masabquiit,
Fr. A delicate liqueur spirit distilled from a
peculiar cherry growing in Daltnatia, and after-
wards sweetened with sugar. The best is from
Zara, and is obtained from the marasca cherry
only. An inferior quality is distilled from a mix-
ture of cherries and the juice of liquorice root.

XAS'BIZ. Sf». LiKBgTOKx, Hakd cab-

BONATB OV Lim; MaBHOB, CAXOIB 0ABBONA8

oiTBUS, M. JiLBVX (B. P., Ph. E. ft D.), L.
Marbles are merely pnrer and more compact
varieties of limestone, which admit of being sawn
into slabs, and are susceptible of a fine polish.
White marble is employed for the preparation of
oarbonic acid and some of the salts of lime. It
contains about 65% of lime. Sp. gr. 2-70 to 2'85.
The tests of its parity are the same as those
already noticed under Chalk.

Marble is best cleaned with a little soap and
water, to which some ox-gall may be added.
Acids should be avoided. Oil and grease may be
generally removed by spreading a paste made of
soft soap, caustic potash lye, and fuller's-earth
over the part, and allowing it to remain there for
a few days ; after which it must be washed oS
with clean water. Or equal parta of American
potash (erode carbonate of potash) and whiting

are made into a moderately stiff paste with a
sufficiency of boiling water, and applied to the
marble with a brush. At the^end of 2 or 8 days
the paste is removed and the marble washed with
soHp and water. Any defpct of polish may be
brought up with tripoU, followed by putty powder,
both being used along with water.

Marble is mended with one or other of the
compounds noticed under Cbmbittb.

Marble may be stained or dyed of various
colours by applying coloured solutions or tinctures
to the stone, made sufficiently hot to make the
liquid jnst simmer on the surface. The following
are the substances usually employed for this par-
pose: —

Blui. Tincture or solution of litmus, or an
alkaline solution of indigo.

Bbowit. Tincture of logwood.

Cbiksoit. a solution of alkanet root in <nl of
turpentine.

Flbrh-ooloub. Wax tinged with alkanet
root, and applied to the marble hot enough to
melt it freely.

Gou>-ooloub. a mixtnre of equal parts of
white vitriol, sal-ammoniac, and verdigris, each
in fine powder, and carefully applied.

Gbbbv. An alkaline solution or tincture of
sap green, or wax strongly coloured with verdi-
gris ; or the stone is first stained blue, and then
the materials for yellow stain are applied.

Rbd. Tincture of dragon's blood, alkanet root,
or cochineal.

YXLLOW. Tincture of gamboge, turmeric, or
saffron ; or wax coloured with annotta. Succeaa
in the application of these colours requires con-
siderable experience. By their skilful use, how-
ever, a very pleasing effect, both of colour and
grain, may be produced.

Marble, Saatoring. Take a rather firm linen
pad, damp it, sprinkle it with rotten-stone or fine
emery, and rub the marble until the gloss begins
to appear. Finally, polish the whole with another
linen pad, rouge and very finely ground emery
being on it. After the marble is dry, give the
finishing touch with a mixture of turpentine and
wax or French polish, and polish with an old silk
handkerchief nntil quite dry.

MASBLnrO (of Books, *e.). The edges and
covers of books are 'marbled' by laying the
colour on them with a brush, or by means of a
wooden trongh containing mucilage, as follows :
— Provide a wooden trough, 8 inches deep, 6
inches wide, and the length of a super-roy^
sheet ; boil in a brass or copper pan any quantity
of linseed and water until a thick mucilage is
formed ; strain this into the trough, and let it
cool ; then grind on a marble slab any of the fol-
lowing colours in table-beer. For blue, Prussian
blue or indigo ; — red, rose-pink, vermilion, or drop
lake ;— -yellow, king's yellow, yellow ochre, Ac. ; —
white, flake white ; — black, ivory- black, or burnt
lamp-black; — ^brown umber, burnt u., terra di
sienna, burnt s. ; black mixed with yellow or red
also makes brown; — green, bine and yellow
mixed ; — purple, red and bine mixed. For each
colour provide two caps — one for the ground
colours, the other to mix them with the ox-gall,
which must be used to thin them at discretion.
If too mnch gall is used the colours spread; when

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MARQABIC ACID— MARMALADE

1021

%X»oj keep their place on the sar^e of the trough,
on Wng moTed with a qnill, they are fit for lue.
All thii^ being in readiness, the prepared colonrs
are saccesriTel; sprinkled on the surface of the
macilage in ^e trough with a brush, and ate
waved or drawn abont with a quill or a stick
according to taste. When the design is thus
formed, the book, tied tightly between cutting-
boards of the same size, is lightly pressed with its
edge on the snrf ace of the liquid pattern, and then
withdrawn and dried. The covers may he marbled
in the same way, only the liquid colonrs must be
allowed to ran over them. The film of ooloor in
the trough may be as thin as possible ; and if any
remains after the marbling, it may be taken off
by applying paper to it before yon prepare for
marbling again. This process has been called

FaXSOB. XABBIiINe.

To diversify the effect, a little sweet oil is often
Duxed with the colours before sprinkling them on,
by which means a light halo or circle appears
round each spot. In like manner spirit of tur-
pentine, sprinkled on the surface of the trough,
produces white spots. By stuning the covers
witii any of the liquid dyes, and then dropping on
them, or nmning over them, drops of the ordinary
Bqnid mordants, a very pleasing effect may be
produced. Vinegar black, or a solution of green
copperas, thus applied to common leather, pro-
dnoes black spots or streaks, and gives a similar
effect with moat of the light dyes. A solution of
alum or of tin in like manner produces bright
spots or streaks, and soda or polash water dark
ones. This r^le has been called EaTPTiAK
KJiXBUl. — Soap uxRVLlsa is done by throwing
on the colours, ground with a little white soap to
a proper consistence, by means of a brush. It is
much osed for book-edges, stationery, sheets of
paper, ladies' fancy work, Ac. — Thsbac HjISBLb
is given by first covering the edge nniformly of
one colour, then laying pieces of thick thread
irr^ularly on different parts of it, and giving it
a fine dark sprinkle. When well managed the
effect is very pleasing. — BiOK icaxblb is given in
a similar way to the last by using rice. — Tbib
■wimtT.a ia done on leather book-covers, Ac, by
bending the board a little in the centre, and run-
ning the marbling liquid over it in the form of
vegetation. The knots are given by rubbing the
end of a candle on those parts of the cover. —
Wax xasbls is given in a similar way to thread
marble, but using melted wax, which is removed
after the book is sprinkled and dried; or a sponge
chained with blue, green, or red may be passed
over. This, also, is much used for stationery
work, especially for folios and quartos. The
'vinegar black' of the bookbinders is merely a
solution of acetate of iron, made by steeping a
few rusty nails or some iron filings in vinegar.
AU the ordinary liquid colonrs that do not con-
tain strong acids or alkalies may be nsed, either
alone or thickened with a little gum, for marbling
or sprinkling books.

8PKnrKiin(& is performed by simply dipping a

(tifT- hailed painter's brush into the colour, and

suddenly strikiDg it against a small stick held in

the left hand over the work. By this means the

eolonr is evenly scattered wiuiont producing

'Mors 'or' Wot".'

Pafeb, FAgTXBOABD, Ac, In sheets, are
marbled and sprinkled in a similar manner to
that above described, but in this case the gum
trough must, of course, be longer.

HAEQAKIC ACID. This term was formerly
applied to a mixture of palmitic and stearic acids,
produced by decomposing the alkaline soaps of
solid fats with an acid, but it is now given to a
fatty acid which can only be obtained artificially.

KABfi'ABXH'. Sg». MABaAKATBOPaLTOBBTL.

A constituent formerly supposed to exist in solid
fats, but now regarded as a mixture of stearin and
palmitin^

MASIHS' ACXO. See Htbboohlobio Aois.

XABIi. A natural mixture of clay and chalk
with sand. It is characterised by effervescing
with acids. According to the predominance of
one or other of its component parts, it is called
argillaceous, calcareous, or sandy marl. It is
very generally employed as a manure for sandy
soils, more particuJarly in Norfolk. See Sous.

HAB'HALAOS. Originally a conserve made
of quinces and sugar ; now commonly applied to
the conserves of other fruit, more especially to
those of oranges and lemons.

I'np. Marmalades are made either by pound>
ing the pulped fruit in a mortar with an equal or
a rather larger quantity of powdered white sugar,
or by mixing them together by heat, passing them
through a hair-sieve whilst hot, and then putting
them into pots or glasses. The fruit-pulps are
obtained by rubbing the fruit through a fine
hair-sieve, either at once or after it has been
softened by simmering it for a short time along
with a little water. When heat is employed in
mixing the ingredients, the evaporation should
be continued until the marmalade 'jellies' on
cooling. See Cokbbbtbb, Confbotioiib, Blbo-
lUABiBB, Jajcs, Jbllibb, and below.

If armalade. Apricot. From equal parts of pulp
and sugar.

Marmalade, Mixed. From plums, pears, and
apples, variously flavoured to palate.

Marmalade, Orange. Prep. 1. From oranges
(either Seville or St Michael's, or a mixture of the
two), by boiling the peels in syrup until soft, then
pulping them through a sieve, adding as much
white sugar, and boiling them with the former
syrup and the juice of the fruit to a proper con-
sistence.

2. By melting the confection of orange peel
(Ph. L.), either with or without the addition of
some orange or lemon juice, and then passing it
through a sieve.

3. (Cahsibd ORAiraB Mabmalasb.) From
candied orange peel, boiled in an equal weight
each of sugar and water, and then passed through
a neve.

4. (Scotch Mabicaxasb.) a. Seville orange
juice, 1 quart ; yellow peel of the fruit, grated ;
honey, 8 lbs. ; boil to a proper consistence.

b. Seville oranges, 8 lbs. ; peel them as thinly
as possible, then squeeze out the juice, boil it
on the yellow peels for | of an hour, strain, add
white sugar, 7 lbs., and boil to a proper con-
sistence.

Marmalade, Quince. Sy». DiAOXBoimrx.
Prep. From quince flesh or pulp and sugar, equal
parts; or from the juice (mita CTDomoBUX,

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MARMALADE PLUM— MAS8£SJ

SBiVATlllA 0.), by boiling it to balf, adding an
eqnal qoantity of white wine and 2-8rdi of
ita weight of sugar, and gently evaporating the
mlztare.

Xaimalade, Tomato. Lilte afbioot kibica-
LASB, adding a few alicea of onion and a little
panley.

MAHMATiADB PLUM (Lwmma mammota,
Griaeb.).

XABKOBA'TUX. Finely powdered marble and
qoieklime, well beaten together; uaed ai a cement
or mortar.

KAS'SOW (Beef). ThU ii eztensirely em-
ployed by the perfamen in the preparation of
Tarioui pomade* and other cosmetici, on acconnt
of its famishing an exceedingly bland fat, which
is not so mnch disposed to rancidity as the other
fain. It is prepared for nse by soaking and work-
ing it for some time in lukewarm water, and
afterwards melting it in a water-bath, and strain-
ing it through apiece of moslin whilst hot. When
scented it is esteemed eqoal to bear'* grease for
promoting the growth of the hair.

XASSH GAS. Light carbnretted hydrogen.

KABSH-XALLOW. Sgn. AvrsMA (Ph. L.
and S.), L. The root (leaves and root. Ph. E.)
of Altkaa offieinalis, Linn., or common marsh-
mallow (Ph. L.). It is emoUientanddemalcent;
the decoction is nsefnl in irritation of the re-
spiratoryand urinary organs, and of the alimentary
canal. The flowers as well as the root are repnted
pectoral.

KASSH'S TEST. See Absbvioub Acid.

XASTIK'S POVDSS. A mixtnre of white
arsenic and the powdered stems of Orohcmehe
virgimana, Linn., a plant common in Virginia.
An American quack remedy for cancer.*

MASS. Syn. Habsa, L. This term is com-
monly applied in pharmacy and veterinary medi-
cine to certain preparations which are not made
up into their ultimate form. Thus we hav<s
'ball maases,' 'pill masses,' &e. ; of which, for
convenience, large quantities are prepared at a
time, and are kept in pots or jars, ready to be
divided into balls or pills, as the demands of busi-
ness may require (see belov).

XA88Aei. Dr Hale White gives the follow-
ing instmctiona for conducting the operation of
massage i — Pint grease the parts with vaseline or
oil, and if the skin be very hairy it may be neces-
■aiy to cut the hair; then stroke the muscles
firmly several times with the edge of the hands
in tiie direetion of the venous flow. In places
■uch as the back, where this b impossible, always
stroke in the same direction; on the abdomen
follow the course of the colon ; next yon may take
up the skin between the tiramb and forefinger,
and rub it between them, one hand following the
otiier in the same direction as the stroking, tiien
thoroughly knead the mnsdes with one or both
hands, according to the rise of the part, in tbe
same direction as already mentioned; aft«r this
move all the joints in every direction, then you
may conclude by striking the muscles with several
small blows, bat this is not of much importance.
The full time should be about an hour twice a
day for the wbole body. If there is a painful spot
' tmi. the' case be one of hysteria, particulsTly direct
your energies to that part, avoiding the bones.

XA88AXAn>UBA. See MmTBOFS.

XA88£S (TMetiBMy). BeprintedfromTnaon's
' Veterinary Pharmaeopoaia:'

Kassa Aloes. Mass o> Ai«n. Sgn. Catsax-
TIO KABB. Frap. Take of Barhadoes aloes, in
small pieces, 8 parts; glycerin, 2 parts; ginger,
in powder, 1 part ; mcdt together in a wsAer-bath,
and thoroughly incorporate by frequent stirring.

— Ute. Cathartic for the horse. — Dote. From
6 to 8 dr.

Xaasa Aloes Cognposita. CoMPonxs mais oy

ATOBS. Sgn, ALTBSATtTS MASS. Prep. TUe

of Barhadoes aloes, in powder, 1 oz. ; soft soap,
1 OS. ; common mass, 6 os. ; thoroughly incorpo-
rate by beating In a mortar, so as to form a mass.

— Un. Alterative for the hotse. — Doib, 1 ox.
Xaasa Antiaonii Tartarata Composlta. Cox-
pound KABB OF TABTASATES AXTIlfOirr. Sgn.
PxvSB BALL. Prap. Take of tartarated anti-
mony, in powder, t dr. ; camphor, in powder, i dr. ;
nitrate of potash, in powder, 8 dr. ; common mass,
a sufficiency; mix so as to form a bolus. — Uf.
Febrifuge for the horse. — Dote. The above miX"
ture constitutes 1 dose.

Xaasa BeUadonn* Composlta. CoMPonirs

KIBB 07 BBLLASOirirA. 8gn. COUOH BAXL. iVcp.

Take of extract of belladonna, i to 1 dr. ; Barha-
does aloes, in powder, 1 dr. ; nitrate of potash, in
powder, 2 dr.; common mass, a sufficiency; mix
so as to form a bolus. — Ute. Vat the horse in
chronic cough. — Dote. The above mixture eon-
stitutes 1 dose.
Kassa Catechu Composlta. CoKroirirD mam

OF OATBOHU. iS^. ABTXIKSIIIT XABB. Prtp.

Take of extract of catechu, in fine powder, 1 ox. ;
cinnamon bark, in fine powder, 1 oz. ; common
mass, 6 oz. ; mix. — 17m. Astringent for the horse.
— Dote, 1 oz., in the form of a bolus.

Xassa Communis. Coxxok xabs. Prep. Take
of Unseed, finely ground, and treacle, of each,
eqnal partn; mix together so as to form a mass.

— Vte. An excipient for medicinal agents when
they are to be administered in the form of
bolus.

Xassa Cnpri Snlphatis. Mabb of bitlvhati of
OOFFBB. ^fi. TOHIO XABB. Prep. Take of
sulphate of copper, finely powdered, 1 oz. ; ginger,
in powder, 1 oz. ; common mass, 6 oz. ; mix. — ^<«.
Tonic for the horse. — Dote, 6 to 8 dr.

Kassa Digitalis Composlta. Coxpouvs xabb
OF DISITAI.TB. Sgn. CouSH BAU.. Prep. Take
of Barhadoes aloes, in powder, 2 oz. ; digitalis, 1
oz. ; common mass, IS oz. ; mix. — Ute. Tor the
horse in chronic cough. — Dote, 1 oz. once or twice
a day.

Xaasa F«ni galphatis. Mabb of bvlfhatb
OF IBOH. Sjifn. TOKIO XAB8. Prep. Take of
sulphate of iron, in powder, 2 oz.; ginger, in
powder, 1 oz. ; common man, 6 oz. ; mix. — Ute.
Tonic for the horse. — Dote, 6 to 8 dr.

Kassa Basina Composlta. CoxPOVirD UAW OB
BB8iB._ djpi. DiTTBBno XABB. Prep. Ttkeot
resin, in powder, nitrate of potash, in powder,
hard soap, of each, eqnal parts; mix. — Ute, Di-
uretic for the horse. — Dote, 1 oz.

Kassa mngiberis Coapotlta. Coxxonira) xabs
OFepaiB. Sg». COBDUlXASS. Prep. Take
of ginger, in powder, gentian root, in powder,
treacle, of each equal parts, a suffideucy ; mix so

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MASSICOT— MATCHES

1028

M to form a mtun. — U*e. Stomachic for the
hone. — I>o*», 1 os.
XAS'SICOT. Syn. Masticot, Tillow fbo-

TOXn>B 0> LXAD ; PlTTICBI OXTDMV. VLJiVVX, CB-

XDWA OITSIHA, L. The droaa that forms on
melted lead expoied to a carrent of air, roasted
until it acquires a uniform yellow colour. Artists
often apply the same name to white-lead roasted
until it turns yellow. Used as a pigment.

MASTIC. 8yn. Mabtich, Guk iusticj
Mabtiohk, L. The "resin flowing from the
inciaed bark of JPutaeia laUiietu, vax. Chia"
(Ph. L.). It occurs in pale yellowish, trans-
parent, rounded tears, which soften between the
teeth when chewed, giving out a bitter, aro-
matic taste. Sp. gr. 1-07. It is soluble in both
rectified spirit and cnl of tarpentine, forming
Tsmishes. It is chiefly used as a ' masticatory,'
to strengthen and preserve the teeth, and perfume
the breath.

Mastie. Fine mortar or cement used for plas-
tering walls, in which the ingredients, in a pnl-
Tcmlent state, are mixed np, either entirely or
with a considerable portion of linseed oil. It acts
Tery hard, and is ready fo receive paint in a few
days. See Cbxbbts.

KASTICA'TIOK. The act of chewing food, by
which it not only becomes comminuted, but mixed
with the saliva, and reduced to a form fit for
■wallowing. It has been justly regarded by the
highest authorities as the first process of diges-
tion, and one without which the powers of the
stomach are over-tasked,and often performed with
difficulty. Hence the prevalence of dyspepsia and
bowel compl^nts among persons with bad teetii, or
who ' bolt ' their food without chewing it.

XASnCATOSIES. Sgn. Mabtioatosia, L.
Substances taken by chewing them. They are
employed as intoxicants, cosmetics, and medi-
cinals; generally with the first intention. The
principal masticatory used in this country is
tohacco. In Turkey, and several other Eastern
nations, opium is taken in a similar manner. In
India, a mixture of areca nut, betel leaf, and lime,
performs the same duties ; whilst in some other
parts of the world preparations of caco are em-
ployed. As cosmetics, orris root, cassia, cinna-
mon, and sandal-wood are frequently chewed to
•cent the breath. Among medicinals, mastic and
myrrh are frequently chewed to strenthen the
teeth and gums; pellitory, to relieve the tooth-
ache; and rhnbaib, ganger, and gentian, to reUeve
dyspepsia and pronfota the appetite.

Prep. 1. {Aagtutin.) Mastic, pellitory (both
in powder}^ and white wax, of each, 1 dr. ; mixed
by beat and divided into 6 balls. In toothache,
loose teeth^ &c.

8. {W. CooUy.') Mastic, myrrh, and white
wax, ol each, 1 part ; rhubarb, ginger, and extract
of gentian, of each, 2 parts; beaten up with
tincture of toln, q. s., and divided into boluses or
lozenges of 10 gr. each. One or two to be chewed
■n hour before dinner; in dyspepsia, defective
appetite, Ac.

3. (Qnimof.) Mastic, 8 oz. ; pellitory and
ftavesacre seed, of each, 2 dr. ; cnbebs and nut-
megs, of each, 1 dr. ; angelica root, i dr. ; melted
wax, q. 8. to make it into small balls. As a
atimnlMit to the gnnu, and in toothache.

4. Opinm, ginger, rhubarb, mastic, pellitory of
Spain, and orris root, of each, 1 dr.; melted
spermaceti, q. s. to mix ; for 6-gr. pills. As the
last, and in toothache and painful gums.

MABTICOT. See Mabbicot.

HATCHES (Cooper's). Sf». Swbbtbitiko
KATCEBB. These are made by dipping strips of
coarse linen or canvas into melted brimstone.
For nse, the brimstone on one of them is set on
fire, and the match is then at once suspended in
the cask, and the bung loosely set in its place.
After the lapse of 8 or 8 honrs the match is re-
moved and the cask filled with liquor. Some
persons pour a gallon or two of the liquor into
the cask before ' matching ' it. The object is to
allay excessive fermentation. The operation is
commonly adopted in the western counties for
cider intended for shipment, or other long expo-
sore during transport. It is also occasion^y
employed for inferior and ' doctored ' wines.

Matches (Instantaneous Light). Of these there
are several varieties, of which the one best known,
and most extensively used, is the common phos-
phorus match, known as the ' congreve ' or ' luci-
fer.' The original ' lvcjfbbb' or'uoHT-BBABINe
KATOEES,' invented in 1826, consisted of strips of
pasteboard, or flat splints of wood, tipped first
with sulphur, and then with a mixture of sulphide
of antimony and chlorate of potassa, and were
ignited by drawing them briskly through folded
glass-paper. They required a considerable effort
to ignite them, and the composition was apt to
he torn off by the violence of the friction. The
term 'Incifer,' having become familiar, was
applied to the simpler and more effective match
afterwards introduced under the names of ' CON-
SKBTB ' and • OOKOBBTB MOST.' We need not
describe the ' chemical matches,' ' phosphorus
bottles,' and 'prometheans,' in use during the early
part of the present centary, as these are quite
obsolete. We will simply sketch the general
process of manufacture now in use for phosphorus
matches.

Manvf. The wooden splints are cut by steam
machinery from the very best quality of pine
planks, perfectly dried at a temperature of 400°
F. English splints are of two sizes — ' large' and
'minnikins;' the former 2i inches longer, and
the latter somewhat shorter. In the manufacture
double lengths are used, so that each splint may
be coated with the igniting composition at both
ends, and then cut asunder in the middle to form
two matches. In England the splints are usually
cut square in form, but in Germany they are
cylindrical, being prepared by forcing the wood
through circular holes in a steel plate. The ends
of the double splints having been slightiy charred
by contact with a red-hot plate, are coated with
sulphur by dipping them to the requisite depth
in the melted material. In some cases the ends
are saturated with melted wax or paraffin instead
of sulphur. The splints are then arranged in a
frame between grooved boards in such a manner
that the prepared ends project on each side of the
frame. These projecting ends are then tipped
with the phosphorus composition, which is spread
to a uniform depth of about l-8th inch on a
smooth slab of stone, kept warm by means of
steam beneath. When partially dry, the tipped

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MAXi— MATICO

splinu are taken from the frames, cut through
the middle, and placed in heaps of 100, ready for
'boxing.'

The different compositions for tipping the
matches in use in different countries and factories
all consist essentially of emulsions of phosphorus
in a solution of glue or g^m, with or without
other matters for increasing the combustibility,
for colouring, &c. In England the composition
contains a considerable quantity of chlorate of
potassa, which imparts a snapping and flaming
qoality to the matches tipped with it, and but
little pliosphoms, on account of the moisture of
the climate. In Germany the proportion of
phosphorus nsed is much Isrger, and nitre, or
some metallic peroxide, replaces chlorate of po-
tassa. The German matches light quietly with a
mild lambent flame, and are injured qnicUy by
damp. The following formulo have been selected :

1. (Enolisb.) Fine glne, 2 parts, broken into
small pieces, and soaked in water tiU quite soft,
is added to water, 4 parts, and heated by means
of a water-bath until it is quite fluid, and at a
temperature of 200° to 212° F. The vessel U
then removed from the 6re, and phosphorus, li
to 8 parts, is gradually added, the mixture being
agitated briskly and continually with a ' stirrer '
having wooden pegs or bristles projecting at its
lower end. When a uniform emulsion is obtiuned,
chlorate of potassa, 4 to 6 parts, powdered glass,
8 to 4 parts, and red-lead, smalt, or other colour-
ing matter, a snfficient quantity (all in a state of
very fine powder) are added, one at a time, to
prevent accidents, and the stirring continued
until the mixture is comparatively cool.

According to Mr G. Gore, the above proportions
are those of the best qnality of English composi-
tion. The matches tipped with it deflagrate with
a snapping noise (see <d>ovt).

2. (GiRXAN.) a. {BSUger.) Dissolve gum-
arabic, 16 parts, in the least possible quantity of
water, add of phosphorus, in powder, 9 parts, and
mix by trituration ; then add of nitre, 14 parts ;
vermilion or binoxide of manganese, 16 parts, and
form the whole into a paste, as directed above ;
into this the matches are to be dipped, and then
exposed to dry. As soon as the matches are quite
di7 they are to be dipped into very dilute copal
varnish or lac varnish, and again exposed to dry,
by which means they are rendered waterproof, or
at least less likely to suffer from exposure in damp
weather.

i. {B6Ugar.) Glne, 6 parts, is soaked in a
little cold water for 24 hours, after which it is
liquefied by trituration in a heated mortar ; phos-
phorus, 4 parts, is now added, and rubbed down
at a heat not exceeding 150° F. ; nitre, in fine
powder, 10 parts, is next mixed in, and after-
wards red ochre, 6 parts, and smalt, 2 parts, are
further added, and the whole formed into a uni-
form paste, into which the matches are dipped, as
before. Cheaper than the last.

0. {Dietel.) Phosphorus, 17 parts; glue, 21
parts ; red-lead, 24 parts ; nitre, 88 parts. Pro-
ceed as above.

Ob*. Matches tipped with the above (a, b,
and o) inflame without fulmination when rubbed
■gunst a rough surface, and are hence termed
' noisi'less matches ' by the makers.

3. {&ASETZ KATCHXB.) The latest improve-
ment of note in the manufacture of matches is
that of Landstrom, of Jonkoptng, in Sweden,
adopted by Messrs Bryant and May (patent). It
consists in dividing the ingredients of the match-
mixture into two separate compositions, one being
placed on the ends of the splints, as usual, and
the other, which contains the phosphorus, being
spread in a thin layer upon the end or lid of the
box. The following are the compositions used by
the patentee : — a. (For the splints.) Chlorate of
potassa, 6 parts ; snlphnret of antimony, 2 to 8
parts ; glne, 1 part. — b. (For the friction surface.)
Amorphous phosphorus, 10 parts; sulphuret of
antimony or peroxide of manganese, 8 parts;
glue, 3 to 6 parts; spread thinly upon the sur-
face, which has been previously made rough by a
coating of glue and sand.

By thus dividing the oompoaition the danger of
fire arising from ignition of the matches by acci-
dental friction is avoided, as neither the portion
on the splint nor that on the box can be ignited
by rubbing against an unprepared surface.
Again, by using the innocnous red or amorphous
phosphorus, the danger of poisoning is entirely
prevented.

1IAT£. £ty». PARAauAT TIA. This is the
dried leaf of a small shrub, the Hex paraguag-
entit, or Brazilian holly, growing in Paraguay
and Braiil ; by the inhabitants of which places,
as well as South America generally, it is largely
employed in the form of a beverage as tea. Its
active ingredient, paraguaine, formerly supposed
to be a distinct principle, has from further re-
searches into its composition been discovered to
be identical with theine and caffeine — the alka-
loids of tea and coffee.

Mr Wanklyn ascribes the following compoution
to mat^:

Moisture . . . . 6*72

Ash 5-86

Soluble organic matter , . 25-10
Insoluble organic matter 62-38

10000
MATX"KIA HEDICA. A collective name of
the various substances, natural and artificial, em-
ployed as medicines or in the cure of disease. In
its more extended sense it includes the science
which treats of their sources, properties, classifi-
cation, and applications. The materia medica of
the Pharmacopoeia is a mere list, with occasional
notes, "embracing the animal, vegetable, and
chemical substances, whether exuting naturally,
prepared in oflScinal chemical preparations, or
sold in wholesale trade, which we (the College)
direct to be used either in curing diseases or in
preparing medicines" (Ph. L.).

KATICO. Sgn. Soldub's ebbb; Matioo
(B. P., Ph. D.); Matioa, Hebba XATlcJi, L.
The dried leaves of Piper angutt^olium, B. and
P., a tropical American shrub, used as a mild
aromatic. The leaves have becm employed with
considerable success as a mechanical external
styptic; applied to leech-bites, slight cuts, and
other wounds, &c., and pressed on with the
fingers, they seldom fail to arrest the bleeding.
Matico has also been much lauded as an internal
astringent and styptic, in hRmorrhages from the

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IfATONNAISS SAtrCE— MEASnUE

1026

lug*, rtomaeh, bowels, ntenis, Ac.; bat M it u
Marl; dettitnte of astringent propertief, ita
Tirtaes in tbeae cases most have been inferred
bom its external action. As an aromatic, bitter
itimQlant, closely resembling the peppers, it has
been propoaed as a substitute for cubebs and black
pepper, in the treatment of diseases of the mucoas
nembranas, piles, &c. — Dom, i to 2 dr., in powder;
or under the form of infusion, tinctnre^ or boluses.

MATOVHAIBS 8ATTCS. Powdered tnrmeric,
1 OS. ; powdered tragacanth, 1 ox. ; olive oil, 8 oz. ;
eggs, 8; water, 6} pints; ground mustard, li
01.; salt, 8 OS. ; acetic acid (gladal), 2 oi.; tinc-
ture of capaicum, i oz., or aoeotdtng to taste ;
■agar, 1 lb. Mix the first three ingndients in a
BMBtar capable of holding one gallon, then add the
eggs, whidi hsva been whipped previously, and in-
oorpmate thorongUy until an emulsion is formed ;
next mix separately the mnatard and water, allow
to stand 10 or 16 minutes, or until the flavour is
fully developed, then add the last 4 ingredients,
mix and add- the liquid gradoally to the contents
of the mortar. It should m^e a smooth, nniform
emulsion; finally, strain through cheese-cloth.

TOAD. a^. Hblluta, L. An old English
liquor, made from the oombs from which the
honey has been drained, by boiling them in
water, and fermenting the saocharine solution
thus obtained. It is commonly confounded with
metheglin. Scmie persons add 1 oz. of hops to each
gallon; and, after fermentation, a little brandy.
It is then called sack meed. See MmrHieixv.

JUtAL. The substance of edible grain ground
to powder, without being bolted or sifted.
Barley meal and oatmeal are the common sub-
stances of this class in England. In North
America the term is commonly applied to gronnd
Indian com, whether bolted or not (Cfoodrieh).
The four resolvent meals of old pharmacy (qua-
taor farimtB retolvntet) are those of barley,
bsana, linaeed, and rye.

■SAU. The "periods of taking food
usually adopted, in conformity with convenience
and the recurrences of hunger, are those which
are best adapted to the purposes of health ;
namdy, the morning meal, the midday meal, and
the evening meal." " That these are the proper
periods for meals is evident from the fact of
their maintaining thrar place amid the changes
which &shion is constantly introducing." " It we
look St these periods in another point of view,
we shall find an interval of four hours left
between them for the act of digestion and sub-

sequent rest of the stomach. Digestion will
claim between two and three honrs of the interval ;
the remaining hour is all that the stomach gets
of rest — enough, perhaps, but not too much, nor
to be justly infringed " (Srat. Wilton).

UA'SUiS. ^'B. RVBBOLA, MOSBILLI, L.

This very common disease is characterised by
feverishness, chilliness, shivering, head-pains,
swelling and inflammation of the qres, shedding
of sharp tears, with painful senaibility to light,
oppresaive cough, difficulty of breathing, and
sometimes vomiting or diarrhoea. These are fol-
lowed about the fourth day by a crimson rash
npon the skin, in irregular crescents or circles,
and by small red points or spots, which are per-
oeptime to the touch, and which, after four or
five days, go off with desquamation of the en-
tide. The fever, cough, &c., often continue for
sometime ; and unless there have been some con-
siderable evacuations, either by perspiration or
vomiting, they frequently return with increased
violence, and occasion great distress and danger.

Trtat. When there are no urgent local sym-
ptoms, mild aperients, antimonial diaphoretics,
and diluents should be had recourse to. The
cough may be relieved by expectorants, demul-
cents, and small doses of opium ; and tiie diar-
rhcea by the administration of the compound
powder of chalk and oj^nm; the looseness of
the bowels, however, had better not be interfered
with unless it be extreme.

Measles are most prevalent in the middle of
winter, and though common to individuals of all
agea, are most frequent amongst children. The
contagion of measles will not travel far in the
air, but is readily carried by clothing. The catar-
rhal stage is infections, and often mistaken for a
common cold, and neglected until too late to
prevent spread of the disease ; the period of
incubation is ten or twelve days, and until this
period have elapsed after contact with a patient
suffering from the disease, a healthy person can-
not be said to be safe. The value of isolation in
preventing the spread of meatles will be obvious.

Like the smallpox, the measles are contagions,
and seldom attack the same person more than
once daring life.

XEAStraE. Sgn. MlHBURi., L. The unit
or standard by which we estimate extension,
whether of length, superficies, or volume. The
following tables represent the values and propor-
tions of the principal measures employed in «««••
tneme and the arU i

Tabu I. S»gUth Lineal Jftatnru.

laches.

Feet.

Tttds.

Poles.

TniloBfS.

Maes.

!•

•088

•028

•00506

•00012626

•0000157828

12-

1-

•888

•06060

•00161616

•00018989

86-

8-

1-

•1818

•004646

•00066818

19S>

16-5

6-6

1^

•026

•008126

7820-

660-

220-

40-

1-

•126

88860-

6280-

1760-

820-

s-

1-

*«* The unit of the above table is the yard, of which no legal standard has existed since that
estri>lkbed by the statute of 1824 was destroyed by the fire which consumed the two Houses of
PwKament in 1834.

Tot. II. 65

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1028

MEAT

juicy appearuice known aa'nnderdone.' Although
a certain qoantity of the grary (which oonsists of
the loluble and saline ingredienta) eacapes in the
proeeM, the greater part ia retained. The brown
agreeably sapid suhatance formed on the outside
of the meat is known as otmatome, and is concen-
trated gravy. The melting fat which collects
below forms the dripinDg. The low in the meat
is principally water.

The chemical effects of boiling are explained
nnder the article devoted to that subject.

Meat generally loses from 80% to 40% , and
sometimes aa mach as 60% in weight, by cooking.
The better the quality the less the loss. Badly
fed meat will lose twice as mnoh weight as well-
fed, and though often cheaper it is false economy
to porchase it.

The amount of bone varies, being seldom less
thut 8% . It amounts in the neck and brisket to
about 10% , and from \ to sometimes i the total
wdght in shins and legs of beef.

The most economical parts are the round and
thick flank, next to these the brisket and sticking-
^ece, and lastly, the leg.

In choosing mntton and pork, selection should
be made of the leg, after this of the shoulder
{Zetkeby).

" Oxen," says M. Bizet, " yield of lut qualUg
beef 67% of meat and 43% waste. The waste in-
dndes the internal viscera, &c. Second qualitji of
beef, 54% meat and 46% waste ; third gnalitj/ beef,
61% meat and 49% waste. In milking-cows, 46%
meat and 64% waste. Calves yield 60% meat and
40% loss; and sheep yield 60% meat and 60%
loss." Dr Parkes differs from Bizet as to the
latter's value of the meat of the calf. He says
the flesh of young animals loses from 40% to 60%
in cooking.

It seems to be agreed, however, that animals
when slaughtered should be neither too young nor
too old. The flesh of young animals, although
more tender, is less digestible than that of older
ones ; it is also poorer in salts, fat, and an albu-
minous substance called igntoniit.

Coniumptian of Meat. Dr Letheby, writing in
1868, says that in London " the indoor operatives
eat it to the extent of 14*8 oz. per adult weekly ;
70% of English farm labourers consume it, and to
the extent of 16 oz. per man weekly j 60% of the
Scotch, 80 of the Welsh, and 20 of the Irish also
eat it. The Scotch probably have a larger allow-
ance than the English, considering that braxy
mutton is the perquisite of the Scotch labourer;
but the Welsh have only an average amount of
2) oz. per adult weekly ; and the Irish allowance
is still less. It is difficult to obtain accurate
-returns of the quantity of meat consumed in
London; but if the computation of Dr Wynter is
correct, it is not less thui 30| oz. per head weekly,
or about 41 oz. per day for every man, woman,
and child. In Paris, according to H. Armand
Hnison, who has carefully collected the octroi re-
turns, " it is rather more than 49 oz. per head
weekly, or just 7 oz. a day." Bondin states that
throughout Fiance the consumption is about 60
grms. daily, or under 1} oz.

Dr Letheby, in his work ' On Food,' gives the
following as the characteristics of good meat:
" 1st. It is neither of a pale pink colour nor of

a deep purple tint, for the former is a sign of dim-
ease, and the latter indicates that the animal haa
not been slaughtered, but has died with the blood
in it, or has suffered from acute fever.

" 2nd. It has a marked appearance from the
ramifications of little veins of Ht among the
muscles.

" Srd. It should be firm and elastic to the tonch,
and should scarcely moisten the fingeis — bad meat
being wet, and sodden and flabby, with the fiit
loobng like jelly or wet parchment.

" 4th. It should have little or no odour, and
the odour should not be disagreeable, for diieaaed
meat has a sickly cadaverous smell, and 8ome>
times a smell of physic. This is very discoverable
when the meat is chopped up and drenched with
warm water.

" 6th. It should not shrink or waste much in
cooking.

" 6th. It should not run to water, or become
very wet on standing for a day or so, but should,
on the contrary, dry upon the surface.

" 7th. When dried at a temperature of 212° or
thereabouts, it sfasuld not lose more than from
70% to 74% of its weight, whereas bad meat will
often lose as much as 80% .

" Other properties of a more reltned ebaiacter
will also serve for the recognition of bad meat, as
that the juice of the flesh is alkaline or neutral
to test-pi4>er, instead of being distinctly aod;
and the muscular fibre, when examined nnder
the microsoope, is found to be sodden and ill-
deflned."

Utuound Mtat—IHi«at«d Meat. Dr Letheby,
in his 'Lectures on Food,' published in 1868,
states that the seizure and condemnation, in
London, of meat unfit for human food, during a
period extending over 7 yean amounted to 700
tons per annum, or to about l-760th oi the whole
quantity consumed. These 700 tons he dissects
into lbs. as follows : — " 806,658 lbs. were diseased,
668,876 lbs. were putrid, and 193,782 lbs. were
from animals that had not been slaughtered, but
had died from accident or disease. It consisted
of 6640 sheep and lambs, 1026 calves, 2896 pigs,
9104 quarters of beef, and 21,976 joints of
meat."

He admits, however, that this amount, owing
to the difficulties and inefficiency of the mode of
supervision, bears a very insignificant proportion
to the actual quantity which escaped detection,
and which was, therefore, partalten of as food.
Professor Oarogee says that one fifth of the meat
eaten in the metropolis is diseased. In 1863 the
bodies of an enormous number of animals suffer-
ing from rinderpeet, as well as from pUmro-
pneitmo»ia, were consumed in London; and we
know that thousands of sheep die every year, in
the country, of rot; the inference from which
latter fact is that, since the carcases are neither
eaten there nor buried on the spot, they are sent
up to, and thrown upon, the London markets.
The worst specimens find their way to the poorer
neighbourhoods, where, as might be expected,
their low price ensures a ready sale for them.
These sales, it is said, mostly take place at night.
The above statements, which, if we exclude
Professor Gamgee's figures, do not solve the
problem as to the qnantity of unsound meat con-

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MEAT

1029

mmed in London, not anreuonably juatify the
■wamption thmt it ia Teiy oonaiderable ; and
thia being admitted, we ihonld be prepared to
learn that it waa a fertile aoarce of diiease of
a more or leaa dangeroua character.

The flesh of tnbercnlooa »niin»1« ig now regarded
•a nnflt for hnman food.

There ia, however, inch extensive divergence in
the variona data bewring npou thii point, that no
aatiafactoiy lolation of it can be said to be
aflorded. Thni, Livingstone states that, when
in Sonth Africa, he found that neither English-
men nor natives conld partake of the flesh of
M»iii»«l« affected with pUnro-pneumouia withont
its giving rise to malignant carbuncle, and some-
times, in the ease of the natives, to death ; and
Dt Letheb; attributes the increased number of
oubancles and phlegmons amongst onr population
to the importation from Holland of cattle suffer-
ing from the same disease. On the contrary,
Dr Farkes says he was informed, on excellent
aotbority, that the Caffres invariably consume
the flesh of their cattle that die of the same epi-
donic, without the production of any ill-effects.
Again, there are numerous well-attested cases in
which the flesh of sheep which have died -from
iraatjf (a disease that makes great ravages
amongst the flocks in Scotland) is constantly
aaten without injurious results by the Scotui
shepherd. The malady causes death in the sbeep
from the blood coagulating in the vital org^ans,
and the sheep that so dies becomes the property
of the shepherd, who, after removing the ofhl, is
careful to cut out the dark congealed blood before
eookiiig it (LitJktbj/), Sometimes he salts down
the earcaos. In cases, however, where thorough
cooking or an observance of the above precautions
has been neglected, very dangerous and disastrous
eonseqaences have ensued. During the late siege
of Paris large quantities of the flesh of horses
with glandm appear to have been eaten with no
evil consequences ; and Mr Blyth, in his ' Dic-
tionary of Hygidne,' qnotes a similar case from
Tav^mi, who states that 800 army horses affected
with glanders (siorM) were lead to St Qermain,
near Paris, and killed, for several days they
■wed to feed the poor of the town without
earning any iiqnry to health.

A similar exemption from any evil effect
CoDowtng the consumption of diseased flesh is
teeoided by Professor Bmcke, of Vienna.

Kot many years since, the cattle of a locality
in Bohemia, being attacked by rinderptit, were
ordered by the Government to be slaughtered,
after which they were buried. The poor people
dog up the diseased carcases, cooked the meat,
and ate it, with no iqjnrions resnlt.

IVoent DncfaAtelet cites a case where the Aesh
of 7 cows attacked with raUes was eaten without
injory ; and Letiieby states that pigs with scarlet
fever uid spotted ^phns have beira used for food
with eqnaJly harmless results. The flesh of
sheep intb smallpox had been found to produce
vomiting and diarrhoa, sometimes accompanied
with fever.

One obvioos snggertion of the immnnity from
disease recorded in part of the cases above given
is that the injmioas properties of the flesh bad
been destroyed by the heat to which it had been

subjected in the process of cooking, combined
with the antiseptic and protective power of the
gastric juice. The subject, however, has not been
sufficiently examined to warrant the conclusion
that every kind of unsound meat may be rendered
innocuous by culinary means, for it must be re-
membered that a temperature far higher than
that to which the inner parts of a joint are ex-
posed in cooking, and much more prolonged, is re-
quired to kill many organisms, and that the
spores remain unaffected by temperatures which
would render the meat uneatable.

But even were this so, the idea of partaking of
meat which had once been unsound, from what-
ever cause, and, as in the instances above quoted,
with the pustules of smallpox, the spots generated
by typhus, and the Auh of scarlet fever upon it,
becomes unspeakably repulsive and revolting.
But we must not be misled because of the diffi-
culty of reconciling the contradictory statemente
above given, nor by the evidence some of them
appear to afford as to the innocuous character of
diseased meat, since it is just possible that closer
and more prolonged observation of the facte, may
have led to different conclusions. Thus, for ex-
ample, pork infested with that formidable ento-
zoon.tbe ZWcAiaasptraht, had been partaken offor
years, under the impression that it was a perfectly
healthy food, until Dr Zencker, of Dresden, dis-
covered that the parasite was the cause of a
frightful disease, which he called 7WoAiso«it, and
which had hitherto baffled all attempts to find out
ite origin. Dr Letbeby, writing on this snbject,
says : " I have often had occasion to investigate
cases of mysterious disease which had undoubtedly
been caused by unsound meat. One of these, m
more than ordinary interest, occnrred in the month
of November, 1860. The history of it is this : —
A fore-quarter of cow-beef was purchased in
Newgate Market by a sausage-maker, who lived
in Kingsland, and who immediately converted it
into sausage-meat. Sixty-six persona were known
to have eaten of that meat, and sixty-four of them
were attacked with sickness, diarrhoea, and great
prostration of vitel powers. One of them died ;
and at the request of the coroner I made a search-
ing inquiry into the matter, and I ascertained that
the meat was diseased, and that it, and it alone,
had been the cause of all the mischief " (Letbeby,
' Lectures on Food,' Longmans and Co.).

Here are two instances in which bnt for subse-
quent investigation the evil effecte narrated would
not have been debited to diseased meat, bnt to
some other cause.

One of the principal, and by far the most
prolific sources of food poisoning is the sausage,
the eating of which, in Germany more partionlarly,
has canseid the death of a number of persons.

Tlie sausages in which these poisonous qualities
occasionally develop themselves are the large
kinds made in Wnrtemburg, in which district
alone they have caused the deaths of more than
160 out of 400 persons during the last fifty years.
The poisonous character of the sausage is said
to develop itself generally in the spring, when it
becomes mosty, and also soft in the interior. It
is then found to be add to test-paper, and to have
a very disagreeable and tainted flavour.

Should it be eaten when in this state, after from

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UBAT

About 12 to 84 hours, the patient ii attkdced with
i^ere iqteetinal init»tion in tlie fbnq of pun#
in tibe »toia&fh fad howejs,. b; Tomitiqgs, ufii.
di«whoi».

. To tbeee tyn^toms foiled gr«at dapieuion,
ooVcb>4Hin the Umbi, weak and. irregular pnUe,
and ^r^oeot fainting fit*. Should the siderer
b* attKked with iH>aTnln<^is itnd ^fflcolt respira-
tionj.the leiaare g^arally enda in death. Tha
natnre of the poiaonoua lubttance that give* riae
to tbeie effect* in the saoiage. baa , not yet been
determined. Liebig believ.ed them to be dne to
i}te presence in the ^leat of a pa^cular animal
f^nnontk ^hiph he conceived acted on the blood
\(j catalysis, and thas rendered it diseased. Others
have surmised that a poisonous organic alkaloid
qgay have been produced in the decaying meat;
and others again- that the effects may have been
Cfosed by some deleterious substance of a fatty
nature. H. Van den Corput was of opinion that
the mischief was due to the presencfs in the meat
of a poisonous fungus, which'he. palls a Sarciua
bfitulima. Tins last theory receives support from
the fytet that a peculiar mouldiness is always to
be observed in th^e dangerous sausage^, and that
this is coincideut with ^e development of their
poisonous qualities.'

Several effects have been produced by other
kinds of aiumal food — as veal, bacon, ham, salt
beef, salt fish, cheese, &&, and the food has usually
beeii,i«.a decayed and mouldy oondilaon.. It
would be tedious if I were to detail, or even to
enumerate the cases recorded by medioo>legal
writers; but I jmay perhaps refer to a few of
them. In 1839 there was a popular f 6te at Zurich,
and about 600 persona partook of a repast of cold
ipast veal and hapi. In a few hours most of them
were suffering from pain in the stomach, with
vomiting and diarrhoea ; and before a week had
elapsed nearly all of then^ were serionslj ill in
bed. They complained of shiverings, giddiness,
headache, and burning fever. In a few cases
there was delirium, and when they terminated
fiktally there was extreme prostration of the vital
powers, Careful inquiiy was instituted into the
matter, and the only discoverable canse of ti>e
mischief was incipient putrefaction and slight
mouldiness of the meat. A case is recorded by
Dr Qeisler of Mght persona .who became ill from
eating bacon which was mouldy; and another by
K. OUivier of the death of four persons out of
eight, aU of whom had partaken of partially de-
Qomposed mutton. . ' ■

If some of the foregoing statements fail to de>
woQstrate that Urn act of partaking of diseased
ineat >• a necessary source of danger to hoalth,
tners can be np sotpi doubt as to the pernicious
and perilooa consequences wjhich ensue when meat
ia fonsqmed containing in its tissues the ova and
larvtei of certain pai:asitic creatures. If the fleshy
part of a piece of measly pork be oarefully exa-
nintid it will baffund to be more or less dotted
about with a unmber. of little bladder-like spots,
in, si%B aboqt as large as a hemp-seed. Se«
CrfuOB^oi.

' If HOW we carefidly rupture one of these little
bodies or cysts thsr^ wiU.be found m it a minute
worm, whi^ snd^ th« n>i«roscope will be seen to
have a head, from whldi proceed a number of

little hooks that perform a very disagreeable office
should the pansite be take* into tihe human
stomach by any one making* meal off measly and
undercooked pork ; for then, being liberated from
its sac, or nidus, by the action of the gastric juice
of the stomaeh on this latter, the cresrfnre pasaea
into the intestines. To these it attaches itself by
means of the hooUets ob ite head, and instantly
becomes a tapeworm, which grows by a sneneasinn
of jointed segments it is able to develop, amdeaoh
one of which is capable of becoming a aspe-
rate and prolific tapeworm filled with conntksa

egrg»-

These eggs reach the land through the agenpy
of manure Tfor they are found in the intestiAea
of the horse), and from this source th^ get into
the stomachs of pigs and oxen, where tdhey hatch
not into tapeworm or tttnia, but, tcavelUag
through the animal's stomach, burrow into ito
muscular tissue. Hera they establish and en-
velop themselves in the little cyst or small blsid-
der-like subststnce, whose presence^, as explained,
constitntes the ccntdition called 'measly' pork,
and here they remain dormant until such tinw
as, taken into the stomach, they may again
beeome tapeworms, to be again expelled and to
pegrpetoate by their ova the round of metamor-
phosis. From the circumstanoe of their being
met with enclosed in little sacs or cysts, theae
parasites have bean termed CjftHeiroi,, The
vajciety of them we have just been oouidering s*
oeearring in pork ia called .the Ctfttioaromt «sU»-
ions, whilst the tapewwm to whieh it gives rise
is known as the Hasa mUmh.

Another variety of Oftticenmt is met. with in
the flesh of the ox, the cow, and the calf. In tbe
human body this aho devdope into a tapewtma
called the tia*a mtdioeaiulUita^ Tapeworm is a
very common disease in Bnsaia and Abyaaiuat
and its prevalence is no doabt dne to the habit of
giving the children in tiiose countries raw meat
to suck, under the impression that the child is
strengthened in consequence. Fi«m experiments
made by Dr Lewis it was found that a tempera-
ture of 160° F., maintained for five minutes, waa-
sufficient to destroy these cysttcerei.

Another and more formidable entoioon, ocna-
municable by unsound meat, is the Sehim^
eoemu hominit (see EoHIirooooavs BOltim),
which represents One of the metemar]4iotas 'iX
the 2V««a eeUnoeoeoui, the tapewom of the do^'
In Iceland, where a sixth of the population are
sud to soffer from' tiie ravages of the Sekimof:
eteeut hominit, it is the custom to feed the d«(gB
on the flesh of alaaghtared ammala affected with
this paiasite, whi^ in the body of the iog
develops into a tapeworm^ The innmmeratde
eggt which the worm pitodooes aret however,
incapable of being hatched in the dog's intee-
tines. They have to find anotlier and mote suit-
able habitat, and this ' is scoured for them aa
follows:— Segments of the tapeworm, with their
conntiess ova, bong voided with dog's etorement,
tall into the rnnning watery and on to tiie flelda
and pastures, whence they gain their entramoa
into the stonacha of human beings, oxeot and
ahe^ Here the eggs bsaonae hatched, not intb
tapeworms, bnt-into Bakimaeoact kommiti or.faai-.
speotive tapeworms. Burrowing thioogfa. the

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MEAT, AUSTRALIAN— MEAT EXTBACTS

IMl

membniiei of the atonueh, the •chinoeoeco*
establishes itself most commonly in the liver, bat
Dot anfreqnently in the spleen, heart, lungs, and
eren the bonea of man. In the aninul economy
they eneloee themaelvea in little iocs or cysts,
and giTO rise to the most alarming and painful
diseases, which hitherto have proved incarable.
They attack the brain in sheep, and are the canse
of we disease known as 'staggers.' Sheep are
also infested by another parasite, known as the
JXtloma itpaiiea, the ravages of which give rise
in the sheep to that devastatiag disease, 'the
rofc.' The creature is also known by the name of
the ' liver-fluke,' since it principally attacks this
important oifjan in the animal. The liver-fluke
is of constant occurrence in the livers of diseased
sheep, and unless destroyed by thorough cooking
will of course pass into the human economy.
The embryo fluke gains admission to the sheep's
body through the instrumentality of small snails,
to the shells of which it attaches itself. In wet
westher the snails crawl over the grass of the
meadow which forms the pastures m the sheep,
and are swallowed 1^ it. Once in the sheep's
stomach the embiyo becomes a fluke, and com-
mences its depredations on the animal's liver.
After this the reason why the rot attacks sheep
after a continuance of wet weather will be evi-
dent.

The moat terrible of all the meat parasites is a
minnto worm alxnit l-30th of an inch long,
foood in the flesh of pork. This creature, which
is named the IHekina tpiralu (from tibe form it
aasomes when coiled up in the little cyst or cap-
sole which encloses it), when it gets conveyed
into the human stomach with improperly cooked
or underdone pork, soon becomes liberated from
ita conBnement owing to the destmction of
its envelope by the gastric juice. Once in the
stomach the parasite grows rapidly, giving birth
to innumerable young triehina, which, by first
boring through the membranes of the alimentary
canal, pierce their way through the different
parts of the body into the mnsoular tissue, where
they become encysted, and where they remain
until conditions favourable to their uberation
again occur.

Until sueh time, however, as they have become
enclosed in the cyst, their movements give rise to
indeacribable torture^ and to a ^seaae known as
triehimotU, of which it has been estimated more
than SO pet' cent, of those attacked by it die.
The symptoms of trichinosis commence with
loss of appetite, vomiting, and diarrhcea, suc-
ceeded after a few days by great fever — resem-
bling, according to Dr Aitken, that of typhoid or
^pbni. As might be expected, the pains in the
Innfae are extreme. Boils and dropsical swellings
are not unusual eoncon^tants of the malady.

Hitherto this frightful disease has been mostly
oonSned to Germany, where there have been
several outbreaks of it since its discovery in 1860
by Dr Zencker. Feidler says that only free
Mehiua are killed by a tomperature of 1S5° F. ;
and that when they are in their cysts a greater
heat may be necosssty. From what has been said
the importance of efflaent cooking must become
manifest. There must always be risk in under-
done pork, whether boiled or roasted. In the

pig, the trichina, if present, may always be found
in the muscles of the eye. In Germany the
makers of pork sausages are now sud to have
these muscles subjected to a microscopic examina-
tion prerions to using the meat, whiw, of oonrse^
is r^ected if the examination hiu been nnfavoor-
able.

The trichinse, if present in the flesh of pork,
may be seen as small round specks by the luked
eye, the surrounding flesh itself being rather
darker than usual owing to the inflammation set
up in it. All doubt, however, on this point may
be removed by having recourse to the microseope.
Dr Parkes says a power of 60 to 100 diameters is
suficient, and that " the best plan is to take a
thin slice of flesh, put it into liquor potassa (1
part to 8 parts of wnter), and let it stand for a
few minntee till the muscle becomes dear; it
must not be left too long, otherwise the trichinn
will be destroyed. The whito specks oome out
clearly and the worm will be seen coiled up. If
the capanle is too dense to allow the worm to be
seen, a drop or two of weak hydrochloric add
shoidd be added. If the meat be very fat a little
ether or benzine may be put on it in the first
place."

Ltgitlatitm reloHot to Iteai Imptetiou amd
Seumr*. The law reoognising the impcntanoe of
the supply of pure' and wholesome meat gives
considerable powers to the different sanitary
officers who are appointed to inspect it. See
Food, Inspbctioh of.

KSAT, AU8TBAUAV. See Mux Prbsibt-

IHO.

lOEAT BISCUITS. Prep. I. Tlw flour is
mixed up with a rich fluid extract of meat, and
the dough is cut into pieces and Iiaked in the
usual manner.

2. Wheaten floor (or preferably the whda
meal), 8 parts; fresh lean beef or other flesh
(minced and pulped), 2 parts ; thoroughly inoor-
porato the two by hand-kneading or machinery,
and bake the pieces in a moderately heated oven.
Both the above are very nutritious, the last mors
especially so. 1 ox. makes a pint of good soup.

MEAT, COLD, to Stew. Let the cold meat be
cut into slices about i an inch thick. Take two
large-sized onions, and fry them in a wine-glass of
vinegar ; when done, pour them on to the meat ;
then place the whole in a stewpan, and pour over
sufficient water to cover it. After stewing about
i an hour add sufficient flour and butter to thicken
the gravy, and also pepper, salt, and ketehop, to
flavour; then let it sunnier gently for another i
an hour. Serve up with a little hdled rice
around it.

IC£AT XZTBACT8. Some prepaistiona of thia
nature have been already noticed under the heads
EsBBMca and ExnucT; the following are addi-
tional and highly valuable formula :

I^. 1. (DrSntUm.) Toung ox-flesh (free
from fat) is minced small, and wc£ beatoi in a'
marble mortar, at first alone, and afterwards ?vith
a little cold or lukewarm water; tiie whole te
then submitted to the action of a press, and the
solid residuum is treated in the same maimer, with
a little more cold water; the juice (reddish in
eolonr) is now heated to coagulate the albnmeii«.
stndned, and flnaUy evaporated in a water-bath

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MEAT EXTRACTS

to the coiuistenee of «i extimet. Aa ordinsiy
flcfb coDtaJns only 1% of kmtine, while that of
the heart, according to Dr Oregory, contain* from
l-875i to 1'41% . thit is the part employed by
Dr Bretlaa. The product pouease* an agreeable
odour and taite, and ia eaiily lolnble in water.

2. (Falkland.^ Freith lean beef (or other
flesh), recently killed, i> minced very fine, and
digeited, with agitation, in cold water, 1 pint, to
which hydrochloric acid, 6 dropa, and common
salt, 1 dr., have been added ; after about an hour
the whole is thrown upon a fine hair sieve, and
the liquid portion allowed to drain off without
pressure, the first portions that pass through
being returned until the fluid, at flrst turbid,
becomes quite clear and transparent ; when all
the liquid has passed through, cold water, } pint,
is gently poured on, in small portions at a time,
and i^lowed to drain through into that previously
collected. The product is about 1 pint of cold
extract of flesh, having a red colonr, and a pleasant,
soup-like taste. It is administered cold to the
invalid — a teacupFul at a time, and most on no
account be wanned, as the application of even a
very slight heat causes its decomposition and the
separation of a solid mass of coagulated albumen.
This cold extract of flesh is not only much more
nutritious than ordinary beef-tea, but alto con-
tains a certain quantity of the red colouring
matter of blood, in which there is a much larger
proportion of the iron requisite for the formation
of blood- particles. The hydrochloric acid also
greatly facilitates the process of digestion. This
formula ia a modiflcation of the one recently
recommended by Liebig for the preparation of a
highly nutritive and restorative food for invalids.
8. (EzTBAoruM Sahouivib Bovia — Br Mauih-
ntr.) Pass fresh blood (caught from the slaugh-
tered animal) through a sieve, evaporate it to
dryness in a water-bath, and when cold rub it to
powder. — Dom, 10 to 20 gr., or more, per diem,
in a little water.

Obt. The above preparations are Intended to
Siipersede the inemoient compounds — beef -tea,
meat soups, &e.— during sickness and convalea-
oenoe. MM. Breslau ana Mauthner describe their
extracts of flesh and blood as being peculiarly ad-
vantageous in scrofulous exhaustion, exhaustion
from annmia, diarrhosa, Ac. The extract of
Falkland or Liebig is represented as having been
employed both in the hospitals and in private
practice at Munich with the most extraordinary
success. It is said to be capable of assimilation with
the least possible expenditure of the vital force.

■eat, Tlnid. This preparation consists of lean
meat, in which the albumen has been changed so
•a to be non-coagulable by heat, and the fibrin
and gelatin from their normal insoluble con-
dition to one admitting of thdr being dissolved
in water.

In this soInUe condition, the flitt stage effected
in ttomaeh digestion, the several bodies are known
as peptones or alhaminoce, and the proportion of
th«r simple constitnents remains the same as in
ordinary fibrin, albumen, and gelatin.

The altwation is effected by finely ndndng
meat and digesting it with peptone, hydrochloric
Mid, and water, at a tenpenrfnre of aboot 100°
F., vntil dissolved.

The solution is then filtered, the hitter prin-
ciple, formed during the digestion, removed by
the addition of a little pancreatic emulsion, and
the liquor, which has been neutralised by the ad-
dition of carbonate of soda, evaporated to a thick
syrup or extractive consistence.

Fluid meat is the only preparation which en-
tirely represents, and yields the amount of nour-
ishment afforded by, lean meat; it dlBiars alto-
gether from beef-tea and extracts of meat, as all
these contain only a small portion of the diff^-rt^nt
constituents of meat. A patent has been granted
to its inventor, Mr Darby.

Meat, Llebig's Extract of. 8fn. Eztbact ot
PLS8B ; EzTKAOTUM CAXKIB, L. This preparation
is an aqueous infusion, evaporated to the consist-
ence of a thick paste, of those principles of meat
which are soluble in water, "altered as they be
by the application of heat" (Deane and Brady,
■ Pharmaceutical Journal,' Oct., 1866).

It is chiefly composed of alkaline phosphates
and chlorides, a nitrogenous crystalline base,
known as kreatine, various extractive matters,
which it has been surmised may have originated
in the decomposition of certain nitrogeuous
bodies, and possibly of a small quantity of lactic
acid, as it contains neither albumen nor flbrin —
two of the most important and nutritious ingpre-
dients .of flesh ; it must not, therefore, be re-
garded as a concentrated form of meat. Liebig
says that it requires 34 lbs. of meat to yield 1 lb.
of this extract — a statement which, as Dr Pavy
justly remarks, shows how completely the sub-
stance of the meat which constitutes its real nu-
tritive portion must be excluded. This absence
of direct nutrient power, now admitted by phy-
siologists, whilst disqualifying the extract as a
substitute for meat, does not, however, preclude
its use in certain cases of indisposition requiring
the administration of a stimulant or restorative,
in which circumstances it has been found a useful
and valuable remedy, and has been suggested as a
partial substitute for brandy where there is con-
siderable exhaustion or weakness, accompanied
with cerebral depression and lowness of spirits.
In this latter respect its action seems analogon*
to strong tea.

In the vast pastures of AnstraUa and the
pampas of South America are countless herds of
oxen and sheep, whose numbers far exceed the
food requirements of the comparatively sparse
population of those districts. The fat, horns,
hoofs, bones, skins, and wool of these cattle, whidi
form the chief part of the wealth of those conn-
tries, are exported principally to Europe. Until
within a few years, however, no means had been
adopted for the utilisation of the superfluous flesh
of the animals, beyond employing it as a manure.
By manufacturing it, however, into 'extract of
meat ' this waste nas been remedied, and immense
works for its preparation are now erected both in
South America and Anstralia. The process fol-
lowed by the different makers, although varying
in some particulaia, is essentially the same, and
consists in extracting by water, other hot, cold,
or in the form of the steam, those portions of the
meat which are soluble in that flnid, and snhae-
qnently evaporating the solution soobtuned nntil
it becMnes of a pnqper eonsiataice to he pot into

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MEAT EXTRACTS

1083

Jan. The extract so obtained keeps well (if all
the fat and ^latin are removed), and is most con-
Teniently adapted for exportation. It ig sud tliat
the extract as being obtained from cattle that
have had English progenitors posiesses a flavour
superior to that which comes from Sonth America,
where the animals are of a difFerent and inferior
breed.

The following interesting description of the
manufaetnre of ' Liebig's Extract of Meat' is
taken from the Bnenos Ayres ' Standard ' of Sep-
teomber, 1867. The establishment, of which it is
a description, is at Fray Bentos, on the Uruirnay,
Sooth America. " The new factory is a building
which covers abont 20,000 square feet, and is
roofed in iron and glass. We first enter a large
flagged hall, kept dark, cool, and extremely clean,
where the meat is weighed, and passed through
apertures to the meat-cutting mnchines. We
next coma to the beef -cutting hall, where are four
powerful meat-cutters, especially designed by the
company's general manager, M. Qeibert. Each
machine can cut the meat of 200 bullocks per
boor. The meat being cut is passed to 'dige-
xaton,' made of wrought iron; each one holds
about 12,000 lbs. of beef; there are nine of these
digerators, and three more hare to be put up.
Here the meat is digerated by high- pressure
steam of 7S lbs. per square inch ; from this the
liquid which contains the extract and the fat of
the meat proceeds in tubes to a range of 'fat
■eparators' of peculiar constmction. Here the
fat is separated in the hot state from the ex-
tract, as no time can be lost for cool operation,
otherwise decomposition would set in in a very
short time.

" We proceed downsturs to an immense hall,
60 feet high, where the fat separators are work-
ing ; below tiiem is a range of 6 cast-iron clariflers,
1000 galls, each, worked by high-pressure steam
through Hallef s tube system.

" Each clarifler is provided with a very ingenious
steam-tap. In the monstrous danders the albu-
men, fibrin, and phosphates are separated. From
benoe the liquid extract is raised by means of
air-pumps, driven by two 80-horse power engines, i
up to 2 vessels about 20 feet above the clariflers; I

thence the liquid runs to the other large evapora-
tors. Now we ascend the staircase reaching the
hall, where 2 immense sets of 4- vacuum apparatus
are at work, evaporating the extrsct at a very
low temperature; here the liquid passes several
filtering processes before being evaporated tn
vacuo. We now ascend some stops and enter the
ready-making hall, separated by a wire-gauze
wall, and all the windows, doors, Ac, guarded by
the same to exclude flies and dust. The ventila-
tion is maintained by patent fans, and the place is
extremely clean. Here are placed 6 ready -making
pans constructed of steel plates, with a system of
steel discs revolving in the liquid extract.

" These 6- pans, by medium of discs, 100 in
each pan, effect in 1 minute more than 2,000,000
square feet evaporating surface.

" Here concludes the manufacturing process.
The extract is now withdrawn in large cans, and
deposited for the following day.

" Ascending a few steps we enter the decrys-
tallising and packing hall, where two large cast-
iron tanks aro placed, provided with hot water-
baths under their bottoms; in these tanks the
extract is thrown in quantities of 10,000 lbs. at
once, and by decrystallising is mode a homo-
geneous mass, and of unUorm quality. Now
samples are ta^en and analysed by the chemist of
the establishment, Dr Seekamp, under whose
charge the chemical and tochnical operations are
performed.

" It may be mentioned that the company's
butcher killed at the rate of 80 oxen per hour;
separating by a small double-edped knife the
vertebrts, the animal drops down instantaneously
on a waggon, and is conducted to a place whero
150 men aro occupied dressing the meat for the
factory, cutting each ox into 6 pieces; 400 are
being worked per day."

Mr Tooth, at a meeting before the "Food
Committee" held at the Society of Arts in
January, 1868, taXi that he did not claim any
difference in the composition of his article (which
was made in Australia) as compared with tlukt
made by the South American company.

In the annexed table the composition of some
of the extracts of meat of commerce is given :

Liebig's Compsay.

Tooth,
Sydnsy.

French Comptnjr,
Sonth America.

Whitehead.

Twentyman.

Water

Sxtrartave, soluble in al-
cohol

Sxtraetive, insoluble. .
Mineral matter . . .

18-66

46-48
13-93
22-08

16-00

6800
1800
18-00

17-06

51-28
10-67
21-09

16-60

28-00

46-00

9-60

24-49

22-06

44-47

8-96

20-81

18-87

59-10

6-72

100-00

lOOOO

100-00

100-00

100-00

100-00

Tbe following are the chaiacteristics of extract
of meat of good quality. It should always have
an add reaction, ita colour should be a pale yel-
lowish brown, and it should have an agreeable
meat-like odour and taste. It should be entirely
aolDbJe in cold water, and should be free from
albumen, fat, and gelatin.
M«it Ke. Stew 2 lbs. of beef steak ?rith 1

small onion, the gravy from which is to be thick-
ened with flour, and flavoured with pepper and
salt. Put it into a baldng dish, and cover with
a lard crust. It should be baked for 1 hour.
The addition of 2 kidneys will greatiy improve
the pie.

■eat (Australian) Fie. Take 2 lbs. of Austra-
lian meat, or H lbs. of meat and i lb. of kidney.

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1084

MEAT PRESEEVBRS— MBA.T PRESERVING

Seaion to taste, poor in a little water, oorer with
a lard crust, and bake not more than ( an hour.

■EAT Pa£S£&T£SS, Dr Folenske gives the
following as the result of analyses of various
compounds found in trade as preservers of meat
and other articles of food :

SozoUth (concentrated meat preserver). This
yields sulphate of soda, 3}'-27; oxide of sodium,
21; sulphurous add, 89-68; water, 2-05 = 10000
parts.

BerliiUte (concentrated). Chloride of sodium,
7*46 ; horacic acid, d'SO ; horax, 46-76 ; water of
crystallisation, 36-80=99-81 per cent.

Chinete Prettrving Poudtr. Chloride of so-
dium, 25-00; boracic acid, 17-70; sulphate of
soda, 38-84; sulphite of soda, 9-20; water, 9-40
= 100-14 per cent!

Broclcnum Preterviitg Salt. Chloride of sodium,
84*32; , hydrate of potash, 14-04; sulphate of
potash, 15*00 ; crystallised borax, 24*86 ; boracic
add, 12-00=100-22 per cent

Orthma»ift Atutralian Salt. Chloride of so-
dium, S-5 ; borax, 64-0 ; water of crystallisation,
40-8=103-3 per cent.

JRilger't BarmtniU. Chloride of sodium, 49' 96 ;
anhydrous boracic acid, 27-00, with water of crys-
tallisation, 22-60 = 99-46 per c^nt.

Magdtlmrg Pranreing Salt. Lime, 0-46;
chloride of sodium, 20*42; dry horacic acid,
83*46; borax, 15*00; water of crystallisation,
8000=99-38 per cent.

BeydrieVi Priening BaU. Nitrate of potash,
15-50; chloride of sodium,' 78*40; boracic add,
9-4£ : water, 1-23=99-68 per cent.

Urmfaehtft Pretereing Salt. Boracic add,
65-6; water of crystallisatdon, 44-1=99-6 per
cent.

Seal Auttraliaa Mtat Pratentr. Lime, 9-50 ;
sulphurous add, 86-32; sulphuric acid, 8-00;
oxide of iron and alumina, 0*60 ; silica, 0-40 ;
magnesia and alkalies, 1-30= a liquid of sp. gr.
1-034 at 19° C.

Ortmcauti Baal AMttralicm Meat Praierva,
This is also« liquid of the sp. gr. 1-046 at 19° C.
It ^dds lime, 11-10, and sulphnrous acid, 61-76.

JOalvandakPt B»U Aiutralian Meat Preeerva
(Uqnid). Sp. gr. 1-079 at 19° C. In 1 lb. (453
grms.) are found 20-7 grms. oxide of calcium
and 100 grms. sulphurous acid.

■KlT.FUISEBTOrCK -The Belgfian JHiu^
da Pltuhutria notes the following methods of
pretening meats as the -most deserving of
attention amongst those communicated to the
French Academy of Sdences, and published in
the Compte* Bamdnu.

1. ISl. Bnndef s method, by which the mtet is
kept ia water addnlated with carbolic add in the
proportion of 1 to 6 parts of add per 1000 parts
of water. A aeries of experiments proved that all
kinds of meat oonld thns be kept fresh for length-
ened periods, without acquiring an ill taste or
odour.'

" The meat may be placed in barrels or air-tight
tin cases, filled with addnlated water of the
strength above spedfled, and headed up; or the
pieces.may be packed in barrels or cases in alter-
nate layers with charcoal, pounded small, and
satoiated with water oontuning x^m "f carbolic
add. The ahaicoal serves as a velude for the

antiseptic fluid, and as an absorbent of any gawons
matters given ofF by the meat. The latter should
be wrappod in thin linen covers to prevent the
cliarcoal working its way into the tissues.

" This method, it is suegested, might be em-
ployed in curing pork in place of ' salting/ or of
the more lengthy and costly process of ' smok-
ing;' and also for the preservation of ponltiy,
game, butter, ^;gs, &c.

" 2. In the case of South American meat H.
Baudet proposes the use of large sacks of caout-
chouc. The meat should be packed in them, with
alternate, layers of charcoal as above described,
and each sack, when filled, shonld be hermetically
closed by drawing another empty caoutchouc
atKik, cap-wise, over it. The caoutchonc, it is
supposed, ^ould fetch enough in the market — its
low price notwithstanding — to cover expeAses of
packing and freight, and so permit the meat to
be sold in Europe at a very small advance on cost
price. If intended for use a second time, the
empty bags shonld be steeped in boiling water for
a few minutes, to remove any organic impurities
adhering to them.

" 3. M. Gorge's method, which is in nse in La
Plata, consists in washing and drying the meat,
and i^terwards steeping in successive waters con-
taining hydrochloric acid and sulphite of soda,
and then packing it in air-tight cases holding 1,
6, or lOkilog. each. Keat thns treated teqnirea
to be soaked in warm water for about i an hour
before nse.

" 4. H. li6oa Sonbdran has recomniended bray-
ing and drying, in the fashion adopted by the
Chinese and Mongols, as described by M. Simon,
French consiil in China, in a communication made
by him to the SodM d'Acclimatation. The.^em-
flwcan of our Arctic voyagers and the charpti at
South America are familar examples Of meat pre-
served by analogous processes. The late it.
Payen, a distinguished member of the Academy,
insisted upon the great perfection to which' QUa
system might be carried by the aid of hot-air
stoves and suitable apparatus."

Besides the foregoing, nnmerons patents have
from time to time been taken ont, and processes
proposed for the preservation of meat; so a* to
enable it to be sent from those distant countries,
such as South America, Australia, Quiada, Ac.,
where it is greatly in excess of the wants of the
population, to other lands, in which the supply ia
as much tek>w the demand, and the meat it snch
a price as to .preclude its being regularly used as
an artdde oij food by the bady'oif.1ibe pepple.

As the potre&cUve changes set up in dead flesh
are dependent upon the combined influences of
moisture, air, and a certain temperature, it follows
that most of the various methods of ineat' pre-
servation resolve themselves into so many diflatent
efforts to remove the meat from the opatatioo of
one of the conditions above spedfled as necessary
for its decompodtion.

The char^iui or jerked beef of South America
affords an example of meat preserved by inieanB
of bdng deprived of moisture. It occnzs in
thongs or rbips which have been ]irepaied by
placing freshly killed meat between layers at salt
and drying them in the sun. Ciarqut, although
it ratains its soundness for a great length of Hme,

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HEAT PBBSKByiNO

low

utd ia rendered ea<>ble by aoakiiig in water and,
prolonged cooking, ii difficult of digestion and
wanting in flavonr, and if any fat be auociated
witb it. thia is liable to beeome rancid.

Panatiean b meat which, after being dried and
powdered, is mixed with sngar and certain spioea,
both of which assist to preserve the meat as well
aa to improve its flavonr, and to remove the ten-
dency to rancidity cansed by any fat that may be
aoddentally present.

Another prooeaa for the preservation of meat
fay means of deaiccation is that of HM. Blomen-
thal and ChoUet, who, in 1854, obtained a patent
tor preparing tablets oompoeed of dried meat and
TegetaUaa, which, after being several timea dipped
into rich soap, were dried in warm air after each
inunexvion.

At a meetiiig of the Food Committee, held at
t)ie Society of Arta, in May, 1868, specimens of
dried beef and mntton in powder, from Brisbane,
ware shown by Mr Orr, who sud they bad been
dried on tinned plates by means of st^m. Dr A.
S. Tkylbr, F.&.S., who examined the sample,
foand it perfectly fresh and good. It bad been
pvqwred at least 6 months previously.

At a safaaeqnent meeting the Committee reported
that the soup prepared from this desiccated meat)
wiUi the addition of a small quantity of vege-
tables, was considered very successful, and the
Committee were of opinion that meat so preserved
waa likely to prove a valuable and cheap addition
to the food resources of tlie people.

The specimen from which the soup was made
bad been in the Society's possession, and formed
part of the contents of a tin opened upwards of 2
yean ago. The preservation was perfect.

We ]^ve only space briefly to describe some of
the more prominent of the processes which have
been devised for the preservation of meat by ez-
docUng atmocpherio air.

Hr Tkllerman, a large importer of Australian
meat, stated in evidence before the Food Com-
mittee of the Society of Arts, in May, 1870, that
in the preservation of the meat be sent over to
tUa ooontry be had recourse to a very old prac-
tice, wlUdi was that of packing the joints in f atj
the meat being pcevionsly salted or cured. Instead
of tiie meat bang packed in brine, the casks with
the neat are filled up with melted fat.

In Mr WiRington's patent, which dates from
1846, it ia piopoaed that animal substances shall
be preserved by enveloping them in a layer of
gine, gelatin, or concentrated meat gravy, or
otiierwiae by dqiping them in wann solutions of
■Dch snbstanees, or by wrapping them in water-
praof cloth, or by covering tiiem with caoutchouc,
gnttk fereba, at varnish, or thin cream of plaster
of Fkriv which when set was saturated with
melted suet, wax, or stearin.

The patent of Prof. Bedwood, which resembles
Mr Warrington's in seeking to exclude atmo-
spheric air by surroni)ding the meat with an
impervious siuiatance, 'claimed the use of paraffin
for thia pnrpoae, tiie paraffin being afterwards
coated with a mixture of gehttin and treacle, o^
gelatin and glycerin. The paraffin is easily re^
moved from the meat by plnnging this latter
into boiling water, wUch dissolves the outer
coating of gelatin mixture, and at the same time

melts the paraffin and liberate* the enck^ed
joint.

Meaars Jonea and TrevethicVj patent con-
sisted in exhausting of ur the vessel containing
the meat, then forcing into it a mixture of
nitrogen and sulphurous acids, and subsequently
soldering the apertures. Dr Letheby says meat,
fish, and poultry preserved in this manner havt
been found good after seven or eight years ; and
specimens of them were exhibited in the Iiondan
Exhibition of 1863.

The removal, however, of atmoapharie air from
the vessels containing the meat it is designed to
preserve is now principaUy accomplished by
means of steam. The germ of this idea origi-
nated with M. Kerre Antonie Angilbert more
than half a oentnry ago, but the modification of
Angilberf s process, which in principle is that
generally adopted by the importers of Australian
and South American cooked meat, as well aa by
the Engliah preparers of the article, originated
with Messrs Ooldner and Wertheimer, nearly
forty years since, and, briefly, is as follows ;-r-
The freshly killed meat is placed in tins, with a
certain quantity of cold water. The tins and
their contents are then securely soldered down,
with the exception of a small opening not larger
than a pin-hole, which is left in tl^ lid. "ute
tins are next placed in a bath of chloride of cal-
(num, the effect of which is to heat the water in
them up to the boiling-point, and after a certain
time to more or less cook the meat contained in
them. When the meat is tboaght to be suffi-
cieutly cooked, and whilst the steam arising from
the boiling water is escaping from the aperture,
this last is carefully soldered down, the steam
not only having driven out all the atmospheric
air from the vessel, but in the act of escaping
having prevented the ingress of any from wii^-
out. To still further giurd against the entrance
of air, the tins are covered over with a thiplc
coating of paint.

Previously to their being allowed to leave the
preserving works they are tested by being placed
for some time in an apartment in which tiie tem-
perature is sufficiently high to set up putrefac-
tive action in the meat it any hair has. been left
in the tins, the evidence of which would be the
bulging ont of th^ tins, owing to the liberation
of certain gaseous products of decomposition.
When no distension crom inside takes place, the
result is coi;isidered satisfactory, and the veasela
are regarded aa properly and hermetically sealed.
In some cases the vessels, instgad of being heat^
in a bath of chloride of calcium, are exposed to
the action of steam. If the operation be success-
fully performed, the meat so prepared will keep
perfectly good and sound for years.

Mr lUchard Jones effects the removal of Qta
air from the vessels contwning the meat aa fol-
lows : — The meat is put into the tins and
entirely soldered up, with the exception of a
small tube about the size of a quill, which, is
soldered on the top of the tin. This tube is
placed in connection with a vacuum chamber,
and the air exhausted from the tin by meapi of
it. In cooking the m/eatbe also employs a ohlo-
ride of caloium bath.

Dr Lotheby, in one of lus Cantor Lectures on

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1086

MEAT PRESERVING

Food, delivered in 1865, (peaking on this part of
the luhject, and on the ahove method of meat
presenration, lays : — " To-night, through the
kindneaa of Mesan Croaae and Blackwell, I am
able to show joa a specimen of preserved mntton
which has been in the case forty-four years, and
Ton will perceive that it is in excellent condition.
It formed part of the stores supplind by Messrs
Donkin and Qamble. in 1324, to His Majesty's
exploring ship Fury, which was wrecked in
Prince Regent's Inlet in 1826, when the cases
were landed with the other stores, and left npon
the beach.

« Eight years afterwards, in Aogost, 1883,
they were fonnd by Sir John Ross in the same
condition as they were left ; and he wrote to Mr
Gamble at the end of that year, saying that ' the
provisions were still in a perfect state of preser-
Tation, although annoally exposed to a tempera-
ture of 92° (?) below and 80° above zero.' Some of
the eases were left untouched by Sir John Boas ;
and after a further intervnl of sixteen years the
place was visited by a party from Her Msjesty's
ship Invutigaior, when, according to a letter
from the captain. Sir James Ross, ' the provisions
were in excellent condition, after having lain
upon the beach, exposed to the action of the son,
and all kinds of weather, for a period of nearly a
quarter of a century.' Messrs Crosse and Black-
well have placed the original letters in my hands
for perusal, and they show beyond all doubt that
meat preserved in this manner will keep good for
nearly half a century — in fact, the case of boiled
mutton now before yon has been preserved for
forty-four years."

The generality of the samples of preserved
meat from AustiiUia are excellent in quality and
flavour (the Food Committee of the Society of
Arts, who have carefully and impartially exa-
mined numerons samples of Australian and
Sooth American preserved meat, say, " It is per-
fectly sweet and fresh, but somewhat insipid
from overcooking, and it seems likely the flavour
could be improved if the duration of exposure to
heat oonid be shortened without endangering the
preservation "), except that in most cases the
meat has been overcooked, which has arisen from
the too prolonged contact of the meat with the
steam, which it is judged necessary shall be
generated in such quantities as to ensure the cer-
tainty of the exclusion of the air. Another in-
convenience attending the process, viz. the lia-
bility of the sides of the tm to collapse, owing
to the vacuum formed in its interior, has been
remedied by the introduction into the vessel of
some inert gas, such as carbonic acid, or ni-
trogen.

Preserved meat at the present time forms a
very considerable article of export both from
Australia and South America. In the former
country there are several establishments of a
colossal character, where the work of tinning the
meat is carried on, in many of which establish-
ments hundreds of cattle are slaughtered daily.
The largest establishments of the kind are at
Sydney and Melbourne, whence extensive ship-
ments are being constantly made. The follow-
ing figures are taken from the Board of Trade
returns :

Value of Heat preterved otherioUe tiau iy
SaUing.

laportsfrom
Atutnii*.

Total
iHiporU.

1871 .

1872 .

1873 .

1874 .

1875 .

. .£461,098 .
. . 667,946 -
. . 667,662 .
. . 609,698 .
. . 249,611 .

.£610,228
. 816,468
. 733.331
. 767,001
. 692,196

Since 1876 tinned meat has been imported from
North America.

Several methods have been proposed for the
preservation of meat by subjecting it to such con-
ditions that the surrounding temperature should
be sufficiently low to arrest putrefaction. In Mr
Harrison's process the reduction of temperature
was effected by the applicxtion of melting ice and
salt, made to run down the outside of the iron
chambers containing the meat. It is affirmed
that although the joints submitted to this treat-
ment were solidly &ozen, no loss of either flavour
or immediate decomposition of the meat took
place. Mr Harrison's experiment was perfectly
successful in Australia, bat broke down during
the voyage of a large cargo of meat shipped from
Australia in 1878, owing to a defect in the con-
struction of the ice-chamber of the vessel and the
failure of the supply of ice.

Of other forms of refrigeration applied for this
purpose we may mention the process of M. Tellier,
by which he proposes to place (on shipboard or
elsewhere) joints of meat in a chamber through
which a current of air cliarged with ether or other
volatile substance may be passed, with a view to
reduce the temperature to 30° F. Also that of
M. Poggiale, f^m whose report to the Paris
Academy of Medicine it appears that in chambers
contrived on principles similar to M. Tellier's all
kinds of batcher's meat and poultry have been
hung for 10 weeks, at the end of which time they
were found perfectly fresh and wholesome. The
agent nsed in the latter case for the production
01 cold was methylic ether.

The process, however, of refrigeration which
has proved not only the most, but in every respect
successful, was first satisfactorily carried out in
1876, since which time large cargoes of dead meat
have been constantly sent to our metropolitan
markets, as well as to Glasgow, from New York.
The following extract from the ' Dundee Adver-
tiser ' gives some interesting details of this pro-
cess :

"As to dead meat, the first sale was held on
the 6th June, when 100 carcases of beef and 72
of mutton were disposed of. Since then there has
never been a smaller supply, and on the average
about 150 carcases have been sold weekly. I^ut
week 210 carcases were sold, and on Wednesday
evening there were no fewer than 33 lorries, each
laden with 3 tons of butcher's meat. The freight
paid for carriage to Glasgow, Liverpool, and
London, last week amounted to £1900. Alto-
gether, since the importation began, a million and
a quarter pounds of dead meat have been sold in
Glasgow. The result of this importation has been
a reduction in retail price of Id. per lb., instead
of an increase in price, which must have taken
place without the increased supply.

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MEAT PRESERVINO

1087

"The oxen ue coUeeted chiefly in the States of
niinoiii and Kentucky. The; are there reared in
enomunu nnmbers on the prairies. Before they
leaeh New York th^ are driven over railway for
foUy a thousand milee. Thoae animals the car-
eaaea of which are to he sent to this country are
killed the day hefore the departore of the steuner.
A» aoon as the carcases are dressed they are put
into a cooling room capable of containing MO,
and Bnfajeet to a constant current of cold air, sup-
plied by means of a 25 h.-p. engine. This sets
the beef and extracts the animal heat. Eaehcar-
caas is next ent into quarters, and these are sewn
up in canvas, and during the night transferred
OB hoard the vessel. Six of the Anchor Line mail
•tesmers have been fitted up with refrigeration
eoni|iartmenta>, constructed on a patented principle
specially for the conveyance of meat.

** After the quarters have been hnng up in the
room the door is hermetically closed. A^oining
the compartment is a chamber filled with ice.
Air-tubes are connected with the beef room, and
through them the animal heat ascends, and by
means of a powerful engine it is blown across the
iee, and returned to the beef room in a cold state.
A temperature of about 38° is thus maintained in
the beef room. If it were to get so low as 32° —
freezing-point — the meat would be seriously in-
jured [Mr Harrison's experiments make this state-
ment doubtful]. The heat is, therefore, regulated
by a thermometer, and when the temperature gats
too low the speed of the engine is slackened, the
normal degree of oold being thus maint^ed
almost without variation during the voyage.
Oattle killed on Thursday in New York are sold
that day fortnight in Olasgow."

The first patent for the preservation of food by
means of ice was granted to Hr John Ling in
1846.

Lastly, mention must not be omitted of another
method for the preservation of meat, which con-
sists in the application to it of certain antiseptic
snhstanoes, the action of which in preventing
pntrefaetion is due to their power of destroying
minute parasitic organisms of low animal or vege-
table lira, that woidd otherwise attack and set up
deoomposition in the meat. Our ordinary salted
meats owe their immunity from decay, as is well
known, to the presence in their tissues of common
salt. Meat preserved, however, by this means is
tough, indigestible, and wanting in many of its
most important soluble constituents, which, dis-
solving in the salt, run off from Uie meat and
■ze lost.

Amongst other agents which have been found
aerrioeable as antis^tics, and for which from time
to time nomerous patents have been taken out,
are nitrate of potash, acetate and hydrochlonte
of ammonia, the snlphates of soda and potash, and
bisulphite of lime. The writer remembers partak-
ing, some years since, of some Canadian turkey,
wh^h had been preserved by means of tlus
latter substance, the turkey having been killed
some 8 months before being eaten. It was per-
fectly sound and of excellent flavour. In this
instance the bird had been sent from Canada,
with several others, packed in waterproof casks,
IQlad up with a weak aolntion of nsnlphite of

In some cases the ssline solution is merely
brushed over the outside of the meat, whilst
in others it is iiyected into the substance of the
fleeh.

Thiebierge's process consists in dipping the
joints for 6 minutes into dilate snlphnric acid, of
the strength of about 10 of water to 1 of acid.
The meat after being taken out is carefully wiped
and dried, and is then hung up for keeping.

Sulphurous acid also forms the subject of several
patents for the preservation of meat. In the pro-
cess of Laury, for which a patent was taken oat
in 1864, the gas was introduced into the vessels
containing the food. In that of Belford, for which
a provisional specification was granted the same
year, the meat was soaked for 24 hours in a solu-
tion of sulphurous and hydrochloric acids (the
latter b«ng in the proportion of a hundredth of
the volume of the former). The addition of the
hydrochloric acid was made with the intention of
decomposing any alkaline sulphites that might be
formed by the combination of the alkaline salts of
the meat with the sulphurous acid.

Dr Dewar's process, which is very similar to the
foregoing, proposes, instead of exponng the meat
to sulphurous acid fiunigation, to immerse it in a
solution of the acid of the same strength as that
of the British Fhannaoopoeia. On being taken
out of the liqnid, the meat or other article is, as
speedily as possible, dried at a temperature not
exceeding 140° F., so that the albumen may be
preserved simply in a desiccated, and not in a
coagulated condition.

In the patent of Demait, which dates from 1866,
the meat was directed to be hnng up in a properly
constructed chamber, and exposed for some time
to the action of the gas. More recently. Professor
Oamgee has taken out a patent which is a modifi-
cation of Demaif s, and which consists in hanging
up the carcass of the animal, previously killed
when under the influence of carbonic oxide, in a
chamber filled with this latter gas, to which a
litUe snlphurons acid has been added, the chamber
having been first exhansted of air. The carcass
is allowed to remain in the chamber from 24 to
48 hours, after which it is hung in dry air. It is
stated that meat subjected to the above treatment
has been found perf eotiy sound and eatable after
an interval of 6 months.

M. Lanjorrois proposes te preserve animal sub-
stances from decay by the ad<Ltion to them of 1%
of magenta. He states the process had been
applied to sUces of beef, which, after being kept
for several m<mths, yielded, after being washed
and boiled, very g^ood soup. Commenting on this
suggestion for tiie preservation of meat, the
' Chemical News ' very sensibly and properly re-
nuurks, " It is to be hoped the magenta employed
will be free from arsenio."

The patent of M. de la Peyronse (which dates
from 1873) also consists in exdnding the air by
enveloping meat in fat. In this process, however,
the fat is mixed, when in a melting condition,
with a certain quantify of the carbonates of
sodium, potassium, and ammonium, as well as
with some chlorides of magnesium and aluminium,
with the object of preventing the fat beooming
rancid and decomposing, and thus imparting a
disagreeable flavour to the meat.

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1096

VBCOHIC AOlB^MEDIClNfiS

Jfi M, Geoq[«'f prooaai the meat U partially
dried, and tbea steeped in rocoeHive waters con-
taanifig ]>ydrocblorio add and (olphata of aoda.

KSCOHIC ACID. H,CVH07.8H,0. Sg». Aoi-
Don UMOonamt, h. A peeujiar acid, flnt ob-
tained by SertnemiBT from oplom, in 1804.

iVqh Meoonate of lime ii Boipended in warm
watw, and treated witb hydroahlorio acid. Im-
pure meoonio acid cryttaUiaea rat cooling, and
Btay, be purified by repeated treatment in the Mme
n^^S with hydrochloric acid, It( parity ia aaoer-
taixied by its leaving no reiidae when heated in a
platinnm or glaa* capsnle.

JProp, Mecouic aoid formi beaptifol peady
scales j possesses a sour astringent taste ; it de-
composed by boiling water ; it is soluble in alcohol,
and sparingly in cold water. With the a«ids it
forms salts called ' meconatas,' most of which are
oiTstallisable. Heoonate of lime is obtained by
heating a solntion of chloride of calcium with an
infnsion of opium made with cold water, and seo-
tialised by powdered marble, and collecting the
precipitate. Meoonate of potaasiam is pr^ared
by direct solution of the base in the impure acid
obtained from meoonate of lime till the liqoor
tarns gteea, heat being applied, when the salt
crystal^ses out as the liqaid oools; it may be
piuifled by pressure and reeiystallisation.

Tutt. Meoonio add is characterised by — 1.
Taroing ferric salts red, and the red eoloor not
being destroyed by the action of corrosive sub-
limate. 8. Precipitating a weak sdnticm of am-
monio-sulphate of copper green. 8. With acetate
pf lead, nitrate of silrer, and eUorids of barium
it gpives white pvedpitatea, whieh ate solidde in
aitrioaeid. 4. It is not reddened by oUoride of
gold.

JCECOBOr. CigHioO^. A white, cryirtalline,
odourless, neutral substance, disooTered by Conerba
IB oplom.

XSCOlriUK. SeeOPiUJC
. KED'ICIirEB. However skilful the medical
pitactitioner may be, and' however judicious hit
treatment, both are interfered with, and their
value more or less neutralised, if the remedies he
orders are not administered preeisdy according to
his instructions. It is the duty of the attendant
on the. sick to follow implicit the diiectians of
the physician, as well in exactly complying with
his ordiem as in doing nothing that the lus not
bean ondered to do. At the same time titem are
exceptions to this rule, in which a suspension of
tiie Temedy, or a deviation from>tiie order of tto
physiiaan, is not only, allowable, but is absolutely
required. Thus, from idiosynsrasy or some other
cause, the remedy in the dfses ordered may have
no effect, or may produce one widely diflerent
from that intended or expeeted. In soch cases it
is evident that a strict adherence to the direction
of the physioian would be productive of evil ; but
he should be immediately apprised of the circum.
stance. The common practice of neglecting to
administer the doses of medicine at the prescribed
time, or after prescribed intervals, and then, to
oompensate for tiie omission, giving the medicine
more lyequently or is larger doses, eannot be too
seviarriy oensured, a* deetenotive to the welfare of.
the patient and iignxioiia to the credit- of the
phyrician.

For the purpose of disguising tiie taste of medi-
cines, or lessening their nauseating properties, Dr
PoUia has recommended a means founded on tha
physiologiaal faet that a ctrang imprasaian on the
nerves(wheth«rof vision, hearing, or taste) rendara
that which foUows less^peiceptiUe than under the
naual oircumstanoea. Instead, therefore, of apply-
ing to tha month agrseable substaaoes after swat
lowing aauteons medicines, we should prepare it
beforehand, in order that the taste of the medicina
may not be perceived. Aromatic substances, aa
orange or lemon peel, dtc., chewed just bafoi«
taking medicine, effectually prevent castor oil,
Ac., being tasted. In preparing the mouth for
bitters, liquorice is the Mily sweet that should be
used, the others creating a peculiarly disagree-
able compound taste. We have noticed already
the effect of oil of orange peel in correcting the
nauseating qvalities of copaiba. See Dobb lind

PMWOBIBIIfg.

KlSIcmS FOB FABSBrOEB SHIPS. The
annexed scale of medicines, medical stores, and
instrumonts for ships dealing under tiie Fts-
seagen Acts, other than steamships engaged
in the Mortii Atlantic farads has been issued
and oainaad to he puUished by the Board of T^ade,
and is intended to supersede the scales hitherto in
force.

The quantities mentioned in the scale are for
every 100 passengers, when the length of the
passage, computed according to the Passengers
Act, is 100 days and upwards. Half tbequantitry
of medicines incUoated, but the same kind and
quantity of medical stwes, should be taken when
the passage is less than 100 days.

N.S. — Tiara it a tepttrate teah for North
AtUuttio tteam pattenger Mips.

The medicines are to be prepared according to
the British Pharmacopoeia, to be phunly labelled
in English, and the average doses for an adult
stated, according to the British Pharmaooposia.

All botties are to be stoppered, and all medieinea
indicated thus (*) are to be marked with a red
poison label. All fluid quantities are to be
measured hyJUdd lbs., oz,, or dr.

lbs. OS. it.

Add, Acetic . . .060

* „ Carbolic . . . .010

* „ „ (a powder contain-
ing not less iihan 20% of pure
earboUc or cresylic acid) . 112 0 0

Aoid, Citric 0 8 0

„ Gallic » 1 O

„ Hydrocyanic Dil. - . .004

„ Nitrio 0 10

„ Sulph. DiL . . . .060

iBther 0 10

Alumen 0 10

Ammon. Carb 0 6 0

- Amylom 10 0

Argent. Kit. (Stidc) . . .001
Calx Chlorate . . . .700
Camphor . .060

Charta Bpispeatiea,4sq.ft.,in case
*Ohlor. of Zinc (Butnetf s sol. of) 46 0 0

.*Oh)orofonn 0 8 0

Oopidha 0 8 0

Creosote . . . < .008
Cupri Sulph. . . . .010

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MBKCmSS FOB PA88BKOBB SHIPS

Ferri et QoinuB CSt.

„ Salph.
Olyoerin

„ Acid, Tumie
•Hj^bnt. Chloral .
HjtUmig. enm Cietk
„ Sabchltwidi
Lini Fixina.
Iiin. Oamph.
u Opii . .
1, SaponiB
*Liq[. Atoopia
„ Oalda .

* w Iforpbis Acetotis

* „ Plnmbi Sntecetotia
„ PotasHB

* » „ Pemutnganatig (B.P.

or Candy's Crimson Fluid)
Magnat. Solph. ....
Mist. SeniUB Co. (omit Eztnct of
Liquorice and sabstitnte Aroma-
tic Spirit of Ammonia, 1 oa. to
1 pint of tiie miztnre)
OLCroton. .
m iJini

„ llfmtto Pip.
M MorrhiUB
J. OUng .
M Bieim .
„ Terehinthina
*Opfiim

•FlnmUAceiatU
Potaan Bicatb.
PotBMil lodid.
PqIt. Antimonialia

* M Astringens (doable tbeqnaa-
titf indicated to be taken to all
tropical porta. Fair. Cateehn
Co., Pnlv. Cretn Aiom: ema
Opio-^eqnal parts) .

PnlT. Creta Atom, cnm Opo

M Ipecac

M M Co.

„ Jalapm Co,

„ Potataa Nitratia

„ BheiCo.

„ Scammon. Co. .
Qofame Balph.(doaUetheqnantitf

indicated to be takm to all tro-
pical pcrta)
Soda Bicarb.

PoIt.

^ ^her. mtrosi

„ AmmoBk Arom*

1, Baeiif. .

» Snlplnir Sablimstom

8jr. f erii lodidi . - .

*8d. Morplue Acetet. (si neatral

■dation contaiimig 4 graiaain

a diBohm, and so markedi To

be labelled— -foe hypedarniic ift-

jeetioa)' • » « • «

Tr. AndciB • • • • •

tt Camphofa Oo. • •

Ibi.

0

0

0

0

d

0
0
0
6
0
0

1

0

1

0
0
0

8

4

0 0
0 0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

e 4

6 0

8 0

0 6

Dm. m. dr.

M Ergota • •
M Ferri Perchloridi
•„ Opi
u Scilla . .
„ Valerian. Ammon.
Ung. Cetaeei

» Hydrargyri

a u Ox. Bab.

n Solph.

„ Zinci .
Tin. Colchici

„ Ipecac
Zinci Dulphatia ' .
Desiccated Soup .

0
0
0
0
0

1

0
0

1

0
0
0
0

4

6 0
4 0
6 0

All piUi to be made a»d marked 6 gntim*,

Kl. AloSs cnm MyrrhA ... 2 doc.
, Hyoscy.

CoLc
Hydnug.
b>ecaccam ScilU
Qoinia .
Sapon. Co.

4
8
6
6
6

Medioal Sforei.

Lint

Tow .....

Adheave Plaster . .

Male Syringe . . .
Glass .

Femsie „ ...

Phials (assorted) . . ,

Phial corks . .

Sponges ....

Bed-pan . ...

Paper of Pins

Hernia Trtiss, 86-in., reraiaible

Paper of PiU-bozes

GallipoU ....

Leg and Arm Bandage* .

Calico .....

Flannel Bandages, 7 yds. long, 6
in. wide ....

Flannel ....

Triangolar Bandages, base 48 in.,
■ides, 88 In. . . . eaoh
fMinim Measures .
flos. „ ...

fSoa. „ . . .

iSatof Splints
fWateiproof Sheeting .
fOUedSilk ....
fEosma Syringe aodStotnach'pnmp
fBox of Small Scales and Wei^t*
fWadgwood Mortar and PesOe .
„ Funnel ...
TSpttniiaa .

fAnthorised Book of Directions far-
Medicine Chests . . .
f British FhannaeOpoaia . . . .

f One set only of these articles required, irre-
spectire of number of passengers.

N.B. — Only one set of instnunaats required,
withoitt regard to the number of surgeooa,
passengers, or the length o< tlie voyage.

10 01.
lib.
8 yds.

1
1
2doa.

« »

8

1

1

I

1

6

6

8yds.

2 yds.

1
I
1

4 yds.
Xyd.

1
1
1

a

1

1

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lOlO

MEDLAR— MELiaETHES ^NEITS

jMttrumentt.

|1

1 Tenacolum.

1 Artery I'orceps.

1 Operating, ditto.

1 Finger £)ife.

1 Curve Biitoury, Probe Point.

1 Ditto, Spear Point.

2 Probes.
1 SiWer Director.
1 Caustic Case.
1 Scissors.
1 Spatula.

12 Needles.
1 Skein Ligature Silk.

3 Lancets.

1 Amputating Saw.

2 Ditto Knives.
1 Bone Forceps.
8 Tooth ditto.

ibEDLAB {Pgnu ggrmanioa, lann.). Common
in many parts of Europe, and occurring in
English hedgerows.

■SLIQBTHSS MVZUS, Fabricios (from /tiXi,
honey; and yqSiu, to delight in). The TVBKIP-
TLOWBS BbbtIiB. This is yet another beetle
among many beetles injurious to plants of
the Brauica tribe. It affects rape, turnip,
mustard, and cabbage plants in its beetle form
by feeding upon the pollen of their flowers,
and thereby hindering fmotiflraition ; while its
larva, which are born in the buds and cradled in
the flowers, live upon these and upon the seed-
vessels developed later on. Rape is the plant
which is especially liked by this insect. Much
loss is often occasioned to growers of rape-seed in
Lincolnshire, Northampton, Essex, Kent, and
other seed-growing districts, by its operations.
A large seed grower in Kent had 10 acres of rape
plants literally beset with beetles of this species.
The flowers were covered with them as fast as
they came ont, and were deprived of much of
their pollen by their vigorous efforts. In course
of time larva, tiny maggots, appeared upon the
seed-pods that were produced, and lived upon
them, biting out their substance with their hard
jaws.

At first it was thonght that they were the
ordinary flea beetles, PkgUotreta namorum i then
some one suggested that they were mustard
beetles, Pitedo* betula : but upon examination it
was found that they were rather too large for
the former, and that they did not jump like
them; and were too brilliant in colour for the
latter. They were unmistakable specimens of
MeligaOte* anmu.

There was a bad attack of this insect near
Wisbech in June, 1886. Also from a seed grower
near Peterborough information was sent of mis-
chief caused to mustard plants when in full
blossom, about the 10th of June in the same year,
by " little brassy bugs," which did not jump, but
slipped off Che flowers when disturbed. These
bugs, it was stated, did not seem to eat the
flowers, but rather to feast upon the pollen, as
thtir rostra were thrust into the anthers.

Cabbage plants for seed also suffer considerably
from the assaults, first of the beetles, then of
their larvn. Turnip plants, kohl rabi plants, and

1 Sknll Forceps.
1 Trephine.
1 Elevator.
1 Bey's Saw.

1 Trephine Brush.

2 Scalpels.

1 Hernia Knife.

2 Trocars and Cannulas.
1 Aneurism Needle.

1 Hernia Directoir.

1 Tourniquet.

2 SUver Catheters (Nos. 4 and 8).

4 Elastic Onm Catheters (Nos. 3, 6, and 7).

1 Clinical Thermometer.

1 Hypodermic Syringe.

1 iotea charged Tubes for Vaccination.

1 Set of Midwifery Instruments.

thousand-headed kale plants are also injiued, as
seed growers in Kent, Hanta, Essex, and Bedford-
shire have testSfled.

In Scotland many ravages have been committed
by these beetles npon various crudferona plants
intended for seed during the last 4 or 6 years. ^

It seems clear that the work of destruction
performed by this Meligeth— anetu is sometimes
very considerable, and that it is often attributed
to other insects, and most commonly to the
tnmip flea beetle, which has quite enough ana of
its own to account for.

This flower-loving beetle is well known in Ger-
many, where it is termed Si^t-gjUaukqfer, the
brilliant rape-seed beetle. NOrdlinger described
it in 1865 as most troublesome to rape-seed
cnltivators. He adds that plants from seed
drilled in rows were not so much affected by the
beetle as those where the seed was sown broadcast
— breiltotrflger Soot ('Die Kleinen Fmnde der
Landwirthschaft,' von Dr Nordlinger).

Taschenberg gives a long account of the beetle,
and Kaltenbach says that the harm done by it in
Qermany is great, that the beetles asaemble in
quantities on the flowers of rape planto and eat
the pollen, but their larvis do inflnitely more
harm, and ruin the hopes of the seed harrestC Die
Pflancen Feinde,' von J. H. Kaltenbach).

In France the rape-seed crop, which ia a most
important crop in that country, is often seriously
diminished by the Mtligetket du CoUa, as it is
styled there.- Calwer, in his ' Kiferbnch,' states
tliat it is known in Oermany, France, Sngland,
and Sweden.

Lift Aittory. The Mel^etht casw is a species
of the genus IttligMu*, of the family Nitidu-
lidtB, and the Nat. Ord. CoutonxtLA. Its
colour may be described as metallic green or
brassy green, and it has red legs. In shape it is
somewhat square, and only about H lines in
length, having well-developed wings, dab-shaped
antenna), and peculiarly shaped claws. Towards
the middle of May the beetles emerge from their
winter retreata in tiie gronnd, or under grass and
weeds, and at the roote of cruciferous Weeds, and
are found upon these weeds directly they are in
flower, and npon cultivated cruciferous plants as
soon as their blossoms show. The female lays
eggs in the flower-buds. These are hatched in 4

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MELOLONTHA VTTLOABIS

1041

or 5 days, and produce larvs which upon the
attainment of f uU size are quite 2 lines, or the
sixth of an inch, loni;, yellowish white in colour,
with dark-ooloured heads furnished with strong
jaws well adapted for biting vegetable tissues,
and pointed at their extremities. They have 6
legs on the upper part of the body, and 1 at the
last or caudal segment. After a time, varying
from 10 to 14 days, the larvse fall to the ground,
and buryiug themselves in it, make cells of earth
and assume pupal form, in whioh they continue
about 20 days.

PrevmUio*. Cmdferoas weeds must be kept
down upon seed-growing farms, as upon all other
farms and gardens. These serve to muntain the
JUaligetieM beetles until cultivated plants are
ready. Upon land subject to this beetle it would
be desirable to cultivate early, and apply dressings
of soot, lime, guano, or paraffin-saturated mata-
riala.

Senudit*. A remedy is adopted in France and
Germany which perhaps might be used here in
the early stages of the attack. Boys and girls
are sent to shake the beetle* off the plants into
bags. This would have to be done S or 4 times.
It would be almost impossible to carry this out
witii mustard plants sown broadcast, but it might
be managed with rape plants or turnip plants in
drills ('Reports on Insects Injurious to Crops,'
by Chas. Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

KELOLOVTHA VXTLeAaiS, Stephens. The
CoCECEAfBB or Mat Bvs. This insect belongs
to the Nat. Ord. CoIiBOPIbsa, and to the family
Melolomthida. It is endowed with an enormous
appetite, and not of a discriminating or fastidious
character. In its perfect state it eats the foliage
of trees, shrubs, grasses, and corn plants. In its
larval state it feeds upon the roots of com plants,
grasses, and other crops, and it is in this form
that H is mainly injurious to agriculturists.

The perfect insect is known throughout this
oonntiy, and called variously Cockchster, May
bog. Boom bug. Boomer bug. It feeds in this
form for the most part upon the leaves of the
oak, maple, thorn, beech, birch, apple, and pear
trees. It flies and feeds in the twilight, and goes
from tree to tree with heavy, awkwsjrd flight, and
with a booming sound — " the shard-bocne beetle's
drowsy hum," — and remains upon the under part
of the leaves of trees and shmbs torpid and
dormant during the day. This is the insect which
IS tortured by cruel boys to this day. Tormenting
cockchafers is practised now as it was in the
time of the ancient Greeks, ms we read in Aristo-
phanes' ' Comedy of the Clouds.' To trees in
some districts and in certain seasons much de-
struction is occasioned by cockchaiers. lu France
whole oak forests have been deprived of foliage
by their attacks. KOllar says that in Germany
they are often found in such numbers on oaks,
wUk>ws, hazel, and fruit trees, that the branches
bend with their weight. Occasionally in England
they have been so numerous as to resemble a flight
of locnsts. Westwood, in his 'Introduction to
the Claasiflcation of Insects,' remarks that 14,000
cockchafers were collected in a few days by
children and men near Blois, in France. About
60 yean ago the Council of the Society of Arts
oBend m premiom for the best means of destroy-

roii. n-

ing this insect, but without any satisfactory
results.

The larviB are most destructive in grass land,
devouring the roots of the grasses and destroying
the herbage. In these cases the grasses lie
withered on the ground, looking as if they bad
been violently pulled up. The rooks have been
often accused of doing this by ignorant persons,
as well ss of divers other imaginary delinquencies,
simply because they have congregated in meadows
and have been actively engaged in digging for
these large grubs, which are savoury morsels to
them. It is not by any means infrequent to find
acres of grass land destroyed by these grobs.
The soil is honeycombed by them, and the grasses
can be pulled up without any effort. Wheat,
barley, and oats are frequently much injured by
the cockchafer grubs, which weaken the plants
by gnawing their roots, and in some cases kill
them outright. Flax also suffers olton from their
attacks. Th^ are very destructive in fir planta-
tions, biting the roots so as to cause the death of
young trees.

JAfe hittoty. The cockchafer is very nearly
an inch in length, of a brownish colour, with
light-coloured scales. Its body is covered with a
pubescence, or short down, like tiny scales. It is
furnished with remarkable antennte, having knobs
at their extremities, whioh fold together Uke the
divisions of a fan or the folds of a screen. In
the male there are 7 of these folds, in the female
only .6. It has very powerful jaws adapted for
biting foliage. There are large hooks upon its
claws to enable it to cling to leaves and branches,
and its legs, 6 in number, are strong and weU
adapted for burrowing in the ground for the
purpose of egg-lsying. This takes place at the
end of July. The female goes into the ground
to the depth of 7 or 8 inches, and lays from 30
to 40 eggs of a dirty white colour, and a long
oval shape. She then retnms to the earth and
resumes her ordinary life for a short period. The
larvffi are hatohed from the eggs in about 6 weeks.
They are thick, fleshy, and more than an inch
and a quarter long when full sized, of a whitish
colour, with the head Blightl.Y yellow, having jaws
fitted for gnawing roots, and 8 pairs of short
dark feet. The last segment of the body is larger
and more developed than the others, appearing to
be filled with a substance of a violet hue. At tirst
the larvtB grow slowly, as a rule congregating
closely together just under the ground, feeding
then upon the small and most tender roots. At
the approsch of frost and cold the.v go down to a
depth of 9 to 12 inches for hibernation, coming
up in the spring f ull-ftrown to attack roots of all
kinds. In this state they remain' in the land 8
years at least — Kollar says {"i 6 years and even
longer. The pupa vtate is assumed in the autumn,
and retained until tlie spring, when the pupa
case is cast ofi; and the change is accomplished in
about 14 days ; then in perfect beetle guise the
insects come from the eaxth, and commence their
depredations. The larvm cannot exist above
ground, and soon die when exposed to the air.

Prevention. One special means of prevention
is to make a raid upon the beetles when upon
trees in the summer, and in other f eeding-plaoes.
This is done in parts of France, and is CMled U

66

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MEBBSCHAUM— MENINGITIS, BPIZOOTIC

iamtetona^t gintral, and migbt Iw perf onned in
Rngland in localities very maeh nibject to incor-
non* of oockehafen. It ia aoeli a daDgenraa and
destmctiTe iniect that ereryone** hand shonld be
agaioat it. Nets like those employed for sparrow
catching at night, called bat-folding nets, only
larger, fighter, and with very small meahea, might
be nsed with advantage. The branches of in-
fested trees being beaten with poles the insects
would fly to the light of the lanterns held behind
the nets, and become entangled in their meshes.
Books, starlings, and jays are very fond of the
beetles, and sbotdd on no account be driven from
their haants. These are fanners' friends, and
shoold be encouraged. When they persistently
visit fields under crops, or grass land, it may be
asBomed that there are larrss or insects in some
form or other at work pemicioos to the crops,
delicious to the Irirds. Moles, again, are whole-
sale davourers of the cookchaf er grabs. Taschen-
berg speaks of the great services they rendered to
farmers in this way in Germany, and French
entomologists also speak highly of their invalu-
able benefits. In meadows moles are of great
advantage in clearing oS these gmbs among many
Other insects. It is admitted that mole " heaves "
are unsightly, and interfere much with mowing;
but this is a slight disadvantage compared with
the amount of good the moles do.

Meadows shcmld be kept well rolled to prevent,
if possible, the beetles from getting into the
ground to lay eggs.

Btmediet. As to remedial measures, it is some-
what difficult to apply these so as to be of direct
and very apparent benefit. When meadows are
badly affected, dressings of gas lime, or of earth,
or wood or coal ashes carefully impregnated with
kerosene or petroleum, shonld be tried. About 4
to 6 quarts of oil should be well mixed with a
cart-load of earth, wood, or coal ashes or sawdnst.
Liquid manure copiously applied has been of much
avail on light land. Kainite of potash put on
at the rate of t a ton per acre has been found to
answer. Boiling heavily and frequently tends to
close the ground, and to keep the grubs from the
roots in some degree. It may be said that
meadows reserved for mowing and not regularly
fed by sheep should be rolled more than they are,
particularly upon light land, which is more sub-
ject to the attacks of cockchafers and other in-
sects than land of clay or other adhesive composi-
tion. Folding sheep on grass land long and
heavily, especially ewes and lambs, with plenty of
artifloial food and swedes or mangels carted on.
Is an admirable remedy against these grabs. The
land is made firm so that they cannot work, and
it is soaked with liquid which they cannot bear.

Corn crops are often attacked by these grubs
after sainfoin leys, and clover leys that have been
down longer than the nsnal period. In wheat
land showing signs of loss of plant many grubs
were discovered, though the finder had no idea
What they were. He was advised to horse-hoe
well, aiid to put on 6 cwt. of kainite of potash
and 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda, and after thia to
foil heavily. This treatment was effectoal. Soot
has been also fonnd very useful chopped in with
hand hoes, and the land rolled down tightly after-
wards. Nitrate of soda was usefully employed

by itself in another case after ring ndling both
ways, and a heavy plain roll put on finally (' Be-
porte on Insecte loinrious to Crops,' by Chaa.
Whitehead. Esq., F.Z.8.).

KEES'SCHAUM. £jr». icma m uma, Fr.
A native silicate of magnesia. It has a sp. gr.
ranging between ii'6 and S'4 ; is readily acted on
by acids, and fuses before a powerful blowpipe
into a white enamel. The finest qualities are
found in Oreece and Turkey. Ite principal appli-
cation is to the manufactnie of tobacco pipes.
The Germans prepare their pipes for sale by soak-
ing them in tallow, then in wtute wax, and finally
by polishing them with shave-grass. Genuine
meerschanm pipes are distinguished from mock
ones by the beautiful blown colour which tiiey
assume after bong smoked for some time. Ctf
late years some of the pipemakers have pro-
duced a composition clay pipe, which cloaely
resembles meerschaum in appearance, and is
' warranted to oolonr well.' The oompoaition, which
ia comparatively valueless, is made up into pipes
of suitable patterns, which are frequently sold to
the ignorant for 'meerschaums.' See Cstama,
Htsravuo.

■E'OBIK. fiya. Mbagbix, HnooRAiriA.
A pain affecting one side of the head only, often
periodic, like an agne, and generally of a nerrona,
hysterical, or billons character. It is clams
when there is a strong pulsation, conveying tlie
sensation of a nail piercing the part. See Hkas-

AOHI.

MS'aimB. £ya. MiAaBDCB, Vebtioo. In
veterinary medicine this term is applied to horses
which when at work reel, then stand for a minute
dull and stnpid, or fall to the ground, and lie
partially insensible for a few minutes. " Horses
subject to this affection should be driven with
a b^astplato or pipe collar, so as to prevent
pressure on the veins carrying the blood from the
head ; the bowels should be kept in good order ; an
occasional laxative is advisable, and a course either
of arsenic or quinine, or of arsenic and ircm"
(D«»).

KSL'ABCHOLT. See Hxpoohokdxlibib and
IiraAiriTT.

XXUS'SIC ALCOHOL. A substance obtained
by Brodie from beeswax. By oxidation it yielda
' melissic acid.'

■ELLA'OO. The old name for a medicine
having the consistence of honey, with a somewbat
sweetish taste. Mellago taraxaci is finid extract
of dandelion.

MELTISa-POnrT. The temperature at which
solids assnme the liquid form.

MEKnraiTIS, epizootic. Cerebro-s^DsI
fever,a disease peculiarly fatal to horses, and which
has in recent years causisd most serious losses in
America. " Is a malignant, aoa-oontagiona epi-
xootic fever of the zymotic class, occnrring during
the winter and early spring months, and affecting
the coverings and surfaces of the brain and spinal
oord"(ni^i<i«w).

The emua is as yet unknown. " It attacks all
classes of horses, but evidently prefers those that
are rather of the superior order and well kept."
Drainage and ventilation appear to have no effect
upon it, and it is therefore probably due to a
specific poison disseminated in the air.

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MENSTEUUM— MEBCUET

KMS

Sj/mptomt. The animal is dnil and stupid ; has
• staggering gait and a gradually increasing
paralysis, usnally of the hinder extremities, which
pn^esses for about 3 days, when coma comes ou.
If the symptoms appear and develop gradually the
case will generally do well, bat the paralysis is
often obstinate. Uelapse after 6 or 8 days is not
nncommon. If the symptoms come on suddenly
and violently there is little hope, and death will
ensue in 12 to 72 hours.

l^reatm. Sling the animal if possible ; if not,
lay it on a large thick bed of straw. " Hare it
well brushed, especially about the extremities ; it
must be well uothed and its legs dry-bandaged
with flannel rollers" {WUliavu). The same
•athor has foond the snhcutaneous injection of
atropine, in conjunction with ergot in the food,
*' very efficacious if followed by stimulants and
tonics during convalescence, but the stimulants
mast be used cautiously at first,"

KBV'STEITUH. [L.] A solvent or dissolvent.
The principal KBiTBTBVA employed in chemistry
and pkarvmeg, to extract the active principles of
bodies by digestion, decoction, infusion, or mace-
ration, are water, alcohol, oils, and solutions of the
acids and alkalies.

KEHTHOL. CuHsgO. A stearopten obtained
by cooling the oil obtained from the fresh herb
of Mentha arvenrit and of M. piperita; in
colourless acicnlar crystals more or less moist, or
in fused brittle masses. Melting-point 108° —
110° F. Odour like peppermint, and taste pun-
gent. Beadily soluble in ether, alcohol, fixed and
volatile oils ; insoluble in water. It is a powerful
antiseptic, having properties similar to those of
its homologue thymol, and is extensively used as
a local application in facial neuralgia, toothache,
and sciatica, either painted in solution, or moulded
into oones and gently rubbed .over the painful
part — Dote, i to 2 gr.

MSBCTT"BIAX BAL'SAX. See OmTUioii Cfi

NlTBATB or HSSCUBT.

IC£RCU"BIAIi DISEASE'. Sfn. Mobbttb
jCKBCinuAiig, Hm&ABGYBiA£iB, L. This results
from the injudicious or excessive use of mercury,
or exposure to the fumes of this metal. The
eommon and Leading symptoms are a disagreeable
coppery taste; excessive salivation j sponginess,
tnme&ction, and ulceration of the gums ; swollen
tongue i loosening of the teeth ; exfoliation of the
jaws ; remarkably offensive breath ; debility ; ema-
ciaticm ; ending (when not arrested) in death from
exhanstion. Fever, cachexia, violent purging and
gix^ng, a species of eczema (sczsilA kbbcu-
biai:b, lepra hbbcubialis), and other forms of
■kin diaease, are also phases of the same affection,
tlie first of which occasionally proves fatal under
tbe infloenoe of sndden and violent physical
exertion*

The treatment, in ordinary cases, may consist
in free expoaore to the open air, avoiding either
heat or cold ; the administration of saline aperi-
ents, as Epsom salts, phosphate of soda, &c.} the
free use of lemon juice and water as a common
diink ; with weak gargles or washes of chloride of
(oda or chloride of lime to the gums, mouth, and

throat.

KSX'CDXT. Hg^' 199-8. Syn. Quiokshtbb;
Exjauaexsmi (B. P., Ph. L., B., and D.), L. ;

Mbbcube, YiT ABaxHT, Fr. ; Qtibokbilbbb, Oer.
A remarkable metal, which has been known from
a very early period, certainly since 300 B.o. The
Romans employed it as a medicine externally, as
did the Arabs j but the Hindoos were probably the
first to prescribe it internally.

Sourcei. The most important are the mines of
Idria, in Camiola ; Almaden, in Spain ; and New
Almaden, in California, and at Wolfsstein and
Landsberg, in Bavaria ; it u also imported from
China and Japan, where it exists combined with
sulphur, under the form of cinnabar.

Prep. From the ore the pure metal is obtained
by distilling it with lime or iron filings in iron
retorts, by which the sulphur it contains is seized
and retained, while the mercury rises in the state
of vapour, and is condensed in suitable receivers.
Quicksilver is commonly imported in cylindrical
iron bottles, containing i to 1 cwt. each. It is
also imported in small quantities from China, con-
tained in bamboo bottles . holding about 20 lbs,
each.

Pnr. Mercury, as imported, is nsually suffi>
ciently pure for ordinary piuposes without any
further preparation. Here mechanical imparities,
as floating dust, dirt, (us., may be got rid of by
squeezing the metal through chamois leather or
flannel, or by filtering it through a small hole in
the apex of an inverted cone of paper. It can be
further cleaned by shaking well witb a little
strong nitric acid, washing with distilled water,
and drying by blotting-paper, or squeezing through
warm chamois leather. The surest mode of free-
ing mercury from foreign metals is to redistil it,
the surface being covered with iron filings.

Frop., Sfc. Mercury, at all common tempera-
tures, is a heavy liquid, possessing a nearly sUver-
white colour, and a brilliant metallic lustre;
solidifies at — 89-5° C, and is then ductile, malleable,
and tenacious ; boils at 8S0° C, and escapes in
colourless transparent vapour ; ita vapour density
is 99'9 ; it also volatilises slowly at the ordinary
temperature of the atmosphere. The presence (^
minute quantities of lead and zinc greatly retard
its evaporation at its boiling heat. In chemical
properties it much resembles silver. It unites
with oxygen, chlorine, iodine, &c., forming
numerous compounds. When reduced to a state
of fine division as in some medicinal preparations
it undergoes a partial oxidation. Willi the metals
it unites to form ai(AI«aiib. The only acids
which act directly on metallic mercury are the
sulphuric and nitric, but for this purpose the
former must be heated and concentrated. Nitrio
acid, however, even when dilute and in the cold,
dissolves it freely. Pare mercury is unalterable
in the air at ordinary temperatures. Sp. gr.
13-595 at 0^ C. ; 141982 when in the soUd state.

TJeet, (f-c. Mercury is applied to various pur-
poses in the arttj as the amalgamatioD of gold
and silver, in extracting these metals from
their ores, ' wash gilding,' the silvering of look-
ing-glasses, and tiie manufacture of barometers
and thermometers. The zinc plates of certain
galvanic batteries are amalgamated with mercury
to prevent waste, and an amalgam of rinc and tin
is used to promote the action of frictional electri-
cal machines. Dentists employ gold amalgam
and cadmium amalgam for stopping teeth. Copper

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1044

MERCUEY

amalgam is useful for sealing bottles, glass
tubes, &c., when other plastic substances are un-
desirable ; also for talcing impressions of engraved
metal work. Sodium amalgam in contact with
water forms a bonvenient source of nascent hy-
drogen.

Mercury is used in the preparation of several
very valuable medicine*. In its metallic state it
appears to be inert when swallowed unless it
meets with much acidity in the alimentary canal,
or is in a state of minute division ; its com-
pounds are, however, all of them more or less
poisonous.

Mercury has been employed in one or other of
its forms in almost ali diseasAs ; but each of its
numerous preparations is supposed to have some
peculiariiy of action of its own, combined with
that common to all the compounds of this metal.
The mercurials form, indeed, one of the most im-
portant classes of the materia medica.

Tettt. MetalUo mercury is detected by its
liquid condition and volatility ; and, when in a
finely divided or pulverulent state, by the micro-
scope, or by staining a piece of copper white when
the two are rubbed together.

Mercury, when present in combination, can be
detected as under :

When intamstely mixed with anhydrous sodium
carbonate, and heated in a small test-tube, under
a layer of the carbonate, decomposition ensues,
and a crust of grey sublimate forms on the cooler
portion of the tube. When examined by a lens
this crust is seen to consist of minute metallic
globales. By friction with a bright glass or iron
rod these sre united into globales, which are visible
to the naked eye.

A perfectly clean and bright piece of copper, im-
mersed in a slightly acid solution of mercury, be-
comes in a short time covered with a grey or
whitish stain, which assumes a silvery lustre when
gently rubbed with a piece of soft cork or leather,
and is removed by the subsequent application of
heat. A single drop of liquid may be tested on a
bright copper coin in this way.

If copper foil be used in the previous test, after
being washed with a weak solution of ammonia,
and in distilled water, and dried by pressure
between the folds of bibulous paper, it may be cut
into small pieces, and heated in a test-tube, in
order to obtain a sublimate of metallic globules.
When the suspected solution contains organic
matter, bright copper filings may be employed,
and the process modified so as nearly to resemble
Keinsch's test for arsenious acid. According to
Orfila, ' scraped copper plate ' is capable of de-
tecting the presence of fV^TS P'"'*' °^ corrosive
sublimate in a solution. MM. Trousseau and
Beveil state that a plate of brass is even more
susceptible than one of red copper.

Smithion'f SUetrolytie Tett, This consists in
the use of a polished wire or plate of gold or
copper, round which a strip or thread of zinc or
tin is wound in a spiral direction. The suspected
liquid is acidulated with a few drops of hydro-
chloric acid, and after immersion for a longer or
a shorter period (half an hour to an hour or
two) the gold will have become white if any mer-
cury be present. The coil of zinc or tin is then
removed from the gold, and the latter, after being

washed and dried between folds of bibulous paper,
is heated in a test-tube, to obtain metallic globules,
as before.

An ingenious extemporaneous application of
the electrolytic test may be made as follows : —
Place a drop or two of the suspected liquid on a
clean and bright gold or copper coin, and apply a
bright key, so that it may at once touch the edge
of the coin and the solution (see ngr.). An

«. A gold or copper coin.
h. Drop oC aiupecUd solution.
e. A bright key.
electric current will then be established as before,
and a white spot of reduced mercury will appear
on the surface of the metal, which may be recog-
nised in the manner already explained.

Mercury is best determined quantitatively by
precipitating the solution with sulphuretted hy-
di-ogen. The sulphide is warmed with hydro-
chloric acid and nitric acid added drop by drop to
separate the sulphur. Then the solution is diluted,
almost neutralised with caustic soda, excess of
potassium cyanide added, and the sulphide agun
thrown down with sulphuretted hydrogen; this
is now quickly washed with water, dried at lOOf,
and weighed. Mercnry can also be determined
as mercurous chloride and as the metal {^RoMcoe).
The BAITS <w MEBOTJET are divided into two
classes — mercuroo*, where mercury is a monad
element, and unites with one atom of chlorine ;
and mercuric salts, where it plays the part of a
diad element, and unites with two atoms of
chlorine. The latter of these will be taken first.
Kercuric Salts. Tut*. Sulphuretted hydro-
gen and ammonium sulphide, added in very small
quantities, produce on agitation a perfectly white
precipitate, which acquires successively a yellow,
orange, and brownish-red colour as more of the
test is added ; and ultimately, when the test is
added in considerable excess, an intensely black
colour. This precipitate is insoluble in excess of
the precipitant, potassium hydrate, potassium
cyanide, hydrochloric acid, or nitric acid, even
when boiling ; but it dissolves readily and com-
pletely in potassium sulphide and in ' aqua regia '
with decomposition. These reactions are cbarac-
teristic.

Ammonia gives a white precipitate.
Potassium hydrate gives a reddish precipitate,
turning yellow when the test is added in excess.
The presence of ammonia causes the precipitate
to be white, and when the solution contains much
acid both reactions are imperfect.

Alkaline carbonates give a brick-red predpi-
tate.

Potassium iodide gives a scarlet preciiHtate,
which is soluble in excess and in alcohol, and solu-
tion of sodium chloride.

The alkaline bicarbonates either do not diftorb
the solution, or only cause a slight degree of tur-
Udity.
Kercnric Acetate. Hg(CiH,0^ Sytt. Paoft-

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UERCUBr

1046

kowrixm ov mbbcvbt. Fnp. By dinolving
merenric oxide in wann acetic acid. It crystal-
Haes in briUiMit miraeeoas laminn, aolable in their
own weight of cold water, and somewhat more
•olnble in boiling water. According to Bobiquet,
this is the bwis of Keyaer's antivenereal
I^Ub, which do not contain subacetate of mercury,
•■ has been aaaerted.

Kerculc Bromide. HgBr^ Sgn. Fbotobbo-

MISX 0> MBBCVBT J HtSBABOTBI BIBBOMISVX,

Ij. JVap. Two equal parts of bromine and mercury
and sublime. Soluble reddish mass; resembles
the iodide in its action. — Do**, -^ to -} gr.

Kereoilo CUorida. HgCIj. Sgn. Fboto-

CHIABTDB 01 XBBCUBT, PbBOHIiOBISB OV UtU-

cuvt, Biohudbtdb or mbbouxt, Cobbositb

BOBUMATB ; HTDSABfiTlU PKS0HI,0BII1UX
(B. p.), HTSBASaTKI BIOHLOBIOUK (Ph. L.),
SlTBIJlUTITS O0BBO8ITVB (Ph. £.), SUBLIKATTTX

coBBosinnc (Ph. D.), Htdbabotbi ohlorxoitx
ooBBoernnc (Ph. U. S.), Htdbabsybi kubias
OOBBOSITTTS, L. This is the ' corrosive sublimate '
of the shops. It has been found native in one of
the Molacca Islands.

^Prtp. 1. (I^ L.) Mercury, 2 lbs. ; salphoric
seid, 21i fl. oz. ; boil to dryness, and rab the
residnnm, when cold, with sodium chloride, 1^ lbs.,
in an earthenware mortar ; lastly, aublime by a
gradnally increaaed heat.

2. (Ph. £.) Mercury, 4 oz. ; sulphuric acid,
2 fl. OS. 8 fl. dr.; pare nitric acid, ifl. oz.; dis-
solve^ add of sodium chloride, 8 oz., and sublime
•■ before.

3. (Ph. D.) ' Persulphate of mercury ' (mer-
enric snlphate), 2 parts ; dried sodium chloride,
1 part : triturate, &c., as before.

4. (Ph. B.) Reduce sulphate of mercury,
20 OB., and chloride of sodium, 16 oz., each to
flne powder, and, having mixed them, add black
oxide of manganese, in fine powder, 1 oz., and
thorongfaly mix by trituration in a mortar ; place
the mixture in an apparatus adapted for aublima-
tion, and apply sufficient heat to cause vapours of
perchloride <^ mercury to riae into the leas
heated part of the apparatus arranged for their
condensation.

Oit. In preparing corrosive sublimate, as well
as calomel, by the common process, the solution
of the mercury is nanally made in an iron pot, set
in a furnace under a chimney, to carry off the
fnmea ; and the sublimation is conducted in an
earthen alembic placed in a sand-bath, or in an
iron pot, covered with a semi-sphrrical earthen
head. Corrosive sublimate may also be made by
the direct solation of mercuric oxide in hydro-
chloric acid, or by bringing its constituents
together in the stste of vapour. The latter plan
was patented by the late Dr A. T. Thomson.

Prop. The mercuric chloride of commerce
occnrs in white, semi-transparent masses, consist-
ing of acienlar or octahedral crystals of consider-
able denrify ; it poaaessea a ahu^ metallic taste,
•nd is a violent poison ; it is soluble in about 16
parts of cold, and in 8 parts of boiling water ;
the bmling solation deposits its excess of salt
in kmg white prisms as it cools ; soluble in alcohol
•od ether, in the latter so much so that it has
even the property of withdrawing it from its
aqoeoDS eolations ; the addition of hydrochloric

add, ammonions chloride, or camphor increases
its solubility in all these menstrua. It forms a
series of basic salts or oxychlorides. It is decom-
posed by contact with nearly all metallic bodies,
and in aolntinn by variona organic substances, and
by exposure to light. Sp. gr. 6*4. It melts at
265° C, and boils at 295^ C, emitting an ex-
tremely acrid vapour which destroys the sense of
smell for some time.

X^t*t*. The presence of mercuric chloride may,
under most circumatances, be readily detected
by the general tests already g^ven. To distin-
guish it from other salts, special teats for chlorine
or hydrochloric acid must be applied. If on filter-
ing the solation, acidulating it with dilute nitric
acid, and testing it with ailver nitrate, a clondy
white precipitate be formed, which is inaoluble in
excess of the precipitant, and in nitric acid, but
soluble in ammonia water, and blackened by
lengthened exposnre to light, corrosive sublimate
is aboim to be present in the substance examined.
Calomel, the only compound of mercury with
chlorine besides corrosive sublimate, is an in-
Bolnble powder, which could not, therefore, be
found in the filtered liqnid. Calomel, or the white
precipitate formed by the mercurous salt, with
hydrochloric acid and the soluble chlorides, is
soluble in excess of the predpttant, and is not only
insoluble in liquor of ammonia, but is immediately
blackened by it.

For the purpose of demonstrating the presence
of corrosive subUmate in a highly coloured liquid,
or one loaded with organic matter, it is necessary
to agitate it for some minutes with an equ^
volume of ether. After standing for a short time
the ethereal solntion ia decanted, and allowed to
evaporate apontaneoualy. The residuum (if any)
contains the corrosive sublimate, which, after
being dissolved in distilled water, is readily recog-
nised by the above characteristics.

When the substance nnder examination consists
of food, or the contents of the digestive canal, or
of animal tissue, it ia in general necessary to
destroy the organic matter in a nearly similar way
to that described under Abbinioub Acid. The
process adopted by Devergie for this purpose con-
aista in diaaolving the aubetsnce in conrentrated
hydrochloric acid, and paaaing a atream of chlorine
throagli the liqnid. — Flandin flrat carbonises the
mass with ^ or 4 its weight of coni'entrated snl-
phnric acid at 212° F., and then gaturateo the
acid in the cold, with dry ' chloride of lime,'
added in fragments, assisting the action by
stirring, and further adding, by degrees, as the
matter thickens and becomes white, a sufficient
quantity of distilled water. — Lassaigne Imils the
suspected mixture for some time with a solution
of sodium chloride — a method which, according
to Orfila, ia not sufficientiy delicate to withdraw
minute portions of mercury from flesh, — Millon
agitates organic liquids (more especially blood,
milk, &c.) in large flasks containing gaseous
chlorine, which is frequenUy renewed. — Orfila
either dissolves the matter in aqua regia, and
passes a stream of chlorine through the liqnid, or
he cartwniaes it by means of concentrated sul-
phuric acid in close vessels. The apparatus con-
sists of a matrasa provided with a bent tube, the
one end of which is plunged into a Jar of cold

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1046

MEBCUET

disialled water. The corroaive snblimate is f onnd
both in the voUtilUed matter and in the car-
boniaed reaidaum, and is extracted from the latter
by boiling it for 15 or 20 minntee in aqua regia.
— Personne proceeds by a similar method, bnt
avoids raising the temperature of the substances
operated on. In all cases it is advisable to
operate in dose vessels, on accoant of the volatility
or the bichloride.

' When the organic matter has been destroyed by
any of the above processeK, and a colourless and
filtered eolation in distilled water obtained, the
usnal teste may be at once applied. Bnt in this
way we can only detect the presence of mercury,
and are nnable to decide in what way it has
entered the system, although we may infer it from
other circumstances. It is, therefore, absolutely
necessary, in aU medico-legal investigations, to
previously employ ether (see above), in order that
we may be enabled to examine the deleterious
matter in its original form, or that in which it
was swallowed.

ITms, (J-o. Mercnric chloride is employed in
dressing furs and skins ; for the preservation of
anatomical specimens ; for preventing the decay
of wood, and mixed with sal-ammoniac and water
as an efficient bug poison, &c. " White precipi-
tate," employed for destroying vermin, is depo-
sited when a solution of corrosive snblimate is
poured into an excess of aolation of ammonia. In
tttedieine mercnric chloride is nsed as an alterative,
diaphoretic, and resolvent, in the chronic forms
of secondary syphilis, rheumatism, scrofula,
eancer, old ^opsies, numerous slcin diseases, &c. ;
and externally, as a caustic, in cancer, and made
into an ointment, lotion, or injection, in a vast
number of skin diseases, ulcers, gleet, &c., and
is a preventive of contagion. It acts quicker
than the other preparations of mercury, and it is
less apt to induce salivation ; bnt it has been said
that its effects are less apparent. — Dott, -^ to
i gr., either made into a piU or in solution. It is
highly poiaonons, and must be exhibited and
handled with the greatest caution. Its use is
contra-indicated in cases complicated with pul-
monary affections or nervous derangement.

Poii. 1. Sj/mptomt. Strong coppery or
metallic taste; intense pain in the mouth,
pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines;
nausea, vomiting (often bloody), diarrhcsa, and
(sometimes) violent dysentery (these evacuations
are generally more frequent than in poisoning by
other metallic compounds). After a certain time
there is generally an abatement of the severity of
the symptoms; the circnlation becomes slower,
the pulse small and thready, the respiration
gentle, and the skin cold; syncope then super-
venes, and great general insensibility, always
commencing at the pelvic extremitiee ; and some-
times convulsions occur; the secretion of urine
is generally diminished, sometimes even entirely
suppressed; bnt the patients always urinate if
the sublimate has been employed in a very diluted
state, and if drinks have been administered.
Death often appears to result from the shock to
the nervous system, from intense exhaustion, or
from mortification or intense inflammatiim of the
prims vi». Poisoning by corrosive snblimate is
distinguished from tlukt hj arBenio fay the poim-

tenance being flushed, and even swollen, wha«as
in poisoning by arsenio it is wholly contracted
and ghastly ; and by the whitened condition of
the epithelium of the mouth.

2. Antidotes. White of egg, hydiated ferric
sulphide or ferrous sulphide, and gluten, are each
of them powerful antidotes. White of egg has
proved efficacious in numerous cases. It requires
the white of 1 egg to decompose 4 gr. of corronve
sublimate {PetMer). The reoenUy preciintated
protosulphuret of iron is, however, aocorduig to
Mialhe, the antidote par excBUenee, not only to
corrosive sublimate, bnt to the salts of lead and
oopper. The gluten of wheat has also been re-
oommcmded (Taddti) ; or, what is equally efica-
cioas, wheat flour mixed up with water. When
any of the above are not at hand, copious draughts
of milk may be substituted. Iron filings bave
been occasionally used as an' antidote. Uli these
substances should be taken in considerable quan-
tities; the dose should be frequently repeated,
and the general treatment rimilar to that in cases
of poisoning by arsenic. Vomiting should be, in
all cases, immediately induced, to remove, if poe-
sible, the poisonous matter from the stomadi.

Kerenrie-ammoninm Chloride. HgNH^. 9g».
Akkoxio-obIjObidb of HBBOUBT, AUCOKIAnD
CHI^OSIOB OF MBBOintT, WZITB FBBOIPITATB,

Lbmesy'b w. f., Cobmbtio MBBOrntT ; Hysx^x-
STBi i.io[oiriATTrx (B. p.), Htdbabotsi ajc-

KOHIO-OELOBIDVM (Ph. L.), HtSBASSIBIIIC
PBfOIFITATUlC AIiBUK (Ph. E.),

Prep. 1, (Ph. L.) Mercuric chloride, 6 oz. ;
distilled water, 8 quarto ; dissolve with heat, and
when the solution has cooled, add of liqnor of
ammonia, 8 fl. oz., frequently shaking it; lastly,
wash the precipitate with water and dry it. The
formula of the Ph. E. & D. are nearly similar.

2. Mercuric chloride and ammoninm chloride,
of each \ lb. ; water, 8 quarto ; dissolve, and pre-
cipitate with solution of potanium hydrate, q. s.

Prop., (fe. A white, inodorous, light mass or
powder ; insoluble in ^cofaol, partially soluble in
boiling water, and wholly dissolved by sulphuric,
nitric, and hydrochloric acids, without etFerves-
cence. It is totally dissipated by heat. Whoi
heated with solution of potash it exhales am-
monia, and assumes a yellow colour. Used to
make an ointment, which is employed in herpes,
porrigo, itch, and other skin cUseases, &c.; and
by the lower orders as a dusting powder to destroy
pediculi, an application which, from its liberal
employment, is not always a safe one. It is highly
poisonous, and must not be swallowed.

Mercuric and Ammoninm Clil«ride. MH4C3,

HgCI]. Syn. CHI/OBtDB OF HXBCnBT AITD AJC-

MONnni, Sai. ixbxbboth; Hts&abstbi ra
AHHONii chlobiduv, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From
mercuric chloride and ammonium chloride, equal
parte, triturated together. " The object in adding
the ammoninm chloride here is to render the
corrosive aublimato more soluble in water. The
action of the latter is not otherwise altered"
(SedKood). It is chiefly used for lotions and in-
jections.

Mercnric and Qninine Chloride, i^. Chu>-

BIDB OF KBBCUBT AVD QOTBIVB { HrMtASSTBI

BT Qvnrs OHLOBZDinc, L. Prep. {IPDermott.)
From mercnric chloride, 1 part ; quinine chloride,

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MERCXTRT

KM?

S_ puts ; aepAntely formed into Mtnnied loln-
titnis with water and then mixed ; the crystalline
precipitate ia collected and dried by a gentle
neat.— Do», i to i gr., made into a pill with
emmof bread; daily, as an alterative in debili-
tated habita ; or oomnned with opiom thrice diUly,
to prodnce laliTation.
Kereule Cyanide. HgCy, or Hg(CN),. 8g».

CTIXIDBOVXIBOUBT; HYBSABSYXI OTAKIDTrX,

H. wOYAumvu, H. CTAirromnc (Ph. U. S.), L-

JV»p. 1. (Ph. L., 1886.) Pnre I>ninian bine,
S OS.; mercuric oxide, 10 oi. ; diitilled water, 4
insta ; boil for i an hour, filter, evaporate, and
er^talliie; wash what remains frequently with
txuling distilled water, and again evaporate, that
erystals may form. This is Fronst's process. The
CmrmoU of the Ph. U. S. is similar.

2. (Ph. D., 1826.) Prossian bine (pore), 6
puts; mercnrie oxide, 6 parts; distilled water,
40 parts; as the last

S. CDetfouei.) Potassinm terrocyanide, 1 part,
is bailed for i honr with mercuric sulphate, 8
parts, and distilled water, 8 parts ; the deporit is
•epaisted by filtration, and the liquid evaporated
to ciystaOisiiig point.

4. (^WiitekUr!) Satnrate dilnte hydrocyanic
acid with mercuric oxide; evaporate and crystal-
Hae. Pore.

i¥oj>., ife. Heavy, oolonrless, inodorous, square
prisms; tasting strongly metallic; soluble in 8
ports of cold water ; slightly soluble in alcohol.
Those made by the first two formnlss are of a
pale yellow colour. It is transparent and totally
aolnble in vrater. The solution, on the addition
of hydrochloric acid, evolves hydrocyanic acid,
known by its smell ; and a glass moistened with
a solution of nitrate of silver, and held over it,
grres a deposit soluble in boiling nitric acid.
When heated it evolves cyanogen, and runs into
globules of itaetallic mercury. It has been ad-
ministered in some hepatic and skin diseases,
and has been proposed as a substitute for odrro-
sive sublimate (Parent). It has been said to act
direetly on the skin and bones, and to have proved
naefnl in allaying the pain of nodes and in dis-
persing them {Mandaga). It is, however, prin-
apally used as a source of cyanogen and hydro-
CTanic acid. — Vote, -^ to i gr. (beginning with
the smaller qnantit^}, made into piUs with cmm
of bread, or in alcoholic solution ; as a gargle or
lotion, 10 gr. to water, 1 pint ; as an ointment,
10 or 12 gr. to lard, 1 oi. Dressings of mer-
curic cyanide are now used by surgeons as anti-
septics.

Xercnrie Fnlmliato. Hg[0(CN)JO. A detonat-
ing substance, for the manuficture at which con-
sult ' Bloxam's Chemistry,' ed. 1890.

■ereorie Iodide. Hgl^ Syn. FBOnoDtDi
OT laacusY, Rxd iodisb ov nBouBT, Iodise
o> UBOUBT, BnriosrDB or KSBotUT; Ht-

raUBOTBI IODIDT7X BITBBm (B. P.), H.

lODiDirx, H. Bmosisirii (Ph. E.), H. iodi-
mm BITBSTTX (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate), 4 parts ;
potassium iodide, 5 parts ; boiling distilled water,
80 parts. XKssolve the mercuric chloride in 60
parts of water, and the potassium iodide in tlie
remainder, and mix the two solutions. Allow to
•tand, decant the supernatant liquor, and collect

the precipitate on a filter, wash twice with cold
water, and dry at 212° F.

2. (Ph. L., 1886.) Mercury, 1 os. ; iodine,
10 dr. ; rectified spirit, q. s. (2 or S fl. dr.) ; tri-
turate until the globules of mercury disappear,
and the mixture assumes a scarlet colour ; diry it
in the dark, and preserve it in a well-stoppwed
vessel.

3. (Ph. E.) Mercury, S oc.;- iodine, 2 oz.;,
spirit, q. 8. ; triturate together as last, dissolra
the product, by brisk ebullition, in concentrated
solution of sodium chloride, 1 galL, filter whilst
boiling hot, wash the crystals deposited on cool-
ing, and drr tbem.

4. (Ph. D.) Mercuric chloride, 1 oz. ; hot dis-
tilled water, 26 fl. oz. ; dissolve; potassium iodide,
li OE.; water, 6 fi. os.; dissolve; when the
solutions are cold, mix them ; filter oS the pre-
dpitate, wash it with distilled water, and dry at
218° P.

Prop., Ire. A bright scarlet powder oondsting
of microscopic octahedra insoluble in water, but
soluble in alcohol and ether, and in the solutions
of several of the iodides and chlorides. It is also
soluble in cod-liver oil, and in several other fixed
oils. Beadily sublimed. When flnt heated it
becomes yellow, then brown, then fuses, and is
finally converted into a oolonrless vapour, which
condenses in yellow crystals* on a cold surface.
These crystals when touched with a hard body
instantly become red. The yellow crystals are
rhombic. — Dore, -fftoi gr., dissolved in alcohol
or made into a piU ; in the same cases as the sub-
iodides, from which it differs chiefly in its greater
energy and poisonous quaUties.

Mercuric Oleato. See OnrcxBirr op Ouiatb
ov Mbsoubt.

Mercuric and Fotasdum Iodide. 2 (Hgl^KI).
8Aq. /Sv». Iodisb or mnovitT axj> zoiab-

SmC, lODO-HTSBABeTBATB OT POTASBTDlf;
HySBABOTBI BT FOTABSn lODIDTTIC, L. TclloW

prisms, a solution of which mixed with potash
forms Nessler's solution. — Prep. 1. (Jf. Boullay.)
Mercuric iodide, potassium iodide, and water,
equal parts ; dissolve by heat, and crystallise by
evaporation or refrigeration.

2. (Puehe.) From mercuric iodide and potas-
sium iodide, equal parte, triturated together. —
Dore, 1^ to f gr., dissolved in water ; in the same
cases as the biniodide, and in chronic bronchitis,
hooping-cough, inflammatory sore throat, &e.

Merraric and Potassium lodo-ey'anlde. 8yn,

HTDBiaaTBI BT POTABBII lOSO-OTAKIDTnC, L.

Prep. To a concentrated solution of mercuric
OTaaide add a rather strong solution of potas-
sium iodide, and dry the predpitate by a gentle
heat.

Prop., 4v. Small, white, pearly, crystelline
plates or scales. It is chiefly used as a test of
the puritv of hydrocyanic add. When put into
this liquid it is instantly turned red if any
mineral add is present.

Mercuric Kitrate. Hg(NO,),. Sgn. Fboto-

NITBATB OF KEBCUBT, PbBITCTBATB OV IIBB-

cuBT. Prep. (Nbttbal.) a. This is obtained
by solution of mercuric oxide, in excess of
mtric add. The solution, evaporated in a bell-jar
over sulphuric add, yields large crystals. The
same compound is obtained as a crystalline pow>

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MEKCURY

der when the syrupy liquid is dropped into strong
nitric acid.

b. By dissolving mercury ui excess of nitric
acid with heat, until the solution, when diluted
with distilled water, ceases to give a precipitate
witii common salt.

(Basic.) let. 2Hg{N0,)H0.Hp. Prep. By
saturating hot dilute nibric acid with mercuric
oxide. The nit, which is' Uhasic, crystallisea on
cooling.

The acid solution (before evaporation) is used
as a caustic in cancerous, syphilitic, and other
ulcerations; hut it frequently produces intense
pain, and occasionally the usual constitutional
effects of mercury. It was formerly given in
similar cases to those in which the bichloride is
now employed. — Dote (of the dry salt), ^ to -,^
gr. This is the preparation ordinarily referred to
under the name ' pernitrate of. mercury.'

2nd. 2Hg(NOs)HO.HgO. e. By saturating
strong nitric acid with mercury by heat, throw-
ing the solution into cold water, and collecting
and drying the precipitate. This salt, which is
tribasic, ia also formed when the preceding crys-
tallised .salts are put into hot water.

Oit. This last preparation is a heavy, yellow
powder, but the shade varies according to its
basicity, which increases with the temperature of
the water employed to effect the predpitation,
until, at the boiling temperature, the colour is a
dull red. It is extensively employed for the ex-
temporaneous preparation of the ointment of
nitrate of mercury, according to the formula on
the following label which accompanies each
bottle : — • Hydrarg. sub-nitras,' " Two scruples,
mixed with one ounce of simple cerate, make
the nng. hydrarg. nit. of the London Fhar-
macopoua." We need scarcely add that this
statement, so unhlnshingly uttered, is a dan-
gerous falsehood. An ointment so made pos-
sesses neither the quantity of mercury nor of
nitric acid employed in the Pharmacopceia pre-
paration, besides wanting many of its most
sensible and valuable properties.

Kercorle Oxide. UgO. Sj/». Pbotoxisb op
itssouBT, Red oxidb of xebcitkt, Red pbb-
ciPiTATE, Ozii>B OP K., Butoxidx op X., Dbitt-

OZIDB OP K., PbBOZIDB OF X.; HYDBASaTBI

OZTDUH, H. o. bvbbuk (B. & L.). This substance
is formed upon the surface of mereniy when
heated for a long time at its boiling-point in con-
tact with air. The alchemists knew it aa mer-
emriu$ praeipitatut per m.

Trep. 1. Prepared on a large scale by heating
ao intimate mixture of mercury and mercuric
nitrate until no more red fumes are evolved.

2. By precipitation (Htdbabsybi BnroxTDirx
— Ph. L. 1886.). Mercuric chloride (corrosive
sublimate), 4 oz. ; distilled water, 6 pints ; dissolve
and add of liquor of potass, 28 fi. oz. ; drain the
precipitate, wash it in distilled water, and dry it
by a gentle heat.

Oit. A bright orange-red powder. It usually
contains a little combined water ; hence its readier
■olnbility in acids than the oxide prepared by
heat. When heated sufBciently it yields oxygen,
and the mercury either runs into globules or is
totally dissipated. It is entirely soluble in hy-
drochloric add (Ph. L. 1836). The prepaiation

of the shops has frequently a brick-red ddoar,
and contains a little oxychloride, arising from too
little alkali being used.

8. By calcination of the nitrate (Rbd FBBCin-

TATB ; HvDBABaYBI HITBICI OTLTBXSTt. — Ph. L. ;

Hydbabotbi ozisuk bubboc — B. p.. Ph. L.,
Ph. D.). Prep. (B. P.) Mercury, by weight, 8
parts ; nitric acid, 4| parts ; water, 2 parts. Dis-
solve half the mercury in the water and acid,
evaporate to dryness, and triturate with the rest
of the mercury untU well blended. Heat in a
porcelain capsule, repeatedly stirring, until acid
vapours cease to be evolved.

Mercury, 3 lbs.; nitric acid,. 18 fl. oz. (1) lbs..
Ph. L., 1836) ; water, 2 quarts ; dissolve by a
gentle heat, evaporate to dryness, ponder, and
calcine this in a shallow vessel, with a gradually
increased heat, until red vapours cease to aiiae.
The process of the Ph. E. and D. are similar,
except that the Dublin College directs the
evaporation and calcination to be performed in
the same vessel, without powdering or starring
the mass.

Oht. Bright red crystalline scales, which
usually contain a little undecomposed pernitrate
of mercury; in other respects it resembles the
last two preparations. It is more generally nsed
as an escharotic and in ointments than the preci-
pitated oxide. It is volatilised by heat without
the evolution of nitrous vapours. According to
Mr Brande it contains about 2| per cent, of nitric
acid. According to Mr Barker the process of the
Ph. D. yields the finest coloured product ; but Mr
Brande states that the nitrate requires to he con-
stantly stirred during the process. On the large
scale the evaporation is genenilly conducted in a
shallow earthen dish, and as soon as the mass
becomes dry a second dish is inverted over it, and
the calcination is continued, without disturbance,
until the process is concluded. The heat of a sand-
bath is employed.

Prop. Scarlet microscopic crystals, which are
of a 6axY colour when hot. Decomposes at a red
heat into mercury and oxygen. Explodes when
heated with sulphur. Evolves light and heat when
placed in contact with sodium. It is a powerful
poison, possessing a metallic taste and an alkaline
reaction. It is slightly soluble in water.

Utet. Mercuric oxide is valuable for various
purposes in chemical analysis. It was formerly
employed in medicine to induce salivation, bat is
now chiefly used as an escharotic, either in the
form of powder or made into an ointment. —
Hote, ^ to 1 gr., combined with opium. It is very
poisonous.

Mercuric Sulphate. HgSO^. Syn. Pboto-

BULFEATB op KEBCrBY ; HYSBJlBOTBI BTTIf has
(Ph. B.), H. PEB8ULPHA8, H. BIBT7XFHAB, L.

Prep. 1. (Neutral.) a. By boiling together
sulphuric acid and metallic mercury until the
latter is wholly converted into a heavy, white,
crystalline powder ; the excess of add ia removed
by evaporation. Equal weights of add and
metal may conveniently be employed.

h. (Ph. D. 1826.) Dissolve mercury, 6 parts,
in a mixture of sulphuric add, 6 parts, and nitric
acid, 1 part, by boiling them in a glass Teasel,
and continue the heat until the mass becomes
perfectly dry and white. Used to make calomel.

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MEBCUEY

1049

e. (Fh. B.) Place 80 oz. of qmckiilTer in a
porcelain capaole with 12 fl, oz. of Bulphuric acid,
and apply heat until nothing remains but a white,
dij, cryttalline salt. Used to make perchloride
and chloride of mercnry.

8. (Basic.) HgS04,2HgO. I^n. Tbibabio

STTLPHATB OV XBBOTTBT, TTTBFETE UIKBBAL,
TtrSBITH X., QlTBBK'a YBLLOW, SVBaULFBATB
OP MEKCUBTf, TbIBASIO PBBgllLFHATB OF H. ;

Htdkasgybi BXTBaniiPHAS, H. 8. VLAVus, Teb-
PETH17X xnrBBALB, L. a. Diuolve mercury in
an eqoal weight of solpburie acid by boiling them
to dryness, fling the mass into hot water,' and
wash and dry the resnlting yellow powder.

b. (Ph. D. 1826.) Mercuric sulphate, 1 part ;
warm water, 20 parts ; triturate together in an
earthen mortar, wash well with distilled water,
drain, and dry it. Heavy lemon-yellow powder.

Prop., S^. The neutnl mercuric sulphate is a
white crystalline powder which becomes brown-
yellow when heated and white again on cooling.
Water decomposes it into a soluble acid sulphate,
and into a yellow insoluble basic sulphate known
as tnrbith. — Dote. As an alterative, -^ to i gr. ;
ss an emetic, 3 to 5 gr. ; as an errhine, 1 gr. ;
mixed op with a pinch of liquorice powder or fine
muff. It is a powerful poison, and one of the
least useful of the mercnrial preparations.

Obt. The temperature of the water employed
to deoompoae the nentral sulphate influences the
•hade of colour of the resulting salt in a similar
manner to that pointed out under the nitrate. It
is sow superseded as a pigment by chi'ome yellow
and orpiment, which are not only more beautiful,
but cheaper preparations.

Heicnric Sulphide. HgS. <Sy». Fbotosul-

FHIDB OP XBSOUBT, RbD BULPHVBBT OF HBB-
CUBY, CmrABAS, VBBXHilON, SUXPHUBBT OF H BB-
CITBY, SVXPHISB OP X., BiBUXPHVBET OP H.f ;
HYDBABaYBI BIBTrLPHUBBTITK (Ph. B. and L.),
CorSABABIB (Ph. E.), H. SITLFHVBBTnX KVBBVX,

L. Occurs in beds in slate rocks and shales, and
more rarely in granite or porphyry. It is the
chief ore of mercury.

Vrtf. 1. 100 iwrts of mercury and 38 parts
snlphnr, mbbed together for some hours, then
mixed with 25 parts of potash dissolved in water
at 45°; heated for 8 hours, then washed ia water
tad dried {Brwumer).

2. (Ph. L.) Quicksilver, 24 oz.; sulphur, 5
oz. ; melt together, and continue the heat till the
mixture swdOs np ; then cover the vessel, remove
it from the heat, and when cold, powder and sub-
lime it. (Ph. B.) Quicksilver, 2 lbs. ; sulphur, 6
oz. This is founded on the old Dutch process.

Prep., 4*0. Uercnric sulphide has a dark red
•emi-crystalline appearance in the mass, but
acquires a brilliant scarlet colour by powdering.
8p. gr<=8'124. It is tasteless, odourless, and in-
soluble in most reagents, but it dissolves in aqua
regia with liberation of sulphur and i n cold concen-
trated or warm dilate hydriodic acid. It is com-
monly called vermilion, and is chiefly used as a
pigment in the manufacture of punts, ink, and
sealing-wax ; bnt it is occasionally employed in
medieine as a diaphoretic and vermifuge, and in
some cutaneous diseases and gout. — Da»«, 10 to
80 gr. ; as a fumigation, about i dr. is thrown on
a plate of iron heated to dull redness. For the

last purpose it is inferior to mercnrons oxide,
owing to the more irritating nature of its vapour.
Vermilion is sometimes adulterated with red-lead
or red oxide of iron. The presence of these im-
purities can be readily ascertained, for the pure
substance sublimes without leaving any residue.

Merenrlc Thiocyanate. Hg(SCN)p A white
crystalline precipitate, formed by the interaction
of ammonium thiocyanate and corrosive sublimate
solutions. Mixed with gum-water to a paste and
made into balls this substance is used for producing
the so-called ' Pharaoh's serpents.'

■ereorona Salts. Tattt. Sulphuretted hydro-
gen and ammonium sulphide give black preciin-
tates, insoluble in dilute acids, ammonium sul-
phide, potassium cyanide, and hot nitric acid, but
slightly soluble in sodium sulphide, and decom-
posed by nitro-hydrochloric acid.

Potassium hydrate and ammonia give black-
grey or black precipitates, which are insoluble in
excess of the precipitant.

Hydrochloric acid and the soluble metallic
chlorides occasion a precipitate, which assumes
the form of a very fine powder of dazzling white-
ness, insoluble in excess, but soluble in aqua reg^
Potassium hydrate and ammonia turn it dark grey
or black.

Potassium iodide gives a greenish -yellow pre-
cipitate, soluble in excess and in ether, and sub-
liming in red crystals when heated.

Mercnrons Acetate. Hg(CjH|0,). Sgn. Aoa-

TATB OP XXBOUBY, SUBACBTATE OF X. iVsp. (P.
Cod.) Dissolve mercurous nitrate, 1 part, in water
(slightly acidulated with nitric acid), 4 parts, and
precipitate the liquid with a solution of sodium
acetate, gradually added, until in slight excess ;
carefully wash the precipitate with cold water,
and dry it in the dark.

Prop., 4*0. Small, white, flexible scales; in-
soluble in alcohol; soluble in about 300 parts of
water ; blackened by light, and carbonised by a
strong heat. It has been said to be one of the
mildest of the mercurials ; but this cannot be the
case, as it occasionally acts with great violence on
both the stomach and bowels, producing much
pain and prostration. — Dote, ^ to 1 gr., night and
morning, gradually increased.

Mercnrons Bromide. HgjBr,. Syn. Sub-

BBOXISB OP XBBCIJBY; HYDBAKOTBI BBOKI-

sux, L. A whiUsh-yellow powder, insolnble in
water. Prep. (Magendie.) By precipitating a
solution of mercurous nitrate by another of potas-
sium bromide. It closely resembles calomel in
both its appearance and properties. — Dote, 1 to
6gr.
Mercnrons Chloride. HgtCl^ Sgn. Caloxbz,

SUBCHLOBISB OP XSBCUBY, MSBOTJBY OHLOBISB ;

Hysbabqybi 817bohi«bid0h (B. p.), Htdbab-

GYBI CHLOBIDUX (Ph. L.), H. 0. XITE (Ph. U. S.),
Caiaxblas (Ph. £. and D.), L. This substance
is one of the best known, and probably the most
valuable, of all the mercurials. It is found at
Idria and Almaden, crystallised in rhombic prisms
as ' horn silver.'

Prep. 1. (Ph. I/.) Mercury, 2 lbs. ; sulphuric
acid, 21i fl. oz.; ;niz, boil to o^ness (in a cast-
iron vessel), and when the resnlting mass has
cooled, add of mercury, 2 lbs., and triturate the
ingredients in an earthenware mortar until they

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loeo

ICEBCUBT

are well mixed ; than add of Mdinm chloride, 11
lbs., and again iiitnTBte until the globules are no
longer visible j next lablime the mixture, reduce
the sublimate to the finest possible powder,
diligently wash it with boiling distilled water, and
dry it.

2. (Ph. F.) Hercnry, 4 oz., is dissolved in a
mixture of galphuric acid, 2 fl. oz. S fl. dr., and
nitric acid, i fl. oz., by the aid of heat ; when cold,
mercury, 4 oz., is added, and the remainder of the
process is conducted as before,

8. (CiiMtvLi.6 8irBLilu.Tinf, Ph. D.) Sulphate
of mercnry, 10 parts; mercniy, 7 parts; dry
sodinm chloride, 6 parts ; triturate, Ac, as before,
and afterwards resublime it into a large chamber
or receiver.

4. ^Ph. B.) Same as Dublin.

6. (Apothecaries' Hall.) Quicksilver, 60 lbs.,
and sulphuric add, 70 lbs., are boiled to dryness
in a cast-iron vessel ; of the dry salt, 68 lbs. are
triturated with quicksilver, 4(H lbs., until the
globules are extinguished, when sodinm chloride,
84 lbs., is added, and after thorough admixture
the whole is sublimed, Ac., as before.

6. (Jewel's Patent.) The receiver, which is
capacious, is filled with steam, so tiiat the calomel
vapour is condensed in it in a state of extremely
minute division. The enjfr. represents the appa-
ratus now nsually employed when this plan is
adopted. The prodnct is extremely white, and of
the finest quality. It is sometimes called ' hydro-
sublimed calomel' and ' hydioaublimate of mer-
cury.' The ' flowers of calomel' of old pSarmtuy
were prepared in a nearly similar manner.

«. Fnnaoa.

t. An nrthenwsrs letoi^ bcriof a skort ind wids neeka
contuning thg Ingredients for making cslomeL
e. Au uitheu reedTer, hiring three tnbnlatares.
(t. A TetMl eontiining wster.
«. A •tmm boUsr.

7. (ffonifftraa.) The crude calomel mixture is
heated in an earthen tube in a fomace, and a
current of air is directed unintermptedly into the
tube by means of a small ventilator. This sweeps
away the vaponrs to the end of the recipient
which is immersed in water, by which means the
calomel is moistened and falls down. This plan,
dightly modified, is now extensively adopted in
thu country.

8. A molecular weight of corrosive sublimate is
intimately mixed inth an atomic weight of
metallic mercnry, and a little water added to
prevent dust; the mixture is then dried and sub-
limed.

9. (FBBOmTATID OAU>mL ; Cacoxklab fbx-
eiHTATVK, h.) Digest pure qnickrilver, 9 parts,
in nitric add (sp. gr. 1-02 to 1*25^, 8 parts, until
no more metal will dissolve, applying heat as the
effervescence ceases; then mix the hot liquid
quickly with a boiling solution of sodium chloride.

8 parts, dissolved in water (slightly acidulated
with hydrochloric add), 64 parts ; lastly, weQ
wash the precipitate in boiling distilled water,
and diy it. The product, when the process Is
skilfully managed, is perfectly white and pure.

Prop. A heavy, white, tasteless powder, or
semi-transparent fibrous mass with a slight yeQo>w
ting«. Light slowly decomposes it, tnming it grey.
It is insoluble in water, alcohol, and dilnte adds ;
volatilises at a temperature below redness, and
yields a white or yeUowish-white sublimate; hot
nitric acid oxidises and dissolves it ; alkalies, the
alkaUne carbonates, and lime-water decompose it,
with the production of the black oxide ; ammonia
converts it into a dark grey powder (bi>ac!K f<x-
CIFITATS, Kane). Sp. gr. 6-56.

Pur. Calomel is ^«quently contaminated with
small quantities of corrosive sublimate, which may
be detected by digesting a little in alcohol, decant-
ing the clear portion, and testing it inth a drop
or two of potassium hydrate, when a reddish pre-
cipitate will be formed if any mercuric chloride
be present. This imparity can be eliminated by
washing repeatedly with water, in which the calo-
mel is insolnble.

Utes. Calomel is one of the milder mercnrials,
and in this respect takes its podtion immediately
after blue pill, mercury with chalk, and the grey
oxide ; but it probably ranks before all the other
salts of mercury. Universal experience appears
to show it to be a most valuable alterative when
jndidonsly administered. With this intention it
is given in doses of } to 1 wr., generally comluned
^th antimonials, as in Finmmer's pill, and re-
peated every night, or every other night, for some
time, followed by a mUd saline aperient in the
morning. As a purgative, 8 to 6 gr., dther com-
bined with or followed by other purgatives, as
jalap, rhubarb, senna, colocynth, Epsom salts, tx.
As a vermifuge, 8 to 5 gr. overnight, followed
by a sufficient dose of castor oil next morning.
Combined with opium it is frequently need in
various complaints to produce salivation, or bring
the system, under the influence of mercury. It is
also employed as a sedative and errhine, and In a
vast number of other indications. It is, indeed,
more frequently used, and in a greater variety of
complaints, than probably any other medicine.

Ob*. Of the two methods of preparing calomd,
that by precipitation is not only the best, but the
most economical. That by sublimation is, how-
ever, the one generally adopted in England. Mr
Brande states that " a small portion of sodium
chloride is apt to remain combined with it, which
might affect its medical uses." Such a con-
tamination is not found in carefnBv prepared pre-
cipitated calomel, although we doubt whether the
quantity of it which exists in any of the samples
we have met with (being merely a trace) would at
all interfere with its therapeutical action ; more
especially when it is recollected that alkaline
chlorides are present in every part of the animal
body. The late Mr Fownes once assured ns that
calomel was more easily and cheaply prepared of
the best quality by piedpitation than by sublima-
tion, and that if, nom careless manipulation, it
occamonally contained a minnte quantity of com-
mon salt, this was of much less importance than
the contamination of corronve sublimate, which

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HBBOCBT

lOSl

«u freqtieiitlj pnunt in Mnple* of sabKmed
ckknneL

To prodnoe a superior qnalitj of calomel in the
diy wb; ia n, somewhat difficolt task, and the pro-
em frequently fails in the hands of inezperieneed
operators. The solution of the mercnry is best
mkdein an iron vessel, and the snblimation should
be conducted in an earthenirare retort with a
short but very wide neck, fitted in a sptkcions
reoeirer, having a large fiat bottom, also of
earthenware, and containing a little cold water.
The heat may be applied by means of a sand-
bath. The apparatus, by precipitation, produces
a large prodnct, perfectly free from corrosive
snblimate and mercuroos nitrate.

" The form in which calomel gnblimes depends
nraeh npon the dimensions and temperature of
the mUiming vessels. In small vessels it gene-
rally condenses in a oiystalline cake, the interior
surlaoe of which is often covered with beautiful
qaadrangalar prismatic crystals, transparent, and
of a textore somewhat elastic or homy. In this
state it acquires, by the necessary rubbing into
powder, a decided yellow or buff colour, more or
less deep, according to the degree of trituration
it has nndergone. If, on the contrary, the calo-
mel be sublimed into a very capacious and cold
receiver, it falls in an impalpable and perfectly
white powder, which requires only one elntriation
to fit it for use ; it then remains perfectly ooloor-
len" (.Broads).

The long-continued action of steam on calomel
in a state of minote division is attended by the
fonnation of a small qnantity of corrosive sub-
limate (SiffU»i). Boiling water, hot air, and
light also produce a like effect.

KereoToni Iodide. Hg^I^ i^a. Sitbiodidb

OF XBBOVXT, GbBEH lOOIDa OV XIBOUBT, HfxS-
CVaaVB lODISa; HTSBASeTBI lODtDITK yiSIDlI

(B. p.), Htsbabgybi sitbiodidvm, H. ix>didi;k
(Ph. L.), H. I. viBlDB ^Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1.
(B.P.) Mercnry, loz.} iodine, 278 gr.j rectified
wfitit, a saffidenc^. Rnb the iodine and mercuiy
in a porcelain mortar, mc^ening oecasionaUy
with a few drops of spirit, and continue the tri-
tsraition until the mass assumes a uniform green
colour, and no metallio globnles are visible.

8. IVecipitate a solution of mercnreus nitrate
by anotlier of mercnrous potassium iodide ; wash
the precipitate, first in a solution of sodium
efalonde, and then in pore water ; dry it in the
dark.

8. (Ph. lu) Merenty, 1 oz. ; iodine, 6 dr. j
tritnrate together, gradually adding of rectified
^arit, q. s. (abont 1 to 8 n. dr.), until globules
are no longer seen ; dry the powder, by a gentle
beat, in the shade as quickly as passible, and
piMerre it hi a well-stoppeied black glass vessel.
The f onrala of tiie Ph. D. is similar. In this
method, also in No. 1, mercuric iodide may lie
used in proper proportions instead of iodine.

iVisp., 4^c. A heavy, unstable, greenish-yellow
powder) slightly sdnUe in water, insolutile in
alcohol and a solution of common salt; soluhls
in ether. Freshly prapared, it is yellowish. Heat
being eantioasly applied, it sublimes in red crystals,
wUeh ton jMow on cooling (2Ws»), and, on
aeeeM of lights blacken. It is Insoluble in. a
•olatiaB of ohloride of sodiom. The process of

the Ph. L. and 7. P. does not answer when larger
quantities than 4 or 6 oz. are prepared at oaee,
owing to the g^eat heat generated by tite reaction
of the ingredients, and tlie consequent volatilisa-
tion of a portion of the iodinei, by which the colour
of the product suffers. — Do*e, | to 1 gr., made
into piUss "in syphilis and scrofttla, especially
where they occur in the same individual." It ia
also used externally, in the form of ointment. It
is very poisonous.
Maonroni Hitrate. Hgi(NOs), Sgn. Sub-

KITBATB OF KBBOVBY i HTDKABaTIU BITBHITBAB,

H. WITBAB, H. PBOXOsrrCBAS, h. Prep. 1, (Neu-
tral.) By digesting mercnry in excess of cold
dilute nitric acid, removing the short prismatic
crystals soon after they are formed ; these, wlien
dnined and redissolved in water slightly acidu-
lated with nitric acid, fnmish oystels of pure
neutral mercuroos nitrate by cautious evaporation.
2. (Basic.) A double salt deposited after some
time, when excess of mercury has been employed
as above. Long, thin, rhombic prisms of the for-
mula Hg^O,), + Hg^OHNOJ.

Prop., ^. Both the above are decomposed by
water, hot the former may be dissolved in a very
small quantity without decomposition ; if there be
excess of water the baoic salt is formed. When
the neutral salt is triturated with an excess of
sodium chloride, and water subsequently added,
the whole of the mercury is thrown down as
calomel, and the filtered supernatant liquid does
not contain corrosive sublimate. If this substance
is detected, the salt examined contained meronrie
nitrate, and if any basic mercurons nitrate .was
present^ the newly formed calomel has a grey or
black colour, due to presence of oxide. — Dote. Of
the nentral salts, -^ — I- gr. It is seldom osed
internally. A solntion ia sometimes employed as
a mild caustic to ulcers ; and, more dilute, as a
lotion in lepra, porrigo, psoriasis, Ac; ot mads
into an ointment, in the same diseases.
. Kereniona Oxide. Hg,0. ;£E^ SrBOXXDB of

XKBCUBT, QbXY O. OF M., BlAOK O. OF X., DlOXIDS
OF H., PBOTOXISB of K.t ; HTnB,AS«TBI BTTBO^Y-
STTK, H. OXXDUV, H. O. 0IHBBB1TK, H. 0. Xl^WM,

Ik Easily obtained by the action of canstio alkalies
on a mercurous salt. Prep. 1. (Ph. L., 1836.)
Calomel, 1 oa. ( lime-water, 1 gaU.} mix, agitate well
togetfaer, decant the clear liquid after subsidence,
and well wash the sediment with distilled water;
lastly, drain and dry it, wrapped in bibnloos
paper, in the air.

2. (Ph. D., 182&) Sublimed calomel, 1 part;
solution of potassium hydn^ (warm), 4 parts;
shake together, &D., as last.

S. Briskly triturate calomel in a mortar with
pare potassium hydrate in exeees ; wash it irtth
water, and dry it in the shade.

Prop., 4v. A blackish-brown powder^ suffer-
ing decomposition by exposure to light and ait
or gentle heat, iiecoming greyish from a portion
being reaslved into metallic mercnry and red
oxide. Digested for a short time in dU«te
hydrochlcrric acid, it remains nndisaolved, and the
filtered liquid is not affected by potaswqm liy«
drate or by ammonium oxalate. It is totidly
soluble in acetic acid, and entin^ dissipated by
heat. As a medicine pure mercoroos oxide is
one of the mildest of the merourials, and is «nd

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1063

ME ECXJBY— METALLURGY

both internally and externally ; bat chiefly as a
famif^t, or made into an ointment. — Do»e, \ gr.
to 3 gr. twice a day.

Kercnroiu Phosphate. HggPO^. Syn. Ht-
BBABOTSi PE0BPHA8, L. Prep. Add a lolvtion
of mercuroas nitrate (slightly acidulated with
nitric acid) to a solation of sodium phosphate ;
filter off, wash and dry the precipitate which
forms. Solable in excess of mercurons nitrate.
In its physical characters it closely resembles
calomel, than which it is said to be more appro-
priate in certain cases, especially in secondary
syphilis. Alkalies torn it black. — Dot», f to 1
gr., made into a pill with sngar and aromatics.

Kercnrons Sulphate. HgiSO,. 8yn. Sub-

BVI.FHi.TB OF HBBOTTBT, SuXPHi.TB OP THB
8VB0ZIDB OP K., PbOTOBULPHATB OP U.f ; HT-

DKABOYBI BUB8UXPHA8, L. Prep. By adding
sulphnric acid to a solution of mercurons nitrate.
The salt falls as a white crystalline powder.
Mercurons Snlphlde. HgjS, Syn. Svbsvl-

PHATB OP XBBOUBT ; HTDBABaYBI 8UB8UL-
PHTrSBTUX OVK BULPRVBB, H. 8. NISBUK, L.

A very unstable substance, which Bosooe says
does not exist. Most text-books, boweyer, men-
tion it.

Prep, 1. Falls as a black precipitate when a
■elation of mercurons acetate is treated with sul-
phuretted hydrogen.

2. (EtHIOPB HIITEBAL; HTDBASaYBI 8VZ-
PHVBBTTni 0T71C SULPEUBB, H. 8. KIOBUM —

Ph. L. 1824 and Ph. D. 1826 ; .Sthiopb xim-
BALIB— Ph. L. 1836 and Ph. D. 1826.) Quick-
silver and sulphur, equal parts, triturated to-
gether in a stoneware mortar (Ph. D.) until
globules are no longer visible.

Prop., t[c. The last preparation of mercorous
sulphide is alone employed medicinally. It is a
heavy, insoluble, black powder. It is frequently
met with imperfectly preiMtred, and sometimes
adulterated. It is said to be a mixture of mer-
curous sulphide and sulphur, in variable propor-
tions depending on the length of the trituration.
It is B(ud to be vermifuge and alterative, and has
been used in some cutaneous and glandular dis-
eases, but appears to be nearly inert. — Dote, 5 to
80 gr.

Mereai«nis Tartrate. (P. Cod.) Sgn. Fboto-

lABTBAIB OP KBBCUBT; HtDBABSTBI TAB-

TBAB, L. Made by adding a solution of proto-
nitrate of mercury in water, slightly acidulated
with nitric acid, to a solution of tartrate of pot-
ash as long as a precipitate forms. Wash with
distilled water, dry in the dark, and keep it in
bottles covered with black paper. — Doie, 1 to
2 gr.

MEBCTTSY, Other Preparatioiu of.

Mercnry, Hahnemann's. Sgn. HAHirBKAim'B

BOLVBLB HBBOUBT, H.'S BLACK OXISB OP M.,

Black pbbcipitatb op v. ; Htdbabotbi PBiB-

OIPITATTTH KIOKUII, MbBCUBIUB SOLVBILIS

HAHKBXAmn, L. a. By dropping weak am-
monia into a solution of mercuroas nitrate as
long as the precipitate formed is of a black
colour ; the powder is washed, dried in the shade
withont artificial heat, and then preserved from
the light and air.

h. (Ph. Bor. 1847.) Solution of mercurons ni-
trate (recent; sp. gr. I'l), 9i oz. ; distilled

water, 8 lbs. ; mix, filter, uid add to the solation
of ammonia (ap. gr. -960), } oz., diluted with
water, 4 fl. oz. ; collect the powder immediately
on a filter, wash it with water, 6 fl. oz., and dry
it, &c., as before. A very black powder. — Dote,
* tolgr.

Kercnry, FraeipitateB of. 1. Black pbbci-
pitatb, Hahnemann's soluble mercury (basic
mercurons and ammonium nitrate). 2. Gbbkh

p. (MBBCTTBIUB FB.SCIPITATVB TIBISI8, LaCBBTA

▼ibisib), from equal parts of mercnry and
copper, separately dissolved in nitric acid, the
solations mixed, evaporated to dryness, and then
calcined until red fumes cease to arise. Caustic.
8. Red p., mercuric oxide. 4. Weitb p., am-
monio-chloride of mercury.

Kercnry, Vard's. Sgn. Akmonio-kitbatx

OP HBBCrKT; HydBABOTBI AKKONIS RITBA8,

L. - To nitric acid, 4 parts, contained in a
spacious bolt-head or matrass, add gradually
ammonium sesquicarbonate, 2 parts ; afterwards
add of mercury, 1 part, and digest in a gentle
heat until the solution is complete.

Kercnry with Chalk. Sy*. HTDBABaxBUX
cuic CbktA; Obbt powbbb (B. P.). Prep.
Rub 1 oz. (by weight) of mercury, and preparad
chalk, 2 oz., in a porcelain mortar, until metaUio
globules cease to be visible to the naked eye, and
the mixture acquires a nniform grey colour. —
From 3 to 8 gr.

A little water is said to aid in the extinction
of the mercnry. Mr BotUe suggests a slight
departure from the Grey modut operajuU fol-
lowed by the British Pharmacopoeia in the above
preparation. He proposes to substitute for the
tedious process of trituration in a porcelain
mortar the agitation of the mercury with the
chalk in a wide-mouthed glass bottle, by which
means the metal may be minutely subdivided at
a conuderably less expenditure of time and
labour.

Kaicoiy with Kagrnasia. (Ph. D.) Sy%. Ht-
SBAbotbitx cch haohbbiI, L. Pore mercury,
1 oz. ; carbonate of magnesia, 2 oz. Rub together
in a porcelain mortar until the globules cease to
be visible and the mixture acquires a nniform
grey colour. — Dote, 8 to 8 gr.

KXSIiIK. A mixture of variooa kinds of grain
(Brandt).

KEPAL. Sgu. Mbtallux, L. See Mbtals.

KETAL'LICA. [L.] Preparations of the
metals. One of the divisions of the Ph. L.

KXTAl'UC TREES. See Vbobtation (Me-
talUc).

KETALXOCHBOKES. A name given by
Nobili to extremely thin films of peroxide of lead
deposited by electrolytic action upon plates of
polished steel, so as to produce an iridescent play
of colours. The effect is often very beautif uL

HET'ALLOISS. A name sometubnes applied to
the VOn-KBTAIXIO blbxbmts.

KET'ALLUROT. "The art at extracting
metals from their ores, and adapting them to
various processes of manuf actnre " (Pereg).

"Notwithstanding the striking analogy which
exists between common chemical and metallurgic
operations, since both are employed to isolate
certain bodies from each other, there are essential
differences which should be carefully noted. In

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UETiiLS— METANTIMONIC ACID

1068

the first place, the quantity of materials being
always very great in metallnrgy, requires corre-
sponding adaptations of apparatus, and often
prodaces peculiar phenomena; in the second
place, the agents to be employed for treating great
mamiee must be selected trith a view to economy,
su well as chemical action. In analytical chemis-
try, the main object being exactness of result and
parity of product, little attention is bestowed
upon the value of the reagents, on account of the
■mall quantity required for any particular process.
Bat in smelting metals upon the large scale, profit
being the sole object, cheap materials and easy
operations are alone admissible" Cure's Diet.
of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines,' 4th edit.).

The limits of this work do not permit of more
than a general reference to the leading operations
of metaUutgy under this head. These are —
digging, picking or torting, ttiunping or enuhing,
and vatking, included under the general term
' dressing ore ;' roatting or calcination, which
expels water, COj, &c., volatilises or sublimes
certain volatile substances, or oxidises some portion
of the ore under treatment, and which is either
performed with the fuel in contact with the ore,
or in reverberatory furnaces; reduction, which
brings oxides to the metallic state ; tmelting, or
separation from the ore by fusion ; icor^ation,
which separates readily oxidisable metals from
other metals with which they are associated;
eupeUation, which in a special way separates lead
ami other oxidisable metals from silver and gold ;
anhUmation, by which substances are volatilised
by heat and subsequently condensed in the solid
state; Uqwttion, by which substances having dif-
ferent melting-points are separated by subjecting
them to a carefully regulated temperature ; Uxi'
motion, by wUch metallic salts are separated from
metalliferous and other matters by the solvent
action of water or saline solutions ; cemantation,
m which process articles are embedded in certain
powders or cementing materials and kept at below
fusion temperature for several hours or days ; and
other leaa important operations. The application
of these processes is noticed under the leading
metals. Those who desire to study the subject
minutely are referred to the treatises of Dr Percy,
Robert Hunt, Karsten, and Le Play.

■ST'ALS. 8gn. Mbtalla, L. Metals are
elementary bodies which are generally distin-
guished by their lustre and power of conducting
beat and electricity. They form bases by com-
bining with oxygen, have a powerful attraction
for chlorine, and are but little disposed to com-
bine with hydrogen. When their solutions are
electrolysed the metals always appear at the
electro-negative surface, and are hence termed
electro-positive elements.

Formerly, when science was much less advanced
than at present, the metals constituted a well-
defined class. The properties which were regarded
as specially characteristic were physical, and were
not founded on chemical relations; thus lustra
and high specific gravity were considered to be
essentiid characters of all metals. But we are
now acquainted with metals which have a lower
specific gra^ty than water (lithium, sodium, Ac),
snd wi& so-called non-metallic elements which
prasent a strong metalUc lustre (carbon in the

state of graphite, crystallised silicon, to.). It
will therefore be seen that the term 'metal' is
rather conventional than strictly scientific. By
far the greater number of elementary bodies at
present known are metals. Their physical cha-
racters and leading chemical properties are noticed
under each of them in its alphabetical place.
The following table exhibits some useful par-
ticulars : —

Tablb of tome of the propertiee of tome of the

metaii.

Nimn amnged in the order of their

r

\

Ductilitj.

MalleabUitj.

Gold.

Gold.

Silver.

Silver.

PUtinum.

Copper.

Iron.

Tin.

Nickel.

Platinum.

Copper.

Lead.

Zinc.

Zinc.

•fin.

Iron.

Lead.

Nickel.

Munei urwged in the order of their

Power of condacting Power of condacting

Host. Electrieit;.

Silver. Silver.

Copper. Copper.

Gold. Gold.

IHn. Zinc.

Iron. Iron.

Lead. Tin.

Bismuth. Lead.

Antimony.
Bismuth.

divided into ten groups,

'Lithium, sodium, potas-
sium, rubidium, Cffisium.

= Calcium, strontium, ba-
rium.

=Glucinum, magnesiam,
unc, cadmium.

= Aluminium, jrttrinm, gal-
lium, zirconium, erbium,
indium, lanthanium, di-
dymium, thorium.

■ Iron, cobalt, nickel, ura-
nium, cerium.

: Vanadium, chromium,
manganese, molybde-
num.

: Antimony, bismuth.

'Titanium, niobium, tin,
tantalum, tungsten.

■ Copper, silver, mercury,
thallium, lead.

'Rhodium, ruthenium,
palladium, gold, plati-
num, iridium, osmium.

K&TAWnMOVIC ACm. HtSbjO;. The name
given by M. Fremy to that variety of antimonio
add obtained by decomposing pentaohloride of
antimony with excess of water. It should really
be called pyro-antimonic acid. It differs from com-
mon antimonic acid in being tetra-ba8io,and form-
ing different classes of salts with the acids, ^e

The metals may be
namely :

i. Potaseinm group •

ii. Calcium group

iii. Magnanum group =

iv. Aluminium group =

V. Iron group •

vi. Manganese group -

vii. Antimong group =
viii. Tin group

ix. Silver group

z. Platinum group >

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1084

METAPfiCTIC ACIR-MICEOSCOPB

seid metant!moni»te of pottuinm is the onlj re-
agent which yields a precipitate with the sodinm
liltt, and la therefore of great valne in chemical
analytia. -

. Prep. By fanng antimonic acid with excess
of potash in a silver crucible, dissolving the fused
mass in a little cold water, and allowing it to
crystallise i» tiacuo. The resulting crystals, by
solution in pure water, are resolved into free
potash and the acid salt. See Ahtimoitt.

KETAPEC^C ACH). See PaoTnr.

METAPEC'TIV. See Pbotin.

KETAPH0SPE0B1C ACD). See Phobphobio
Aois.

KSTHEG1I5. Sy». Htdbokbu, H. viko-
SUM, Mkilib TiifUM, L. Prep. From honey, 1
cwt.; warm water, 24 galls.; stir well until dis-
solved; the next day add of yeast, 1 pint, and
hops, 1 lb., previously boiled in water, 1 gall. ;
along with water, q. s. to make the whole measure
1 barrel ; mix well, and ferment the whole with
the nsual precautions adopted for other liquors.
It contains on the average from 7% to 8% of
alcohol. See Mku>.

■E'THTI. CH,. The hypothetical radical of
the methyl series. It forms a number of com-
ponnds analogous to those of ethyl, e.g. methyl
alcohol, CH,.OH.

KSTHTL ALCOHOL, Pnriflcatlon of Crude.
Messrs Dittmar aod Fawsitt have communicated to
the ' Transactions of the Boyal Society ' of Edin-
burgh a work upon the physical properties of methyl
alcohol. It was of course necessary to procure
this compound in a state of purity in order to
carry out their observations. They effect this in
a very simple manner, as follows : — 100 cc. of
the crude methyl alcohol is digested with 150
^rms. of pulverised hydrate of soda, after which
it is distilled on a water-bath j 500 grma. of
oxalic acid in crystals are now mixed with 200 c.c.
of concentrated sulphuric acid, and then 4fl0 cc.
of the methyl alcohol purified by the soda hydrate
and distillation are added, and the mixture is
cautiously heated on a water-bath. The methyl
oxalate thus obtained is thoroughly dried by pres-
sure, and the alcohol regenerated by digestion
with water at 70° C. In order to dehydrate the
alcohol thus obtained, digestion with baryta, lime,
and dried sulphate of copper is proved to be
necessary.

KETHTLAKnrE. Sy». AHlDOmTEAim.
Occurs in herring-brine, tiie distillate from bones
bnd wood, and in JtereuriaUi perennit. Produced
in the decomposition of certain organic compounds,
t.f. the alkaloids.

' J¥epp. 1. By treating iodomethane with am-
monia.

8. By the reaction of nascent hydrogen on
pmsaic acid.

8. By heating methyl iiocyanate with potash
in a retort attached to a recaver cooled by a
freezing mixture. The distillate ia saturated
with hydrochloric acid, evaporated to dryness,
distilled with dry lime^ and collected over mer-
cury,

Prop, A oolonrlass gas, having ao ammoniocal
and fi^y odour; buns with a yeUow flame. It is
moM ttarongly basio, and even more soluble in
mter, .thMoi amuonia. doaely reaamUai am-

monia in its behaviour with arids, &c. Precipi-
tates many metallic salts. It is condensed to a
liquid at — 18°. Most of its salts aie very soluble
in water.

KETHTLATSD SPIKIT. A mixture of 1 part
of methylic alcohol (wood spirit) and 9 parts of
ethylic alcohol (spirit of wine). See SFDtra.

KSTHTLEVE BLUE. CuH,(CH,)4N^Cl.

Sf». TBCBAIIBTBTL - THIOKHTB CELOBIDE.

Bronze-green crystals which dissolve in water to
a fine blue liquid, employed in dyeing, being fixed
on cotton with a mordant of antimony tannate.
Prepared from dimethylaniline hydrochloride by
treatment with sodium nitrate and then with
hydrosulphnric add. It has been found a useful
staining agent in microscopic work. The forma-
tion of this blue is one of the most delicate tests
for sulphuretted hydrogen in solution; in apply-
ing the test, the suspected liquid is mixed with
hydrochloric acid, a little dimethyl-paradiamido-
benzene sulphate added, followed by a drop of
ferric chloride. If H,S is present the blue ct^onr
will appear at once.

KETHTLEKB CHLOSISE. CHjClj. ^*.
JtMTBYLMVa BIOHIiOBlDB. There are various
methods of obtaining this compound: — 1. By
heating chloroform with zinc filings and dilute
sulphuric acid. 2. By acting on metjiylene iodide
with chlorine. In this process prolonged treat-
ment with chlorine, at ordinaiy temperatures, is
required to remove the last traces of iodine
{Butthrom).

Prop. Chloride of methylene is a colourless
mobile fluid, having a smell like chloroform, and
a burning taste. It has been used as an ances-
thetic in place of chloroform. According to Dr
Armstrong, the substance known as mbthtibhi
■TRBB is a mechanical mixture of bichloride of
methylene and ethylic ether. Dr Richardson
says of this latter it is not so quick in its action
as the methylene chloride, but that it is safer.

HETHTXJC ALCOHOL. See Wood Spibit.

KSZS'BSOH. Sjf*. Qabov, Fr. ; Mbzbbbox
BABK; Mbzbbbi oobibx (B. P.), It.; Hbzb-
BBOir (Ph. L., E., k D.). The dried bark
of the Dapkne Mssovsm, mesereon ; or Dapint
iattreola, spurge, or wood-laurel. The " bark of
tiie root of Daphme netereum," or spurge-olive
(Pb. L.). A stimulant and diuretic. It is em-
ployed as a sudoriflo and alterative, in syphilis,
rheumatism, scrofula, and chronic cutaneous dis-
eases, nsnaUy in conjunction with sarsaparilla.
It has also been used as a masticatory in tooth-
ache, paralysis of the tongue, Ac. On the Con-
tinent it is nsed as a vesicant. For this purpose
it ia softened by soaking it in hot vinegar, and
is then bound on the part, and renewed after
intervals of some hours, until vesicatiMi is pro-
duced.

MICE. See &1T8.

U'CBOSOOPB. In the oomovitB xiobo-
BOOPB, which has quite superseded the 'simple
microscope' as an instrument of research, the
olqect ia magnified in the first instance by
the olgect-glMs, and then remagnified by the
eye-piece. It foUows, therefore, tMt the magni-
tj^g power of the instrument may be in-
creased .either by increasing the power of tb»

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MICROSCOPE

1066

object-gUsa or that of the eye-piece. It must
be borne in mind, however, that in increasing
the power of the eye-piece we do not magnify
the object itself in a greater degree, but limply
increaaa the image of the o^ect formed by
the object-glass. Any imperfections which may
exist ia the latter are thus greatly increased.
At first the great drawback to the nse of the com-
poond microscope was its deficiency in achro-
matism ; but the researches of Mr. Lester and I>r
Goring led to the achromatising of the objeot-
gplasa, which was the first of the rapid strides to-
wiurds perfection made by this instrument during
the last twenty years. The two most useful
olgect-glasses are the 'quarter-inch,' which
should magnify from 200 to 220 diameters, and
the ' inch,' which should magnify from 80 to 40
diameters. The definition of these glasses shgnld
be good, and they should transmit plenty of light.
Any lines in a sbncture examined by them should
appear sharp and distinct, and there should be no
ootooied fringes around the olgeot.

The following practical hints irill be foand
naefol to those using the microscope :

Xhe instrument should always be chosen with
regard to the work it is intended to do ; and for
the purposes of the student the simpler the in-
atroment, consistent with efficiency, the better.
Experience shows that large and costly micro-
■oopes are quite nnfltted for the purpoeas of oon-
>tamt study, their bulk and the preparation
required to make them ready for use, and the
gireat care necessary to prevent their complicated
constraction suffering damage by dust, lus.,
prevent their being constantly at hand and
always ready for nse at a moment's notice ; for
thia reason the Continental model has become
the student's microscope, and English makers
have not been slow to aidopt it. One of the best
in the market is Swiff s student's microscope;
whilst of the Continental makers those of Zeiss,
of Jena, are in the first nnk.

The following general directions for the nse of
the microscope will be especially useful to those
who aie but little acquainted with the instm-
mant.

«. Always examine the otgaot first with a lorn
fcwar, fiost adjotting the Ught with the minor
so that the field is evenly illumiiiated ; place the
object on the stage, and with the ooarn a^jnst-
jnent bring the body (the tube which carries the
eyepiece and objectives) to within a quarter of
aa inch from the object j then slowly raise the
faod^, looking through the eye-pieoe the while,
■ntil the ot^eet is clearly visible; then focus
accarately witii the fine a^ustment.

h. In using a high power always start with tiie
oUeetive some distance above the object, and
Inug it down very carefully to the proper posi-
tion.

e. Never let the olgectlTe toaoh the object;
dirt is snie to get on the front lens, and the
deaaing of an olgective should be avoided if
possibla Glycerine may be removed by the nse
of s littls clean, water. Canada, balsam and
Tarnishes aia best rsmoved by the nse of oUa»
niirit and subsequent oaiefnl wiping with an old
■Ik haadkereUeC If this aet^dent occur fre-
qweaOj it is ezcseedingly probable that the cement

of the front lens -of the object-glass will be acted
upon by the spirit, the glass loosened, and the
object-glass seriously damaged.

d. Keep both eyes open, and get into the halnt
of using either eye; this saves much fatigue.

«. The higher the power the smaller the dia-
phragm required.

/. If the olyect appear dirty— (1) Turn the
eye-piece round; if the dirt moves with it, take
it out and dean it. (2) If after cleaning the
object and the eye-piece the dirt still remains, it
follows that it must be on the objective, which
should be cleaned very carafnlly.

The object. The nature of the object will, to
a large extent, determine the manner of its pre-
paratiou, and the special treatment required by
objects intended to be viewed by refiected light ia
so varions as to preclnde notice hare.

The following methods are specially appUoable
to %nimal and vegetable tissues.

All olgects should be mounted viajlat slips of
glass, measuring 8 inches by 1 inch, and should
be covered by a piece of specially thin glass, called
the cover-slip, which serves to protect the object
from injury and prevent its coming in contact
with the objective. The best cover-slips to use
are i and f inch tquam, and they should be very
thin ; and whenever an object is mounted which
will bear examination witii a high power oare
should be taken to avoid a thick cover-slip, as it
may, and often does, prevent the objective being
brought sufficiently close to tiie oMeot. Circular
cover-slips are genetally thick, as it is extremely
difScult to cut oircles out of very thin glass, and
the price is high accordingly. New cover-slips
are often very dirty and dMcnlt to clean; they
should be soaked for a time in strong nitric acid,
then placed in a quantity of eUa» water, changed
once or twice to get rid of all traces of acid, and,
if in constant use, may be kept in a shallow glass
dish with a good cover, under water ; they may be
cleaned between the finger and thumb by means
of a very soft and well-washed silk handkerchief.

Kethods of preparing Tissnes. ' Tearinff. Small
portions of a tissue or organ are torn Op with fine
needles, in order to show the minute structure or
the structural elements. Nerve and muscle are
tissues to which this method is applicable.

Kaoeration greatly facilitates the process of
teasing, and if properly carried out will preserve
the individual oells, Ac.,' whilst loosening their
connections with one another. Suitable mace-
rating fliUds for animal tisanes are —

(a) Ranvier's AlcohoL Strong spirit, 1 part ;
water, 2 parts. FreA specimens may be soaked
in this for 24 honrs.

. (i) Baryta Water, Useful for certain stnic>
tnres.

(e) Mailer^ Flnid. Biohromate of potash so-
Intion, i% to 1% in water, with a little aodio
solphate.

(d) Schhlze'a Macerating Fluid for Vegetable
Tissues. Potassium chlorate, 1 grm. ; nitric add,
60 CO. The tissue is placed in a small quantity
of this flnid, boiled in it for a short time, and
subsequently well washed in water.

Hardening. This is a very necessary prelimi-
naiy with M soft tissnes, animal or vegetable.
In order that sections of them may be readily cnt.

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1056

MICEOSCOPE

The most.uBnal methods adopted for hardeaing
OHimal tissues are the following :

Hardening of Organa. The following are to he
hardened in spirit alone: lymphatic glands,
heart, skin, thyroid, salivary glands, pancreas,
Buprarenals.

The following are to he placed in i% chromic
acid containing a very little osmic acid : tongue,
liver, spleen, kidney, uterus, ovary, testis. The
fluid must be changed the next day. After a
week they may be transferred to spirit.

The following are to he slightly distended with
the chromic acid and osmic solution, and immersed
in a quantity of the same fluid : trachea and lungs,
oesophagus, stomach and duodenum, ileum and
large intestine, ureters and bladder. The next
day pieces are to be cut from them and placed
in fresh fluid. They are to be transferred in a
week's time to spirit.

Many organs are well hardened by a 2%
solution of bichromate of potash. They should
remain in this a fortnight, and may then be well
washed with water and transferred to spirit.
The following can, if desired, be prepared in this
way : tongue, liver, spleen, kidney, suprarenals.

The various parts of the central nervous
system are best hardened in bichromate of am-
monia (3% ).

Almost any of the organs may be equally well
hardened by immersion for two or three dajf in
saturated solution of picric acid. They must be
well washed by letting water flow over them from
a tap for an hour or more, and the hardening is
then completed by spirit. It is better to stain
sections made from organs which have been hard-
ened in picric acid in a solution of picro-carmi-
nate of ammonia (1% ) instead of logwood.

Except in the case of those organs which are
distended to ioto with the liardening fluid, com-
paratively thin pieces should be taken for harden-
ing, so that the fluid may rapidly penetrate to all
parts of the tissue. A piece of filter-paper should
be put at the bottom of the bottle, in order that
the pieces of tissue may not rest against the
glass. For bichromate of potash and bichromate
of ammonia thicker pieces can be used than for
chromic acid.

For vegetable tissues the following are recom-
mended:

1. Abtolute Alcohol, The specimen may be
kept in this for an indefinite period. It becomes
very brittle, but may be rendered less so by im-
mersion, for 24 hours previous to cutting sections,
in a mixture of equal parts of glycerine and ab-
solute alcohol, exposed to the air so that the gly-
cerine may evaporate. The sections cut from a
preparation so treated must be mounted in
glycerine.

2. Picric Acid. Saturated aqueous solution.

3. Chromic Acid. 0'!% to 0-5% solution in
water. The time of immersion will vary with the
nature of the material, from a few minutes to 24
hours. The preparation is removed from either
fluid to a 50% solution of alcohol, next to a 70%
solution, and finally to absolute alcohol; fresh
alcohol is applied so long as it is discoloured by
the preparation.

4. OtmicAeid. 0'1% to 1% solution in water.
This reagent acts very rapidly, and in the case of

simple structures, filamentous algte, &c., 6 to 10
minutes is sufficient. The preparation should be
washed with 50% alcohol, left in it for some time,
and then removed to 70% alcohol. Osmic acid
preparations must be mounted in glycerine.

Staining. The object of staining is twofold —
to make transparent parts more visible, and more
especially to enable the various elements of a struc-
ture to be distinguished from one another.

For this purpose a great number of colouring
matters have been used by different investigators,
of which the following are the most important :

1. HamatoxyUn{Kleineiiberg'i). Prepared as
follows :

(a) Saturated solution of crystallised calcic
chloride in 70% alcohol ; add alum to saturation.

(i) Saturated solution of alum in 70% alcohol :
mix a and b in the proportion of 1 to 8.

(c) To this mixture add a few drops of a satu-
rated solution of hematoxylin in absolute al-
cohol.

Specimens to be stained with this fiuid must be
free from acid.

2. JBortue Carmine. Carmine, 2 parts ; borax,
4 parts ; water, 100 parts ; add an equal volume of
70% alcohol ; allow to stand for a day or two, and
filter.

3. Piero-earminc. Carmine, 1 gnu. ; liquor
ammonite fortis, 4 c.c. ; distilled water, 200 c.c. ;
add 6 gnus, of picric acid, shake well for some
minutes, decant from excess of acid, allow to
stand for some days, stirring occasionally, then
evaporate to dryness, and to every 2 gmu. of the
dry residue add 100 c.c. of distilled water.

4. Aniline Colouring Matter: Alcoholic solu-
tions of magenta, saffranin, fuchsin, methyl green,
methyl violet, Hoffmann's blue, methylene blue,
eosin, rosolic acid, and many others. These colours
have the advantage that they stain very readily
and are easy of application ; but many of them are
fugitive.

6. Sileer Nitrate. This is a most useful reagent
for many purposes, especially where it is desired
to render distinct the outlines of cells. It stains
the intercellular substance deeply, leaving the
cells themselves almost unaffected. A 1% solution
in water is the best strength. The tissue must be
perfectly fresh, immersed for from 2 minutes to
1 hour, then well washed with dietilled water and
exposed to light.

Prepaitttion of Sectioni. In order that the
structure of tissues and organs may be satisfac-
torily made out it is generally necessary to pre-
pare exceedingly thin sections. This may be done —

1. By holding a piece of the hardened material
between the fingers and cutting with a keen raxor
moistened with spirit.

2. If the piece of tissue be small, by holding it
between two pieces of carrot or potato grooved so
as to hold it firmly.

3. By embedding it in parafin, cacao butter, or
mixtures of paraffin and lard, wax and castor oil,
&c. This is best effected by making small paper
boxes which are half filled with the melted em-
bedding material, allowed to cool suAdently to
hold the tissue to be cut, and then filled up com-
pletely and allowed to solidify.

An excellent method, especully when only small
pieces of tissue are available, is the following :

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Small pieces of hardened tissues and organs
may be embedded in cacao butter, preparatory to
cutting sections from them. Snpposing the
hardening to have been completed by immersion
in spirit, a thin piece of the tissue is removed and
■oaked first in oU of cloves to displace the spirit,
and then in melted cacao butter, so as to fill all
the interstices of the tissue with this fat. The
tissue is then placed on a piece of wood or cork,
and covered with an excess of cacao butter, which
is Hllowed to set firmly, when thin sections can be
made with a clean ^y razor. The sections are
placed in oil of cloves (in winter this most be
•lightly warmed) to dissolve oat the cacao batter.
Thej most be stained before mounting. The
staining may be effected by immersion in a watch-
gimm of oil of cloves, coloured by a drop of a 1%
solution of magenta in alcohol (this must be
freshly prepared). When stained they are placed
on a slide, the excess of coloured oil of cloves re-
moved, and a drop of Canada balsam solution
added. Or the sections may be stained with log-
wood. With this end, the oil of cloves must be
washed out by immersion in strong spirit, and
from this the sections are transferred to the stain-
ing- fluid (for oil of cloves will not mix with the
water which the logwood solution contains).
When sufficiently stained they are lifted out,
dipped in water to remove the excess of the stain-
ing fluid, placed for a few minutes in strong
spirit, then in oil of cloves, and finally may he
mounted in balsam.

It is sometimes advantageous to stain the slices
from which sections are to be prepared in toto
before embedding. This may be done by im-
mersing them for some hours in the staining fluid.
The best fluid to choose for this purpose is a 1%
solution of magenta in alcohol. The stained
pieces are soaked first with oil of cloves, and then
with cacao butter, in the same way as the nn-
stained, and the sections which are made from
ihem are placed in a watch-glass of oil of cloves
to remove the cacao butter, and can then be
mounted at once in Canada balsam solution.

The time which slices of the hardened tissues
require to soak in oil of cloves and cacao batter
depends chiefly upon the thickness of the slice.
If this does not exceed that of a penny piece,
from 15 to 20 minutes in oil of cloves and an hour
in melted cacao batter is sufficient. 'l°hick pieces
would require to be left 2 or 8 hours in oil of
cloves, and several hours in melted cacao butter.
It is better, especially in summer, to mount the
soaked slice of tissue upon the piece of wood or
cork at least the day before the sections are to be
cat from it, so that the cacao batter may be
thoroughly set.

The parts of the central nervous system must
not be toaked with cacao batter, but may bo em-
bedded (imply, either in this fat, or in a mixture
of wax and oil.

The processes of soaldng and embedding may in
great measure be dispensed with if a freezing
microtome is available for use. These instruments
enable larger sections to be prepared, and effect a
coDsidentble saving of time, but they are rather
expensive.

Konntiiig. Whenever practicable Canada bal-
nm should be used as a mounting medium. Solu-

tions which require cells to contain them are
troublesome, as the cells are constantly leaking,
and the specimens are ruined by the admission of
air.

Canada balsam (baked to expel turpentine and
other volatile matters) may be dissolved in benzol,
chloroform, or xylol, and the section, previously
soaked in oil of cloves to remove spirit and render
it transparent, is placed on the slide. Excess of
oil of cloves is removed with filter- or blotting-
paper. One drop of Canada bals»m solution is
allowed to fall on to it from a glass rod and a
clean cover-slip placed over it and carefully pressed
into position, care being taken to avoid air-bubbles.
Qlycerin diluted with its own bulk of water is a
most useful mounting medium. Care must be
taken that only just so much is put on the slide
that none exudes from under the cover-slip, if
this be the case it most be cleaned off. The
cover is then cemented down with Canada balsam
solution.

In addition to the above innumerable processes
and methods have been devised to suit special
cases. The student desiring further information
should consult ' Marshall on the Frog,' ' Practical
HUtology ' (Schifer), 'Practical BoUny' (Bower
and Vines).

KICBOBiaC SALT. KaNH4.HPO4.4Aq. Bg*.

TBIBABIO PROSPHATa 0> BOSrrM AlTD AlOfO*

iriUM. Occurs in putrid urine and in guano. JVsp.
Phosphate of sodium, 6 parts; water, 2 parts;
liquefy by heat, and add of sal-ammoniac (in
powder), 1 part ; common salt separates, and
after its removal the liquid is concentrated so
that crystals may form. Purify by recrystallisa-
tion.

Prop., SfC. Colourless prismatic crystals which
are very soluble and fusible, leaving a glass of
sodium metaphosphats which is valuable in blow-
pipe assays for dissolving metallic oxides.

MIL'SBW. Sys. Bust, BuaRT. The mouldy
appearance on the leaves of plants produced by
innumerable microscopic fungi. The hop, wheat,
and the choicest garden frnit trees are those most
ctimmonly attacked. The causes are said to be
excess of moisture, and absence of the free circu-
lation of air and sunshine. On the small scale,
finely powdered sulphur is occasionally dusted
over the parts affected, as a remedy.

KILK. S^. Lao, L. The value of milk
■s an article of Food is clearly shown by the fact
of it being sufficient to support, and to increase
the growth of, the young of every species of the
mammnlia ; at once supplying materials for the
formation of the o^weous, fleshy, and liquid por-
tions of the l>ody. "The substances present in
milk are wonderfully adapted to its office of pro-
ducing materials for the rapid growth and deve-
lopment of the animal frame. It contains an
azotised matter, casein, nearly identical in com-
pofiition with muscular Hesh, fatty principles, and
a peculiar sugar, and, lastly, various salts, among
which may be mentioned phosphate of lime, held
in complete solution in a slightly alkaline liquid.

" The white and almost opaque appearance of
milk is an optical illasion, Examined by a micro-
scope of even moderate power, it is seen to consist
of a perfectly transparent fluid, in which float
about numbers of minute transparent globules;

67

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iati

these consist of fat snrroonded by an albuminoas
envelope, which can be broken mechanically, as in
the chnming, or dissolTed by the chemical action
of caustic potas8a, after which, by agitating the
milk with ether, the fat can be dissolved"
(Founut).

The fatty constituent of milk is not a simple
chemical substance, but a mixture of various fats
or glycerides, viz. oU&n, palmitin, stearin, and
bu^rin.

Comp. Cows' MILX of average quality con-
tains from 10% to 12% of solid matter when eva-
porated to dryness by steam heat, and has the
mean sp. gr. 1'03 ; while that of the skimmed
milk is about 1*085 ; and of the cream, 1-0244
( Ure). The average cbbah of cows' milk con-
tains 4-5% of butter, 8-6% of curd, and 92% of
whey {Berzelius). The seikmid milk consists
of water, 92-9% ; curd, 2*8% ; sugar of milk,
8 5% ; lactic acid, lactate of potash, and a trace
of lactate of iron, 0-6% ; chloride of potassium,
phosphate of potash, and earthy phosphates (lime),
0-^ {BerzelUu).

"016 following analysis of fresh milk is by M.
Haidlen:

Water 878-00

Butter 80-00

Casein 48-20

Milk-sugar .... 4S'90

Phosphate of lime . . 8-31

„ magnesia . . 0-42

„ iron . . . 0*07

Chloride of potassium . 1'44

„ sodixim . 0-24

Soda in combination with

casein 0-42

1000-00
The most important constituents of milk are
milk-sugar and casein. It used to be thought
that these substances existed in constant propor-
tions, but recent researches have shown that they
inay vary widely, not only with the animal from
which the milk is obt^ued, but with its food,
general health, the time of the day and season of
the year at which it is milked. The dietetic value
of milk is not popularly recognised in this coun-
try. In Switzerland it forms the staple food of
the entire peasant population, whilst in Eurdistsm
the average consumption or milk reaches from 4
to 6 pints per head daily. The poorer classes in
England toke very little, t.y. the masses of
Spital&elds use about 7*6 oz. weekly, and those of
Bethnal Green a fraction under Ij^ oz. weekly per
head (Aieherlm/).

Professor Wanklyn has devised and published
Ui his excellent little manual, 'Milk Analysis'
(TrSbner and Co.), a process by which a very
thorough chemical examination of milk may
be accomplished with great facility and expedi-
tion.

In his preliminary remarks he condemns, as
utterly unreliable and misleading, the inferences
to be drawn from those hydrometric instruments,
the lactometer or lactodensimeter, and creamo-
meter. "A very little consideration," he says,
" will suffice to make intelligible the obliquity of
the indications of the lactometer, and to show how |
untrustworthy it must be. The lactometer, as of I

course will be understood, is simply the hydro-
meter applied to milk ; and readings of the in-
strument are neither more nor less than speciBc
gravities. The more milk-sugar, and casein, and
mineral matter there is in a given specimen of
milk, the greater (other things being equal) will
be its density or specific gravity, and the higher
the lactometer reading. -

"If, however, fat-globules (as happens in the
instance of milk) be diffused through the fluid,
then, because fat is lighter than water, the effect
of the other milk solids on the gravity of the
liquid will be more or less neutralised. The
density of milk-fat is about 0-9, water being I'O.
Now, if a solution of casein and milk-sugar, of
sp. gr. 1-08, be sufficiently charged witii fat-
globules, its specific gravity may be sent down
even below the gravity of water. How much
would be required to bring about such a result is
a matter of simple calculation.

" This being understood, it will be obvious that
if the specimens of milk differ in specific gravity,
there must be two distinct and equally valid ways
of accounting for the difference.

"The milk with the lower gravity may be milk
let down with water, or let down with fat, i, e.
milk let down by being enriched."

In support of this last assertion Professor
Wanklyn quotes corroborative instances afforded
by the examination of different specimens of milk
known as ' strippings,' these bang the last por-
tions of milk yielded by the cow at the termina-
tion of the milking. AH these ' strippings ' had
a lower specific gravity than normal milk, through
being ri<^er in oream.

Farther, Professor Wanklyn points out that the
specific gravity of organic fluids is a falladons
index of the amonnt of solids they may con-
tain, as is illustrated by the fact tiiat whilst a
10% solution of chloride of potassium has a
specific gravity of 1-065 at 16° C, a 10% solution
of casein and milk-sugar ha* a specific gravity of
only about 1-086.

The creamometer meets with equal condemna-
tion in Professor Wanklyn'* little book, since dif-
ferent specimens of milk vary considerably
in their yield of cream, and a perfectly pure
sample of milk may yield less cream than one
which has been tampered with.

Dr ronng stated in 1886 that "a very simple
little instrument for the examination of milk by
eolonr has recently been invented in Oermany,
vie. the Heeren patent milk tester. It is made of
vulcanite, and on a raised portion of a raised disc
a little milk is placed ; over this there is pat a
glass cover, which spreads out the milk. Round
the glass are painted various shades of colour, re-
presenting cream, very fat milk, normal, less fat,

poor, and very poor It may be nsod as

a rongh and iMdy method of speedily teatiiig
mUk."

A complete analysis of milk involve* the deter-
mination of the water, the fat (the esaential con-
stituent of the cream), the casein, milk-*ngar,and
ash.

The following is an outline of Professor
Wanklyn's neat and ingenious method of ana*
lysis :

By means of an accurately graduated pipette

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MILK

1060

he flnt places 6 c.c. of tbe millc in a small
'weig:hed platinnm diah (abont 14 grms. in
weif^ht), having just previously ensured that the
sample from which the millc is taken is thoroughly
mixed.

The dish is then placed over a water-bath (the
crater in which must be kept vigoronsly boiling
the whole time) for 3 hours, at the end of which
time all the water having been driven off, there
will remain in the dish a completely dried-np
rendne.

The increaae in weight between the empty dish
and the residue will g^ve the weight of the ' milk
aolids ' from 6 c.c. of milk. C^ course, if this
w«ght be multiplied by 20, the yield from 100
cc of milk will be obtained.

To rednce this to a percentage statement it is
neceaaaiy to remember that 100 c.c. of average
milk weigh 102-9 grms.

The next proceeding consists in the determina-
tioB of the fat. This is done by treating the
dried milk solids resulting from the 6 c.c. of
milk with ether. There are several important
minniise necessary to be observed in connection
with this part of the process, for the particulars
of which the reader is referred to Professor
Wanklyn's book. Suffice it to say that if pro-
perly performed the whole of the fat is dissolved
by the ether, and, being separated from the non-
fatty portion of the residue, is weighed and eal-
cali^ed as ' fat.' If then the amount found as
fat be deducted from the whole of the milk solids
previons to their treatment with ether, tbe * milk
aolids, not fat,' will be arrived at. Professor
Wanklyn estimates the casein (under the head
' Casein ' Professor Wanklyn includes the entire
nitrogenons materials of milk) as follows : He
treata the milk solids, not fat, with hot alcohol,
which dissolves out from them tbe milk-sugar
and the soluble chlorides. The remaining re-
sidue, c(Hi8isting of casein and phosphate of
■odimn (chemically combined with the casein), is
dried on a water-bath until it ceases to lose
weight. It i> then weighed along with the vessel
eontiuning it, and ignited. The combined weight
of the vessel and phosphate of sodium remaining
after ignition being deducted from the weight
previous to ignition, the difference is the casein.

Another and quicker methed, recommended by
Professor Wanklyn, for the determinntion of the
casein, is to measure it by the amount of albu-
mmoid ammonia it is capable of yielding when
sotrjeeted to the 'albuminoid ammonia process,'
invented by Messrs Wanklyn, Chapman, and
Smith.

The alcoholic solution Altered off from the
eomlrined casein and phosphate of sodium con-
tains the milk-sugar and soluble chlorides. It is
ersporated to dryness on a water-bath, and tbe
reaidne with the vessel containing it is weighed.
It is then gently ignited, and the weight of the
remaining residue, being deducted from the total
weight before ignition, gives the yield of milk-
sugar. Or the milk-sugar may be determined by
titration with a standard copper solution.

For the determination of the ash it is only
necessary to ignite the milk solids from 5 cc. of
milk In tbe small platinnm dish, by which opera-
tioa all the orgaiue matter being burnt, that

which remains behind constitutes the ' ash,' and
is weighed as such.

It will be obvious that in order to determine
with anything like rigid accuracy the quality of
any sample of milk by analysis, not only must a
normal standard for the purpose of comparison
be adopted, but such normal standard must repre-
sent very closely and with but little variation tbe
definite composition of all sound and genuine
milk.

Professor Wanklyn says that " the following,
which is the result of several concordant analyses
of country-fed milk, may be taken as representing
normal milk. In 100 grms. of milk —

SoUds (dry at 100" C.) . . 12-6 grms.

Water 87-6 „

100-0

" The 12-5 grms. consist of 9-8 grms. of ' solids
which are not fat,' and 8-2 g^rms. of fat." The
above data, which are founded on the examina-
tion of a very large number of different samples
of milk, are confirmed by the researches of
Miiller and Eisenstnck, who were employed by
the Royal Agricultural Society of Sweden in a
similar investigation. The labours of these
chemists extended over a twelvemonth, and the
result of them was to show that the milk yielded
day by day, for a whole year, by a herd of cows
was remarkably constant in composition.

Professor Wanklyn gives the following for-
mula for the calculation and statement of the
results of milk analysis. He says, " Treating the
question quite rigidly, which I believe is the
proper way of dealing with it, we arrive at the
following :

" Problem 1. Given tbe percentage of ' solids,
not fat ' ( — a), in a specimen of sophisticated
milk (>. e. milk, either watered, or skimmed, or
both) — required the number of grammes of
genuine milk which was employed to form 100
grms. of it.

"Antwer. Multiply the percentage of 'solids
not ftit ' by 100, and divide by 9*8 :

Or— 100

IT"-

" Problem 2. Qiven the percentage of ' solids,
not fat' (= a), also the percentage of fat (= J),
in a specimen of sophisticated milk — required tbe
number of grammes of fat which have been re-
moved by skimming from the genuine milk
which was employed to form 100 grms. of it.

Atutesr .'

3-2

~b.

" In translating fat into cream, the rule is
that a removal of 0*2 gnu. of fat equals a re-
moval of I'O grm. of cream. This rule is
directly founded on experiment. I do no^ how-
ever, claim a high degree of accuracy for the
measurement of the cream.

" Finally, a slight refinement may be noticed.
If a specimen of sophiaticated milk has been pro-
duced by both skimming and watering, it will be
obvious, on consideration, that tbe extraneous
waters employed in manufacturing 100 grms, of
it is equal to the difference between 100 and the
quantity of genuine milk employed to make 100

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1060

ttILK

griM. of sophisticated milk, together with a
qaantity of water equal to that of fat removed by
(kimmioK."

100 8-2 .
Extraneoas water = 100-^:^-0 + ^a - o

100 + 8-2 .
= 100 3.3 a-i.

Save for the purpose of finding out the pre-
sence of matters other than an excess of water in
the milk (a contingency regarded as very impro-
bable), the estimation of the casein and milk-
sugar is unnecessary. The determination of the
ash is for the object of learning if foreign
mineral matters, such as chalk or any other in-
organic impurity, are present. Professor Wank-
lyn says he believes that such extraneous bodies
are never employed. The chief, if not the sole
forms of dishonesty are watering and skimming.
It is doubtful whether mixing with watered con-
densed milk can pay, or indeed escape detection
by the taste ; such milk is always weaker tlian
normal milk.

The amount of ash, however, is a good cri-
terion as to the extent of dilution that has been
practised, a deficient amount being, of course,
confirmatory of a watered milk.

The determination of the amount of 'solids,
not fat,' is, in almost every instance, aU that is
necessary to enable an opinion to be arrived at as
to whether the sampliB of milk has had water
added to it or not.

Dr Young considen that good milk should
contain from 12% to 13% of solids. The So- I
ciety of Public Analysts has fixed the percentage
at 11"6, a very moderate standard indeed. In a
prosecution, if the suspected milk barely comes
up to this standard, the defendant can send a
sample to Somerset House — ^the ultimate court
of appeal in such cases. Now the authorities
there have never yet declared what is this stan-
dard ; all that is known of it is that it is a very
low one. For the ends of justice and for the
sake of the public it is time that some recog-
nised standard should be declared, so that public
analysts may have proper grounds for recom-
mending a prosecution.

Out of fifty-six samples of milk supplied to
the different London unions in 1873, Professor
Wanklyn reports that he found only fifteen
unwatered, or nearly unwatered. Of these fif-
teen samples nine had been skimmed, leaving
only six that were at once unwatered and un-
skimmed. These figures, therefore, show that
only about 10% of the milk supplied in the
above year to the metropolitan nnions was genu-
ine. He adds, "It is curions to compare the
language of the contract under which (as it
appears from Mr Rowsell's report) the dealer
supplied the various nnions with milk, with the
quality of the article as exhibited by the analysis.
' New unskimmed milk unadulterated,' ' genuine
as from the row,' ' best new unskimmed milk, to
produce 10% of cream,' occur in these con-
tracts."

This tale of sophistication is still practically true
in the year 1890. Wigner says that " ten years'
working of the Anti-adiJteration Acts has brought
us really to this point, that as r^ards milk our

position is hopeless until the law is amended;
no one can hope to get pure milk in London
unless under other guarantees than these Acta
afford."

Prop. Normal milk is opaquely white, and
has no peculiar taste or smell; sp. gr. abont
1-03 ; should leave no deposit after standing, and
should not change its appearance by boiling.
Perfectly fresh milk is slightly alkaline, but soon
becomes acid on exposure to the air, and after a
time white coagula of casein (cubds) separate
from it. This change is immediately effected by
the addition of rennet or an acid. That from
the first, when dried and pressed, constitotea
cheese. This spontaneous acidification is due to
the fermentation of the sugar of milk which
results in the production of lactic acid. If it be
now heated it coagulates, owing to the separation
of the casein. When milk is kept for some time
at 90° F. the result is different ; the milk-sugar
under the influence of the casein is converted
into grape-sugar, and this then breaks down by
ferment»tiou into alcohol and carbonic acid.

!Pt$tM, (fc. The common frauds practised by
the milk dealers are the addition of water and
the subtraction of part of the cream; the best
methods fur dealing with these adulterations
have already been d^t with. Sometimes potato
starch is added to the milk to give it a creamy
or rich appearance, and this addition is still more
frequently made to creain, to increase its consist-
ence and quality.

The presence of potato starch may be deter-
mined by boiling some of the milk with a little
vinegar, and after separating the coagulum by a
strainer, and allowing the liquid to become cold,
testing it with solution or tincture of iodine. If
it turns blue, starch, flour, or some other amyla-
ceous substance has been used to adulterate it.
In most cases it will be sufficient to apply the test
to the unprepared suspected milk.

Dr Young says that starch, dextrine, gum, and
glycerin have been fonnd in milk, having been
added to make it thicker and richer looking;
annatto and turmeric are sometimes added to give
colour ; nitre to take away the ' turnip taste ;'
magnesia, tragacanth, arrowroot, and yolk of egg
to enrich the cream. But these are rarely re-
sorted to, and when present require special
methods of analysis, for which the reader must
consult a text-book.

Mixtures of borax and carbonate of soda are
sometimes added to preserve milk; these, how-
ever, can readily be recognised by ordinary tests.
It used to be frequently stated that chalk,
plaster of Paris, gum, gelatin, sugar, fionr, mu-
cilage of hemp-se^, the brains of animals, and
other similar substances are often added to
London milk, but there is no reason to suppose
there is any truth in these asiiertions, as some of
these articles are too costly to be used, and the
presence of others would so alter the flavour or
appearance of the milk, or would so soon exhibit
themselves by subsidence, as to lead to their de-
tection.

The microscope is practically the only means
by which diseased milk can be detected, but this
instrument is only useful in highly skilled hands.
The only reliable method of ascertaining the

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MILK

1061

quality of milk ia by means of a fall chemical
snalyns ( Wigner).

Fra. MiUc may be preaerred in stoat bottle*,
well corked and wired down, by heating them, in
this state, to the boiling-point in a water-bath,
hj which means the oxygen of the small quantity
(rf enclosed air becomes absorbed. It mast be
afterwards stored in a cool sitaation. By this
method, which is also extensiTely adopted for the
preservation of green gooseberries, green peas,
&c., milk will retain its properties analtered for
year*. A few grains of carbonate of magnesia,
or, still better, of bicarbonato of potassa or soda,
mrf be advantageously dissolved in each bottle
before corking it.

Under Bethel's patent the milk or crntm is
■calded, and, when cold, strongly charged with
carbonic acid gas by means of a soda-water
machine, and the corks are wired down in the
nsnal manner. The bottles should be kept in-
verted in a cool place.

An excellent method of preventing milk from
taming soar, or coagnlating, is to add to every
pint of it abont 10 or 12 gr. of carbonate or bi-
carbonate of soda. Hilk thus prepared may be
kept for eight or ten days in mild weather.
TluB addition is harmless, and, indeed, is sdvan-
tageoas to dyspeptic patients. According to
D'Arcot, jfl'aa part of the bicarbonate is snffi-
cient for the purpose. An excess of alkali used
in this manner may be detected by the milk
taming turmeric paper brown, even after it has
been kept some hoars, and by the ash obtained
by evaporating a little to dryness, and then heat-
ing it to dull redneax, effervescing with an acid
(see baUne).

%* Milk should not be kept in lead or zinc
vessels, as it speedily dissolves a portion of these
metals, and becomes poisonous.

CoitelMding RemarJet. The principal differ-
ence between cows' milk and hnman milk cun-
sists in the former containing more casein and
less sugar of milk than the latter. The remark-
able indisposition to coagulate is another charac-
ter which distinguishes human milk from cows'
milk. Prof. Falkland, who has in veoti gated the
subject, has prepared a nutritive fluid for infants
from cows' milk, closely resembling that of the
healthy adult woman. His process is, however,
unnecessarily complicated, and therefore un-
snited to those who would have to employ it in
the nursery. To remove this objection we have
adopted the following formula : — Sugar of milk,
8 OS. ; hot water, ^ pint ; dissolve, and when the
BanOT has become quite cold, add it to fresh cows'
milk, f pint, and stir them together. This quan-
tity, prepnred morning and evening, will consti-
tute the proper food for an infant of from 6 to 8
months old. More may be allowed if the child
'rraves' for it; bat there must be no 'cram-
ming.' At first it will be advisable to remove a
little of the cream from the milk before adding
the saccharine solution ; but after a few days this
will be found to be xmnecessary, and, indeed, may
he injurious. One very important particular to
be attended to is the employment ci pure cows'
milk, obteined from a healthy grass-fed animal
only. With ibis precaution, and the use of a
good ncBSiJie-Bonx/B, the infant will thrive

6-4

4-S

4-8

nearly as well as on the breast of any hnman
female, excepting its mother's (see beUno).

Asses' uiix. closely resembles hnman milk in
colour, smell, and consistence, but it contains
rather less cream. Though not an appropriate food
for a healthy infant, it is easier of digestion than
cows', conteining as it does more water, less curd
and butter, and an excess of sugar and salts. These
latter sometimes cause diarrhoea. It is valuable
as a change, but its use requires care and jndg-
ment.

£wB8' MILK closely resembes cows' milk, than
which, however, it is slightly richer in cream.

Goats' milk, for the most part, resembles
cows' milk, but ite consistence is much greater,
and it contains much more solid matter.

Mabeb' XIZ.K, in consistence, is between that
of cows and human milk. Its cream is not oon>
verted into butter by agitation. See BtrmB,
Chubb, Laotic Acid, &c.

The following table, compiled from Bonssin-
gaulf B analyses, shows the r^tive composition of
the milk of woman, the cow, ass, and goat :

Cow. Am. Goat. Woman.

Water . . . 87-4 . 90-5 . 820 . 884
Batter ... 4-0 . 1-4 . 46 . 2-6
Milk-sugar .1 ..^
Soluble salts ./'*"•

S:^ubi;s;its-}»-« • 1-^ • 9-° • »-8

MUk at a Came or Carrier of Diteate. — Dr
Tscher, in his pamphlet on the ' Trausmisaion of
Disease by Milk,' sums up the ways in which a
possible disease may be transmitted under the
following heads :

1. It may be derived from an animal suffering
from a specific epizootic disease.

2. It may he derived from a tuberculous animaL

5. It may be drawn from an inflamed udder.
4. It may have undergone chemical or fermen-
tative change.

6. It may have been infected with the oonta-
gium of an animal disease.

6. It may have become infected with the con-
tagium of a human disease.

Professor Brown says that the 'foot-and-mouth
disease' {aphtha epizootica) may be communicated
to man tlirongh the milk of an animal suffering
from this disease. When a cow is verv bad the
milk contains numerous pus-like bodies, bacteria,
vibriones, &e., and it rapidly undergoes putrefac-
tion. The symptoms of this disease in man are
fever, vomiting, swelling of the glands of the
neck and throat, and ulcerations of the tongue
and month.

Anthrax is another bovine disease which has
been communicated to man through milk. The
disease is propagated by a bacillus, according to
Koch and Pasteur, which thrives well in milk.

With regard to the communication of tubercu-
losis there are various opinions. Professor Bang,
of Copenhagen, has found, however, that animals
fed upon the milk of tuhercnlous cows have
themselves developed the disease, and a bovine
form of tuberculosis has been found in man.

Milk of a mother labouring under strong men-
tal emotion is, as is well known, capable of
seriously endangering the health of the suckling
babe. Payne narrates the case of a woman suffer-

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1062

MILK

ing under a nervous affection wbose milk, two
hours after an attack of the disease, became
viscid, like the white of an eg^. Similarly, a
deterioration and consequent alteration in proper-
ties is induced in the milk of the cow if she he
over-driven, exhausted, or harassed. The food of
Hke animal likewise exercises an influence on the
quality of its milk, often altering^ hoth taste and
appearance ; thus when cows are fed on turnips,
wormwood, decayed leaves, and plants of the
cabbage or onion family, the flavour of these
substances is imparted to their milk ; madder and
saffron will colour it. The milk of animals that
have fed on poisonous or deleterious plants is
capable of setting np toxic symptoms in human
beings partaking of it. In June, 1875, the in-
habitants of a certain quarter of Rome were
attacked with an epidemic, distinguished by great
gastro-intestinal irritation. The cause of the
outbreak was traced to the use of milk yielded
by goats that had eaten of the meadow saffron,
the Colehicum afUumnaU. It also appears that
in the western States of America the milk of
cows that have fed on the poison-oak, the Rhiu
ioxicodendron.haa on several occasions given rise
to attacks of illness in children, marked by ex-
treme weakness, vomiting, fall in bodily tempera-
tare, swollen and dry tongue, and constipation.
Boiling seems to remove the dangerous properties
of the milk.

Milk, as has been shown by Fnchs, is sometimes
infested by a fungus, the Oidinm lactit or Pent-
eilUum, which is capable of giving rise to gastric
irritation, and sometimes to severe febrile gas-
tritis (Paries). This' fungus tarns milk blue,
and yellow cream being mixed with it produces
green milk. There is also a yellow milk resulting
from a vibrio.

Although the evidence as to the power of the
milk of animals affected with epizootic diseases
to convey the particular affection to human beings
is contradictory, there is little reason to doubt
that soured milk may become a carrier of infec-
tion from the ailing or convalescent subject to the
healthy one.

Typhoid, diphtheria, and scarlet fever have
been known to have originated in this manner.
The epidemics of these diseases due to milk occur-
ring during the last 12 years have been tabulated
by Mr Ernest Hart, who finds that of typhoid
there were 60, of scarlatina 15, and of diph-
theria 7.

The outbreak of the former malady in Muryle-
bone in 1874 was traced to the contamination of
milk by the remains of the water which had been
used in rinsing the milk-pans. This water had
been obtained from a well into which the excreta
from a typhoid patient had percolated from a privy.

At Leeds a similar outbreak was caused owing
to the absorption, by milk, of the typhoid efflu-
vium. In the case of scarlet fever the malady
has been conveyed by means of the throat dis-
charges and particles of cuticle falling into the
milk from the persons of servants and others em-
ployed in dairies.

The epidemic of diphtheria which broke out in
the north of London in 1878 was definitely traced
to the milk, tuid many others have been tiaced to
the same cause.

Milk may acquire medicinal properties by cows
feeding on certain plants, and this method of
treating diseases has lieen suggested.

MUk, Al'aond. See Exulsiov and Mix-

TITRB.

Kilk, Arrowroot. Prap. From arrowroot, 1
table-spoonful, first wetted and stirred with a
little cold water, afterwards adding, gradually, of
boiling water, i pint; and, lastly, (d boiling milk,
i pint; with sugar, spice, wine, Ac., to taste.
Very nutritious, and excellent in chronic diarrhcea.
Some persons employ all milk.

Kilk, Choo'olate. Prep. Dissolve chocolate
(scraped), 1 oz., in boiling new milk, 1 pint.
Nutritious, but apt to offend delicate stomachs.

Hilk, Coffee. Prep. I. Coffee, 1 oz.; boiling
water, i pint ; infuse for 10 or 15 minntes in a
warm situation, and add the strained liquid to
boiling milk, } pint.

2. Coffee, 1 oz.; tie it loosely in a piece of
muslin, and simmer it for 16 minntes in milk, I
pint. Both the above have been recommended
for persons of spare habit, and for those disposed
to affections of the lungs, more especially for the
asthmatic,

Kilk, Factitious. Syn. AarivtoUL xiuc
Of the numerous compounds which have heen pro-
posed as substitutes for natural milks, the fbUow-
ing are examples :

1. (Faoiitiovb ASBIS' Miijc ; Lao AsnmnTK
VAOTITIVK, Lac a. ARTinoiALi, L.) a. Cows'
milk, 1 quart; ground rice, 1 oz.; oringo root
(bruised), 1 dr. ; boil, strain, and add sugar-candy
(or white sugar), 1 oz.

b. Whites of 2 eggs; lamp sugar, 1 oz.; cows'
milk (new), } pint ; mix, then add syrup of i»la,
} oz.

c. Water, 1 pint ; hartshorn shavings, 1 oz. ;
boil to a jelly ; then add lump sugar, 2 oz. ; cool,
add new milk, 1 pint ; syrup of tolu, J oz. Used
as substitutes for asses' milk, taken freely as a
beverage. A capful, with or without a spoonful
of rum, 3 or 4 times daily, is a popular remedy in
consumption and debility.

2. (F. ffOATB' MILK— .4. T. TiomsoH.) Fresh
mutton suet (minced), 1 oz. ; tie it in a mualin
bag, and boil it in cows' milk, 1 quart ; lastly, add
of sugar- candy, 2 gr. In scrofulous emaciation,
and in the latter stages of phthisis. The propor-
tion of suet in the above may be advantageously
increased a little. The lAO ccit sbbo of Qny»
Hospital is a similar preparation,

S. (F. ETICAN KILX ; LAC HUMAItlTJC VAOTmUIC,

L.) a. See above.

h. (BoieiuteiH.) Almonds (blanched), 2 in
number ; white sugar, 1 dr. ; water, 4 fl. oz. ;
make an emulsion, strain, and add of fresh cows'
milk, 6 fi. oz. As a substitute for the breast in
nursing.

Kilk, Preserved'. %«. Mile powdxb ; Laotis
PTLVIB, Lao PtTLTEEATtrK, L. iV«p. 1. Fresh
skimmed milk, 1 gall, ; carbonste of soda (in very
fine powder), H dr. ; mix, evaporate to l-3rd by
the heat of a water-bath, with constant agitation,
then add of powdered white sugar, 8i lbs., and
complete the evaporation at a rednoed tempera-
tare ; reduce the dry mass to powder, add the
cream (well drained) which was taken from the
milk, and after thorough admixture put tiw vriiolc

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MILK FEVER— MILLET

1068

into well-stoppered botUet or tins, which must be
•t once henuetically sealed.

2. (Legrip.) Carbonate of soda, \ dr. ; water,
1 fl. oz. ; dinolre, add of freah milk, 1 qnart ;
■ogmr, 1 lb. ; reduce it by heat to the connatence
of a lynip, and finiah the evaporation on plates
by exposnre in an oven.

0&«. About an ounce of the powder agitated
with a pint of water forma an agreeable and
nnttitiooa drink, and a good snbatitnte for milk.
It may also be used for tea or coffee in a aolid
form. This process, which is very old, has been
recently patented. See Milk {abtna).

The condensed or preserved milk, now in such
general use, and which is met with in tins, is
milk irtiicb has been more or less deprived of
water by evaporation >» vacuo. It occurs in the
market in two forms — in one simply as condensed
milk, and in the other as condffliaed milk mixed
with a large quantity of sugar. Milk preserved
as above without sugar will not keep long ; whereas
with sugar it may be preserved for an idmost in-
definite time. Either variety mixed with the proper
quantity of water becomes normal milk again,
Uie sweetened kind being, of course, milk with the
addition of cane-sugar. Professor Wanklyn says
lie has examined the prindpal brands of preserved
and condensed milk sent to the London market,
and finds they contain their due proportion of fat.
He gives the following analyses of the produce of
the Rnglish Condensed Milk Company :
Fkbbbbtkd Milk.
In 100 parts by weight.

"Water ....

20-6

Fat

10-4

Casein ....

110

Ash

80

Cane and milk sugar

661

100-0

CoHsnrBiD Mn

K.

Water ....

eiu

Fat ... .

12-11

Casein ....

13-64

Milk-sugar .

20-86

Ash ... .

2-77

100-00

Milk cf Koses. 8y%. Lao bosx, L. Prep. 1.
(EireuSH.) o. Almonds (blanched), 1 oc. ; oil of
almonds and white soft soap, of each, 1 dr. ; rose-
water, 1 pint ; make an emulsion.

(. From liquor of potaasa and <nl of afanonds,
of each, 1 fl. ok. ; hot water, 2 fl. oz. ; a^tate to-
gether until mixed, then add of rose-water and
distilled or filtered soft water, of each, \ pint, and
again agitate well.

e. As Hie last, but mnsg i a teaspoonfnl of salt
ef tartar for the liquor of potasaa.

i. {BadtBood.) Blanched almonds, 8 oc. ; rose-
water, 8 pints ; make an emulsion, add of white
Windsor soap, white wax, and tnl of almonds, of
each, i OS. ; prerionaly melted together by a gentle
beat; triturate until united, and strain; lastly,
add a solution of trU of borgamot, ioz.; oil of
lavender, 1 dr. ; and attar of roses, i dr.; (dis-
solved in) rectified spirit, 12 oz.

2. (RixvoH.) 0. From rose-water, 1 qnart;

tinctures of benzoin and styrax, of each, 1 fl. oz. ;
spirit of roses, i fl. oz. ; reciafled spirit, } fl. oz. ;
mix.

h. (Auguilin.) Tincture of benzoin, i fl. oc i
liquor of carbonate of potasaa, H fl. dr. ; rose-
water, 1 pint; agitate well together. As a lotion
in acne.

e. (OiauM.) Tincture of benzoin, 1 dr.;
tincture of balsam of Peru, 20 drops ; rose-water,
1 pint ; as the last.

d. (Sehubarilk.) Almond pastes 8 dr.; rose-
water, i pint; tincture of benzoin, i fl. oz. As
before. The addition to the last three of a little
rectified spirit is an improvement.

8. (Obbkak.) From dilute solution of di-
acetate of lead (Ooulard water) and spirit of
lavender, of each, 1 fl. oz. ; rose-water, 6 fl. os. ;
soft water, 1 |nnt.

Oi*. All the above are used as cosmetic
washes, and to remove scurf, jnmples, and erup-
tions in sliffht cases.

Kilk, 8*^. Bf. Lao iASO, L. Prep, (JDr
A. T. Tkomion.) 8^^, 1 oz. ; cold water, 1 pint ;
macerate half an hour, pour off the water, add of
milk, li pints, and boil slowly until the sago is
dissolved. Very nutritious ; also in lien of arrow-
root milk.

Milk of Bulphnr. See StnfslTB (Precipi-
tated).

Kilk, Thick. Mix one table-spoonful of floor
with a pint of milk, and boil for ten minutes,
stirring it well the whole time. It may be flavoured
either with a littie salt or sugar.

Hilk, Vanil'la. 8y». Lac TAinu.s, L. Awp.
1. Essence of vanilla, 12 drops; lump sugar,
1 oz. ; triturate, and add gradually, new imlk,
1 pint.

2. (B^ral.) Vanilla sugar, \ oz. ; milk, 16 oz. ;
dissolve.

KILK VKVISB. Sy». FBBBn lactia, L.
A febrile condition of the system that sometimes
occurs at the time the milk begins to be secreted
after parturition. It often assumes a malignant
character. See Pcbbpxbai. Fbtxb.

KILliXT. Sgn. Mizrtnt, L. Several varie-
ties of grain are known by this name. That
commonly referred to under the name is the pro-
duce of Panieum ntiUaeeum (' Indian millet ').

In the subjoined table is given the composition
of three dilferent samples of millet meal, free
from bran.

taaiam
nUio-

PnitUlvia nicat;
aUndofmniet;

SBtatum

Dbarrtof
the Arabs,

GoiT
of India.

eoniBoB

mneh used in India
under tbe nama of

miUet.

imin.

Water . . .

12-22

11-8

11-96

Nitrogenous

substances .

9-27

10-13

8-64

Dextrin . . .

913

• ••

8-82

Sugar . . .

1-80

• .•

1-46

Fat ... .

7-43

4-62

8-90

Starch . . .

69-04

71-76

70-28>

Silicin . .. .

0-U

...

...

» With husks.

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1064

MIMUSOPS ELATA— MITHEIDATE

The basked aeeda(MlLnTl( kuhdatitx) are used
to make groel, and are ground {or floar. ' Turk-
isb millet,' or 'Oninea com," is produced by
Sorghum vulgara; and the ' German' and ' Italian
millet ' by species of Setaria. In some parts of
the world millet floor is used for bread, but it is
chiefly cultivated as food for domestic animals.

Letheby says millets are a little more nutritious
than rice.

MIMUSOPS ELATA, Allen. Massaranduba or
Cow-tree of Para. The milk, resembling good
cream in consistence, exudes slowly from the
wounded bark. It is too viscid to be a safe article
of diet.

MIMUSOPS BLSHQI, Linn. The fruit is
largely eaten in Guiana and elsewhere, the fra-
grant flowers are need for making garlands, and
the bark yields a tonic and febrifuge.

MIMUSOPS 6L0BOSA, Gaertn. The inspis-
sated juice (balata) has been introduced from
British Guiana as a substitute for gutta percha.

MIHCEMEAT. Prvp. From stoned raisins,
currsnts, sugar, and suet, of each, 2 lbs. ; sultana
raisins and boiled beef (lean and tender), of each

1 lb. ; apples, 4 lbs. ; juice of two lemons ; the
rind of 1 lemon, chopped very fine ; mixed spice,
i lb. i candied citron and lemon peel, of ench,

2 oz. ; brandy, a glassful or two ; the whole
chopped very fine. It may be varied by adding
other spice or flavouring, and by the addition of
eggs, or the substitution of chopped fowl or
TeiU for beef, according to the taste of the cuisi-
nier.

MIBCE PISS. Take 3 apples, 3 lemons, 1 lb.
of raisins, } lb. of currants, 1 lb. of suet, i Ih. of
raw beef, 2 lbs. of moist sugar, i lb. of mixed
candied peel, i of a rind of a fresh orange, 1 tea-
spoonful of powdered mixed spice, composed of
equal parts of cloves, cinnamon, and nutmeg,
i pint of brandy, and 1 glass of port wine. Peel
tiie apples and cot ont the cores very carefully,
and then bake the pieces until they are quite soft.
The raisins must be carefully stoned, and the
currants well washed, dried, and picked. Chop
the suet very finely, as well as the raw meat and
lemon-peeL Mix all the ingredients thoroughly
together, add the brandy last of all, and press
the whole down into a stone jar, and place a piece
of paper soaked in brandy on the top. Bemove the
paper and stir up the mixture thoroughly every
three days, replacing the paper. If this is done
the mincemeat will keep a long time. To make
the piee, roll out some thin pufF paste, butter a
small round tin, and line it with a piece of paste,
then put in a generous quantity of the mince-
meat, cover it over with a similar piece of puff
paste, and bake it in a moderate oven. Mince
pies are none the worse for being wanned up, bnt
pray take care they are sent to table hot (CatMell).

Min>KB£"llUS' SPmT. See AxHonA (Ace-
tate of), and SOHTTION.

MDrSBAL CHAMEliSOH. Prep. From a
mixture of binoxide of manganese and potassa
and nitre, equal parts, heated to redness. It must
be preserved in a well- corked bottle nntil required
for use.

Prop., i^e. When dissolved in water, its solu-
tion, at first green, passes spontaneously through
all the colonred rays to the red, when, if potassa |

be added, the colour retrogrades until it reaches
the original green. The addition of oil of vitriol,
or of chlorine, renders the solution colourless.
The addition of a weak acid, or even boiling or
agitating the liquid, turns it from green to red.
See Manoakio Acid.

MIB'EBALISXaS. Substance* which, by asso.
ciation with metallic bodies, deprive them of their
Qsual properties, and impart to them the character
of ores. Their removal belongs to metallurgy.
The term ' vnrxBAliiBED ' has been applied to
caoutchouc, gutta percha, bitumen, &c., which
have been combined with sulphur, siUca, or metal-
lic matter.

MnriM. ^n. MlHixtriC, L. A meaaured
drop, of which 60 are equal to a fluid drachm.
The size of drops varies so greatly with different
liquids, and is also much influenced by the size and
shape of the vessels from which they are poured,
that they afford no reliable measure of quantity
for medicinal purposes. The poured drop has. in
some cases, only | the volume of the measured
drop, or minim ; whilst in others it is nearly 3
times as large. According to Mr Durande.
"liquids which contain a small proportion of
water afford a small drop ; while, on the contrary,
liquids containing a large quantity of water fur-
nish a large drop." " Among liquids containing
a large proportion of water, those which are not
chnrged with remedial substances give a larger
and heavier drop than the same liquids when con-
taining extraneous bodies in solution." In all
cases in which the word * drop ' is mentioned in
this work a minim is intended, and the quantity
should be determined by means of a giadnated
minim measure.

MIH'IUM. See Ras Piovbsts.

MDTT. Syn. Spbabmint, Gbbxh x. ; Mnr-
THA TiBiDis (Ph. L.), L. " The recent and the
dried flowering herb " of Mentha viridie. It is
aromatic and carminative, bnt its flavour is less
agreeable than that of peppermint. It is enn-
ployed in flatulence, colic, nausea, diarrhoea, Ac. ;
also to make sauce.

MIR'BOSS. See Axaloik (Silvering), Sll,-

THBINS, SFBCTTLUV MeTAL, SlC

MITES. See Aoabi.

MITH'SISATE. Sgn. Daicocbatb'b ooitfbc-

TIOH; MlTRBIDATIUir, COKFXCTTO DA1[0CBA,TIS,

L. " This composition originally consisted of but
few ingredients ; viz. 20 leaves of rue, 2 walnuts,
2 figs, and a little salt. Of this we are informed
that Mitbridates took a dose every morning to
guard himself agsinst the effects of poison. It
was afterwards i^tered, and the number of the in-
gredients increased to sixty-one. In this more com-
plex form it contained opium, and was, in effect,
an aromatic opiate, of which the confection of
opium of the present day may be considered as a
simplification. The ' mithridate ' is still prepared
in some shops, and is occasionally, though very
rarely, prescribed " (Med. Lex.), " The formulie

for COHFXCTION or SLXGTUABT OF CATECHU may

be considered as the representatives, in our modem
Pharmacopoeias, of the once celebrated recipes for
ooNPBCTio Daxocbatis and Thbbiaca Asduo-
IIACRI " (S«(2ie(>0(2). Mithridate was formerly
conceived to be good for nearly every disease, and
an antidote for every known poison.

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MIXTURE

1066

MIXTVSX. 8jfn. M18TUBA, L. A compound
medicine, either a clear flaid or containing matter
in nupension, taken in divided doses. Mixtures
are tunally exteraporaneona preparations, and in
procribing them care should be taken not to bring
U^ether substances that decompose each other,
nor to order heavy powders that speedily separate
from the body of the liquid by subsidence. EuVL-
sioss, JiTLiPg, and sbavohts are special forms
of mixtures.

Mixtures are usually dispensed in flat octagonal
6- or 8-oz. bottles with long necks, or in regular
' octagons ' with short necks, having the doses
marked on the glass, to which the strength of the
medicine is made to correspond. Any mixture
containing insoluble substances, such as bismuth,
salts, eSia, or balsams, must be labelled ' Shake the
bottle.'

Our remarks respecting ' dbavohts ' equally
apply here. By putting the active ingredients
<rf six dranghts into a 6-oz. mixture bottle, and
fining it up with distilled water, a mixture will be
made of corresponding properties, of which the
dose will be S table-spoonfuls. When the formula
for the draughts includes a decoction or infusion
as the vehicle, instead of water, four of them only
must be taken, which will then fill the 6-oz. bottle,
and the proper dose will be 3 table-spoonfols, or
a small wine-glassful.

The following formube embrace the whole of
the ' x IBTTTBS ' of the British Pharmacopoeia, as
well as a few others in general use. These will
serve as examples for the like preparations of me-
dicines which are not included in the list. An
extensive collection of mixtures will be found in
' Squire's Pharmacopoeias of the Lnndon Hos-
pitals.' See also Dbavsbt, Ekulsion, Jttlbp,
Watbb, tc.

Xiztora, Absor'beiit. See Mixtubb, Ahtaois.

Ktztnze, Aca'da. See Mixtubb, Qvx.

■iztnre, Ac'etate of Ammo"nla. 8f». Mix-

SBXBBVS'S mXTVBB ; MI8TCBA AMMOHLB AOB-

TATls, L. Pnp. From solution of acetate of
ammonia, 11 fl. oi. ; nitre, 40 gr. ; camphor mix-
ture, 6 fl. OS. ; rose syrup, 1 fl. os. — Dot; 1 to S
table-spoonfuls, every third or fourth hour, as a
diaphoretic in inflammatory fevers, &c.

KixtOTS of Acetic Add. Sgu. Mibtuba aoidi
ACBTici. Pnp. Distilled vinegar, 2 fl. dr.;
symp, 4 fl. dr. ; water, 2 fl. oz. A fourth part
every 3 hours. For children with scarlatina.

Kxtare of Aconite. {Mr Fleming.) Sgn. MlB-
TOTUl AOOHin. Prep. Tincture of aconite, 1 fl.
dr. ; carbonate of soda, H dr. ; sulphate of mag-
nana,!) oz.; water, 60s. A toble-spoonf ul when
the pain is argent. In gastralgia this should only
he administa«d under medical supervision or
advice.

Kixtnre, Al'kaJine. See Mixtcbb, Abtacis.

■Ixtnie, Al'mond. Sy». Exitlbion or ai.-
xovBB, Mile of a. ; MiSTirBA AxrasAiiX (B. P.,
Ph. L., E., & D.), Lac aktsdals, L. iV«p. 1
(Ph. L.) Confection of almonds, 21 oz. ; distilled
water, 1 pint; gradually add the water to the
confection wbUetritnrating until they are mixed ;
then >tnun the liquid through linen.

2. (Ph. E.) From almond confection, 2 oz.,
and water, 1 quart ; as the last. Or from sweet
almonds (blanched), 10 dr.; white sngar, 6 dr. ;

mucilage, i fl. ox. (or powdered gum, 8 dr.) ; made
into an emulsion with water, 1 quart.

8. (Ph. D.) Sweet almonds (blanched), 5 dr. ;
refined sugar, 2 dr. ; powdered gum, 1 dr. ; dis-
tilled water, 6 fl. oz. ; as the last.

4. (B. P.) Compound powder of almonds
(sweet), 1 part; water, 8 parts; triturate and
strain.

Obi. The last formula produces the article
usually employed intUspensing in the shops, The
addition of a little more sngar renders it more
pleasant; and 2 or 3 bitter almonds, as in the
formula of the Ph. D. 1826, or 1 or 2 fl. dr. of
rose or orange-flower water, may occasion>illy be
added to diversify the flHvour.— .Dow, 2 or 3 table-
spoonfuls, tul libitum ; as a demulcent and emol-
lient in coughs and colds, or as a vehicle for more
active medicines.

KixtBre, Ammoni'senm. Syu. ExuusiON or
AirxoNiACUK, Mile of a. ; Mistvba amhokiaci
(B. P., Ph. L. & D.), Lao axmokiaoi, L. Pnp.
1. (Ph. L.) Prepared nmmoniacnm, 5 dr. ; dis-
tilled water, 1 pint ; rub the ammoniacum with
the water, gradually added, until they are per-
fectly mixed.

2. (Ph. D.) Ammoniacum, i oz. ; water, 8 fl.
oz. ; as the last, but straining through muslin.

3. (B. P.) Ammonincnm, J oz. ; rubbed down
with water, 8 oz., and strain. — Dote, 1 to 1 gr.

Obt. The last formula produces the best and
moat effective mixture, owing to the nse of the
raw instead of the strained drug. — Dote, 1 to 2
table-spoonfuls, either alone or combined with
squills or ipecacuanha; as an expectorant and
demulcent in chronic coughs, humoral asthma.

Mixture, An'odyne. Syn. Mibtvba akodtna,
JiTLBPVX CALVAVB, L. Pnp. 1. Prepared chalk,

2 dr. ; syrup of poppies, 1 oz. ; foetid spirit of am-
monia, H dr. ; oils of dill and aniseed, of each, 3
drops ; water, 4J fl. oz. — Dote, A teaspoonf nl 3 or
4 times a day; in the diarrhoea and colic of
infancy.

2. (P. Cod.) Symp of opium, 2 dr. ; symp of
orange flowers, 6 dr.; lettuce water, 4 fi. oz. To
allay pain, induce sleep, tc Dote, 1 table-
spoonful.

3. ( Vteat.) Ammoniated alcohol, | fl. oz. ; pow-
dered opium, 1 dr. ; powdered camphor, \ dr. ;
proof spirit, \\ fl. oz. ; digest, with agitation, for

3 or 4 days, and Alter. In tooth^he arising
from caries, and as a lotion to the temples in
headache.

Kixtoie, Antac'id. 8g%. Abbobbbht xixtvbb,
Alkalinb X. ; Mibtuba aleausa, M. aittacida,
L. Prep. 1. Liquor of potassa and spirit of
nutmeg, of each, 2 fl. dr.; tincture of rhubarb, 3
fl. dr. ; tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr. ; water, 5 fl. oz.
In dyspepsia, heartburn, &«., accompanied with
flatulence.

2. Spirit of sal volatile and orange-flower
water, of each, 1 fl. oz. ; simple syrup, li fl. oz. ;
water, 2\ fl. oz. In acidity, &c., accompanied
with languor and low spirits.

3. Sesqnicarbonate of ammonia, 2 dr. ; syrup
of orange peel and tincture of gentian, of each,
1 fl. oz. ; water, 4 fl. oz. In dyspepsia, heart-
burn, ftc., arising from excessive indulgence in
spirituous or fermented liquors. It also pos^i

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MIXTURE

eonnderable stimalating properties, and
will partially remove the fit of dmnkenneas.

4. (ColUar.) Prepared chalk, 2 dr. ; tincture
of ginger, 2 fl. dr. ; compound tincture of car-
damoms, 1^ fl. oz. ; pimento water, 6 fl. oz. In
diarrhoea accompanied with acidi^.

6. (Co22Mr.) Chalk mixture, 6 fl. oi. ; tinctures
of catechu and cinnamon, of each, ) fl. oz. In
chronic diarrhoea. .

6. (Sga%.) Liquor ofpotassa, 2 fl. dr. ; tincture
of opium, 1 fl. dr.; calcined magnesia, 1 dr.;
oil of peppermint, 5 drops; lime-water, 8 fl. oz.
In dyspepsia accompanied with acidity, flatalenoe,
and constipation.

Kiztnre, AntieroTip'al. i^it.' Mutura bbitx-
AB, h. Prep. {Jadelot.) Infusion of senega,
4 oz, ; -syrup oF ipecacuanha, 1 oz.; oxymel of
squills, 8 dr.; tartarised antimony, 1) gr. ; mix.
By spoonfuls, in croup.

Hixture, Antieme'tlc. Sgit. Histitba A2m-
BHETIOA, L. Prep. 1. Creasote, 12 drops; ace-
tate of morphia, 1} gr. ; camphor, 10 gr. ; rec-
tified spirit, i fl. oz. ; syrup of orange peel, li fl.
OS. ; distilled vinegar, 4 fi. oz. In sea-sicknest, &c.
— Dote, 1 table-spoonftil on the ^>proach of
vomiting, and repeated at intervals of half an
hour until the vomiting ceases.

8. (Dr Barker.) Compound tincture of cam-
phor, 1 fl. dr. ; burnt hrandy, 1 fl. oz. ; sugar, i oz. ;
infusion of mint, 6 fl. oz. — Dote, i to 1 table-
spoonful, every \ hour, until the vomiting ceases,

Kiztnre, AnttepUep'tio. 8gn, Mibtuba Ann-
IPlLBFraoA, L. Prep. {M. Xmroi'im.) Liquor
of ammonia, 12 drops ; syrup of orange flowers,
1 OS. ; distilled water of linden flowers, 8 oz, ;
do. of cherry laurel, \ oz.; mix. According to
H. Lemoine, this is a speeiflc in epilepsy. —
Dote, 1 table-spoonful, or more.

lUxtnr*, AatUiyiter'io. Sy. HiBiraA Am-

HT8TBBI0A, L.; PonoV AVTIHYBTiBntTrS, Fr.

Prep. 1. {Vr Jotat.) Cyanide of potassium, 1}
gr. ; distilled lettuce water, 4) fl. ox. ; syrup of
orange flowers, 1\ fl. oz. — Dote, 1 or 2 teaspoon-
fula evei7 10 minutes, when the flt is expected ;
during the flt it may he given in double doses.
Dr Josat declares its efficacy to have been indis-
pntably proved in upwards of 66 cases.

2. {llagendie.) Cyanide of potassium, 2 gr. ;
lettuce water (distilled), 4 oz. ; syrup of marsh-
mallow, 2 oz. Sesembles the last.

8, (Dr Parii.) Aasafoetida, 1 dr. ; peppermint
water, 6 fi, oz. ; make an emnlsion, and add of
ammoniated tincture of valerian, 2 fl. dr. ; tinc-
ture of castor, 8 fi. dr. ; sulphuric ether, li fl. dr.
— Dote, 1 table-spoonful, 8 or 4 times a day, or
oftener.

4, (P. Cod.) Symp of wormwood, 1 oz, ; tinc-
ture of castor, \ dr. ; valerian ivater and orange-
flower water, of each, 2 oz. ; ether, 1 dr. As the last.

Kixtuie, Aatimo"niaI. See MiXTirBB, Coktsa-

STUdTLAXT.

Hiztnie, Aat^ertoa'sie. Bgn. Mistitba abti-
PBBTuaBlBlTB, L, Prep. 1. Cochineal (powdered),
8 dr. ; carbonate of potasaa, 1 dr. ; boiling water,
8 fl. oz,; infuse for 1 hour, strain, and add of
lump sugar, li oz.

8. (Dr Bird.) Extract of hemlock, 18 gr.;
alum, 26 gr. ; syrup of red poppies, 2 fl. dr, ; dill
water, 3 fl. oc.

8. (Dr JZseoe.) Tinctnre of assafostida, 1
fl. dr. j tincture of opium, 10 or 18 drops ; pow-
dered ipecacuanha, 10 gr. ; water, 2 fl. oz. — Dote,
A teasjMonful every 3 hours, in hooping-cough,
for a child 2 or 8 years old, and other ages in pro-
portion.

Kiztnre, Antiwarof nlou. S^n. MUTUBA ax-
tibceoptHiOSA, L. Prep. From tinetnre of bi-
chloride of gold, 80 drops ; tincture of iodine, 40
drops ; tincture of gentian, 1 fl. dr. ; simple symp,
7 fl. dr.; rose-water, 6 fl. at.— Dote. A dessert-
spoonful, 3 or 4 times daily, in a wine-glaasfnl of
water ; observing to shake the bottle before poor-
ing ont the liqnid. Mr Cooley states that he has
seen repeated instances of the excellent effects of
this medicine in scrofula, syphilis, and vatiMia
glandular diseases, even under all the ^aadvan-
tages of a salt-meat diet and confinement on ship-
board.

Kiztnre, Antispasmod'ic. <Syii. MiBTimA ax-
TI8PASH0DI0A, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of castor,
6 fl, dr. ; sulphuric ether and landanmn, of each,
1 fl. dr. ; syrup of saffron, 1 fl. oa.; cinnanwi
water, 4 fl. oz.

2. (Dr ColUsr.) Assafoetida and eamphor
mixtures, of each, 2i fl. oz. '; tincture of valerian,
Ifl. oz.

8. (P. Cod.) Iiime or linden-flower water and
orange-fiower water, of each, 8 oz.; syrap of
orange flowers, 1 oz. ; ether, i dr. — Dote (of each
of the above), 1 to 8 tablespoonfuls.

Kiztnre, Ape"riant. Sgn. MunvBA APiBim,
L. Prep. If {AbemelAg.) Sulphate of mag-
nesia, 1 oz. ; manna, i ox. ; infusion of senna, H
fi. ox. ; tinetnre of senna, i fl. oz. ; mint-wmter, 2
fl. oz,; distilled water, 4 fl. oz. ; mix. This is tile
true ' Abbbkbiht biiAOK unvjawe.'

8. {Dr Chrittiton.) Sulphate of magneaia,
li o>. ; water, 4 fl. oz. ; dissolye, and add of tinc-
ture of senna, 1 fl. oz. ; infnsion of roses, 4 S. oz.
— Dote. A wine-glassful hourly, until it begins
to operate.

8. ( Dr Collier.) Sulphate of iron, 80 gr. ; Epaoa
salts, 1 oz. ; pennyroyi^ water, 1 pint; disaolre.—
Dote. A wine-glaasfnl twice a day, in atonic
amenorrhosa.

Kiztnre, Aromaf ic. £^ MnnmA asoka-
TIOA, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Symp of clove
nllifiowen, 1 oz. ; spirit of cinnamon, i oz, ; con-
fection of hyacinth, 2 dr. ; peppermint water and
oiange-flower water, of each, 2 oz.

Kiztnre, Aromatic Iron. Prep. Bed bttk (in
powder), 4 parts ; calumba (in powder), 2 parts ;
cloves (bruised), 1 part ; iron wire, 8 parts ; com-
pound tincture of cardamoms, 12 parts ; tincture
of orange peel, 8 parts; peppermint water, 60
parts ; macerate the first four ingredients in the
last one for 8 days, agitating occasionally ; filter,
add the tinctures, and make up to 60 parts. Used
as a tonic. — Dote, 1 to 8 oz.

Kiztnre, Arsen'lcaL Syn. Hibtuxa absrbi-
OALia, L. Prep. From liquor of aiwnite of
potassa (Ph. L.), 2 fi. dr. ; componnd tinetnre of
cardamoms, 4 fl. dr. ; ^nnamon water, 8 fi. oa. ;
pure water, 8 fi, oz, ; miz. — Dote. A small table-
spoonful, twice a day, after a full meal; in
agnes, periodic headaches, lepra, psoriasis, chronic
rheumatism, Ac. It shonid be exhibited with
oaotion, and its effeeta watched ; and after Sot 6

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days tbe doae sbonld lie rednced to halt tlie
quantity.

Kiztoie, Astrin'gsnt. Sgn. Mistttba astbiv-
en8. Lk iVep. 1. (Pradel.) Tannin, 12 gr. ;
tincture of rbabmy, 1 dr. ; simple eyrup, 7 dr. ;
mndlage, 1 oz. ; camphor miztnre, 4 oz.

2. {A. T. ZlosMos.) Extract of catecba, 2 dr.
(or tincture, 1 oi.) ; cinnamon water, 8 os. ; dis-
wdTe. — Dote, 1 to 3 table-spoonfnls, after every
liquid dejection, in diarrhoea and dysentery.

Uxtue, Atroph'ic. ^». MisiUBi. atbo-

PBICA, L. ; POKOK ATSOPHIQUS, Vt. J?np.

{Mageudie.) Iodide of potassinm, 4 dr. j lettuce
water, 8 oz. ; peppermint water, 2 dr. ; syrup of
manb-maliow, 1 oz. — Dote, 1 table-spoonful, twice
a day ; in hypertrophy (enlargement) of the heart.
Sometime* 1 to 2 dr. of tinctnre of foxglove is
added to the mixtnre.

Kxtnre, Balaamie. (P. Cod.) Sy». Mistuba
BAUAK ICA. Prap. Balsam oopaiba, 2 oz. ; rec-
tified spirit, 2 oz. ; symp of toln, 2 oz. ; pepper-
mint water, 4 oz. ; nitric ether, 2 dr. Mix the
alooliol and ether, add the balsam, then the symp
and water.

Kxtnre, Barley. 8gn. Mtbtuba bobdbi, L.
See Dbooction.

Kiztare «f Blralphide of Carltoii. {Clantt,)

&IU. HlSTDBA BietrLFKUBBin CABEONIB. Prtp.

Ksnlphide of carbon, 20 minims ; sngar, 2 dr. ;
milk, 6 oz. — Dote, ^ oz., 4 times a day.

Kixtnra of Boraeic Add. {Ckauttier.') Sy*.
UuTUBA AciDl BOBACici. Prep. Camphor
mixture, 4 os.; boraeic acid, 60 gr.j syrup of
orange peel, 1 oi.

■tzture. Brandy. Syn. Mixttbb ov bftbit
or Fbxhch wnrB, Eeo-FurJ ; Mistuba bpibitus
TiBi Qaixici (B. p.. Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
li.) Brandy and cinnamon water, of each, 4 fl.
OS.; yolk* of 2 eggs; white sngar, i oz.; oil of
cinnamon, 2 drops; mix. A valoable stimulant
and restorative in low fevers, and in extreme ex-
hanstion from hsmorrhages, Ac. ; but fcarcely a
fitting snbject for the labonrs of the College of
Piiyaidans, since almost every cook and honse-
wife codU produce a better compound than the
prodact of the College fotmnla.

8. (B. P.) Brandy, 4 oz. ; cinnamon water, 4
OB.; the yolks of 2 eggs; sugar, J oz.; mix.—
Dttte, i to li oz., in prostration and last stages
of fever.

■Ixtiire of Burnt Eartihora. See Dbooction,
Whttb.

Wxtim of CaflUii. (Vaiuleii-Corput.) Syn.
MntiTBA oAnBlXA Ptep. Csffein, 7 gr. ; dis-
tilled water, 8 oi. ; hydrochloric acid, 2 drops ;
syrap of onnge-flower water, i oz. ; mix. — Dote,
1 table-spoonfnl.

Xlztore, Cam'phor. Sfyn. Cakfkob JVLIP,

CAXPHOB WATBB ; MlBTtTBA OAKFHOBJB (Ph. L.

ft D.), Exvuio OAXPHOBS (Ph. E.), MimntA
OAMPHOBATA, L. Pt^. 1. (Ph. L.) Camphor,
f dr.; rectified spirit 10 drops; triturate to-
gether, gndnally adding of water, 1 pint ; and
strain though bnen.

2. (Ph. D.) Tinctnre of camphor, 1 fl. oz. ;
distilled water, 8 pints; agitate well together,
and after 24 hoars filter through paper.

3. (Ph. E.) See Exuxeiov.

Vtee, S[e. Camphor julep is chiefly nsed as a

vehicle for other medicines. — Dote, } to 1 wine-
glassful.

4. (With KASirBSIA: Mistcbaoakphobk ctk
KAOHBaiA — Ph. £. it, D., Aqua caxfhobb— Ph.
U. S.) a. (Ph. E.) Camphor, 10 gr., carbonate
of magnesia, 25 gr. ; triturate together, then
gradually add of water, 6 fl. oz., still continuing
tile trituration.

h. (Ph. D.) Camphor, 12 gr.; carbonate of
magnesia, \ dr. ; water, 6 fl. oz. ; as last.

e. (Ph. U. S.) Camphor dissolved in alcohol,
16 parts, then pour on to 16 parts of cotton.
When the cotton is nearly dry, pack in a perco-
lator and pour on distilled water till 1000 parts
are obtained. Antacid, antispasmodic, and ano-
dyne.— Dote, 1 to 2 tablespounfols. Used with-
out straining. It is stronger than the simple
mixtnre.

A. Cabbovatbd camphob mixtubb. Sy%.
MiSTUBA cakphob cabbovioa. Water strongly
charged with carbonic acid gas, agitated with
powdered camphor, and strained.

Kiztare, Cajrmia'ative. Sy*. Mistdba cab-
mHATITA, L. Prep. (Dr Parit.) Calcined
magnesia, } dr. ; peppermint water, 2) fl. dr. ;
c<vnpound tincture of Uvender, i fl. dr. ; spirit of
caraway, 4 fl. dr. ; symp of ginger, 8 fl. dr. ; mix.
Antacid and carminative. For 1 or 2 doses.

Kiztnre of Caaala. (Fr. Hosp.) Syn. Ml8-
T17BA 0AB8I.X, L. ; Eac bb 0A88B, Fr. Cassia
pulp, 2 oz. ; hot water, 1| pints. May be taken
by the vnne-glass. Laxative.

Hiztnre of Cassia, Antimoniated. (Foy.) Syn,

MlBTlntA CABBI.X AKTIHOKIATA, L.; EAIT DB OAgSB,

Ft. Emitis^. Prep. Pulp of cassia, 1 oz. ; boiling
water, H pints. Macerate, strain, and add sul-
phate of magnesia, 1 oz.; emetic tartar, 8 gr.
By cupfnls. In painters' colic.
Kixtnre, Cathar'tie. See Miztvbb, Afbbihrt ;

M., 8BNNA, &c.

Kiztnre, Chalk. Syn. CBBTAOBovgiciZTirBB;
MlETUBA CKVIX (Ph. L. E. & D.), M. obbtaoba,
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Prepared chalk, i oz. ;
sngar, 3 dr. ; mixtnre of acacia (mucilage), 1 ^ fl. oz„
triturate together, then add of cinnamon water,
18 0. OS.

2. (Ph. E.) Prepared chalk, 10 dr.; white
sngar, 6 dr. ; mucilage, S fl. oz. ; spirit of cinna-
mon, 2 fl. oz. ; water, 1 quart ; as the last.

3. (Ph. D.) Prepared chalk, 2 dr.; symp
and munlage, of each, i os. ; cinnamon water, 7

fl. 01.

4. (B. P.) Prepared chalk, 1 part; gnm-arahic;
in powder, 1 part; symp, 2 parts; cinnamon
water, 80 parts ; mix by tntnration, — Dote, 1 to
2 gr., with astringent tinctures and c^ium.

Obi. The above are antacid and absorbent.—.
Dote, 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls, either alone or com-
bined with aromatic confection ; in heartburn, and
in diarrhoea, after every liquid motion. In the
latter affection a little tincture of catechu or
laudanum is often added; and when there is
vomiting or nausea, either peppermint or spear-
mint water is generally substituted for the whole
or a part of the simple water ordered in the above
formole.

Kiztare of Chlorine. Syn. HiBfimA ohlo-
BiHii. Dr Watson prescribes 2 fl. dr. of the
solution to 1 pint of water. Thedoeeof the mix-

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tare is 4 fl. dr. every 3 hoars, according to age,
in scarlatina.

Mixture of CaUarofarm. (Ph. U. S.) Sgn.
MlSTlTBA OHTXtBOPOBMI. JV«^. Chloroform, 8
oz. ; camphor, 2 dr. j yolks of 10 eggs ; water, 80
oz. Rnb the yolks first by themselves, then
with the camphor, previously dissolved in the
chloroform, and lastly, with the water gradually
added.

mztora, Cincho'na. Sgn. BjlBX kixtdbs;
MiSTDBA CIKOHONA, L. Prep. (Copland.)
Confection of roses, i oz. ; boiling decoction of
bark, 1 fl. oz. ; triturate, in 10 minutes stnun,
and add dilnted sulphuric acid, 1( fl. dr. ; spirit
of nutmeg, 4 fl. dr. Febrifuge, tonic, and
stomachic. — Dow, 1 to S table-spoonfuls, 2 or 3
times a day.

Klxtore of Citrate of Caffain. Sgn. Mibtxtba
CA.njnyx oitbatib. Potion oomtbb moBAiirji.
Syrup of citrate of caffein, 1 fl. oz. ; water (or any
agreeable diluent), 5 oz. A table-spoonful fre-
quently.

mztnre, Corchievm. Sgn. OtovT kixtubb;

HiSTUBA ADTABTHBITIOA, M. COLOHIOI, L.
Prep. {Sir S. Seudamore.) Magnesia, H dr.;
vinegar of colchicum and syrup of orange-peel,
of each, 4 fl. dr. ; peppermint water, 8 fl. oz. A
table-spoonful every 8 or 4 hours during the fit
of goat.
Mixtnre, Contra-stim'alaiit. Sgn. Hibtuul

COITTBA-STIKCLAKg, JUI.BPDX O., M. AKTIMOMn
FOTASalO-TABTBATia, L. Pr«p. (Xa«IHHV.)

Tartar emetic, 8 gr. ; infusion of orange leaves,
8 fl. oz. ; syrup of do., 1 fl. oz. — Dote. A wine-
glassful, or more, every 2 hours ; in inflammation
of the lungs, whooping-cough, ix.

Kiztme, Cough- Sgn. Mibtuba bbchjoa, L.
Prep. 1. Almond mixture, 4 fl. oz.; oxymel of
squills, 1 fl. oz. ; ipecacuanha wine and syrup of
tola, of each, i fl. oz.

2. Tincture of tola, i fl. oz. ; paregoric elixir
and tincture of squills, of each, 1 fl. oz. ; syrap of
poppies, 3 fl. oz. ; water, 3i fl. oz.

3. Mixture of ammoniarnm, 4 fl. oz. ; syrup of
sqwlls, 2 fl. oz. In the coughs of old persons.

4. Antdmonisl wine, 3 fl. dr. ; syrup of poppies,
li fl. OS. ; water, 4 fl. oz. In dry, husky coughs.
— Dote (of each of the above), 1 table-spoonful,
2 or 3 times a day, or oftener.

6. {JDr Monro!) Paregoric, i fl. oz.; sulphuric
ether and tincture of toln, of each, i oz. — Dote.
A teaspoonful in water, night and morning, or
when the cough is troublesome.

6. (Dr Madeliff.) Syrap of poppies, syrap of
squills, and paregoric, eqnal parts. — Do$e. As
tne last. In all cases the bowels should be kept
gently moved by some mild aperient.

7. (Dr Wood's Brown Mixture.) Extract of
liquorice, 2 dr.; powdered gum-arabic, 2 dr.;
boiling water, 4 oz. ; dissolve, and add antimonial
wine, 2 dr.; landumm, 20 minims. — Dote. A
table-spoonful occasionally. A popular American
remedy.

Kixtnre^ Cre'aiota. %•. Mibtuba obeasoti,
M. obbazoti (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. £.)
Creasote and acetic acid, of each, 16 drops; mix,
then add of compound spirit of juniper and syrup,
of each, 1 fl. oz. ; water, 14 fl. oz. ; and agitate
well together. — Dote, j^ to 1 wine-glassful, in

nausea and Tomiting, especially to prevent or re-
lieve sea-sickness.

2. (B. P.) Creasote, 15 minims; glacial acetic
add, 15 minims ; spirit of juniper, i dr. ; syrup, 1
oz. ; distilled water, 16 oz. ; mix. — Do»e, 1 to 2 oa.

Mixture of Cabebl. Sgn. Histuba ottbbbs.
Powder of cubebs, 1 oz. ; sugar, 2 dr. ; mucilage,

2 oz. ; cinnamon water, 6 oz. — Dote, 4 oz. to 1 ox.
Mixture, Demnl'oent. Sgn. Mibtuba dbmu'i.-

obvb, L. See Almohd Mixtubb, Qvu M., &c.
■txtare, Oiaphorefie. %». Mibtuba via-
FBOBBTICA, L. Prep. 1. Solution of acetate of
ammonia, 8 fl. oz. ; antimonial wine, 2 fl. dr. ;
tincture of henbane, 1^ fl. dr. ; camphor miitnre,

3 fl. oz.— Dote, 1 table-spoonful every 3 or 4
hours ; in fevers, &c.

2. To the last add of sweet spirit of nitre, i fl.
ox. As above.

Mixtnre Ibr Diarrhosa. (Board of Health.) S^n.
Mistuba fbo siabbbcea. Aromatic powder, 8
dr. ; compound spirits of ammonia, 3 dr. ; tincture
of catechu, 10 dr. ; compound tincture of carda-
moms, 6 dr.; tincture of opium, 1 dr.; chalk
mixture to make 20 oz. — Dote. For an adult, 1
oz. ; for a child of 12 years of age, i ox. ; for 7
years, i oz. ; after each liquid stool. See Mix-
TUBB, Chalk, &c.

Mixture, Siazwt'ie. Sgn. Mibtuba DixntiTiOA,
L. Prep. 1. Nitrate of potassa, 2 dr.; sweet
spirit of nitre, 8 fl. dr.; syrup of squills, li fi.
oz.; peppermint water, 4 fl. os.

2. (A. T. Tkomton.) Infusion of foxglove, 6i
fl. oz. ; tincture of foxglove, i fl. dr. ; acetate of
potassa, 2 dr.; spirit of juniper, i fl. oz.; tinc-
ture of opium, i fl. dr. In dropsy. — Dote, 1 to 2
table-spoonfuls, every 2 or 3 hours. The laat
must be nsed with caution.

Mixtnre, EirerTewiag. (P. Cod.) Sgn. Mis-
tuba BFTBBTB8CEN8 ; POTION OAMUaB DB Rl-
TiiBB. Prep. Dissolve | dr. of bicarbonate of
potash in 2 oz. of water, and add 4 dr. of syrap.
Mix also i dr. of citric acid with i oz. of syrap
of citric acid and 2 oz. of water. Mix an eqn^
quantity of each, and give it while effervescing.

Mixture of Klaterinm. {2>r Perriar.) i^fn.
Mibtuba bi.atebu. Prep. Elaterium, 1 gr. ;
spirit of nitric ether, 2 fl. oz. ; tincture of sqidlla,
i oz. ; oxymel of colchicum, i oz. ; syrap of buck-
tiiorn, 1 fl. oz. — Dote, 1 dr. 8 times a day in
water.

Mixture, Emefic. Sgn. Mibtuba bicbtica,
L. Prep. 1. {Copland.) Sulphate of zinc, 40
gr. ; ipecacuanha wine and tincture of serpentsry,
of each, 4 fl. dr. ; tincture of capsicum, 40 drop* ;
oil of chamomile, 12 drops ; peppermint water, 4^
fl. oz. As an excitant emetic ; in cases of poison-
ing by narcotics, tc.

2. {MajfemUt.) Coloured emetine, 4 gr. (or
white emetine, 1 gr.) ; acetic acid, 8 drops ; mix,
and add of infusion of orange leaves or lime
flowers, 3) fl. os. ; syrup of marsh-mallows, 1
fl. oz.

3. {ji. T. Thornton.) Ipecacuanha, i dr. ; tar-
tar emetic 1 gr.; tincture of squills, 1 fl. dr.;
water, 6 fl. oz. — Dote, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls,
followed by half the quantity every 10 or 16
minutes, until vomiting is produced ; at the same
time assisting the action of the medicine by drink-
ing copiously of warm water.

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MlXTURt:

loes

Kixtore, Bsimen'«gogii«. See Uixtvbk. Siul,
Ac.

Kiztore, Ezpec'tonat. %». Mistcba ez-
ncToaAiTB, L. Prtf. 1. (OvUtcr.) Oxymel of
aqnills and mncilag^ of each, 1 oz. ; syrap of
manh-mallows, 2 oz. ; camphor julep, 8 fl. oz. —
Don, 1 to 2 table-spoonfols, 2 or 8 times a da; ;
in oong^ hoanenees, asthma, &c.

2. Ql. T. TAohmos.) Almond miztnre, 5 fl. oz. ;
ipecacmtnha wine and tinctnre of squills, of each,
1 11. dr. ; syrup of toln, 6 fl. dr.— J><m«, 1 table-
spoonfol ; in humoral asthma, catarrh, &c., when
the oongh ii urgent.

■iztnre, FeVrifhge. Sya. Mistuba tibbi-
Tn»A, L. See Acbtatb of Ahxoria Miztttbb,

DlAPHOBBTIO M., &C.

■Izture of Gentian. (Ph. B. 1867.) 89*. Mn-
TiTBA OKiniAXf, L. iVep. Macerate gentian
root (sliced), \ oz. ; bitter orange peel (cut small)
and coriander fniit (bruised), of each, 30 gr., in
proof spirit, 2 fl. oz., for 2 hours. Add distilled
water, 8 fl. oz. ; macerate again for 2 hours, and
■train tiirongh calico. — Dote, 1 oz.

Xiztnxe, Oeotian (Compoimd). Prep. Gentian
(bmiaed), li parts ; bitter orangpe peel (bruised),
i part ; cardamom seeds (bruised), i part ; proof
spirit, 20 parts ; macerate for 48 boars with 16
parts of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in
a percolator, let it drain, and then pour on the re-
maining spirit i when it ceases to drop, wash the
marc with s^rit to make up 20 parts. — Dote, 1
to 2 dr.

Kixtnre, Sregory's. See Powdbbs.

Kixtore, Qrifflth's. See Mixtitbb, StbbIi.

■izture, Gnai'acnm. Sgn. Euuxsion ov
euAiAcra, Milk ov a. ; Mistuba suaiaci (B. P.,
Fh. L. and £.), Lao a., L. Prep. (Ph. L.)
Omn g^naiaeam, 8 dr. ; white sugar, \ oz. ; gum
acacia, 2 dr. (all in powder) ; triturate together,
and to these, whilst robbing, gradually add of
annamon watery 1 pint.

2. (Ph. £.) Ouuaeum, 8 dr.; sugar, i oz.;
mucilage, ^ fl. oz. ; cinnamon water, Vd\ fl. oz. ;
as before. — Dote, 1 to 8 table-spoonfuls, 2 or 8
times a day ; in chronic rheumatism, gout, &c.

3. (B. P.) Ousiac resin (in powder), 2 parts ;
sugar, 2 psai» ; gnm-arabic (in powder), 1 part ;
onnamon water, 80 parts; triturate, adding the
cinnamon water giadiully. — Doia, i to 2 oz.

■iztore, Qnm. Sgn. Mvcilaob; MigxirBA
ACACLB (Ph. L.), MuoUiASo (Ph. E.), M. aoaoia
(Ph. D.), M. AKABioi BVtaa, L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L. Gum acaciii (in powder), 18 oz. ; bailing
distilled water, 1 pint; rub the gum with the water,
gradually poured in, until solution is complete.

2. (Fh. £.) Gum, 9 oz.; cold water, 1 pint;
macerate, with occasional stirring, until dissolved,
then strain through linen or calico.

3. (Fh. D.) Gum (coarsely powdered), 4 oz. ;
water (cold), 6 fl. oz.; dissolve, and strain through

Utet, fe. Mucilage of gtim acacia is chiefly
employed to render oily and resinous substances
miscible with water. " Oils require about three-
quarters their weight; balsams and spermaceti,
equal parts; resins, 2 parts ; and musk, 6 times its
woght" for this pnipose {Montgomerg). The
eim IQXTITXB, Ph. B., will be found tmder
' EmTZSioH.'

Mixture of Horseradish, Compouad. (Dr Parit.)

Svn. MlSTITBA ABMOBAOIiE OOMPOBIIA, L. Prep.

Horseradish root, i Oz. ; mustard seed, i oz. ;
boiling water, 1 pint. Macerate for an hour, and
to 7 oz. of the strained infusion add aromatic
spirit of ammonia, 1 fl. dr. ; spirit of pimento, i
oz. In paralysis.

Kixtore, Hydroeyan'ie. Sy*. Miztubb ot
PBUR8IC ACID; Mistuba acidi hysbootavici, L.
Prrp. Fron medicinal prussic acid, 16 drops;
simple syrup (pure), 1 fl. oz.; distilled water, 6
fl. oz. — Dote, 1 table spoonful, 2 or 8 times daily.
Each dose contains 1^ drops of medicinal prussic
acid. The bottle should be shaken before pouring
out the dose. Magendie's formnlie for this mix-
ture are omitted, because the acid which heorden
is not kept in the shops in England.

Mixture of Iodine with Sanaparilla. (Ma-
gemlie.) Sjfn. Mistitba ioddtii cuk sabza. L.
Prg>. Decoction of sarsapariUa, 1^ pints; iodide
of potassium, 1 dr. ; syrup of orauge, 2 oz.

Kixttire, I'roB. See Mixtcbb, Stbil.

Mixture, I'ron (Compound). See Miztubb,
Stbbl.

Kixture, Karsh-mallow. Syn. Mistuba al-
TUMM (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Fh. E.) Marsh-
mallow root (dried), 4 oz. ; stoned raisins, 3 oz. ;
water, 6 pints; boil to 3 pints, strain through
linen, and after the sediment has subsided, decant
the clear portion.

2. (Ph. D.) See Dboooiioh. Demulcrait.—
Dote. A few spoonfuls ad libitum, so as to take

1 to 8 pints in the 24 houn ; in strangury, calcn-
lus, coughs, fevers, Ao.

Kixture of Koneaia. (Neligan.) 8j/». MlB-
tuba MONBSliE, L. Prep. Extract of monesia,

2 scr. ; water, 7| oz.; compound tinctnre of car-
damoms, i oz.

Kirtnrs of Kiuk. (Ph. L.) Syn. Mistitba
XOBOHI, L. Prsp. Musk, 8 dr.; triturate it
with white sugar, 8 dr. ; gnm acacia, 8 dr. ; and

gradually add rose-water, 1 pint Dote, 1 to 2

oz.

Kixture of Knak-seed. (Dr Seece.) Syn.
Mistuba abblho8CEI, L. Prep. Tinctnre of
musk-seeds, 1 oz. ; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 8
fl. dr. ; compound spirit of lavender, 4 fl. dr. ;
camphor mixture, 6 oz. — Dote, i oz. to 1 oz.

Mixture, Kyrrh. Sgn. Emulsion of xtbbb;
Mistuba XTBBHJt, L. Prep. (Copland.)
Myrrh, li dr. ; add to it gradually, triturating
all the time, decoction of liquorice, 6 fl. oz., and
strain. — Dote, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, twice or
thrice a day, combined with carbonate of soda,
dilute hydrochloric acid, or paregoric; in debility,
and diseases of the digestive organs.

Kixttire, ffarcot'ic. Syn. Mistuba haboo-
TlOA, M. vbbbifuoa, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of
henbane, 2 fl. dr. ; solution of acetate of am-
monia, 8 fl. oz. ; water, 2} fl. oz. ; mix. — Dote, 1
to 2 table-spoonfuls, to relieve pain, procure sleep
in fevera, &c.

2. (W. Cooley.) Laudanum, l^fl. dr.; syrup
of poppies, sulphuric ether, and spirit of cinna-
mon, of each, 1 oz. ; tinctnre of henbane, 2^ fl.
dr.; tincture of capsicum, 4 fl. dr.; water, 2 fl.
oz. — Dote, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, at the com-
mencement of the hot fit of agne.

Mixture, Oleo-balBam'ic. iS^n. Mibtusa

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tllXTUftS

orao-BixauiiOA, L. Prap. (Hamb. Cod.) Oils
of cedrat, cinnunon, dovei, lavender, mace, and
marjoram, of each 20 drops ; oil of me, 10 drops ;
balsam of Pern, \ dr.; rectified spirit, 10 oz.;
digest and filter.

MiztQie of Oxalic Add. {Nardo.) Sg».
MiSTVBA ACiDi OXAUOI. Prtp. Oxalic acid, 8
gT. ; mucilage, 3 oz. ; syrap, 1 oz. In inflamma-
tion of the fauces and digestive tabe.

Klrtare of Fhosphonu. (Sotibmran). Syn.
MiBTUBA PEoapuoKici. fnp. Phosphonted
ml, ft dr. ; powdered gam acacia, 2 dr. ; pepper-
mint water, 3 oz. ; sjmp, 2 oz. Mix the gum
with 10 dr. of water, and thin with the oil, and
gradually add the others. Contains 1 gr. of
phosphoms. — Dote, ^ fl. oz.

■ixture of FUtinTim CUmride. (Mo^er.)
Sgn. MisTusA PLATun ohloxidi. Prep.
Perchloride of platinnm, 1| gr. ; gam juleps, 6
oz.

Hlxtnn of Potaasinm lodlda. (Cummoiw.)
8yn. MiBTUSA FOTABBli lODisi, Ij. JPttp. Io-
dide of potassium, 2 dr. ; distilled water, 16 oz. ;
syrup, 2 fl. oz. 2 or 8 table-spoonfuls per diem.

HixtBie, Pnr'gatiTe. 8f». Uissitra ca-

TBABSICA, M. LAIATITA, M. PUSOAirS, L. Pr»p.

1. From any of the purging salts (Epsom,
Qlanber, tasteless, &c.), 2 oz. ; infusion of senna,
6 fl. oz. ; syrup of orange peel, 1 fl. oz. ; tincture
of ginger, i fl. oz. ; spirit of pimento, 2 fi. dr. ;
mix. — Dote, 1 to 9 table-apoonfuls, early in the
morning ; as an aperient in stomadh complaints,
Ae.

2. ^2>r Copland.) Hanna, li oz. ; cream of
tartar, i oz. ; whey, 1 quart By wine-glassfuls,
as an aperient driiut, in fevers, Ac.

S. (Corvitart.) Boro-tartrate of potassa (solu-
ble tartar), 1 oz. j tartar emetic, i gr. ; sugar, 2
oz. ; water, 1^ pinte ; dissolve. By wine-glassfuls,
nntils it begins to operate. This has been called
'Na^oliok's XMDiamK,' from its having been
frequently taken by Napoleon I. See MtXTCXBg

OF SOAKMOHT, SENHA, &C.

Hixture of Qnlnine and Coffse. £Jy«. Mis-
tuba QunruB BT CAFVBiE, L. i CAPA QUIXlm, Fr.
Prepare 6 oz. of infusion from 4 dr. of ground
coffee by perodation, and add 24 gr. of nentral
sulphate of quinine and 4 dr. of sugar. — Voit.
A. tablespooi^ul. The coffee conceals the bitter-
ness of the quinine.

jflxtnre of (talnine with Iron. Sgn. Hia-
XUBA QCHriiS oux VEBBO, L. Sulphate of qui-
nine, 1 gr. ; sulphate of iron, 2 gr. j dilate sul-
phuric acid, 6 minims ; water, 1 oz. For 1 dose.

Kixtnn, Salino. S^. Hisiuba bauha, L.
See Dbausht and Lbhokadb.

Xixtore, Seam'mony. Sgii. Soaxxoht kiuc ;

MiSTUBA BOAKHONII (B. P., 1867), L. iV^.

1. (Ph. £.) Resin of scammony, 7 gr.; nn-
■kimmed milk, 8 fl. oz. ; gradually mix, triturat-
ing all the time, so as to form an emulsion.
Purgative. — Dow. One half.

2. {Plamoh^t Pvbsatitb fotiok.) To the
last add of white sugar, | oz. ; cherty-Unrel (or
hitter-almond) water, 4 or 6 drops. Tlie above
are the most tasteless and pleasaut purgatives of
an active character known.

8. (B. P.) Soaumony in powder, 6 gr. ; fresh
milk, 2 oz.; triturate and form an emulsion. —

DoM. The quantity of the f ortnnla for an adult,
half for a child.
Kistuie, Sen'na (Compound). Sj/*. Black

DBAVOHT, AbBBKBTHT'S S., CaTHABTIC XIX-
TUBS; MlBTUBA BBKKA COXP08ITA, L. Pltp.

1. Infusion of senna, } pint; tincture of senna,
1( fl. oz. ; Epsom salts, 4 oc. ; carbonate of am-
monia, \ dr.; sugar, 8 oz. ; agitate until the solids
are dissolved.

2. Senna, 18 oz. ; boiling water, 2 quarts ;
digest for 4 hours in a hot place, then press out
the liquor in a tincture press, and add of com-
pound tincture <rf senna, | pint; Epsom salts,
lib.

3. Bast India senna, 2 iba. ; boiling water, 9
quarts; tincture of senna and Epeom salts, of
each, 8i lbs. ; as the last.

4. Senna, 8 lbs. ; boiling water, 9 galls. ; Eipsom
salts, 16 lbs.; tincture of senna, li galls.; treacle
and colouring, of each, 1 quart.

5. (Ouy's Hosp.) Senna and mint, of each,
H oz. (say li oz.) ; boiling water, 1 quart ; Epoom
salts, 7i oz. (say ( lb.).

6. (Bedvood.) Infusion of senna, 18 oz. ; tinc-
ture of senna, 8 oz. ; sulphate of magneeis,
6 oz. ; extract of liquorice and spirit of sal
volatile, of each, } oz. ; oil of cloves, 6 drops.

7. (B. P.) Infusion of senna, 16 oi. ; sulphatq
of magnesia, 4 oz. ; liquid extract of liquorice,
1 oz. ; tincture of senna, 2i oc. ; compound tinc-
tni« of cardamoms, li ox.i dissolve and mix.— ■
Dott, 1 to li oz.

Ob*. As the above mixture contains very little
spirit, and from its great consumption, being
made in large quantities at a time, it frequently
spoils before the whole is sold, especially in hot
weather. To avoid this, 1\ dr. of cloves and
8 dr. of mustard seed, both bruised, may be added
to every gall, of the strained liquor at the same
time with the salts, spirit, and colouring, after
which it must be shaken up repeatedly for a few
days, and then allowed to repose for a few days
more, when it will become quite clear. It may be
filtered through a flannel bag, but there is much
loss and delay, owing to the consistence of
the liquid. It is purgative in doees of 1 to
UlLoz.

Mixture, Stool. Sj/m. Mibtuba msi oox>
FOBITA (B. P.), Mibtuba ohai.tbbata, L. Two
compounds of this class are officinal : —

1. (OBITFITH'a XIXTUBB, COKPOUITD IBOV X. ;
MlBIUBA 7BBBI, M. F. rBOTOXTSI, M. t. OOX-

posiTA— Ph. L. B. A D.) Prep. a. (Ph. L.
& E.) Carbonate of potassa, 1 dr. ; powdered
myrrh, 2 dr. ; spirit of nutmeg, 1 fl. oz. ; trita-
rate together, and whilst rubbing, add gradually,
of sugar, 2 dr. ; rose-water, 18 fi. oz. ; mix well ;
then add of sulphate of iron (powdered), 60 gr. ;
and place it at once in a bottle, which must be
kept closely corked.

h. (Ph. D.) Powdered myrrh and sugar, of
each, 1 dr. ; carbonate of potassa, \ dr. ; essence
of nutmeg, 1 fl. dr. ; rose-water, 7 fl. oz. ; sulphate
of iron, \ dr. ; (dissolved in) rose-water, 1 fl. OB.
— l>o««, 1 to 2 oz., 8 or 4 times a day, as a mild
and genial chalybeate tonic and stimulant: in
amenorrhoM, chlorosis, debility, Ac., when there
is no determination of blood to the head.

2. (HsBUtsur's XIXTUBB, H.'b urx; Axsa-

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MMSmU HsBKBDn, MlBTUBA VIRRI ABOIIA-

TICA — Pb. D.) Red cinchona bark, 1 oz. ;
calnmba root, \ at. (both in coarse powder);
cloves (bruised), 2 dr. ; iron filings, i ox. j pepper-
mint water, 16 fl. oz. ; dif^est in a close vessel for
S dajs, agitating frequently, then strain, and add
of tmctoie of cardamoms (comp.), 8 fl. os. ; tinc-
ture of orange peel, i oz. Bitter, stomachic, and
aromatic. — JDo*», 1 or 2 table-spoonfals, or more,
8 or 4 time* a day. It is very slightly chaly-
beated. See also Hiztubb, Asoiutio Ibok.

3. (B. P.) Sulphate of iron, 26 gr. ; carbonate
ot potash, 30 gr. ; myrrh, 60 gr. ; sagar, 60 gr. ;
qiirit of nutmegs, 4 dr. ; rose-water, 9^ oi. Re-
dnee the myrrh to powder, add the carbonate
of potash and sugar, and triturate them with
a small quantity of rose-water so as to form
a thin paste, then gradually add more rose-water,
and the spirit of nutmegs, continuing the tritura-
tion and further addition of rose-water until
aboat 8 fluid onnoes of miUcy liquid is formed,
then add the sulphate of iron previously dissolved
in the remainder of the rose-water, and cork the
bottle immediately. — Dae, 1 to 8 os., as a stimu-
lating tonic

■ixtare of Svlplmrlc Add. (Ph. O.) Syn.

IflBTUBA AOtDI BVLFHUBIOI ; HAUiBB'S BLIXIB.

.Pnp. To 3 01. (by weight) of rectified spirit add
gradually 1 oz. (by weight) of pai« snlphoric acid.
— J)o»t, 6 to 20 drops diluted.

Uztim, Tim'ie. Bfn. SrBBiroTHBirnro kix-
TCBB ; MlsrvBA. TOHICI, L. Prep. 1. Infusion
of ois<^rilla, 6 fl. oz.; tinctore of orange peel,

7 fl. dr. ; aromatic snlphoric add, 2 fl. dr.

2. (Collier.) Decoction of bark, 5i fl. oi.;
tinefeine of do., 8 fl. dr.; aromatic confection,
20 gr. ; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 1 fl. dr.

S. ( noMMa.) Infusion of calnmba, 61 fl. oc ;
compound tinetare of cinnamon and syrup of
orange peel, of each, 2 fl. dr.— Dam, 1 to S
table-spoonfnls, 2 or 8 times a day; in debililnr
of Ote digestive organs, loss of appetite, to check
nausea and vomiting, Ac.

Wxtnn, Iform. Sya. MiBTUXA abthblxik-
ncA, M. TBBMrFirsA, L. Pr^. 1. (ColUer.)
Sulphate of iron, 20 gr.; inforion of quassia,

8 fl. OS. — Dole, 2 table-spoonfuls every morning

2. (Copland.) Valerian, 2 dr. j wormseed,
4 dr. ; boiling water, 8 fl. oz.; macerate 1 hour,
■train, and add of assafoetida, 1 dr., previously
triturated with the yolk of one egg. As the
last.

8. {Siehmrd.) Boot of male fern, 1 oc.; water,
9 fl. oc ; bdl to 6 fl. oz., strain, and add of sul-
phuric ether, 1 dr. ; symp of tajisy, 1 fl. oz. In
tnpeworui ; as above.

Hiztare, Bat. ^n. MisitTBA zoroi, M. t.
•VUnATlB, h. Prep. (Collier.) Sulphate of
sine, 6 gr. ; sulphate of quinine, 10 gr. ; com-
poond infusion of roses, 2 fl. oz. Tonic. — Vote.
A teaspoonful 2 or 8 times a day, in a glass of
water. Said to be very efficacious hi the cure of
coughs of a spasmodic character.

■IXTUBX8 (Arithmetle of). The constantly
reewrtng necessity in business and chemical
manipulations of determining the value of mix-
tores, and of prodndng artides and preparations
of different stroigtha or prices from Quote already

in stock, has rendered a ready means of making
such calcalationi an indispensable qualification in
almost every department of trade and industrial
art. As we address ourselves to the intelligent
operative and busy tradesman, as well as to those
more blessed by education and leisure, we feel we
are bestowing a boon on many of our readers in
giving a short but sufficient outline of this useful
branch of commercial arithmetic, which is most
intimstely connected with the objects of the
present work.

1. To determine the price of a mixture from
the value and quantity of each ingredient of
which it it composed. — Bulb. Divide the ' gross
value' by the 'gross saleable' or 'useful quan-
tity ; ' the quotient is the value or ooet per galkm,
pound, &c., as the case may be. — Btample. Re-
quired the valoe per gallon of a hogshead of wine
containing —

«. d. e t. d.

30 gallons @ 10 6 15 16 O

20 „ „ 12 6 12 10 0

18 „ ,, 14 6 9 8 6

63

) 87 13 6

Cost per gallon .... 0 11 Hi
2, To determine the proportions of substances
or articles of different values or strengths which
must be taken to prepare a mixture of any other
value or strength, — Kulb. Arrange the ' prices'
or ' strengths of the ingredients ' in a column, and
link them together in pairs ; each of those above
the required price being always connected with
another below it. Then set the difference between
the required price and these numbers alternately
agunst those they are linked to, when they will
indicate the quantities to be taken, as in the fol-
lowing examples : — a. Required the proportions of
tea at St., it., St., and 7t., that must be taken to
produce a mixture 6t. the pound. Here —

{3— I . . . . 1, or 1 lb. @ 8*.
4— U-, ... 2, „21bs.„4».
6— ' . . . . 2, „ 2 „ „ 6».
7 1 . . . 1, „llb. „7«.

i. (When the number of the ingredients or

prices is odd.) Required the pn^rlions of teas

at St., 6i., and 6*. the pound, to sell at 4(. Here

the odd number must be token a second time : —

r8 — |— I . . . 1-1-2, or 8 lbs. @ 3*.

4^6— I . . . . 1, „ lib. „ 6*.

U ' ... 1, „ 1 „ „ «».

e. (When the number of the ingredients is not
merely odd, but the prices are unequally dis-
tributed either above or below the required price.)
A dealer having wines of the same name at ?(.,
9*., 11<., 12«., and 14r. per gallon, wishes to pro-
duce a mixtnie of them worth lOt. per gallon : —

10

7-,—,

11-U
12 1

14-

1 +4, or 6 galls. @ 7«.

2. « 2 „ „ 9».
8, » 8 „ w 11*.
1, „ 1 gall. ^ 12t.

3, „ 8 galls. „ 14r.

It will be seal that by varying the manner
of linking the numbers, dlfierent answers may
often be obtained to the same question. It alao
often happens that the dealer or operator desires

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1072

MOHAIB^MOMkAUGHAN

to use a g^ven qaantity of one particular article,
or to prodnce a certain qnantity only of the mix-
tare instead of those indicated by the above cal-
eolations. In these instances he has simply to
apply the common rule of ' practice ' or the ' rule
of three,' as the particular case may demand.

In the above manner the proportions of the
constituents of a compound mny be determined
from their specific gravity, when no change of
volume has arisen from their admixture ; but when
this is the case, as in alloys, alcoholic mixtures,
&c., it is either quite inapplicable or the results
obtained are mere approximations to the truth.
It may, however, be conveniently employed for cal-
Golations connected with the ' mixing ' and ' re-
daction ' of spirits and other liqoids, by substi-
tnting their percentage value in ' proof gallons '
or other corresponding denomination, for the
prices in the above examples ; water, when intro-
duced, be reckoned = 0. Thus : A spirit mer-
chant having two puncheons of rum of the
strengths of 17 and 21 o. p., wishes to know what
proportions of each and of water he must take to
form a spirit 10 u. p. The proof values of 100
gallons of these spirits are respectively equal to
121, 117, 90, and 0 (water). Therefore—

f 0— 7-. 27 + 31, or 68 g. water.
90.{ll7— '.I. . 90, „ 90 „ rum @ 117 o. p.
[121 '. . 90, „ 90 „ „ ,,121 „

Snppose the dealer required to use different
proportions of the spirits referred to, instead of
equnl measures, he has only to take such aliquot
parts of the quantities thus found referring to
the smaller proportion, or such multiples of those
referring to the larger one, as he vrishes them to
bear to each in the new mixture. Numerous other
applications of this rule will occur to the ingenious
reader.

Questions in 'alligation,' as the department
of arithmetic above referred to is called, are very
easily resolved by the ' method of indeterminate
analysis,' even by persons but slightly conversant
with rudimentary algebra, of which, indeed, they
form a simple class of problems, often admitting
of an almost inde6nite number of solutions. See
Allisation.

HO'HAIS. The hair of a goat indigenous in
Asia Minor. It is dyed and manufactured by
similar materials and in a similar manner to
wool.

■OIL. See CissB.

HOIREE HSTALLIQUS. [Fr.] A beautiful
crystalline appearance produced on the surface of
tin plate by acids. The tin piste is submitted for
a few seconds, whilst gently heated, to the action
of dilute aqua regia, by which it acquires a varie-
gated primrose appearance. It is afterwards
washed in hot water, dried, and lacqnered. The
degree of heat and dilution of the acid modifies
the beauty and character of the surface. The
effect is also varied by employing dilute sulphuric
acid, either alone or mixed with a portion of nitric
or hydrochloric acid ; or by using a solution of
citric acid or caustic potassa. According to Her-
berger, the best metal for the purpose is plate
iron, which has been coated by dipping it into a
tin bath composed of pure tin, 200 parts; copper,
8 parts; arsenic, 1 part. The varnish should con
sist of copal in highly rectified spirit, «"!-£■

Moir^

miStalliqne is in much leas demand now than for-
merly.

HOLAS'SES. See Tsbaclb.

HOLES. The small, soft excrescences and dis-
colorations of the skin which are popularly known
under this name may, when slight, be removed by
touching them every day with a little concentrated
acetic acid by means ot a hair pencil, observing^
due care to prevent the application from sprea<Ung
to the surrounding parts. This does not dixcoloar
the skin. The application of lunar caustic is alao
very effective, but it turns the spot temporarily
black. A solution of 2 parts caustic poiaah and
1 part of water will convert small molea into a
gelatinous ma<s in a few minutes {Era*. WiUo»i.
In the pure mole there is always a considerable
production of hair.

■OLOC'CA BALK. See Liqubub.

XOLTBSATE 07 AKMOlfllXlI. (NH4)^o04.

8gn. MOLTBDBNIC ACID, PBBOZIDB O* MOLTB-
DBNUM ; ACIDUM MOLTBDICUlt, L. Prep.

Native sulphide of molyhdennm, after being well
roasted, is reduced to fine powder, digested with
ammonia, and the mixture filtered, and the filtrate
evaporated to dryness ; the residue, molybdate of
ammonium, is then dissolved in water, purified
by crystallisation; and, lastly, decomposed by
heat.

Prop., <fv. Small white scales, soluble in 670
parts of water ; the solution reddens litmus-paper,
dissolves in the alkalies, forming alkaline molyb-
dates, from which it is again precipitated by strong
acids. It is used in the preparation of molyb-
denum blue, and in calico printing, but its scarcity
precludes its extensive employment in the arts.
Molybdate of ammonium is tbe salt principally
nsed in dyeing. Silks and cottons passed
through a solution of this salt, then through
a bath soured with hydrochloric acid, and laauy
(without washing), through another of proti^
chloride of tin, are dyed of a rich and permanent
blue colour. A solution of molybdate at ammoni»
in excess of nitric acid forms a valuable agent aa
a test for phosphates, with which it gives a beau -
tiful yellow precipitate (phospho-molybdate of
ammonia). See Phobphobic Aoib.

KOLTBSE'HTTII. Mo. A very rare metal,
baring a white colour, discovered by Hielm in
1782.

Prtp. By exposing molybdic acid, mixed with
charcoal and placed in a covered crucible, to the
strongest heat of a smith's forge.

Prop., i(c. It is brittle and very infusible;
when heated in contact with the air it is con-
verted into molybdic anhydride, MoO~

XOHOS'DICINE. See Elatbbiv.

XOHKAUOHAE FOB HAENE8S, Ac. A cor-
resiiondent of the ' Field ' newspaper gives the
following formnlffi for momraughan, a substance
used in India for preserving saddles and every
description of leather. It is made as follows : —
1 lb. white wax, 3 lbs. mutton fat, 1 pint spirits of
turpentine; melt, and mix well together while
liquid. The saddle or leather should be rubbed
well with a lime in the son, then scrubbed with a
brush with aoap and water; when thoroughly
dry, rub it well with the momraughan (letting it
soak in) in the sun. One tablespoonful will be
enough for a saddle. Another recipe is — 1 pint

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MONBSIA— MOBDANT

1078

nektafoot oil, 2 fn. beeswax, 2 oz. spirits of tar-
poitine ; other directions as above. This latter
mixture, with the addition of 1 ox. Burgrundy
pitch, makes a very good waterproof composition
for boots.

HOHE'SIA. Sg». Mosaeii. babk, Buxah-
HBIK B. ; CoBTBX HONESif, L. The bark of
Ckrgtopijfllum SuraHitim, a tree growing in the
Braals. The rongh imported extract of this
dmg also commonly passes under the name of
jroHBSlA. It is astringent, and possesses no ad-
vantage over rhatany or catechu. — Dote (of the
latter), 18 to 20 gr.

WniB'SQr. A pecoliar acrid principle, ana-
logons to saponin, found in monesia bark to the
extent of 4-7% .

KOSOBBOKATXl) CAHFHOS. See Cakphob,

HONOBBOIIATBD.

KOHOKA'HIA. See Inunitt.

MOBDAHT. In dgring and calico printing, any
substance employed to fix the colouring matter of
dye-stuffs in the fibres of organic bodies, and to
give it brilliancy and permanency. This it effects
ether by serving as a bond of union between the
two, owing to its attraction for each of them ; or
it acta by uniting with the colouring particles in
the minnte pores of the fibres, and rendering them
insolable in the alkaline, soapy, and other liquids,
to the action of which they will subsequently be
exposed. When an infusion of some dye-stuff, as
cochineal or madder, for example, is mixed with
slum or acetate of alumina, and a little alkali, a
procipitate immediately forms, consisting of
alamiiiA in combination with colouring matter,
oonatituting a laki. It is by a similar reaction
occurring within the fibres that the permanent
dyeing of the cloth is effected. Here the colour-
ing matter of the dyeing materials not only
passes from the soluble to the insoluble form, but
it enters into chemical combination with other
■nbatances, and in the new compounds it assumes
greater brilliancy and permanency than it pre-
vionsly possessed. Annotta and safiSower afford
instances of the second mode of action above
reforred to, by which substances operate as mor-
dants. The colouring matter of these dye-stuffs
is solnble in alkaline lyes, and into a solution of
this kind the cloth is dipped. It has now received
an extremely fugitive colour only ; but by passing
it tbroogh acidulated water the alkaline solvent is
abstracted, and the tinctorial matter is precipi-
tated in an insoluble and minutely divided state
witbin its pores, and it becomes permanently dyed.
A rimiUr reaction takes place in dyeing with the
* indigo vat,' in which atmospheric oxygen per-
forms the part of a mordant. It is believed that
even in these cases the colouring principle, during
its transition from the liquid to the solid form,
enters into combination with the fibres of the
organic substance, and that, in proportion to the
affinity existing between the two, is the integrity
and excellence of the dye. In wool and silk the
affinity between their filaments and the tinctorial
particles of the dye-bath is, in general, so con-
siderable, that a permanent stun is very easily
eommnnicated to them; but with cotton and flax,
the materials of which calico and linen goods are
made, the reverse is the esse, and the interven-
tion at a third material, in the shape of a mordant,
rot. II.

is absolutely necessary to dye them of a permanent
colour.

" £xperience has proved that, of all the bases,
those which succeed best as mordants are alumina,
tin, and oxide of iron ; the first two of which,
being naturally white, are the only ones which
can be employed for preserving to the colour its
original tint, at least without much variation.
But whenever the mordant itself is coloured, it
will cause the dye to take a compound colour quite
different from its own. If, as is nsnally said,
the mordant enters into a real chemical union
with the stuff to be dyed, the application of the
mordant should obviously be made in such circum-
stances as are known to bo most favourable to the
combination taking place ; and this is the prin-
ciple of every day's practice in the dye-house.

" In order that a combination may result
between two bodies, they must not only be in
contact, but they must be reduced to their nlti-
mate molecules. The mordants to be united with
stuffs are, as we have seen, insoluble in themselves,
for which reason their particles must be divided
by solution in an appropriate vehicle. Now, this
sAlvent or menstruum will exert in its own favour
an affinity for the mordant, which will prove to
that extent an obstacle to its attraction for the
stuff. Hence we must select such solvents as have
a weaker affinity for the mordants than the mor-
dants have for the stuffs. Of all acids which can
be employed to dissolve alumina, for example,
vinegar (acetic acid) is the one which will rel^n
it with the least energy, for which reason the
acetate of alumina is now generally substituted
for alum, because the acetic acid gives up the
alumina with such readiness that mere eleva-
tion of temperature is sufficient to effect the
separation of these two substances. Before
the substitution of the acetate, alum alone was
employed j but without knowing the true reason,
all the French dyers preferred the alum of Bome,
simply regarding it to be the purest; it is only
within these few years that they have understood
the real grounds of this preference.

" The two principal conditions, namely, extreme
tennity of particles and liberty of action, being
found in a mordant, its operation is certun. But
as the combination to be effected is merely the
result of the play of affinity between the solvent
and the stuff to be dyed, a sort of partition must
take place, proportioned to the mass of the sol-
vent, as well as to its attractive force. Hence the
stuff will retain more of the mordant when its
solution is more concentrated — that is, when the
base diffused through it is not so much protected
by a large mass of menstruum ; a fact applied to
very valuable uses by the practical man. On
impregnating, in calico printing, for example, dif-
ferent spots of the same web with the same mor-
dant in different degrees of concentration, there
is obtained in the dye-bath a depth of colour upon
these spots intense in proportion to the strength
of their various mordants. Thus, with solution of
acetate of alumina in different grades of density,
and with madder, every shade can be produced
from the fullest red to the lightest pink, and with
acetate of iron and madder, every shade from
black to pale violet" {Ure).

Besides the salts of alnmininm, tin, and iron,

68

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1074.

UORISON'S PILLS— MOBPHIKG

other Babstances are used as mordants, vii. soap,
acids, albnmen, tannin, &c.

In the employment of mordants in theordinai^
processes of dyeing the goods are passed throngn
the solhtion for a period varying, under different
circumstances, according to the object in view.
The cloth is subsequently aired, dried, and well
rinsed, before immersing it in the colouring bath.
In calico printing the mordant is applied partially
or topically to the cloth by means of wooden
blocks, or some similar contrivance; or certain
parts of the cloth are stopped out by a snitable
preparation, or ' resist,' by which means a pattern
is produced, as the colouring matter of the dye-
bath is removed from the other portions by the
washing or scouring to which it is subsequently
subjected. The substances used to thicken the
mordant by the calico printers, to prevent them
spreading, are gum, albumen, paste, starch, and
dextrine. The first is preferred for neatral
solntions; the others for acidulous ones. The
removal of the undecomposed particles of the
mordant, so as to preserve the other portion of
the cloth from their action, is effected by the pro-
cess of DUHonra (which tee), or by the chalk-
bath, bran-bath, &c. Chalk acts simply by preci-
pitating the alumina or other oxide in the mor-
dant. The action of cow-dong, which is espe-
cially used for madder goods, has been ascribed to
a peculiar acid, also to phosphates, silicates, and
other salts. That the latter is the more correct
view is proved by the fact that the dung-bath is
now almost wholly superseded by the solution of
certain salts, viz. the double phosphate of soda and
lime, arsenite and arsenate of soda, and silicate of
soda — all of which act by precipitating the base
of the mordant in the form of an insoluble salt,
which will not unite with the colouring matter or
with the fibre (WatU).

The process of oAXxiira or Boorma, commonly
employed as a preparation of colton and linen for
fast dyes, consists in working the stuff for some
time, at a good hand heat, in a decoction of galls
or an infusion of sumach. In this case the astrin-
gent matter plays the part of a mordant. About
2i OS. of galls, or 5 oz. of sumach, and 8 or 4
pints of water, are commonly taken for every lb.
of cotton. See Calico PBiNTiNa, Dsbino, and
the respective dye-stuffs and mordants.

Xordant. In gilding, any sticky matter by
which gold-leaf is made to adhere. I'rep. 1.
Water or beer, rendered adhesive by the addition
of a little gum, sugar, or honey, and tinged with
a little gamboge or carmine to mark the parts to
which it is applied. Used to attach gold-leaf to
paper, taffety, vellum, &c.

2. (Mixtion.) From asphaltum,! part j mastic,
4 parts; amber, 12 parts; fused together, and
then mixed with hot boiled oil, 1 pint. Used in
gilding wood, &c. See Qou> SizB.

■OKTSOB'S PULS. See Patbdt Mbdicidbb.
■OKFHIVE. C„H„NO,.H,0. Sg». Mob-
PHIVA, MOEPHIKUM, L. The chief active prin-
ciple of opium. Morphine was discovered by
Ludwig in 1688, but it was first obtained pure
and its precise nature pointed ont by Sertuemer
in 1804. It is peculiar to the Pafatbbacbx, or
poppy order.

Pnp. 1. (Ph. D.) Turlcey opium (cat into

thin slices), 1 lb., is macerated for 24 hoars in
water, 1 quart, and the liquid portion decanted ;
the residnnm is macerated for 12 hours witii a
second quart of water, and the process is repeated
with a third quart of water, after which the in-
soluble portion is subjected to strong proaonre;
the mixed liquids are evaporated by water or
steam heat to a pint, and filtered throngh calico ;
to the filtrate is added a solution formed of chlo-
ride of calcium, 6 dr., dissolved in distilled water,
4 fl. oz., and the liquid is further evaporated until
it is so far ooncenliated that nearly the wh<de of
it becomes solid on cooling ; this is enveloped in •
couple of folds of strong calico, and subjected to
powerful pressure, the dark liqmd which exude*
being preserved for subsequent use ; the iqneeied
cake is next treated with about i pint of boiling
water, and the undissolved portion is washed oa a
paper filter ; the filtered solution is agun evapo-
rated, and the solid portion thus obtained sub-
mitted to pressure as before; if the product is
not quite white, this process is repeated a third
time ; the squeezed cake is now dissolved in boil-
ing water, 6 fl. oz., and the solution filtered
through animal charcoal (if neceeaaiy) ; to the
clear solution is added ammonia in slight excess;
the crystalline precipitate which forms as the
liquid cools is collected on a paper filter, washed
with cold distilled water, and, lastly, the filter is
transferred to a porous brick, in wder that the
morphine which it contains nuiy become dry.
(From the liquids reserved from the expressions
more morphine may be obtained by dilation with
water, precipitation with ammonia, re-solntdon in
boiling water, and treatment with a UtUe animal
charcoal, &c., as before.)

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Hydrochlorate of mor-
phine, 1 oz., is dissolved in distilled water, 1
pint ; and ammonia, 6 fl. dr. (or q. s.), previously
diluted with water, 1 fl. oz., is added with agita-
tion ; the precipitate is well washed in distilled
water, and dried by a gentle heat. By a similar
process morphine may be obtained from its other
salts.

Z. (Merolc.) A cold aqneous infusion of opium
is precipitated with carbonate of sodium in ex-
cess ; the precipitate washed, first with cold
water, and then with cold alcohol of sp. gr. 86 ;
the residuum is dissolved in weak acetic acid, the
solution flltered through animal charcoal, and
precipitated with ammonia; the precipitate is
again washed with cold water, dissolved in al-
cohol, and crystallised. A good process where
spirit is cheap.

4. (Mohr.) Opinm, 4 parte, is msde into a
strong infusion with water, q. s. ; lime, 1 part,
reduMd to a state of milk with water, is thai
added; the mixture is next heated to boiling, at
once filtered through linen, and treated, whilst
still hot, with chloride of ammonium, in fine
powder, in slight excess (aboat 1 ox. to each lb.
of opium); the morphine is deposited as the
liquid cools, and may be purified by a second
solution in lime and precipitation by chloride of
ammonium. This process is remarkably simple,
and in many points is preferable to any other,
either on the small or large scale.

6. (PuBB.) A flltered solution of opium in
tepid water is mixed with acetate of lead in

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MOBPHINS

107S

exeeia; the precipitate (meconate of lead) is
■epanted by a filter, and a stream of sulphuretted
hydrogen U passed through the nearly colourless
filtrate; the latter is warmed, to expel excess of
the gas, once more filtered, and then mixed with
a slight excess of ammonia, which tlirows down
narcotine and morphine ; these are separated by
boiling ether, in which the former ig soluble,
for the B. P. process see Opium.

Prop. The morphine of commerce is a white
crystalline powder; but when crystallised from
aloohol it forms brilliant prismatic crystals of
adamantine lustre, and the formula C,;H„yo,.
HjO. It exerts an alkaline reaction on test-
paper ; imparts a perceptible bitter taste to water ;
requires 1160 parts of cold water (Squire, 1 in
1000), and 94 parts of boiling water, for its solu-
tion ; insoluble in ether ; dissolves in 90 parts of
cold and abont 80 parts of boiling alcohol; it
also diaaolres in the fixed and volatile oils, and in
•oliitaons of the alkalies ; heated in close vessels
it forms a yellow liquid, like melted sulphur,
which becomes white and crystalline on cooling ;
heated in the air it melts, inflames like a lesin,
and leaves a small quantity of charcoal behind.
With the acids it forms si^ts, which are mostly
•olnble and crystallisable. These may all be
made by the direct solution of the alkaloid in the
dilnte acid. The only ones of importance are the
acetate, hydrochlorate, and sulphate.

JVr. Commercial morphine and its prepara-
tiooa are often contaminated with codeine, narco-
tise, and colouring matter. The proportion of
the first two may be estimated by the loss of
weight which the sample suffers when digested in
ether; or by dissolving out the morphine by di-
gestion in weak liquor of potassa. Pure morphine
" is scarcely soluble in cold water, sparingly so in
boiling water, and readily so in alcohol. This
solntion is alkaline to test-paper, and by evapora-
tion leaves crystals, which are wholly dissipated
by heat. It ia soluble in pore potassa " (I^. L.
1836).

TJettt. 1. Potassium hydrate and ammonia
pretipitate morphine from solution of its salts,
nnder the form of a white crystalline powder,
which ia very solable in excess of hydrate of po-
tassium, and, with somewhat more difficulty, in
excess of ammonia. The solution formed by
excess of the first is precipitated on the addition
of Ucarbonate of potassium. The precipitate in
either case is soluble in a solution of chloride of
ammoninm, and in dilute acetic acid, and is in-
soluble in ether. A careful inspection of the
precipitate through a lens of small power shows
it to consist of minute acicnlar crystals; and
aeen through a glass which magnifies 100 times,
these crystals present the form of right rhombic
prisms. — 2. The carbonates of potasnum and
•odhun prodoce the same precipitate as hydrate
of potaaainm, which is insoluble in excess of
the predpitimt. — 3. The bicarbonates of potas-
sium and sodium also give similar precipitates
from neutral solutions, insoluble in excess. In
each of the above cases stirring with a glass rod
and friction on the sides of the vessel promote
the separation of the precipitate. — 4. If to a
mixture of morphine and oil of vitriol a minnte
fn^;ment of bidiromste of potassium be added.

oxide of chromium is set free, and a fine green
colour developed. — 5. A drop or two of solution
of terchloride of gold added to a weak solution of
morphia gives a yellow precipitate, which is
mostly redissolved on agitating the liquid, which
then assumes various hues (green, blue, violet,
purple) on the addition of a drop of liquor of
potassa. — 6. A minnte fragment of terchloride of
gold and of hydrate of potassium very gently
dropped into the liquid occasion purple clouds or
streaks in dilnte solutions, followed by a precipi-
tate, which is violet, pnrple, or blue-black, ac-
cording to the strength of the liquid.

Another test, given by Siehold (' Tear-book of
Pharmacy,' 1873), is the following:— "Heat the
substance which is believed to be, or to contain,
morphine, gently with a few drops of sulphuric
acid, add a very small quantity of pure perchlo-
rate of potassium. The liquid immediately sur-
rounding the perchlorate will at once assume a
deep brown colour, which will soon spread and
extend over the greater part uf the acid. Warm-
ing increases the delicacy of the test. 0*0001
grm. of morphine can be distinctly recognised in
this way, and no other alkaloid is acted upon in
a similu: way by the substances named. It is in-
dispensable, however, for the success of the ex-
periment that the perchlorate of potassium be
absolutely free from chlorate." See Alzaloidb.
The above are the most reliable tests for mor-
phine; the first two may, indeed, be regarded as
characteristic, and the remainder as almost so.
The following are often referred to by medical
writers, but are less exclusive and trustworthy ; —
Morphine and its salts are — 7. Beddened by nitric
acid, and form orange-red solutions, darkened by
ammonia in excess, and ultimately turning yellow,
with the production of bxalic acid. — 8. They are
turned blue by ferric chloride, either at once or
on the addition of an alkali, and this colour is
destroyed by w^ter and by alkalies, or acids in
excess. — ^9. Iodic acid added to their solutions
turns them yellowish brown by setting iodine
free, and the liquid forms a blue compound with
starch.

Uiet. Morphine and its salts are exhibited
either in substance, made into pills, or in solution,
generally the latter ; or externally, in fine powder,
applied to the dermis denuded of the cuticle.
They are principally employed as anodynes and
hypnotics in cases in which opium is inadmissible,
and are justly regarded as the most valuable me-
dicines of their class. " In cases wherein both
opinm and the morphine salts are equally ad-
missible I prefer the former, its effects being
better known and regulated ; moreover, opium is
to be preferred as a stimulant and sudorific, and
for suppressing excessive mucous discharges "
{Pereira). — Dott. Of pure morphine, i^ to ^
gr. ; of its salts, -J to i gr. ; externally, i to 1^ gr.
Morphine is chiefly used for the preparation of
the acetate and some of its other salts.

Good opinm yields from 10% to 18% of mor-
phine. See Opium.

Horphine, Ac'etate of. C,jH2,N0,.C,H,0,.8Hj0.
Syn. MoBPHiA ACETAB (Ph. Ii., E., & D.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L., 1886.) Morphine, 6 dr.;
acetic acid (Ph. L.), 8 fl. dr.; distilled water, 4
fl. OS. ; dissolve, gently evaporate, and crystallise.

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1076

IfORPHINS

2. (B. P.) Hydrochlonte of morphine, 1 part,
it dissolved in water, 10 parts ; and the eolation
is precipitated with ammonia in slight excess,
the precipitate is washed in cold water, and dis-
solved by means of acetic acid, in excess, in warm
water, 12 parts ; from the solution crystals are
obtained as before.

Pur. Soluble in abont 8 parts water, sparingly
aolnble in rectified spirits, has a slight odour of
acetic acid, which it evolves slowly ; hence the
salt often ^ves an alkaline reaction. 20 gr. of
the salt form with 1 dr. of water a slightly
tnrbid solution, which with ammonia in excess
yields a white precipitate, which, after washing
with a little cold water and drying, weighs 16 gr.

Oht. The acetate of morphine of commerce u
nsually in the form of a whitish powder, and is
preparied by the mere evaporation of the solution
to dryness by a gentle heat. During the process
a portion of the acetic acid is dissipateid, and
hence this preparation is seldom perfectly soluble
in water, unless it has been slightly acidulated
with acetic acid.

Xorphine, HydTochlo"rate of. C„H„If 0„HCI,
3H,0. Sgn. MiTBiATB at xobphihb; Mob-
PBiiB HTDsocHLOBAS (Ph. L. & Ph. B.), Hob-
FBIA XUBIA8 (Ph. £., D., & U. 8.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L., 1836.) Macerate sliced opium, 1 lb., in
water, 4 pints, for 30 hoars ; then bruise it, digest
it for 20 hours more, and press itj macerate what
remains a second and a third time in water nntil
exhausted, and as often bruise and press it ; mix
the liquors, and evaporate at 140° F. to the con-
sistence of a symp; add of water, 3 pints, and
after defecation decant the clear portion ; gradu-
ally add to this liquid crystallised chloride of
lead, 2 oz. (or q. s.), dissolved in boiling water, 4
pints, until it ceases to produce a precipitate ;
decant the clear liquid, wash the residuum with
water, and evaporate the mixed liquids, as before,
that crystals may form ; press these in a cloth,
then dissolve them in distilled water, 1 pint, add
freshly burnt animal charcoal, 1^ oz., digest at
120°, and filter ; finally, the charcoal being washed,
cautiously evaporate the mixed liquors, that pure
crystals of hydrochlorate of morphia may form.
To the decanted liquor from which the crystals
were first separated, add of water, 1 pint, and
drop in liqnor of ammonia, frequently shaking,
until all the morphine is precipitated ; wash this
precipitate with cold distilled water, saturate it
with hydrochloric acid, digest with animal char-
coal, 2 oz. ; filter, wash the filtrate as before, and
evaporate the mixed liquors, cautiously, as above,
that pure crystals may be obtained.

2. (Ph. B.^ Opium, 20 oz., is exhausted with
water, 1 gall., in the quantity of a quart at a
time, and the mixed liquors are evaporated to a
pint; chloride of calcium, 1 oz,, dissolved in
water, 4 fl. oz. is added, and, after agitation, the
liquid is placed aside to settle ; the clear decanted
liquid, and the washings of the sediment, are
next evaporated, so that they may solidify on
cooling I the cooled mass, after very strong pres-
sure in a cloth, is redissolved in warm water, a
little powdered white marble added, and the
whole filtered ; the filtrate is acidulated with hy-
drochloric acid, the solution again concentrated
(or crystallisation, and the crystals submitted to

powerful pressure, as before ; the process of solu-
tion, clarification with powdered marble and hy-
drochloric acid, and crystallisation, is repeated
until a snow-white mass is obtained. This is the
process of Oregory and Robertson, and is one of
the easiest and most productive on the large scale.
To procure the salt quite wbite, 2 to 4 crystal-
lisations are required, according to the power of
the press employed. The Edinburgh College re-
commends, on the small scale, the solution, after
two crystallisations, to be decoloured by means
of animal charcoal; but, on the large scale, to
purify the salt by repeated crystallisations alone.

8. (Ph. B.) Macerate opium, sliced, 1 lb., for
24 hours with distilled water, 2 pints, and decant.
Macerate the residue for 12 hours with distilled
water, 2 pints, decant, and repeat the process with
the same quantity of water, subjecting the in-
soluble residue to strong pressure.

Unite the liqnors, evaporate on a water-bath to
the bulk of 1 pint, and strain through calico.
Pour in now chloride of calcium, } oz., previously
dissolved in 4 fl. oz. of distilled vrater, and evapo-
rate until the solution is so far concentrated that
upon cooling it becomes solid. Envelop the mass
in a double fold of strong calico, and subject it
to powerful pressure, preserving the dark fluid
which exudes. Triturate the squeezed cake with
about i pint of boiling distilled water, and, the
whole being thrown upon a paper fllter, wash the
residue well with boiling distilled water. The
filtered fluids having been evaporated as before,
cooled, and solidified, again subject the mass to
pressure, and if it be still much coloured, repeat
this process a third time, the expressed liquids
being always preserved. Dissolve the pressed
cake in 6 fl. oz. of boiling distilled water, add
pnriRed animal charcoal, i oz., and digest for 20
minutes ; filter ; wash the fllter and charcoal with
boiling distilled water, and to the solution thus
obtained add solution of ammonia in slight excess.
Let the pure crystalline morphine which separates
as the liquid cools be collected on a paper fllter,
and washed with cold distilled water until the
washings cease to give a precipitate with solution
of nitrate of silver acidulated with nitric acid.

From the dark liquids expressed in the above
process an additional product may be obtained by
diluting them with distilled water, precipitating
with solution of potash added in considerable
excess, filtering, and supersaturating the filtrate
with hydrochloric acid. This acid liquid, digested
with a little animal charcoal, and again filtered,
gives upon the addition of ammonia a small quan-
tity of pure morphine. Diffuse the pure mor-
phine obtained as above through 2 oz. of boiling
distilled water placed in a porcelain capsule, kept
hot, and add, constantly stirring, dilute hydro-
chloric acid, 2 fl. oz. (or q. s.), proceeding with
caution, so that the morphine may be entirely
dissolved, and a neutral solution obtained. Set
aside to cool and crystallise. Drain the crystals
and dry them on filtering paper. By furtbar
evaporating the mother liquor, and again cooling,
additional crystals are obtwned.— .Com. From
ttoigr.

4. {Mohr.) By dissolving the precipitate of
morphine (see Moxfria, Pnp. 4) in dilute by-
diochloric add, and by orystaUisation as before.

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MORPHINE— MORTAB

1077

Ar^ t(e. It "is completely aolnble in recti-
fied spirit, and in water. What ii precipitated
ttata the aqneong solntion by nitrate of aUver is
not entirely dissolved, either by ammonia, nnleas
•dded in excess, or by hydrochloric or nitric
•dd " (Ph. L.). " Snowy white j entirely soluble ;
solution ooloorless ; loss of weight at 212° F. not
above 13% ; 100 measures of a solntion of 10 gr.,
in water, \ fl. oz., heated to 212°, and decomposed
with agitation by a faint excess of ammonia, yield
a precipitate which, in 24 hours, occupies 12}
measures of the liquid " (Ph. £.). It takes 20
parts of cold and about its own weight of boiling
water to dissolve it. The hydrochlorate of mor-
phia of the shops is usually, like the acetate,
under the form of a whites crystalline powder.

(Hm. Of all the salts of morphia, this one
appears to be that most suitable for medical pur-
poses, from its free solubility, and from its solu-
tion not being liable to spontaneous decomposition,
at least under ordinary circumstances, " The
opinm which yields the largest quantity of pre-
eiintate by carbonate of sodium yields muriate of
morphia, not only in the greatest proportion, but
also with the fewest crystallisations" (Ph. E.).
Smyrna ojonm contains the most morphine.

■orpliia and Code'ia (HydrocUotate of). ^.

QkSSOBT'B salt ; HOBFHIJB BT OOSBtS ETSBO-

CHI.OKA8, L. ; Sbx sx Qbxookt, Fr. This is
commercial stdbochlobatb of mobphidb pre-
pared aeowding to Dr Gregory's process.

XarpUa, Xec'onates of. (C,gH„XO()i,C;H,0,.
Pnp. 1. (Nbutbai. MBCOKAIB OV MOBPHINB;
MoKPKtB KBCOVAS, L.) By satniating an
aqneons solntion of meconic acid with morphia,
and evaporating the solntion by a gentie heat, so
that crystals may be obtained.

2. (BiKBCOXATB OP HOBPEINB; MOBPELS

BlKXOOiTAg, L.) Ci7HqNO,.HC7.H,0;. Meconic
acid, 11 parts j morphia, 14 parts ; dissolve each
separately in hot water, q. s. ; mix the solutions,
and either gently evaporate and crystallise, or at
once evaporate to dryness.

Oht. Morphia exists in opinm under the form
of bimeconate, and hence this preparation of that
drag baa been preferred by some practitioners.
A solution of this salt for medical purposes may
be direcUy prepared from opium, by treating ito
■olntion in cold water with a little animal charcoal,
filtering, gentiy evaporating to dryness, redis-
•olving the residuum in cold water, filtering, and
repeating the treatment with animal charcoal.
The dose of the dry bimeconate is i gr. or more,
and of the meconate rather less. " A powder is
also sold, called ' bimeconate of morphia,' which
is of the same strength as powdered opium, and
is given in similar doses. It is obviously incorrect
to apply this name to a powder which consists
principally of foreign matter. It is to be hoped
that physicians will not prescribe this powder
nnder the above name, as such a practice might
lead to fatal results if the prescription should be
prepared with the substance which the name
strictly indicates " (Sedtoood).

Morphine, Vitrate of. (A. T. Thornton.) Syn.
MoBPHiiril iriTBAB, L. Add morphia in slight
excess to very dilute nitric acid, filter, concen-
trate by gentle evaporation, and set aside that
crystals may form.

Morphine, Phosphate of. Sgn. tlovesaim
PBOBPHAB, L. As the nitrate, substituting dilute
phosphoric tor nitric acid.

Morphine, Snlphate of. Syn. Mobfhiha
BU1PHA8, li. Pnp. Saturate very dilute sul-
phuric acid with morphine, evaporate to a small
volume, and set aside to crystallise. It is decom-
posed by-driving off the water of crystallisation.
Snlphate of morphine is included in the Ph.
U. S. Acoording to Magendie, this salt some-
times agrees with patients who cannot bear the
acetate.

Morphine, Tartrate of. (A. T. Thomtim.)
Syn. MoBFEHis TABTBA8, L. Prep. Saturate
a solution of tartaric add with morphine, con-
centrate by evaporation, and set aside that crys-
tals may form. By using an excess of acid an
acid tartrate may be formed.

MOSPHIOM'ZTBT. A name given to the
process of determining the richness of opium in
morphine. See Opium.

MOSSTT'LI. An old name applied to lozenges
and masticatories. It is still retained in some
foreign Pharmacopoeias.

MORTAR is the well-known cement, made of
lime, sand, and water, employed to bind bricks
and stones together in the construction of walls,
buildings, to.

In the composition of mortar stone lime is
preferred to that obtained from chalk, and river
sand to pit or road sand. Sea sand is unfitted
for mortar until it has been well soaked and
washed in fresh water. Sifted coal ashes are
frequently substituted for the whole or a part of
the sand.

Hysbavlio mobtabs or obmbitis are those
which, like Roman cement, are employed for
works which are either constentiy submerged or
are frequently exposed to the action of water.
The poorer sorts of limestone are chosen for this
purpose, or those which contain from 8% to
26% of alumina, magnesia, and siUca. Such
limestones, though calcined, do not shike when
moistened ; but if pulverised, they absorb water
without swelling up or heating, like fat lime, and
afford a paste which hardens in a few days under
water, but in the lur they never acquire much
solidity.

" The essential constituents of every good
hydraulic mortar are caustic lime and silica ; and
the hardening of this composition under water
consiste mainly in a chemical combination of
these two ingredients through the agency of the
water, producing a faydrated silicate of lime.
But such mortars may contain other ingredients
besides lime, as, for example, clay and magnesia,
when double silicates of great solidity are
formed; on which account dolomite is a good
ingredient in these mortars. But the silica must
be in a peculiar state for these purposes, namely,
capable of afFording a gelatinous paste with
acids ; and if not so already, it must be brought
into this condition by calcining it along with an
alkali or an alkaline earth at a bright red heat,
when it will dissolve and gelatinise in acids.
Qnartzose sand, however fine its powder may be,
will form no water mortar with lime ; but if the
powder be ig^nited with the lime, it then becomes
fit for hydraulic cement. Ground felspar or clay

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1078

MORTIFICATION— MOTH EXTERMINATOES

forms with slaked lime no water cement; bat
wben they are previoasly calcined along with the
lime, the mixture becomes capable of hardening
imder water.

" All sorts of lime are made hydranlic, in the
hnmid way, by mixing the slaked lime with sola-
tions of common alum or sulphate of alumina;
but tlie best method consists in employing a solu-
tion of the silicate of potash, called liquor of
flints or soluble glass, to mix in with the slaked
lime, or lime and clay. An hydraulic cement
may also be made which will serve for the manu-
facture of architectural ornaments, by making a
paste of pulverised chalk with a solution of the
silicate of potash. The said liquor of flints like-
wise gives chalk and plaster a stony hardness by
merely soaking them in it after they are cut or
moulded to a proper shape. On exposure to the
ur they get progressively indurated. Superficial
hardness may be readily procured by washing
over the surface of chalk, £c., with liquor of
flints, by means of a brush. TUs affords an easy
and elegant method of giving a stony crust to
the plastered walls and ceilings of apartments; as
also to statues and busts cast in gypsum mixed
with chalk."

Under Professor Enhlman's patent, dated April,
1841, " Instead of calcining the limestone with
clay and sand alone, as has been hitherto com-
monly practised, this inventor introduces a small
quantity of soda, or, preferably, potash, in the
state of sulphate, carbonate, or muriate; salts
susceptible of forming silicates when the earthy
mixture is calcined. The alkaline salt, equal in
weight to about l-6th that of the lime, is intro-
dnced in solution among the earths" (Ure).

The hardening of the common mortars and
cements is in a gieti, measure due to the gradual
absorption of carbonic acid ; but even after a
very great length of time this conversion into
csrbonate is not complete. Qood mortar, under
favourable circumstances, acquires extreme hard-
ness by age.

Attempts have been made at various times
to introduce the use of bituminous cements into
this country, and thus to restore both to land and
submarine architecture a valuable material which
has now lain neglected for a period of fally 30
centuries ; but, unfortunately, owiag to the in-
terest of our great building and engineering firms
lying in another direction, these attempts have
been hitherto unsuccessful. See AsPEAiiTCM,
OsHBHT, Lime, &c.

KOSTIPICA'TIOH. Sjf». GAiraBBNB; Gah-
OBiHA, MoBTincATio, li. Local death; the
loss of vitality in one part of the animal body,
whilst the rest continues living, "The terms gan-
grene and mortification are often used synony-
mously ; but gangrene properly signifies the state
which immediately precedes mortification, while
the complete mortification or absolute death of a
part is called sphacelus. A part which has passed
into the state of sphacelus is called a slough."

MOSAIC OOU). See Bbasb, Goij>, &c.

KOS'SES. Syn. Mcscr, L. Several vege-
tables of the Nat. Ords. Aloa, 'Fwai, Lichbnss,
and MtTSCi commonly pass under this name with
the vulgar. Of these the following are the
principal;

Boo-xoss (Sphagnum paUutre). Very reten-
tive of moistnre. Used to pack up plants for ex-
portation.

Cbtlon moss (Oraeilaria eamiida). Very
nutritive; made into a decoction or jelly, which is
highly esteemed as an article of diet for invalids
and children, more especially for those suffering
under affections of the mucous membranes or
phthisis.

CLtTB-MOBB (Lj/eopodium elavatHm). See Lt-

OOPODrUM.

CosBiOAjr M088, C. WORK K. (OrocUaria hel-
minthoeorton). — 3o»e, 1 to 2 dr., in powder, mixed
up with sugar ; as a vermifuge.

Cup noes, C. lichiit (Cladoiua mixidata).
Astringent and febrifuge. A cupful of the decoc-
tion, taken warm, genorally proves gently emetic.
Used in hooping-eongh, &c.

YiROJM B-iLoai{Ijgoi>podi*mtelago). Violently
emetic and purgative. It is also irritant and nar-
cotic.

IcBLAmo XOBB {Cetraria itlandha). Highly
nutritious and easy of digestion. The decoction
is a favourite alimentary substance in affections
of the lungs and digestive organs. In Iceland,
after the bitter has been removed by soaking it in
hot water, it is made into jelly, or dried, gronnd
to flour, and made into bread.

Ibibh mobs, Pbarl k., Cabbasbbk X. (Ckou- '
dru* eritpui). Very nntritions. The decoction
or jelly is a useful and popular demulcent and
emollient in pulmonary affections, dysentery,
scrofula, rickets, Ac. It is often emfdoyed by
cooks and confectioners instead of isingUsa, and
by painters to make their size.

Bbisskbb moss {Cladonia raiig^»rina). Escu-
lent, very nutritious.

XOTHEK-OF-PEASL. See Pbabi.

XOTHES-WATES. See CsTSTALLigATioir.

XOTH EXTE&XUTATORS. Prep. 1. Lnpulin
1 dr. ; snuff, 2 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz.; cedar saw-
dust, 4 oz. ; mix. This is to be used for sprink-
ling where the motha irequeut.

2. Carbolic acid and gnm camphor, of each, 1
oz.; benzine, 1 pint. Dissolve the gum and car-
bolic acid in the benzine. Apply by saturating
a piece of blotting-paper, or use it in the form of
spray by means of an atomiser.

The following is recommended for sprinkling
among furs, clothes, Ac., to prevent the ravages
of moths :

3. Patchoulyherb, 100 parts; valerian, 60 parts
camphor, 40 parts ; orris and sumbul, of each, 50
parts; oil of patchouly and otto of roses, of each,
1 part. The various ingredients are broken op
as small as possible, passed through a wide sieve
to separate the coarser pieces, and freed from dost
by a fine sieve. The oils are mixed with the orris
root, and all the ingredients are then combined.

4. Powdered cloves, 60 parts ; powdered black
pepper, 100 parts ; powdered quassia, 100 parts ;
sprinkled with oil of cassia and oil of bergamot,
of each, 2 parts; camphor, 6 parts, previously
dissolved in ether, 20 parts ; then mix with car-
bonate of ammonium, 20 parts ; powdered orris,
20 parts (' National Druggist ').

KOUIiDS. Numerous materials and oompori-
tions are employed for the purpose of t^dng
moulds, among which are the following :

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MOUTH COSMETICS— MUCILAaE

lOTO

1. (CoKFo'.) a. From spermaceti, itearine, or
hard talloir, and white wax, equal parte, melted
together. For fine work, as medals, amall oaati,
ie.

i. From black resin, ) lb. ; hard tallow, i lb. ;
beeswax, 6 oz. ; as the last. For coarse work, as
architectnisl ornaments, &c. The above are
ponred on the objects to be copied (previously
oiled) whilst in the melted state. Articles in
plaster of Paris are flrst soaked in water, observing
that none of it remains on the surface so as to in-
terfere with the design.

2. (ExlABtio.) a. Flexible or elastic monlds
may be made of gntta percha softened in boiling
water, and after being freed from moistnie,
pressed strongly against the object to be copied
by means of a screw press. A ring or support
stMold be employed to prevent tindne lateral
spreading.

h. By the use of gelatin or glue, elastic moulds
are formed capable of reproducing with accuracy,
and in a single piece, the meet elaborately sculp-
tured objects, of exquisite finish and delicacy.
Casts from these are now common in the streets.
The credit of the application of this substance to
tins pnrpoae is due to M. H. Vincent. The pro-
esH of easting consists in simply dissolving a cer-
tain qoaatity of gelatin in hot water until it is
reduced to the state of liquid paste, when it is
mn over the object, previously oiled, intended to
be reprodnced. As it cools, the gelatin assumes a
consistency offering a considerable degree of re-
sistance, and is highly elastic, which latter quality
enables it to be easily detached from the work on
which it has been fitted. In the hollow formed
by the gelatin the finest plaster, mixed to a thick
cream with water, is next run; and when the
plaster has acquired the requisite hardness, the
gelatin monld is detached in the same manner as
from the original. From this apparently fragile
mould as many as 6 copies may be taken, all re-
producing the original with unerring fidelity.

S. (Mr&ujo.) a. From fusible metal. See

FniBIiB AliLOTS.

b. (CucaiK uovutB.) From a fusible alloy
formed of bismuth, 8 parts ; lead, 5 parts ; tin, 4
patta; antimony, 1 part, repeatedly melted to-
gether. The above are poured out in the melted
state on a plate or slab, and after being stirred
mitil in a pas^ state, the object to be copied is
strongly pressed on the alloy at the moment it
begins to solidify. They are chiefly used for
medals and other like oljects.

e. (Chameroy's Patent.) By melting together
1 part of some easily fusible metal in a crucible,
and then mixing with it 4 parts of a metal far less
readily fusible, steeped in ammonia and reduced
to powder. Such a compound is stated to be of
gnat solidity, hardness, facility of soldering,
melts at a low temperature, and has great tracta-
bility in moulding to any form, and In casting
take* the sharpest impressions, whilst in its
nature it is peculiarly unchangeable. See Eiiso-

TBOTTPB.

KOUTH OOSmxacS. See Bbbate, Tbbth,
LoziHOB, Paiti, Powsib, tc.

■OZ'AJB. Substances burnt upon the body,
for the purpose of acting as counter-irritants,
and allaying deep-seated pains and inflammation.

They have been used in gout, rheumatism, &c.
The small cone constituting the moxa is placed
upon a part, lighted, and allowed to bum to its
base. The Chivbsb and Jafaxbbb moxas are
made of the downy portion of the leaves of a
species of wormwoiDd (Artemitia rinentit); but
various other substances, as the pith of the sun-
flower, cotton, or paper, soaked in a weak solution
of nitrate, chlorate, or chromate of potassium,
answer as well. Larrey's moxas consist of lyco-
podium, 4 oz. ; nitre, 2 oz. ; formed into small
cones with alcohol, and dried for some days. Dr
Osborne used quicklime enclosed in a hoop of
card, and moistened with water. The actual
canterv is said to be preferable to any of them.

MVCHiAQS. Sgn. Mucilaso, L. An aqueous
solution of g^m, or other like substance, that
gives a considerable consistency to water. See
Dbooocioh, Miztubb, &c.

Xvdlage, Acacia. (Ph. B.) 'Sgn, Mvoiiiieo
AOAOix. Put gum acacia, in small pieces, 4 oz.,
and distilled water, 6 oz., into a covered earthen
jar, and stir frequently until the gum is dissolved.
If necessary, strain through muriin.

Kndlage, Fenugreek. Sy"- Muoikago tbiti;-
OBBOI. Digest 1 oz. of fenugreek seed with (
pint of water for 12 hours, boil, and strain with
pressure.

Kucilage, Linaeed. (P. Cod.) fiya. Mva-
LAOO Lliri. Linseed, 1 oz. ; warm water, 6 oz.
Digest for 6 hours, stirring now and then, and
strain.

Kueilage, Uqnorlce. Sgn. Muoilaoo olt-
OTBBBiZiB. From liquorice root, as ICABSH-

XAIiLOW irCCILAGB.

Kndlage, Karsh-maUew. (P. Cod.) 8yn.
Huoii^oo JLLTBMX. Marsh-mallow root, 1 oz. ;
boiling water, 6 oz. ; digest for 6 hours, and
strain.

Kucilage, Qniokailver. Sgn. Mucilaoo
XBSClTBlALlg PLBiTKii. Quicksilver, 1 dr. ; gum-
arabic, 8 dr. J syrup of poppies, 4 oz.; mix. —
Dote, i dr.

KncUage, Saisafras. (Ph. U. S.) Sgn. Mn-
OiiiAOO BAB8AFBA8. Inf Use 2 dr. of pith of sassa-
fras in 16 oz. (old measure) of boiling water for
3 hours, and strain.

Kncilag^SUppeI7 Elm Bark. (Ph. U.S.) Sign.
MnciliAao ttlici. Slippery elm bark, sliced and
bruised, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 16 oz. Infuse for
2 hours.

XneUage, Staieh. (Ph. B.) Same as dbooo-
Tioir ov btaboh (Ph. L.), which tee.

Kncilaga, Tra'gacantii. J^n. UroiXAOO
TaASACANTHS (B. P., Ph. £., &. Ph. D., 1826),
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. £.) Tragacanth, 2 dr.;
boiling water, 9 fl. oz. (8 fl. oz. — Ph. D.) ; mace-
rate for 24 hours, triturate, and press throujgh
linen.

2. (B. P.) Tragacanth, in powder, 60 gr.;
distilled water, 10 oz. To the water contained
in a pint bottle add the tragacanth, agitate bnskly
for a few minutes, and again at short intervals,
until the tragacanth is perfectly diffused, and has
finally formed a mucilage. — Dote, 1 oz. (Should
be made as required. 1 part of tragacanth gives
more visooeity to water than 26 parta of gum-
arable — iSjatre.) Used in madicina as a demul-
cent, and as an application to bums, Ac., and in

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1080

MUDARm— MUSHROOMS

pharmacy in making np pills, and to snipend
heavy powders in liquids.

XTJ'BASHf. Sgn. Maj>abinb. A pecnliar
substance, possessing powerful emetic properties,
extracted from the root-bark of Calotropit
gigantea, in which it exists to the extent of 11%
(JthMcait). It is soluble in water and in alcohol,
and its aqueous solution, unlike that of most other
substances, gelatinises by heat, and becomes fluid
again on cooling.

mnf PINS. Prep. Take of fine flour, 1 peck j
warm milk-and-water, 1 quart; yeast, a wine-
glassful; salt, 2 oz.; mix for 15 minutes, then
further add of flonr, J peck, make a dough, let it
rise 1 hour, roll it up, pnll it into pieces, make
them into balls, pat them in a warm place, and
when the whole dough is made into balls, shape
them into muffins, and bake them on tins ; turn
them when half done, dip them into warm milk,
and hake them to a pale brown.

XUf TLE. See AssATrNO.

XUL'BEBBT. Sg». Mobuv,L. Mulberries
(moba, kobi baccs) are the fruit of Morui nigra,
or the black mulberry tree. They are cooling and
laxative, but when eaten too freely are apt to
disorder the stomach and bowels. Mulberry joice
(moW Mttccut) is officinal in the Ph. L. A syrup
(STSUFCS ifOBi) is made of it. It is also occa-
sionally made into wine.

KTJLTTW. A mixture of extract of qnassia
and liquorice, used by fravdulent brewers instead
of malt and hops.

KVK. A beverage prepared from wheat malt,
in a similar way to ordinary beer from barley
malt. A little oat and bean meal is frequently
added. It was formerly much drunk in England ;
but its use at the present day is chiefly confined
to Germany, and to Brunswick more piuticularly.

KUMFS. &/». PAR0TITI8, L. Inflammation
of the parotid gland, which is situated under the
ear. There is little constitutional derangement,
but the cheeks become swollen and painful, and
there is some difficulty in opening the mouth,
and in swallowing. The treatment consists in
simply keeping the part warm with flannel, and
the use of warm fomentations, at the same time
that the bowels are kept freely open with some
mild laxative.

The disease is infections, and may become epi-
demic in schools and large institutions. It rarely
attacks the same person twice. The incubation
period varies from 8 days to 3 weeks.

KUaEZ'ID. CsNfHgO,. Sg». Pubfttbatii

OP AITKONITTK.

Prep. (Gregory.) Alloxan, 7 parts ; alloxan -
tin, i parts ; boiling water, 240 parts ; dissolve,
and add the solution to a cold and strong solntion
of carbonate of ammonia, 80 parts ; crystals of
murexid will separate as the liquid cools.

Ob*. Murexid can be obtained directly from
uric acid by the action of nitric acid and sub-
sequent treatment with ammonia. This process
is, however, very precarious, and often fails
altogether.

Prop., ife. It is only very slightly soluble in
cold water ; freely soluble in solutions of ammonia
and the fixed alkalies ; the first, by exposure to
the air, becomes purple, and deposits brilliant
crystals of murexid. These compounds are the

pnrpurates of Dr Prout It forms iridescent
crystals, having a metallic lustre, of a magnificent
green colonr by refiected light, and an eqoall^
beautiful reddish purple by transmitted light. U
is soluble in boiling water, only very slightly
soluble in cold water, and insoluble in alcohol and
ether. A few years ago murexid was extensively
used in dyeing ; it is now almost snperseded by
rosaniline or magenta. An aoalogovs subatanoe^
formed as above, by treating amalic acid with
ammonia, is called ' caSdn-murexid.'

■U"KIATi:. An old name for hydrocUorate
and chloride-

■UBIATIC ACID. 8g%. Htsboohiabio Acn>,
which tee.

KUBISE. The name originally (^ven to bro-
mine by M. Balard.

KUR'BAIir. See Axtebaz.

XUSCABIB. A very poisonous alkaloid, pre-
pared from Amamia mmtearia. Antidotes, atro-
pin and di^talis. See Mushboomb.

KTTSH'BOOXS. Edible fungi. The speciea
commonly eaten in England are the Ageuitm*
eampettrit, or common field or garden mushroom,
used to make ketchup, and eaten either raw,
stewed, or broiled ; the Morchella eteulenta, or
morel, used to flavour soups and gravies; and
the IVisr cibarium, or common truffle, also used
as a seasoning.

Several fungi, which to the inexperienced
closely resemble the common edible mushroom,
possess poisonous narcotic properties, and their
use has not nnfrequently been productive of
serious, and in some cases even fatal results.
Unfortunately, no simple tests exist by which
the edible and poisonous varieties can be distin-
guished from each other. So strongly was the
late Professor L. C. Richards, the eminent bota-
nist, impressed with this feeling, that though no
one was better acquainted with the distinctions of
fungi than he was, yet he wonld never eat any
except such as had been raised in gardens, in
mushroom beds.

" Tills difficulty of distinguishing edible from
poisonous and noxious fungi must not be ignored,
if only one out of a hun<&ed, or for the matter
of that a thousand, species were poisonous or
noxious, it would not be sound advice to say that
we should cat all that come to hand, and stand
the chance of baneful results. Unfortunately it
is the case that some of the most poisonous fnngi
are the most common, and there is scarcely a field,
and perhaps not a single wood, which does not
abound with varieties of Coprinut, the Agariem
fateicularu, and the beautifully coloured Tkiutula
emetica, and several other very undesirable spe-
cies. Some writers, and among them, if we re-
member rightly, the lesmed and enthusiastic
mycologist, Dr Badham, deny the existence of any
poisonous fungi in our islands, and they account
for the effects which are often produced by eating
varieties difierent from our common mushroom by
stating that some people, through idiosyncrasy cv
constitution, are injuriously affected by all fungi ;
and in support of this statement they instance
the well-known fact that some people experience
the most unpleasant effects after eating the com-
mon edible mushroom, which chemically contains
no noxious ingredients. We all know that idiosyn-

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HVSHBOOHS

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OMy «f oonBtitation may aomxnit for mnch and
for very ttnngB phenomena ; for instance, oysters
are almost poison to some persons, while roast
beef will caase hysterics in other cases ; and to
not a few certain odours, harmless in themselves,
are causes of serioas attacks of illness ; bat the
fact remains that persons who can eat with
impunity and greatly enjoy the common mnshroom
are nnpleasantly lAected by other species of
f ongi. Not a year passes bat deaths are recorded
of persons — sometimes of whole families — after
eating noxioos fungi, thongh they bad no idio-
syncrasy of coDstitataon ; and shortly prior- to
the writing of this article a learned botanist
and enthusiastic mycologist, and a friend, in
erperimenttng on some specimens of fungi sent
to him, narrowly escaped death, while another
person who partook of the dish prepared actually
tnocamhed. A thousand and one teste have
been g^ven in writing from time to time whereby
our ordinary mushroom is to be distingnisbed
from species which resemble it — and one spe-
dea is to be distinguished from another;
bat we fear that practically they are not to
be depended npon. Fungi differ in appearance
according to tixe localities in which they grow,
and accOTding to their age. The common belief
that the edible species never change colour
when cut or bruised is untenable, for three
varieties at least are perfectly edible, and yet
assume different tints when injured in any way.
The test of taste, too, which is applied under the
idea that those with a pleasant savour and an in-
offensive smell are always wholesome, is falla-
cions, for a raw mnshroom is quite a different
thing from the stewed or grilled one, and often
what has an acrid taste when raw becomes per-
fiectly savoury when cooked; and, viea vend, a
tasteless fungus may be poisonons, bat only deve-
lop its latent flavour when submitted to the cook.
Dr Cfaristison declares that a sure test of poison-
ous fungus is an astringent, styptic taste, and a
disagreeable pungent odour j bat this, again,
cannot always be depended on. Nor, again, is
the popular idea that a mushroom which will skin
easily is wholesome altogether based on fact.
What, then, is to be done to enlarge the field of
onr mushroom gatherers, and to bring about the
utilisation of food now suffered to run to waste f
or, in other words, how is a knowledge of our
fungi to be obtained ? The only answer is that
knowledge on this matter is to be got, generally
speaking, as knowledge on other matters — partly
from books, bat more especially from oral instruc-
tion and demonstration. Such eminent authori-
ties as Dr Badham, the Bev. M. Berkeley, Mr
Cooke, and Kr Worthington Smith may be con-
salted with profit ; and works such as that on
' Domestic Economy,' in which oolonred plates
bring aecnrately before the eye the different spe-
cies of our fungi. And here we may mention that
the plates prepared by Mr Worthington Smith,
which were once at the South Kensington
Mnaenm, but now, we believe, at Bethnal Oreen,
have done mnch to help the Londoner when in
search for mnshrooms in the country to distin-
guish between the good and bad species of fungi-
It might be well that in our schools, where so
many practically useless blanches of knowledge

are crammed into children both in town and conn-
try, practical lessons on fnngi shoold be given.
Thoee, too, who wish to learn what is to be learned
on this subject should avail themselves of oppor-
tunities now often given at exhibitions and bota-
nical meetings. At Paris, in 1876, there was an
exhibition of edible and poisonous fnngi, in a fresh
and dry state, together with books and drawings;
and a similar exhibition took place in Aberdeen
two years before ; and, as most of our readers are
probably aware, there exists a Fungus Club, or,
rather, a botanical society which makes fungi a
special study. This is the Woolhope Club, which
has its headquarters at Hereford, and embraces in
its scientific investigations all the district between
Shropshire and the Bristol Channel. One day in
each autumn is devoted to a fungus hunt, and the
numbers that are gathered by this enthusiastic
band are something enormous. The labours of
the day are closed by a dinner, at which the main
dishes are composed of the spoils of the chase,
dressed in the most epicurean fashion, and of other
good things flavoured with the most appetising
(fungus) sances. In the annual volume published
of the transactions of the club there is a descrip-
tion of the fungi of the district, and the best
modes of cooking them. It would be a great gain
to the public if at least that part dealing with
fnngi were generally obtainable.

" Qastronomically the ordinary mushroom, and
a large number of our British fungi, are most
estimable, and ketchup produced from them — not
the ordinary ketchup * of commerce^' which is
often innocent of any fungi whatever — is to the
cultivated taste of the gourmet the best of sauces.
Many an epicurean has been heard to aver that
after that of an oyster that of a mushroom is the
finest in the whole world of gastronomy. Bacon,
in his ' Natural! Historic,' says of mushrooms,
' They yield a deKciona meat ;' and to these com-
mendations it may be added that they can be
cooked in almost as many ways as the French can
cook eggs. Dr Lethehy says that 'the edible
varieties are highly nntritious ;' and the late Dr
Edward Smith, who was very chary of commend-
ing anything, also had a good word for them.

" Our word ' mnshroom ' is eridentiy an adi^ta-
tion of the French mouttenm, which, of course, is
from monue, 'moss' (Lat. tiuuciu); but the
suggestion of the learned Salmasias, that the
French gave this name to the edible fungus ' be-
cause it grows only where the grass is the shortest
and there is little else but moss,' strikes one as
rather weak. The mushroom, like the moss, is a
cryptogamons plant ; but there is little connection
in any way between the two. Perhaps, then, we
must look to the Greek word miicot, though only
used by the grammarians, for the origin of the
French word and so of our own. This was one of
the terms which signified a ' sponge,' and was
probably applied to the ' fungi ' because of their
sponge-like grovrth. It is evident that some of
our more exact botanists, or etymologists who
compounded the word for them, consider the
Greek word and not the Latin as the origin of the
ma in the English word and the mow in the'
French, though, according to analogy, the •
should have been changed into a g, for the stndy
of 'fungi' is termed by them wtgeoUgg. It v

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1082

MUSE

luurdly necesmiy to add that the worda ' ftingolo^ '
and ' fung^logist ' are hybrid componnds of Qreek
and Latin, which are simply intolerable to ears
correct, as are many other words similarly com-
ponnded, and recently introduced into our lan-
gohge. The Latin Jungut is plainly a weakened
form of the Qreek tfongot, and goes to show that
the idea of a < sponge ' was from the first associ-
ated with the f^*gi, and that the Oreek mucoi
mnst be taken as the origin of the French nous-
leron and the English ' mnshroom.' It is carious
that the Qreek, Latin, and English ' f nngous '
terms hare all been nsed in a sense reflecting on
some of our species. The Qreek muoot represented
a silly, stupid fellow, and the Plantus couples the
fungi— 'soft-psted'— with the 'fools,' 'stolid.'
and ' fatnons.' In like manner, in our own language.
Bacon speaks of certain persons as 'mushrooms
and upstart weeds ' because of their sudden growth
from a lowly origin. South, in one of his sermons,
reflects on ' mushroom divines who start up of a
sudden,' and whose success is ' not so good as to
recommend their practice.' Carrying out the
same analogy, the late Albert Smith, if we recol-
lect rightly, spoke of ' stuck-up people ' as spring-
ing like mushrooms suddenly into notice, and,
like them, from very questionable soil " (' DMly
Telegraph').

In cases of poisoning by fungi, vomiting should
he immediately induced by an emetic and tickling
the fauces with the finger or a feather ; after
which a purgative clyster or a strong cathartic
should be administered, with ) to 1 fl. dr. of ether
in a glassful of water or weak brandy. As an
antidote, a solution of tannin, i dr., in water, 11
pints, or a decoction of i oz. of powdered galls, or
of 1 oz. of powdered cinchona bark, in a like
quantity of water, has been strongly recommended
by M. Chansarel. Atropin or digitalis in small
doses should be given as an antidote in poisoning
by Amanita mutearia.

Alexis Soyer recommended the excellent method
of cooking mushrooms by baking them under a
glass or basin on toast, along with scalded or
dotted cream, or a lit^e melted butter, with 1
clove, and salt, pepper, &c., to taste. They take
about i of an hour in a gentle oven or before the
fire. When they are taken up, do not remove the
glass for a few minates, by which time the vapour
wiU have become condensed and gone Into the
bread; but when it is, the aroma, which is the
essence of the mushroom, is so powerful as to per-
vade the whole apartment.

XnSE. Syn. Mobcrus (B. P., Ph. L., E.,
and D.), L. " A secretion deposited in a follicle
of the prepuce of Motchui motehifertu, Linn."
(Ph. L.), an animal inhabiting the mountains of
Eastern Asia. It is imported from Bengal, China,
and Russia; and, latterly, from the United States
of America. That known as ToyQUiN kubk is
the most esteemed for its odour ; but that from
Russia is the only kind which reaches us in per-
fect bags, or which has not been tampered with.
Pod mtjsk (mobchub in yesicis) is the bag in its
natural state, containing the musk. The average
weight of one of the pods is about 6 dr. ; that of
the grain musk which it contains, about 2^ dr.

Pur., (fv. The musk of the shops is generally
adulterated. Dried bullock's blood or chocolate

is commonly employed ttxc thu pnrpose, along
with a little bone-black. The extent of these
additions varies from 26% to 75% of the grosB
weight of the mixture. The blood is dried by the
heat of steam or a water-bath, then reduced to
coarse powder, and triturated with the genuine
musk in a mortar along with a few drops of
liquid of ammonia. It is then either replaced in
the empty pods, or it is put into bottles, and sold
as grain musk. There are only 3 certain ways of
detecting this fraud, viz. — by the inferiority of
the odour, by an assay for the iron contained in
the blood, or by the miofoscope. Qenuine musk
often becomes nearly inodorous by keeping, but
recovers its smell on being exposed to the vapour
of ammonia, or by being moistened with ammonia
water. The perfumers sometimes expose it to the
fetid ammoniacal efBuvia of privies for the same
purpose.

Pure musk, by trituration or digestion with
boiling water, loses about 76% of its weight, and
the boiling solution, after precipitation with nitric
acid, is nearly colourless. A solution of acetate
of lead, and a cold decoction of galls, also precipi-
tate the solution ; but one of corrosive sublimate
does not disturb it. The ashes left after the in-
cineration of pure musk are neither red nor yellow,
but grey, and should not exceed 6% to 6% . The
Chinese appear to be the most skilful and success-
fnl adulterators of musk. One of the best sol-
vents for musk is ether.

Uut, Sre. Musk is chiefly employed for its
odour. As a mtdieme it is a powerful stimulant
and antispasmodic and is a valuable remedy in
various diseases of a spasmodic or hysterical cha-'
racter, or attended with low fever. — Doie, 6 to 10
gr. made into an emulsion.

Xusk, Pactitions. Sfn. Rasnr ov akbbb;

RSBIITA SUOOINI, MoBCHra ABIIKCIAUa, M. 7AO

TinvB, L. Prtp. 1. Oil of amber, 1 fl. dr.;
nitric acid, 3) fl. dr. ; digest in a cold tnmblo',
and after 24 hours, wash in cold water the orange-
yellow resinous matter which has formed and
carefully dry it.

2. (EUner.) From oil of amber, 1 part; fum-
ing nitric acid, 3 parts; as the last, hut employing
artificial cold to prevent any portion of the oU
being carbonised.

3. A remarkable oily liquid, having a brown
colour, and smelling so like musk that, it is said.
very few noses are able to detect the diflference
between the natural product and the artificial
body, is obtained by a new process. 2 parts of
isobutyl alcohol, 3 parts of metazylol, and 0
parts of chlorate of zinc are heated together for
8 or 9 days at a temperature of about 440° or 460°
F. in a strong vessel, the pressure inside which
speedily rises to nearly 30 atmospheres, but gradu-
ally declines to about a quarter of that degree of
tension, when the whole is allowed to cool gradu-
ally. 'The crude product so obtained is purified
by distillation once or twice repeated, until an
oily fluid is the result, which comes over between
220° and 260°; this when rendered slightly alka-
line is the 'musk' in qnestion, and it may be
diluted with alcohol, for the use of the perfumer,
to any desired degree of odoriferous strength.

Obt, Resin of amber smells strongly of mask,
and is said to be antispasmodic and nervine. A.

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MUSE-SEED— MTLABBIS

1088

concen-
(grape-

} oz., in

'^cold, add of Inmp

opped small), i lb.;

tincture (tihutuiu. vasiSM BVOOliri) is made by
diiBolving 1 dr. of it in rectified spirit, 10 fl. dr.,
of which the dose is 1 fl. dr. ; in hooping-coagh,
low terers, Ac.

Dr Collier mentions an artificial mosk, prepared
bj digesting for 10 days nitric acid, -I oz., on fetid
animal oil, obtained by distillation, 1 oz. ; then
adding of rectified spirit, 1 pint, and digesting
the whole for a month.

■nSK-SBSD. 8gn. QajLTSa d'ambrbttb. Ft.
The seed of Abelmotehmt motehatut, or musk
mallow. They are chiefly nsed for their odoor, in
perfnmcry, hair powder, coffee, &c ■
KUS'SEL. See SeeUtPibh.
KUS'SEL SCALE. See MTTn^SPn.
KUST. %n. MusTuv, L. The expressed
jniee of ripe grapes, before fermentation. When
boiled to 2 to 8 dr. it is called oabbi^uk; when
boiled to i it is called bapa,
tistion, it yields a species of
sngar).

Kut. Faeti"tions. Syn.
L. JVep. Dissolve crea:
btnling water, 7 pints ;
sngar, 2) lbs. ; raisins (< . .
digest for 8 or 4 hoars, stnun through flannel as
qniekly as possible, and add of lemon-joice> i
pint.

KUBTAS3). Sgn. SnrAPis, L. "The seed
of ainapit nigra and 8. alba " (Ph. L.). " Flour
of the seeds of Sinapu nigra, generally mixed with
those of 8. alba, and deprived of fixed oil by ex-
pression" (Ph. E.). "The flour of the seeds"
(Ph. D.). " The seeds of the Sttiapi>at;$>ra and .$.
aUa redaoed to powder and mixed " (B. P.). That
of the shops is very frequently adnlterated with
wheat flour. When this is the case it does not
readily make a smooth paste with water, but ex-
hibits considerable toughness, and somewhat of a
stringy appearance, especially when little water
and much heat is employed. The common pro-
portions taken by some grocers are— dried com-
mon salt, wheat flour, and superfine mustard, equal
parts ; with turmeric, to colour, and cayenne, q. s.
to give it piquancy and fire.

Utet, ^. Pure flour of mustard is nsed in
medicine to make stimulating poultices, pedi-
Invia, Ac. As a condiment it is useful in torpor
and coldness of the digestive organs. A few
years since the use of mustard seed, by spoonfuls,
ad libUum, was a common and fashionable remedy
in torpor or atony of the digestive organs. The
practice was a revival of that recommended by
Dr Cullen; but it has now again sunk into disuse.
Sir John Sinclair also approved of the use of
mustard seed in this way, especially for the pre-
servation of the health of the aged ('Lancet,'
Jan., 1884). See Poultioss, ius.

Xnatard fbr the Table. The common practice
of preparing mustard for the table with vinegar,
or still more, with boiling water, materially
checks the development of those peculiar prin-
ciples on which its pnngency or strength almost
entirely depends. To economise this substance
we shonld use Inkewarm water only; and when
flavonring matter is to be added to it, this is
better deferred until after the paste is made.
The following forms for 'made mustard' are
mneh esteemed for their flavour :

Prep. 1. Unstard (ground), 8| lbs.; water,
q. s. to form a stiff paste ; in i hour add of com-
mon salt (rubbed very fine), 1 lb. ; with vinegar,
grape juice, lemon juice, or white wine, q. s. to
reduce it to a proper consistence.

2. To the last add a little soluble cayenne
pepper or essence of cayenne.

3. (Lenormand.) Best flour of mustard, 8
lbs. ; fresh paisley, chevril, celery, and tarragon,
of each, i oz. ; garlic, 1 clove ; 12 salt anchovies
(all well chopped) ; grind well together, add of
salt, 1 oz. ; grape juice or sugar, q. s. to sweeten ;
with sufficient water to form the mass into a
thinnish paste by trituration in a mortar. When
put into pots, a red-hot poker is to be thrust into
each, and a little vinegar afterwards poured npon
the surface.

4. (UOTTTABDB X L'ssTBAeoH.) From black
mustard seed (gently dried until friable, and then
Bnely powdered), 1 lb. ; salt, 2 oi. j tarragon vine-
gar, q, B. to mix. In a similar way the French
prepare several other ' mustards,' by employing
vinegars flavoured with the respective substances,
or walnut or mushroom ketohup, or the liquors of
the richer pickles.

5. (MotTTABDE SUTBBBB.) Salt, li Ibs. ; sciaped
horse-radish, 1 lb. ; garlic, 2 cloves ; boiling vine-
gar, 2 galls. ; macerate in a covered vessel for 24
hours, strain, and add of flour of mustard, q. a.

6. (Patent.) Black ginger (bruised), 12 lbs.;
common salt, 18 lbs.; water, 15 galls.; boil,
strain, and add to each gallon flour of mustard,
6 lbs.

Kustaid Lmtm {BigoUott) are made by
spreading moistened mustard on paper, and
drying.

HTTS'TDTESB. See Malt Liqvobb and WnrsB.

HU'TAaE. The term applied to the ' match-
ing ' of grape must to arrest the progress of fer-
mentation. See Aktipbbicbitt, Katorzb, &c.

XUrTOV. The flesh of sheep. That of the
first quality is " between 4 and 5 years old ; bnt
at present it is rarely to be obtsined above 3, and
is often nnder 2. The flesh ought to be of a
darkish, clear, red colour, the fat flrm and white,
the meat short and tender when pinched, and it
ought not to be too fat." The flesh of the
' Southdown wether ' is esteemed the flnest
flavoured. Mutton is one of the most whole-
some of the ' red meats,' and in commercial im-
portance is second only to beef. See Mbat.

UT'COSE. A peculiar variety of sngar, ex-
tracted by alcohol from ergot of rye. It crys-
tellises in colourless prisms, and is distinguished
from cane-sugar by not reducing the acetete of
copper, when boiled with a solution of that salt.

XTSSIATTC ALKALOIDS. These are a small
but important group of bases, which have the
power, when placed in the eye, of dilating the
pupil, destroying the power of accommodating
vision to near ejects. The best known are ob-
tained from plants of the order Solakacbb ; they
are atropine, datnrin, hyoscyamine. Solutions
of these bases in the pure state are distinguished
from all other alkaloids by yielding a red pre-
cipitate when warmed with a w^k alcoholio
solution of mercuric chloride ( Otrrard^.

KTLABSIS. ifi^. Mtlabbib oiohobii;
CHlKBaB blibtbbinq wvt. An insect found on

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1084

MYBICIK— MITILA8PIS (ASPIODOTUS) POHOBTTU

the flowers of the saccory plant in India and
China. It it abont 1} inchea in length; iheatb-
wingg black, each preientiog anteriorly 2 almoat
quadrate, brownish-yellow spots; behind these, 2
brownish-yollow bands, each of which equals
abont l-6tii of the length of the sheath- wings.
Its vesicant properties are due to the presence of
cantharidin.

Its physiological actions are the same as those
of cantharides, except that it is said not to affect
the kidneys when topically applied.

■TBI<^. The portion of beeswax which is
least soluble in alcohol, and saponified with diffi-
culty.

■TSISTIC ACID. HCu.HpOr A monobasic
fatty acid, obtained by the saponification of
myristin. It melts at 120° F.

MTBIS'TUr. C„H„0,. Syn. Sbuoinb. The
white, solid portion of the expressed oil of nut-
megs, which is insoluble in cold alcohol. See
Mybibtic Acid.

■TB0BALAX8. The fruits of Terminalia
chebula, Betz, and T. h»lerica, Boxb., Urge de-
ciduous trees common in India, Ceylon, and the
Malay Islands. The hard woody fruits of both
species are imported in large quantities for the
use of tanners from various parts of the East
Indies. Astringent galls are often formed on the
twigs of T. ohebila, used in India for making
ink, as well as for dyeing and tanning. The
hard woods of both species are used for a variety
of purposes in India. The wood, gums, and bark
of various species of Terminalia are met with in
commerce. Amongst others, T. tomentoia, Bedd.
—when polished the wood resembles walnut, and
is considered one of the best woods for making
stethoscopes at the Qoremment Medical Store
DepAt, Bombay ; T.panieulata, Both.; T.n^/rio-
earpa, Henrok. and MuelLArg.; and T. j>roe«ra,
Boxb.

KTBOLES. In French pharmaey, solutions of
oleaginous or resinous substances in the volatile
oils.

KTBOH'IC ACID. HC„.H„NS:0,o. Bussy
has given this name to an inodorous, bitter, non-
crystallisable add, obtained by him from black
mustard, in which it exists as myronate of potas-
sium. It is soluble in water and alcohol.

KTBOSnr. Syn. Exvuiov or Black iftr8-
TABD. A name given by Bussy to a pecoliar
substance, soluble in water, and which possesses
the power of converting myronic acid, in the
presence of water, into the volatile oil of mustard

XTBOSPEBHUr. The name given by lUchter
to the portion of the oil of balsam of Pern which
is soluble in alcohol.

HTBOXlUV. The name given by Bichter to
the portion of the oil of balsam of Peru which
is insoluble in alcohol. By oxygenation it forms
myroxilic acid.

MTBBH. ^. Mtbbha (B. P., Ph. L., E.,
& D.), L. " Gum resin exuded from the bark
of Baltamodendron mj/rrha" (B. P., Ph. Xi.).

Pur. 1. Triturate a small quantity of the
powder of the suspected mynh with an equal
amount of chloride of ammonium, adding water,
gradually : if the whole is readily dissolved, the
myrrh is genuine j otherwise it is sophisticated

with some inferior nibstance (SigUmi). 2. When
incinerated it should not leave more than Si% to
4% of ashes.

Uiet, Ifc. Myrrh is a stimulating aromatic
bitter and tonic, and is given in several diseases
accompanied by relaxation and debility ; especially
in excessive secretions from the mucous mem-
branes, and in disorders of the digestive organs.
ExUmally, as an ingredient in dentifrices and
rashes, in caries of the teeth, spongy and ulcerated
gums, &c. — Dou, 10 to 80 gr. ; either alone or
combined with aloes or chalybeates.

XTTILA8FI8 (ASFIOSOTTTS) FOKOKUIC.
Bouch^ (jivrlXot, a mussel). The Mitbbsl
BOALB. An affection is often discovered npon
apple and pear trees of excrescences or scale-like
coverings on the bark, chiefiy upon the smaller
branches, and where the bark is most smooth, and
npon the main stems of particular sorts of these
fruit trees, as well as of young trees. In orchards
where the trees have been neglected there are
often numerous groups of these scales npon both
apple and pear trees, which anyone wholly igno-
rant of entomology would hardly notice, or distin-
guish from rugosities or lichenons growths upon
Uie bark. Most usually the scales are upon the
north side of trees, or upon those parts of their
stems and branches shaded from the snn, and it
seems that they like dampness and gloom. It
will be understood, therefore, that in the prime-
val orchards of Devon, Herefordshire, Somerset-
shire, and Worcester^ire, where the trees are
close together, and their branches form an almost
impenetrable shade, the scale insects find favour-
able conditions for their increase, and canse mnch
harm by sucking out the juices upon which they
feed.

The mussel scale is so named because it is
shaped like the shell of the mussel. It might
also be named after the limpet, as it sticks to the
trees with as much tenacity as the limpet adheres
to a rock. It is provided with powerful suckers,
with which it extracts the sap from the trees, and
when it is present in numbers the respiration of
their surfaces is much impeded.

Apples and pear trees with smooth bark suffer
more from the scale than those with thick rough
coverings. The varions kinds of Codlin, the
Bibston Pippin, Margel, Pearmain, the Bennets
(Beinette), Cox's Pomona, Hawthomdeon, Wel-
lington, Blenheim Orange, are especially liable to
receive injuries from this insect. Toung trees
have been killed outright, having been literally
covered with scale. Bush trees and half -standards
are also subject to its attack.

Pear trees in orchards, notably in perry-making
districts, are occasionally subject to this scale, and
espalier trees, and trees grown against walls are
troubled by it. Benrr£ Diet, Jargonel, and Marie
Louise have been seen to be materially weakened
by it. In Kentish orchards, Bergamot, Duchesse
d'Angonlime, and Beurrj de Capiaumont have
been noticed to be suffering from its attacks.

There are several species of scale insects in
America which do great harm to fmit trees ot
various kinds. Mr Matthew Cooke says, "No
variety of fruit is exempt from their attacks, and
in certain localities many trees have been seriously
iqjnred or even killed outright by them" ('A

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MYZVS CEBASt

1065

IVntise on InaecU Itgarions to Frait and Frait
Treea in the State of California,' by Matthew
Cooke). In the southern States the species
known as Mgtilatpit Oloveri, introduced from
China in 1840, almost entirely ruined the orange
trees in Florida and Louisiana. Happily, how-
ever, parasitic flies which were not forthcoming
for the first few years after the scale insects ar-
rived, appeared in quantities a few years ago, and
have since served to check their spread consi-
derably.

This insect is known in France and Germany
aa hiirtful to apple and pear trees and to cnrrant
boshes.

lAft Sittory. The mnssel scale, or brown
scale, is placed in the order HoxoFTiiBA, in its
section Mottomara, and in its family Coeeida,
"one of the most anomalons tribes ai insects,"
says Westwood, " with which we are acquainted."
The scale or shell of this insect is a horny cover-
ing, which is port and parcel of the insect, grow-
ing witii it pretty much after the manner of the
shells of snails, and sernng after the completed
growth of the larvts as a protection, at least in
the ease of the females, and as a shelter for the
eggs and young for a time. This scale is abont
i ^ an inch in length, and is shaped, as Tas-
cbenberg describes it, exactly like a comma.
When the larvm come forth from the eggs laid in
the protecting shell and after a time leave its
shelter, they roam abont seeking for a desirable
and comfortable spot in which to pitcH their tents,
or rather to set their shells. At this time they are
not more than the nineteenth part of an inch in
length, having antenna and cornicles and six legs,
together with a most serviceable apparatus where-
with to sock out the juioea of the fruit trees. It
appears that as soon as the larv» have fairly es-
tablished themselves they insert this apparatus
into the bark, and after this they become fixed and
cannot detach themselves or be detached without
some difSonlty. After this settlement has been
gained the shells are soon visible, being formed
from exudations, or secretions, from the bodies of
the larvsa tc^ther with their exuviai or moulted
skins. Some of these larvm are males; others
are females. In the case of the males these
imdergo two moults or castings of their skins
onder the shells. They are similar to the female
np to this time, but soon a change comes over
them. They become pups, and in the course of
a few days they shake off their shelly coats and
ttpfBKt in winged forms as long- winged flies. Pair-
ing takes place then in the extraordinary manner
described by Rtenmnr (' H^moires pour servir a
I'Bistoire des Insectes,' par M. de B^umnr,
tome iv, p. 84) and illustrated by many flgures,
(be body of the male being peculiarly elongated
in order that impregnation may be effected under
the shelly covering of the female. Professor
Comstock corroborates Reaumur's description in
his elaborate treatises upon scale insects. Then
the male qnickly disappears from the scene,
being, aa is the case with the male insects of
many of the Amphidida, unprovided with months,
and therefore unable to feed.

Bat the females remain still glued 'to the spot,
having previous to their fecundation cast off their
isgt, antenna^ and cornicles with their skins in

the course of several monlts as nseless appen-
dages in their stationary condition. In dne time
eggs are laid which are arranged in the narrow
parts of the shells in admirable order, the female
keeping in the wider quarters until all the eggs
are laid, and gradually getting smaller and
smaller, and then Anally dying. From 20 to 60
eggs are laid by each female. At first the eggs
are whitish and opaque, and afterwards beoome
darker, almost purple. Thc^ are batched in about
10 days, and the larvss, as described above, leave
the parent shell and go forth on their own ac-
count.

The various transformations of this insect are
completed in abont 6 weeks. In hot countries
there is more than one generation in a season, but
in England it is believed that there is only one.

Prevaxtion. It is very necessary to keep apple
and pear trees free from llchenous and mossy
growths, as these serve as harbours for scale
insects and many others. Lime put on hot in
damp weather in the autumn is a perfect cure for
this. The bark should be kept scraped. The
trees should not be planted too thickly in new
orchards, and the branches of old trees in old
orchards must be thinned out periodically to let in
air and light. Young trees should be thoroughly
overhauled before they are planted, in order to
discover if they have scales upon them.

Remtditt. Owing to the hard shells of the
scale insects, syringings with even the most dis-
agreeable compositions hardly mske any impres-
sion upon them, except when they are taken, as
Miss Ormerod has pointed out (' A Manual of
Injurious Insects,' by E. K. Ormerod, 1881), just
as the larvffi escape from the parental abode. If
applied at this time syringing with strong soft
soap and quassia concoctions, in the proportion of
12 lbs. of soft soap and 8 11». of quassia to 100
galls, of water, would be efficacious. Painting
the trees with a wash compound of quicklime of
abont the consistency of whitewash, with soft
soap added at the rate of about \ lb. to the gal-
lon, is most useful in the case of a bad attack, as
well as for young trees. Or the stems of infested
trees after having been scraped may be scrubbed
over with a mixture of soft soap and water, in the
proportion of \ lb. of soft soap to a gallon of
water, and i lb. of the finest flowers of sulphur,
stirred well together. The mixture of soft soap
and petroleum might also be advantageously used
for brushing into the bark of the trees.

After trees have been scraped it is most essen-
tial that the scrapings of bark should be burned
at once.

With regard to young trees and small trees, and
all trees where it is practicable, it would l>e very
advantageous to scrub the stems and branches
with housemaid's scrubbing-brushes and a compo-
sition, as described above, of soft soap, solphor
and water, or of i lb. of soft soap and 8 wine-
glasses full of paraffin oil to a gallon of water, or
with the petroleum soap ('Beports on Insects
Ii\jarious to Crops,' by Charles Whitehead, Esq.,
P.Z.S.).

XYZUS CBSA8I, Passerini. The Chxsbt
Afeib. Fortunately this aphis does not often
cause very much injury in luge cherry orchards,
as in those of East and Hid Kent, for instance.

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MYZDS CBBASI

althoogh it is frequently the source of a consider-
able amount of harm and annoyance in small
orchards and gardens, especially upon half -stan-
dards, pyramids, and bashes. It is also parti-
cularly troublesome occasionally to Morello trees,
whose large juicy subacid ftuit is so valuable for
making cherry brandy, and i« largely produced
throughout Kent. Sometimes, however, in
blighting years, like that of 1885, when almost
all the cultivated plants under the sun and many
forest trees were infested with their own familiar
aphides, the trees in the large orchard* do not
escape.

The aphides during a severe attack swarm upon
the nnder surfaces of the leaves and pump out
their life-juices with their siphon-like apparatus,
and seal up their pores with filth, which also falls
upon the npper surface of the leaves and prevents
respiration. In these circumstances the fruit
cannot fill out properly. If it become fully
formed and ripen in due course it is of poor
quality, and is naturally injured for sale by the
black mixture of honey-dew and excreta that ii
sprinkled npon it.

This aphis is also found constantly upon black
and red currant bushes. In 1885 these bushes,
more particularly those of the black currant,
were covered with these insects, which finally
ruined the crop of fruit in some cases, and in
others made it unfit to send to market. Mr
Buckton, in his monograph of British Aphides,
speaks of the Mgzut cerari as having been seen
by him upon currant bushes, and the experience
of recent years quite confirms Mr Bnckton's
statement.

In a neighbouring fruit plantation in June in
1885 there were to be found the Aphii mali upon
almost every apple tree, the A. pru»i actively
engaged in ruining the plum and damson crop,
and the Ifgmt earati hard at work npon the
leaves of the black-heart cherry trees and upon
the black and red currant bushes. Besides all
these, side by side with the larvte of the 3f. oerati
occasionally could be seen the larvss of the Aphis
ribit, engaged in throwing up red gaUs on the
leaves of both kinds of currant bushes.

These currant bushes received more injury
from the Mgtu* oerati than the cherry trees in
1885, and the larve were innumerable and per-
sistent.

Ko kind of migration from the cherry trees to
the currant trees was noticed during the season.
Thrar appearance upon each was nearly simul-
taneous.

Kaltenberg and Taschenberg both describe the
Jfyziw eerari as a plague upon cherry trees in
Oennany. Professors Asa Fitch and Lintner
tell OS that it is common in America, while
Sannders speaks of an insect in Canada which
seems to be exactly similar. It would appear
from the statements of Professor Fitch that this
Myztu is more formidable in America than in
England, for he remarks that upon a cherry tree
10 feet high, reckoning that it had 17,000 leaves
npon it, there were at least 12,000,000 of these
creatures (' First and Second Reports npon the
InsecU of New York,' 1856, by Professor Asa
Fitch).

l^faSMtory. This insect belongs to the family

AphieUdtt, to the tribe Aphidintt, and the genus
Myztu, so called from the Cheek verb meaning
to suck.

In colour the viviparous, apterons, or wingless
female, bringing forth living larvte, is dark, almost
black, with dark yellow legs. Its body is very
broad at its lower extremity. It comes from the
egg in April, and soon after brings forth living
larvse, or lice, which at once begin to feed upon
the juices of the leaves. After the larvs have
put on the pupa stage the winged viviparous
females come forth and fly away to infest other
trees and bushes. They have black bodies with
yellow legs, and large wiugs measuring about 8
lines when expanded. Like the pnpte, they have
red eyes.

Later on winged males are generated, whose
bodies are yellow with brown or dark markings,
and not so broad as those of the females. At or
about the same time from the latter generations,
produced by the winged viviparous females, wing-
less, egg-laying (oviparous) females come npon
the scene, with which are found the winged males
towards the middle of September. These wing-
less females are for the most part brown ; their
bodies shine and are squat in shape, and not so
large as the foundress or Altm jitter.

From 2 to 4 eggs are laid by each female npon
the shoots of cherry trees and the currant bushes
towards the end of September or in the beginning
of October. Hatching takes place when the first
warm days of spring arrive.

Prme»tion. After an attack of these aphides
npon cherry trees, a close examination should be
made in September to discover if there are egg-
laying females upon their branches and side
shoots. In case these are detected washing or
syringing the trees with a mixture of soft soap,
quassia, and water, or i)etroleam soap and watw,
may be adopted with good results. Care ob-
viously must be taken to seize npon the right
period for this operation, so as to remove the
females before they have laid their eggs.

When black cnrrant bushes have been badly
infested they should be pruned in November, and
the cuttings carried away and burned at once.
Black currant bushes can hardly be pruned too
closely, as the fruit comes upon the first year's
wood. If the attack of the Mynt were con-
tinnous and persistent the bushes might be oat
down close to the ground without any injurious
consequences resulting to them.

Bed cnrrant bushes, on the other hand, are not
pruned hard. It might, therefore, be well to
brush the stems and shoots over with a thick
solution of soft soap with paraffin oil in it, in the
proportion of 20 lbs. of soft soap to 100 galls, of
water and 2 quarts of paraffin oil, mixed well to-
gether, if it were suspected that there were any
eggs upon them ; or the petroleum soap, slightly
dilated, may be employed.

Morello cherry trees are principally grown
against walls and buildings, and it would be well
after an attack of the Myitu to take down the
branches from the walls and syringe them well
with soft soap, quassia, and water; or to brash
them over with the same composition as that pre-
scribed for red currant bashes.

Semediu. Syringing with soft soap and quassia

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NAILS— NAPHTHA

1087

mixed witb water, by meant of hop-washing en-
gines, is the only lemedy avulable in the cue of
cherry trees, and this mast not be done before the
cberries are well set and clear from the remains
of the calyces, nor when they show the faintest
tinge (tf coloaring. This operation is arduous and
costly, as it is in the case of all large fruit trees,
and in all probability it might have to be repeated,
so that it would not be undertaken unless there
were special conveniences for carrying it out, and
the prospect of remnnerative prices. In the case
of large cherry trees the ordinary hop engines
would perhaps not have power enough to force
the wash well up to the topmost boughs ; but
machines with stronger pumps could be made if
the attack were serious and recurrent (' Reports
on Insects Injurious to Crops,' by Chas. White-
head, Esq., F.Z.S.).

VAUiS (The) shonid be kept clean by the daily
use of the nail-brush and soap-and-water. After
wiping the hands, bat whilst they are still soft
from the action of the water, the skin, which is
apt to grow over the nwls, should be gently
looeened and pressed back, which will not only
preserve them neatly rounded, but will prevent
the skin cracking around thdr roots (agnails,
mul-springs) and becoming sore. The free ends
or point* of the nails should be pared about once
a week; and biting thejn shonid be particularly
aTcnded, as being at once destructive to their
beauty and nsefnlness. " The (free) edge of the
scarf-skin shonid never be pared, the surface of
the nail never scraped, or the nails cleaned with
a^ instrument whatever saving the nail-brush"
(Avt. WiUon).

The consequences of wearing a shoe that a
obvioosly too short for the foot are thus described
by the above authority : — " In this case Nature
gives us warning, by means of her agent, ptun,
that such a proceeding is contrary to her laws.
We stop our ears, and get accustomed to the pain,
which, perhaps, is not severe, and soon goes off ;
the shoes get a scolding for their malice, and we
forget all about it for a time. But does Nature
check her course to suit the convenience of
thoughtless men ? No, no. In a short time we
And tiiat the nail, intercepted in its forward
course, has become unusually thick and hard, and
has spread out so much upon the sides that it is
now growing into the flesh, and so makes a case
for the doctor. Or, perhaps, the continuance
of pressure may have inflamed the sensitive
skin at the root, and caused a sore and painful
place there. And instances are by no means in-
frequent in which the power of production of the
nail at the root becomes entirely abrogated, and
then it grows in thickness only."

When the nails are stained or discoloured, a
little lemon juice, or vinegar-and-water, is the
best application. Occasionally a little pumice-
stone, in impalpable powder, or a little 'putty
powder,' may be used along with water and a
piece of soft leather or flannel for the same
pnrpoae. The frequent employment of these sub-
stanoes is, however, injurious to the healthy
growth of the nail.

VAJnOaur. The colowed cotton cloth which
bean this name was originally brought from

Nankin, the ancient capital of China, and was
prepared from a native cotton, of a brownish-
yellow hue. It is now successfully imitated in
England, and at the present time the English
manufacturers supply the Canton market. In
this country the colour is generally given to the
cloth by successive baths of sulphate of iron and
crude carbonate of soda or lime water.

HABKSEH DTE. The liquid sold under this
name in the shops is a solution of annotta. It is
employed to dye white calicoes of a nankeen
colour, but chiefly to restore the colour of faded
nankeen clothing.

HAFH'IHA. 8gn. Mihsbal napbtea. Rock
OIL ; Naphtha, L. A name given to the limpid
and purer varieties of pbxbolbvic (which ttt),
which exudes from the surface of the earth in
various parts of the world.

Frop. Naphtha possesses a penetrating odour
and a yellow colour, but may be rendered colour-
less by distillation ; it usually begins to boil at a
temperature of about 180° F., but, being a mix-
ture of several different hydrocarbons, it has no
fixed boiling-point; it is very inflammable; it
does not mix with water, but imparts to that
fluid its peculiar taste and smell ; mixes with al-
cohol and oils, and dissolves sulphur, phosphorus,
camphor, iodine, mo^t of the resins, wax, fats,
and spermaceti; and forms with caoutchouc a
gelatinous varnish, which dries with very great
difficulty.

Par. Mineral naphtha is very frequently
adulterated with oil of turpentine, a fraud which
may be detected by — 1. The addition of some oil
of vitriol, which will in that case thicken and
darken it. 2. Hydrochloric acid gas passed
through the liquid for an hour will occasion the
formation of bydrochlorate of camphine, either
at once or after a few hours' repose, even if only
5% of oil of turpentine is present (iV Solltg).
8. If a few grains of iodide of potassium and a
little water are rubbed with the suspected sample,
the colour of the water should continue . un-
changed ; the presence of l-800th part of oil of
turpentine will cause it to assume a red or orange
colour (Saladin).

Unt, i[c. Naphtha is chiefly employed for the
purposes of illumination, as a solvent for india-
rubber, and in the preparation of a very superior
black pigment. It has been highly spoken of as
a remedy for cholera, by Dr Andreosky, a Russian
physician. The term naphtha has recently been
extended so as to include most of the inflammable
liquids produced by the dry distillation of organic
substances. See Petboui'itic, and below.

Naphtha, Boghead. Syn, PHOToeBir. Ob-
tained by distilling Boghotd coal, or any cannel
coal or bituminous shale, at as low a temperature
as possible.

Naphtha, Bone. i^n. Bona oil, Diffbl'b
AmuAL OIL. A mixture of hydrocarbons obtained
in the distillation of bones.

Naphtha, Coal-tar. Sy. Naphtha, Coal v.,
LiSHT oil. a mixture of volatile hydrocarbons,
obtained by distilling coal-tar. It is one of the
first products which comes over, and flows from
the still as crude coal naphtha. To obtain rec-
tified coal naphtha this crude liquid is distilled,
and the product agitated with 10% of concen<

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1088

NaPTHALGNB— NAltCOTINE

trated aulphario acid ; when cold the mixture is
treated with 5% of peroxide of manganene, and
the apper portion is snbmitted to farther diitil-
lation. The specific gravity of this purified pro-
duct ii 0*850. It is extensively used as a solvent
of caoatchouc and other allied substances, also of
resins for the preparation of vsmishes. By re-
peated purification and fractional distillation
benzol, the chief and most important constituent
of coal naphtha, is obtained. See BbnzOl.

Haphtha, Wood. See Ftbozylic Spibit.

HAPH'TEALEira:. C,gHg. Sg». Naphiea-
LIVB. A colourless, crystallisable, volatile sub-
stance, possessing an odour of coal-gas. It Is a
common product of the action of heat upon sub-
stances rich in carbon, like coal, wood, alcohol, &c.
Burmese petroleum and Rangoon tar contain it.
It is found occasionally deposited in gss-pipes in
cold weather.

Prep. The last portion of the volatile oily
prodact in the distillation of tar is collected sepa-
rately, and allowed to repose, when crude naph-
thalene separates in the solid state. By pushing
the distillation until the residuum in the still
begins to char, a farther portion of dark-coloured
naphthalene may be obtained. It is purified by
resnblimation a second or even a third time.

Prop,, S^c. Soluble in alcohol, benzene, and
ether; very slightly soluble in boiling water;
melU at 80° C. ; boils at 217° C; highly inflam-
mable, burning with a red and smoky flame;
heated with siuphnric acid it unites to form two
naphthalene sulphonic acids. By the action of
nitric acid upon naphthalene numerous substances
may be formed, the most interesting being nitro-
naphthalene. Naphthalene has lately been ex-
tensively employed as a stimulating expectorant.
With picric acid it behaves in a characteristic
way ; hot alcoholic solutions of these substances
when mixed deposit stellate tufts of yellow needles
on cooling. In its chemical relations naphthalene
closely resembles benzene. — Dote, 6 to 20 gr. ; or,
preferably, \ gr , frequently. Externally, made
into an ointment, in dry tetters, psoriasis, &c.,
80 gr. may be mixed with 1 oz. of lard.

SAFHTHOL ()3 Naphthol). C,oH,.HO. A de-
rivative of coal-tar, recommended by Professor
Kaposi, Vienna, in scabies, psoriasis, eczema, and
other skin diseases. A simple naphthol ointment,
1 dr. to 1 oz. lard, was found very efficacious in
X>8oriasis, and as it does not stain the skin and
hair, it is especially suitable for psoriasis of the
scalp, face, and hands. Produces internal anti-
sepsis, g^ven in 2 to 6 gr. doses for diarrhcsa.

SA'PLBS TSL'LOW. See Tbllow PiaMEVTS.

KAS'CEINE. CnH^NO,. 8y». Nabobima,
Nabobia. a peculiar substance discovered by
Pellelier in opium. It is obtained from the
aqneous solution of opium, after it has been freed
from morphine and narcotine by ammonia, by
adding to it hydrate of lime, or preferably baryta.
On boiling the filtered solution to expel the am-
monia, and evaporating the liquid, crystals of
narceine are gradually deposited. It may be
purified by solution in hot alcohol and recrystal-
lisation.

Prop., S[o. White, silky, acicnlar prisms;
neatnu; inodorons; bitter; pungent; soluble in
876 parte of vroter at 60°, and in 830 parte at

212° F. ; insoluble in etlier ; does not neutralise
the acids, and is destitute of basic properties. It
is distinguished from morphia by its easier fusi-
bility (190°), and by forming a blue liquid with
the dilute mineral acids, which on gradual dila-
tion changes to violet and rose-red, and ultimately
becomes colourless. It does not strike a blue
colour with ferric chloride, like morphia, but
forms a blue compound with iodine, which is
decomposed by boiling water. It appears to be
inert, and has not been applied to any useful
purpose.

HASCOT'ICS. Bemedies which promote or
artificially imitate the natural physiological pro-
cess of sleep, but which in large quantity produce
complete insensibility. Narcotics may be divided
into (1) indirect and (2) direct ; the former have
no primary effect on the cerebral circulation, but
act by supplying warmth, quiet, and other tran-
quillising elements, or by removing some distorb-
ing cause which renders sleep impossible, e.g.
many soothing and hygienic conditions, ano-
dynes, conium, Ac. The latter have some direct
effect upon the central nervous system or its
blood supply, e.g. opium, chloral hydrate, croton
chloral, potassium bromide, hyoscyamns, stramo-
nium, belladonna, hop, Indian hemp, alcohol,
digitalis, and the amesthetic vapours.

SAS'COTUTE. C2,H„N0,. Sg*. Naboo-

VIHA, L. ; SbI> S' opium, MATliBB DB DkBOBKB,

Fr. A peculiar crystalline substance, found by
Derosne in opium, and on which its stimulant
property was at first supposed to depend.

Prep. 1. From opium exhausteid of soluble
matter by cold water, by treating it with water
acidulated with acetic or hydrochloric acid, filter-
ing, neutralising with ammonia, and dissolving
the washed precipitate in boiling alcohol; the
narcotine is deposited as the liquid cools, and may
be pnrified by solution in ether.

2. By acting on opium, previously exhausted
by cold water, with ether.

Prop., l(e. White, inodorous, fluted, or striated
prisms ; neutral to test-paper ; insoluble in cold
water, sparingly soluble in boiling water, freely
soluble in boiling alcohol and in ether. It is
only feebly basic.

Narcotine is distinguished from morphine by
its insipidity, solubility in ether, insolubility in
alkalies, giving an orange tint to nitric acid, and
a greasy stain to paper when heated on it over a
candle. Another test for narcotine, said by Orfila
to be characteristic, is to add to a little of the
suspected substance a drop or two of oil of ritriol,
and then to add a very small fragment of nitrate
of potassium; the liquid speedily acquires a deep
blood-red colour if narcotine is present. Mor-
phine treated in the same way strikes a brown or
olive-green colonr.

Oht. The physiological action of narcotine is
differently stated by different authorities. 1 gr.
of it, dissolved in olive oil, killed a dog in 24
hours ; bnt 24 gr. dissolved in acetic acid were
given with impunity (Magendie). In the solid
state it is inert; 120 gr. at a dose scarcely pro-
duce any obvious eflecte {Ballg). Scruple doses
have been given without injury (Z>r Root*)'. It
has been recently proposed as a substitute for
quinine in the cure of agues. For this pnrpoM

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NATRIUM— NBMATUS OEOSSULARIiE

1069

tbe snlpliate or hydrochlorate ia preferable. 200
caws of intermittent and remittent feven have
been thos sncoeeafnlly treated in India (Dr
(yskamghneug). — Dote, 8 to 10 gr., aa an anti-
periodic, sedative, kc.

Tnrkey opinm contains about 1%, and East
Indian opinm aboat S% of narcotine.

■A'TKIUK. See SoBnnc.

VA'TBOH. Native carbonate of eoda.

VAXr'SKA. See SiozirBBa.

■AU'SKASTS. agft, Navmaktu, L. Sab-
■tancea which induce an inclination to vomit
without effecting it. See Euiioa.

HATSI^ Starting oi!. To remedy this, take a
slice of oork, about the circumference of a ahil-
Hng, and a little thicker; and ha^ng covered the
pngeeting navel with a small circular piece of
dcaa, aint Unen, place tbe cork on the linen,
snapping it into porition by means of crosa stripe
of idtite attcking-plaater (simple lead plaster),
over which the naaal roller ia to be adjusted.
Be earefnl to have the pkater of auScient
length, and to see that it adherea tightly to the
akin.

VEB-HBB. See Bjauh.

ntTTAS. The fabled drink of the mytholo-
gical deitiea. The name was formerly given to wine
dnleified with honey; it is now occasionally
applied to other sweet and pleasamt beveiages of
a aKmnlating character. The following lkjitbubs
areao called:

iVwp. 1. Chopped raiuna, 2 lbs. ; loaf angar,
ilba.; boiling water, 2 galls.; mix, and atir fre-
qneaUy until cold, then add 2 lemons, alieed;
proof apirit (brandy or ram), 3 pints ; macerate
in a covered vessel for 6 or 7 days, occasionally
shaking, next strain with pressure, and let the
atrmned liquid stand in a cold place for a week
to dear; laatiy, decant the clear portion, and
bottle it.

2. Red ratafia, 3 galla.; oils of cassia and
carraway, of each, 26 drops (dissolved in) ;
brandy, i pint ; orange wine, 1 gall. ; sliced
oiangea, 6 in number ; Inmp sugar, 2 lbs.; mscerate
tor a week, decant and bottle. See Abbaok
(FacUtioua).

HE'GTTS. A well-known beverage, so named
after ita originator and patron, C^nel Negus.
It is made of either port or sherry wine, mixed
with aboat twice its bulk of hot w^r, sweetened
with lump sugar, and flavoured with a little lemon
jnice and grated nutmeg, and a small fragment
only of the yellow peel of the lemon. The
addition of about 1 drop of essence of amber-
gris, or 8 or 10 drops of essence of vanilla, dia-
tribnted between about a dozen glasses, im-
proves it.

BXKAT0S OBOSSITLASLS, Westwood (from
tbef Greek word vHiia, the thread of a web) ;
Kanatiu groaanlari*, Dahlbom. The Qoobb-
BBBBT ASD CVBKAHT Saw-jlt. Growera of
gooseberries and red cnrranta suffer exceedingly
from this insect, whose larvs clear off the leaves
from these fruit bushes with Burprisiog rapidity.
They are very troublesome to gooseberry and
currant boshes in gardens, but Uic? can be re-
moved generally by hand picking and other means,
which it woold be almost impraoUeable to adopt
and carry oot in large plantations of from 10 to

TOL. II.

80 acres, such as may be seen in various parte of
Kent and in other conntiea.

Gooseberry bushes are much more infested by
the larvu of this saw-fly than red currant bushes,
while black currant bnshea are not affected by
them.

Although the methoda of the NtmaUu gram-
laruB in its campaign upon these fruit bushes
resemble those of tbe gooseberry moth, Abraxat
groitulariata, whose history is given in another
place, it differs considerably in many essentaal
points if close comparison is made between them.
However, the Ntwutittt ia a far more common and
dangerous enemy than the Abraseu.

In some seasons suitable for their piopagatian
the larveg or grubs of the JfamaUit, as they may
be termed to distinguish them from caterpillara
proper, or the larve of lepidoptarona inseota
(Reaumur terma these grubs ^fimttet ehanillet,
false caterpillars), cause the fruit bushes in May
to look as in the middle of winter, without
leaves or any sign of vegetation, except perhaps
a few of tbe nerves or ribs of the leaves 1^
upon the dioota. There is no leaf tissue ; there
are no fruits. Theae have been nq>pad ia the
bud.

During the apring in the yean 1876> 1879, and
1881 grave oomplainta came up from fruit growera
in many parte of the goosebnry and currant pro*
dncing districts of Cuibridge, Olooceater, Eeat,
and Worcestershire, and from many gardeners in
all parts of the country. Many inquiries were
made as to the habits and history of the grubs
that were causing this destruction, and as to reme-
dies to be used. In some instances it was re*
ported that the bnshea were actually killed by
the onslaughts upon them continued for two
years.

From all accounts it appears that the Ifamatat
groitularia is known in all Enropean ooontriea
where gooseberry and currant bashes or otiiet
species of the JUiM grow. It is cerbunly very
injurious in France, especially near Paris, and
in the fruit lands near Troves, and in the more
central departments. In Germany a good deal
of mischief is caused by it. Reports of serious
injury were made from varioua puts of Wiirtem-
berg, where fruit is extensively grown. Only
within the last 30 years has the Nematut groitu-
laria been noticed in America. Both in the
United States and in Canada, particularly in
Ontario, it is now an established pest upon goose-
berry and currant bushes, having evidently been
imported with cuttings or young bushes from
Europe.

Xi/rs Mittory. This insect belongs to the
family Tenthrinida of the order Htkbvoftxba.

The perfect insect, the saw-fly, has four wings,
translucent and beautiful when it is darting about
in the sunshine. Betweenthe tips of its extended
wings it meaaores very nearly \ an inch, or &}
Unes. Its body is 8 lines in length, and in colour
yellow. The thorax is marked with black spots ;
the legs are yellow with dark-coloured extremi-
ties. The male is not quite so Urge as the female,
and its body is narrower.

Pairmg takes place in ApriL The fliee may be
aeen in the flret warm daya of spring hovering
over guoseberry and currant bushes in prepaia-

69

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1090

NEPENTHE

tion for egg laying. Thii the female accom-
plishes by means of the wonderfal saw-like ap-
paratus, similar to that of the Cephus pygmatu
(see 'Insects Injarions to Com, Grass, Pea,
Bean, and Clorer Crops'), with which it malces
slits in the leaves of the bashes (R&tumnr
gives a most interesting and elaborate descrip-
tion of this ; he says, " Cet instrnment est
one veritable scie qui ne differs de celles que
nous nous servons pour couper le hois, qu'en ce
qu'elle est faite aTecljeancoup plus d'art que les
ndtres,' ' M^moires,' tome t, p. 108), and places
the long whitish eggs singly in each slit all down
the ribs of the leaves. They are arranged most
caref ally and precisely, there being about half an
egg's distance between each egg in the rows.
After about 7 days the grab comes from the egg
and begins at once to gnaw a tiny round hole in
the thick part of the leaf. At Orst it is nearly
transparent or slightly tinged with slate-colonr ;
when it has commenced feeding it acquires a
greenish hue. Differing from the caterpillar of
the gooseberry moth this grub has 20 feet, viz.
6 pectoral and 18 abdominal feet, and 2 at the
end of the body. In a week or 8 days it attains
its full length of 9 lines, or | of an inch. At this
time these grabs are extremely voracious and de-
structive, and as it is not uncommon to find 600 or
600 and even more upon one fruit bush, it may be
understood that they quickly clear off all the
foliage. After the first casting of the skin, or
moult, which takes place before the grub is folly
grown, the colour is again very light, bnt becomes
soon greeu again after a little feeding. In due
course, or after 4 or 6 days, the second and last
cssUug of skin occurs, and the grub crawls down
the stem, or lets itself drop by means of threads
of web to the ground, in which it buries itself some
inches deep, and forming a kind of cell it makes a
cocoon and assumes the chrysalis form, remaining
in this until tempted to burst its bonds by spring
weather. Dahlbom says that the cocoons are
grouped and joined together in the earth by means
of threads of web (' Clavis novi Hymenopterorum
systematis,' p. 23, Qustavo Dahlbom). There are
two broods of these insects, or at least of those
which emerge earliest from their winter habita-
tion.

PmtiUion. There can be no doubt that the
best mode of prevention is to destroy the grabs
or chrysalids while in the ground, and this may be
done by deep cultivation round the fruit bushes
with a spud, and by the application of copious
dressings of fresh lime, or gas lime, or pure pan-
gent soot, which should be worked well into the
soil. The clods thus dug np should be well
knocked to pieces with the large eyes of ' prong
hoes' so as to dislodge the cocoons within them.
This operation mny be performed between October
and the 1st of March, and after this the ground
may be beaten down hard with spades, or trodden
down hard, to prevent possibly the escape of some
of the insects which have survived the liming and
triturating process.

All this would only be done of course after a
severe attack of grubs in the previous spring.

In garden or small plantations other means
may be adopted, such as soaking the ground
around the fruit bushes with liquid manure and

removing the soil near them. These methods can
hardly be carried out in large plantations.

Smudiet. Quicklime powdered upon the frnit
bushes early in the morning before the dew is off
the leaves is a very usefid remedy. Syringing
the bushes with a strong wash of water and soft
soap, consisting of from 10 to 12 lbs. of soft
soap to 100 pills, of water, is an admirable
remedial measure. The essence from 1 lb. of
tobacco may be mixed with this, or better still,
the bitter extract from 4 or 6 lbs. of qoaada
chips.

Petroleum soft soap may also be used at the
rate of i gall, or } gall, to 100 galls, of water.

Paraffin oil in the proportion of a wine-glass to
8 galls, of water has been found to remove the
grubs, but if applied when the young goose-
berries are formed, this is sud, or fancied, to have
imparted some of its flavour to them. Washing
or syringing a large plantation would be a tedious
work. Fortunately the grabs generally appear
here and there in patches, and not simultaneously
upon a large area of fruit land. They should be
taken in time. Directly a bash is seen to be in-
fested active measures should be adopted, and
when it has been limed or syringed the gpround
beneath must be hoed or well stamped down to
kill the grubs which have fallen off. As there
are two broods in some cases watchful care will
be required that none of the grubs that fall
escape.

Hellebore, VenOrum, sprinkled in the form
of powder upon the fruit bushes, has a good
effect in clearing off the grubs. This is a deadly
poison, and if any of it remained upon the froit
most serious consequences might ensne. There
are records of persons having been made serioosly
ill from having partaken of frait after the bushes
had been dusted with powdered hellebore. Goose-
berries are picked very young and green for tarts
and preserves, and it frequently happens that a
portion of the crop of each bush in large planta-
tions is picked green for these purposes if the
price is good, so that it would be highly dangerous
to apply hellebore even in these early stages.
Hellebore is used extensively in America as a
remedy against this and other insects.

Natural enemies have been created against this
insect, as against many other insects that are
destructive to crops. Among these may be cited
the ladybirds, CoceinalUe, which eat the eggs, and
have been seen attacking the grubs in their earliest
stages. Also the larvm of the Chrytopa perla —
the Golden Eye, or Lacewing, a fly of the order
NsuKOPTBBA and the family Semerobiida — have
been noticed devouring the grubs jast after tbey
have come from the eggs. There is also an
ichneumon fiy of some species which deposits its
eggs in the eggs of the Nematnt, as may be
evidently seen by the dark colour under their
transparent skins.

In America, Professor Biley discovered a simi-
lar parasite upon the JVmtoAw ventrieotut, a
species allied to the NmtiUu rihtiU. This he
MUed Trichogramma preUota. Professor Lint-
ner also confirms this, and relates that eggs of the
currant saw-fly parasitized by the Triehtigramma
have been sent for distribntion to vaiioui Ame-
rican States and to Canada (' Beport* on Insects

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NESSLEE'S TEST— NEUTRALISING PROPORTIONS

1091

IHJorioTifl to Crops,' by Charles Whitehead, Esq.,

HZPSVTHS. A drink calcuUted to hanish
Me remembrance of grief. In the 'Odyssey"
Homer describes Helen as administering it to
Telemachns. Nothing is known respecting the
composition of the ancient nepenthe. The name
is applied to a preparation of opinm by many
old writers, and is now employed by a Bristol
firm to designate a preparation resembling in
all essential pmnts BatUe/s ' liquob oph bhda.-
11 V us.'

lESSLEB'B

TEST for ammonia, *c. This,
the most delicate test for ammonia, was devised
by Nessler. It is capable of detecting 1 part of
ammonia in 20,000,000 parts of water. The test
•» based upon the fact that an alkaline solution
of mercnric iodide prodaces a brown coloration
with ammonia, due to the formation of the iodide
of tetramercnrammoninm. It is prepared by
satnnting a solution of iodide of potassium with
the biniodide of mercury, and then adding a weak
solation of hydrate of sodium. The addition of
a few drops of this solution to one containing
ammonia prodaces a yellowish tint when only a
tarace of ammonia is present, but a dark brown
preci^tste when the ammonia is present in larger
qnaatity. A modification of this test is applied
to the detection of wood spirit in common al-
cohol. A dilate solntion of the iodides in ques-
tion in pure alcohol is formed, in the propor-
tion of 8 or 3 gr. of the salts to 100 c.c. of al-
coboL About 4 c.c. of the suspected alcohol are
taken, to which are added 2 or 8 drops' of the test
solntion, a few drops of alcoholic ammonia, and,
lastly, a little alcoholic potash; if wood spirit
bo jvesent, the solation will remain clear, but if
the alcohol be pure, the characteristic reddish-
brown precipitate will appear. This precipitate is
•olnble in acetone, which is always present in wood
spirit.

Wanklyn gives the following formula for the
preparation of the Nessler test :— Mercuric chlo-
ride in powder, 35 grms.,- iodide of potassium,
90 grms.; water, 1} litres; heat gently till
dissolved (say 20 minutes) in a luge basin.
Then add of stick canstic potash, 820 grms.,
and 60 c.c. of saturated solation of mercnric
chlwide. The above will be ready for use
in 2 hours, and gives maximum colour in 3
minntes.

For quantitative chemical analysis Thorpe and
Mnir recommend the following method of pre-
paration:— "Dissolve 86 grms. of potassimn
iodide in 120 c.c of water, transfer 6 o.o. of the
solation to a dean beaker, and add, little by little,
a cold ooncentiated solntion of mercuric diloride
to the remainder until the mercuric iodide ceases
to be rediasolved on stirring. Add the 6 c.c, of
the potassinm iodide to redissolve the remaining
mercnric iodide, and cautiously continue the addi-
tion of the corrosive sublimate solution until a very
slight precipitate only remains. Now add an
aqneoas solution of pofatsh,.prepared by dissolving
100 grms. of ' stick ' potash in 200 c.c. of water, and
dilute the miztare to 500 c.c. The liquid sboald
be allowed to stand for a short time, and a portion
decanted into a anMll bottle for use." The rest
if placed in • Urge bottle, from which the smaller

one is replenished by decantation as required.
This solntion is widely used in conjunction with
standard ammonium chloride solution in the
estimation of ammonia in potable waters; the
method is colorimetric — that is, the tints produced
by given quantities of Nessler's solution and
water, and water treated with a known quantity
of the ammonium chloride solution, are compared.
Vida Wanklyn and Chapman's ' Water Analysis '
for further particulars.

VESTS, EDIBLE. These dietetic curiosities,
which are esteemed as great gastronomic luxuries .
by the Chinese, are formed by several species of
swallows frequenting the Indian seas. The so-
called nests chiefly abound in Java, Borneo, and
Celebes, being found in the caverns both inland
and on the sea-shores of those islands.

They are not in reality birds' nests, but merely
supports, by which the bird is enabled to sustain
and also to attach its nest to the rock. The nests
themselves consist of grass, leaves, and sea-
weed; the last of which substances it was for
a long time erroneously considered formed
the escnlent, whereas it is the support which
exclusively constitutes this Eastern table
luxury.

This in great part consists of a peculiar mncns,
of a gelatinous nature, which it has been ascer-
tained the bird secretes and discharges from its
mouth in large quantities. The Chinese mostly
use it in the form of soup, and believe it to be
possessed of considerable nutrient power. As
many as 8,400,000 of edible, nests are said to
be annually imported into Canton. " The finest
and whitest kind sells for £6 or £6 the lb. ;
but it requires about 60 nests to make up 1 lb.
The brackets or supports are moved three times,
the best being obtained in Jaly and August"
(ca»rcA).
NSPTLS BASH. See Rash.
NETISAIi'OIA. Lit., pain in a nerve. This
term is applied to a disease of the nervous sensory
apparatus, marked by paroxysmal pain, which is
for the most part unilateral and in the course of
nerves. Neuralgia may, as is well known, mani-
fest itself in almost any part of the body. The
varieties of it are so numerous, and its causes and
treatment so varied, as to preclude any detailed
account. Those who suffer from it should seek
medical advice and carefully follow out the direc-
tions given. Apart from all local treatment, a
plain but generous diet, abundance of fresh air
and exercise, regular habits, and a generally
healthy mode of Ufe will do much to assist the
patient. Over-exertion, close and badly ventilated
rooms and workshops, dyspepsia, late hours, and
irregular habits are fertile causes of neuralgia,
and should bo carefully avoided by those who are
liable to this distressing malady. The proper use
of tonics, particularly quinine, arsenic, and iron,
and the avoidance of anything approaching con-
stipation, will do much to relieve the symptoms in
most cases.

VEUTSALISA'TIOir. The admixture of an
alkali or base with an acid in such proportions
that neither shall predominate. A neutral com-
pound neither turns red litmus-paper blue^ nor
blue litmus-paper red.
NEUTKALISUTG FBOFOSTIOirS, Table o&

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1092

NEW BERLIN SANITARY LIQUEUR— NICKEL

TabU of the Ntutralisit^ Proportion* of tome of the Acid* and AlkaUne Carlonatee, omUOmg
mimte fraetiont. Tht beet commercial preparaiione muet be lued.

Bicarb, of Soda

Ckrbonate

Seiqnicaibo-

BicaiboBate

Tartaric

Citric

Lemon

Cr. Carb.

and

Bicaib. of

of

nata of

of "

Acid.

Acid.

Juice.

of Soda.

Carb. of Potaah.

Potash.

Uagnetu.

Ammoiua.

AnuDonia.

Gn.

Gn.

3

Gn.

On.

Gn.

On.

Gn.

Gn. 1
10* ,

10

9i

H

19

11

18*

6*

8*

lOi

10

H

20*

12

14*

7

8*

11* 1

IS

12

^

26

14*

17*

8*

10

19* 1

16

14

8i

29

17

20*

9*

12

16 !

16i

14i

3*

SO

17*

21

10

12*

16*

18

17

4

84*

20

24*

11*

14

19

20

18*

H

88*

22*

27

12*

16*

21
21i

SOi

19

4|

40

28

27*

18

16

26

24

61

60

29

86

16*

18*

27

27

26

6|

62

80

86

17

21

28*-

82

80

7

61

86

48

80*

26

88*

• 86

88i

iJi

69

40

48*

28

88

88

47

44

90

62*

68

80

87

49*

62

4Si

Hi

100

68

70

S3

41

66

62

68

13*

120

69

84

40

49

66*

73

68

18

140

82

98

46*

67

77

76

70

144

84

101

48*

69

79

90

84

19*

172

101

121

67*

71

9H

- 92

86

20

i 177

103

124

69

72

97

100

98

21}

1 192

112

184

64

78

105*

108

100

28*

206

120

146

69

84

113

180

168

89*

844

202

248

116

141

190

HEV BEBLIir SAHITAXT LIQUEITR—

Oeinndheita-LlqTieuT, neuer Berliner (Apothejker
Umil Trotz). An unpleasantly tasting bitter
spicy Bcbnappa, containing 18% of sugar. Leaves
an after-taste of aloes {Soger).

KICK'EL. Ni = 58-6. Syn. NiOKBMirH, L.
A metal obtained from kupfemickel, NiAs, a
native arsenide of nickel found in the Saxon
mines in Styiia, at Lcadhilla, and in Connecticut ;
from nickel-glance, Ni( AsS),, nickel-blende, KiAs,
and pentlandite, (NiFe)S ; &om magnetic pyrites
in Pennsylvania ; also from nickel speiss, an im-
pure arsenio-sulpbide of nickel left after the
manufacture of cobalt blue from its ores. An
important source has lately been opened up in
New Caledonia, where large quantities of a sili-
cate of nickel called garricerite occur.

Prep. The powdered arsenical ore is roasted
first by itself, and next with charcoal powder,
until all the arsenic is expelled, and a garlic
odour ceases to be evolved; the reeidnnm is
mixed with sulphur, 8 parts, and potassium hy-
drate, 1 part; and the compound is melted in a
crucible with a gentle heat ; the fused mass when
cold is reduced to powder, lixiviated vrith water,
dissolved in sulphuric acid mixed with a little
nitric acid, and precipitated with potassium car-
bonate ; the precipitate (nickelons carbonate) is
washed, dried, mixed with powdered charcoal,
and, lastly, reduced by the heat of a powerful
furnace.

When nickel predominates in the ore, after the
arsenic, iron, and copper have been separated,
ammonia is digested with the mixed nickelons
and cobaltous oxidee, and the resulting blue solu-
'tlon, after dilution with boiled pure water, is

treated with potassium hydrate until the oolonr
disappears, when the whole is put into an air-
tight vessel, and set aside for some time. The
powder (nickelons hydrate) which subsides, after
washing, is mixed with charcoal, and reduced by
fusion in a crucible containing some crown glass.
On the small scale, for chemical purposes^ pare
nickel is best obtained by moderately heating
nickelons oxalate in a covered cradUe lined with
charcoal.

Pur. Kmss and Schmidt have recently dis-
covered that a new metal, which they have named
gnomium, constantly occurs, associated with
nickel and cobalt, as an impurity ; this acconnt*
for many of the irregular results which have
been observed in dealing analytically with these
metals.

Prop. White with steel-grey tinge ; hard s mal-
leable; magnetic; capable of receiving the Inatie
of silver s can be rolled into thin plates and drawn
into wire ; sp. gr. 89 ; fusibility between that of
manganese and iron ; it is oxidised with difflcnlty
even on hesting in liie air; is little attacked by
dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acids, but easily
soluble in dilute nitric add. It deoompoaes
steam slowly at a red heat. With the adds, Ac,
it forms numerous compounds, most of which
' may be prepared by the direct solution of the
I carbonate. When the metal contains carbon it
is less malleable and more readily fusible than
when pure.
I l^tt*. The salts of nickel in the anhydrous
state are for the most part yellow ; when hydrated,
1 green — and furnish solutions poeseaing a pale
' green colour. Solutions of it* salta exhibit the
following reactions!— AlkaUne hydrate* give a

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NICKEL

1098

pale anple-green precipitate, iniolnble in ezcen,
bnt lolable in a solntion of carbonate of ammo-
nium, yielding a greenigh-blae liquid. Ammonia
giTea a similar precipitate, lolable in excess,
yieldinit a deep porplish-blne aolation. The pre-
sence of ammoninm salts or free acids interferes
with this reaction. Cyanide of potassinm pro-
dnees a green precipitate, solnble in excess, form-
ing an amber- coloured liquid, which is reprecipi-
tated by hydrochloric acid. This last precipitate
is scarcely soluble in excess of the acid in the
cold, bat readily so npon boiling the liqnid.
■ferrocymnide of potassinm gives a greenish-white
precipitate. Solphoretted hydrogen occasions no
change in solottons of nickel containing free
nuneral add, bnt in allcaline solutions gives a
black preciiritate. Sulphide of ammoniqm in
neotral solutions gives a black precipitate, soluble
with diiBcolty in hydrochloric acid; but freely
■olnble in aqua regia.

XtHm. Nickel may be thrown down from its
ore in the form of either carbonate or hydrate,
and after ignition may be weighed as oxide, each
-gi^n of wUch is equal to 7-8ths gr. of pure
nickel ; or, more aocnrately, 0-7871 gr.

mdcel may be separated from other metals in
the same way as cobalt, but if both these metals
be present the operation may be troublesome, and
is then effected by the different reactions of thmr
cyanides.

According to Bose, nickel may be separated
from cobalt as follows : — The mixed metals are
dissolved in considerable excess of hydrochloric
acids, and the solntion is diluted with a very
large quantity of water; a cnrrent of chlorine is
then passed tiuongh the liqnor for several hours,
and the npper part of the flask is left filled with
the gas after the current has ceased ; barium car-
bonwte is next added in excess, the whole digested
together with frequent agitation for 16 or 18
hcnrs, and then thrown on a filter. The filtrate
yields pare nickelous oxide by precipitation with
hydi»te of potassinm ; whilst the residuum on the
filter, after being washed in water, dissolved in
hot hydrochloric acid, and the barium precipitated
with sulphmio add, furnishes, with hydrate of
potaseiom, a precipitate of cobaltoas hydrate,
free from nickel, which, when washed and dried,
is reduced in a platinum or porcelain crucible by
hydrogen gas.

Another simpler, and for all practical purposes
sufficiently accurate, method of separating cobalt
from nickel depends upon the precipitation of
potassium cobalt nitrate by a solution of potas-
sium nitrite. The preparation is dried at 100°
and weighed. The nickel remains in the filtrate,
and may be precipitated with canstic potash ; the
precipitate alter being bculed and washed is con-
verted into the monoxide by ignition {Botooe).

UtM. Nickel is chiefly employed in the maan-
factore of Qerman silvw. Some of its salts have
been recenUy introduced into medical practice,
and appear likely to prove most valuable additions
-to the materia medica. It has also been much
used recently for coating iron and steel by gal-
vanic deposition ; in this process it is used as the
positive pole. If the coating be well deposited it
scarcely nndergoea any oxidation. This process
of niokel platu^ is i^lied to firearms, snrgical

instruments, various parts of machines, harness,
&c, to prevent them from rusting. The best
bath for' nickel plating is a solution of pure
nickel ammonium sulphate saturated at 20°—
26° C. Dishes and crucibles are made of nickel af
substitutes for those of silver and platinum ; such
vessels are very useful in the chemical laboratory.
Sheets of nickel can be welded upon iron and steel
plates ; and culinary vessels, Sic., have been made
of such pistes, wbidi are not liable to rust.

Mloj/t of nickel are used in the coinage of
America, Belgium, Switzerland, &c, the propor-
tion being about 25% of nickel to 75% of copper.
The so-ci^ed ' German silver ' and Chinese 'pack-
fong' are alloys of nickel with copper and zinc
in variable proportions. Several useful alloys,
e.g. 'Webster's metal,' are made by combining
nickel with aluminium bronze. The Steel Com-
pany of Scotland have recenUy produced some
remarkable alloys of nickel and iron. Of these
some are non-magneti sable, others magnetisable {
and their properties have been investigated by
Dr HopkinsoD, who contributed several papers to
the procee<Ungs of the Boyal Socie(7 in the spring
of 1890.

Hickellc Oxide. Ni^O^ .Ifyn. SbsqvzoxzdI
OP NioxEL, Peboxzdb ov vioul. Prep. By
passing chlorine through water holding the hy-
drate in suspension j or by mixing a salt of nickel
with bleaching powder ; or by gently igniting the
nitrate or carbonate in the air. An insoluble
black powder, which is decomposed by heat.

Siek'alons Ac'etate. Ni(C,H,0^ Svn,
NlOKBUl ACETAS, L. iVwp. By neutralising
acetic acid with nickelons carbonate, and gently
concentrating by evaporation, so that cryst^
may form. Small green crystals, soluble in 6
parts of water,

Hickeloiis Car^nate. NiCOp S^. Kioxb-
Lli OABBOlTAg, L. Prep. This salt may be ob-
tained in the manner described above in connec-
tion with the preparation of metallic nickel, or
by simply adding carbonate of sodium to a solu-
tion of nickelous chloride, but in this case the
crystals contain 6 molecules of water. The fol-
lowing is another formula which produces a nearly
pure carbonate, bnt one which may still contain a
little cobalt, the entire separation of which is a
matter of extreme difficulty, and can best be
effected in the manner recommended by Bose, de-
scribed above :

The mineral (crude speiss or kupfemickel) is
broken into small fragments, mixed with from l-4th
to half its weight of iron filings, and the whole
dissolved in aqua regia ; the solution is gentiy eva-
porated to dryness, the residue treated with boil-
ing water, and the insoluble ferrona arseniate
removed by filtration; the liquid is next acidu-
lated with hydrochloric add, treated with sul-
phuretted hydrogen, in excess, to precipitate the
copper, and, after filtration, is boiled with a little
nitric acidr to bring back tite iron into the f errio
state; to the cold and largely dilated liquid a
solntion of bicarbonate of sodium is gradually
added, and the ferric oxide separated by filtra-
tion; lastiy, the filtered solntion is boiled with
carbonate of sodium in excess, and the pale green
predpitate of carbonate collected, washed, and
dried.

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1094

NICOTINE

Utet, 4^e, It U freely solable in the adds, and
ia ohiefly employed to prepare the salts and other
compounds of nickel.

Sickelons CUo"ilde. NiCl,. Sj/n. Niokelu
OEZiOBlsuM, L, Prep. From nickelous car-
bonate or oxide and hydrochloric acid. Small
green crystals, of the formnla NiCl|,6Aq, which
are rendered yellow and anhydrons by heat, nnless
they contain cobalt, when the salt retuns a tint
of green.

DOTTBLE CELOBtDEB. Nickelons chloride unites
with the chlorides of ammoniam, potassinm, and
sodium,' to form pale green crystallisable salts,
which have been used for depositing nickel or
iron, lead, copper, &c.

Nickelons Hy'drate. Ni(HO),. Ptep. By predpi-
tating a soluble salt of nickel with caustic potash.
Green crystalline powder, freely soluble in acids,
forming the ordinary salts of nickel.

Nickelons Ox'alate. NiCgO^. Syn. Nioebxii
OXAiiAS, L. Prep. By adding a strong solution
of oxalic acid to a similar solution of nickelons
sulphate, and collecting the pale bluish-green pre-
cipitate which forms after a time. Used to pre-
pare metallic nickel and its oxide for laboratory
purposes.

Niekdona Oxide. NiO. 8gn. Pbotoxidb of
NOXBli. Occurs as bunsenite in Saxony. Prep.
By heating the nitrate, carbonate, or hydrox-
ide, to redness in open vessels. Green crystalline
powder.

Niskelona Bnlphate. NiSO^. Sgn. Sttipeatb
OF NICKBL. Prep. Dissolve nickelous carbonate
or hydroxide in dilute sulphuric acid, evaporate
down, and crystallise. Pale green prismatic crys-
tals, and of the formula NiS04,7Aq, or small pale
green octahedrons, when crystallised at a tem-
perature, from a very acid solution, containing
NiS04,6Aq.

Nidcelons and FotaMiitm Sulphate. NiSO^
K]804,6Aq. Sgn, Doublb auifHATB ov hiokbl
AXD FOTASBITTX. Prep. By crystallising a mix-
ture of nickelons and potassium sulphates. Pale
green crystals, readily soluble in water. Sodium
and ammonium sulphates form similar compounds
with nickelons sulphate.

Nlckdou and Ammoninm Bnlphate. (NH4),
S04-l-NiS0„6Aq.

Jv«p. By dissolving pure nickel in dilute sul-
phuric acid, concentrating the solution, and then
adding ammonium sulphate ; re-crystallise.

Vtet, ifo. Employed tor making the bath solu-
tion in nickel-plating.

According to Link, 100 parts of water dissolve
of this salt, at 16°, 6-8 parts; at 20°, 6-9 parts;
at 80°, 8-8 parts ; at 40°, ll'S parts ; at 60^ U-4
parts ; at 85°, 88-6 parts.

Nickel Plating. A new process of nickel plating
has recently come into use in Belgium, by which
a thick plating may be deposited on any metal by
a feeble electric current in a very short space of
time. The bath is composed of 10 parts sulphate
of nickel, 7i parts of neutral tartrate of ammo-
nia, 0'6 parts of tannic acid, and 20 parts of
water. The sulphate of nickel is dissolved in 8
to 4 part of water, carefhlly neutralised, the
other ingredients added, and the solution boiled
for i of an honr ; the rest of the water is added,
and the liquid filtered or decanted. By adding

the materials in the same proportion the strength
of the hath may be kept constant. It is said that
the deposit is brilliantly white, soft, and homo-
geneous, and has, even when of great thickness,
no tendency to scale.

Hickel Silver. See OHBiuir Siltbb.

Hickel Bulphidsa. The monosulpbide, NiS,
occurs as millerite ; it is formed when the metal
is heated with sulphur, and in the hydrated con-
dition when ammoniam anlphide is added to a
solution of a nickel salt.

The disulphide, NiSj, ia obtained by heating
nickel carbonate with sulphnr and potassium car-
bonate, and then dissolving ont with water.

A subsnlphide, NijS, is also known.

NIC'OTINB. CjoHmN,. 1^1.. NiooTnrA,Ni-
OOTIA, L, A volatile base, discovered by Beiman
and Fosselt in tobacco.

Prep. 1, Infuse tobacco leaves 4 hours with
warm water slightly acidified with hydrochloric
acid, strain, and evaporate to a syrupy fluid. To
the fluid add carbonate of sodium in excess, and
shake out the alkaloid with ether. Separate the
ether and shake it with a dilute solution of tar-
taric acid ; remove the acid solution and evaporate
to a small volume. Finally, add excess of lime to
the solution and distil in a current of hydrogen.
On cooling the distillate the nicotine separates in
oily drops,

2, (Ortiffota.) Infuse tobacco leaves for 84
hours in water acidulated with sulphuric acid,
strain, evaporate to a syrup, add ^ of its volume
of a strong solution of potassa, and distil in an
oil-hath at 288°, occasionally adding a little water
to assist the process, and prevent the too great
concentration of the solution of potassa in the
retort ; next saturate the distilled product with
oxalic acid, evaporate to dryness, digest in boiling
absolute alcohol, evaporate the resulting tincture
to a syrup, and decompose the oxalate of nicotine
thus obtained by adding potassa to it in a close
vessel, and agitate the mass with ether, repeating
the process with more ether until all the nicotine
is dissolved ont ; lastly, distil the mixed ethereal
solution in an oil-bath. At first ether comes
over, then water, and, lastly, nicotine, which,
towards the end <^ the process, assumes a yellow-
ish tint,

3, (Sehloeting.) This chiefly differs from the
preceding by dbecting the concluding distillation
to be conducted in a retort, by the heat of an oil-
bath, at the temperature of 284° F,, in a cur-
rent of hydrogen, for 12 hours, af to: which, by
raising the heat to 856° F., the nicotine distils
over pure, drop by drop.

4, {Kirehmanu.) A tin vessel provided with
two tnbnlures is filled with tobacco, which is
previously damped with sodium carbonate. One
of the tubulures admits a glass tube reaching
nearly to the bottom of the vessel ; the other ia
provided with a glass tube merely penefzating the
cork.

The vessel is made air-tight, placed in a
boiling hot steam-bath, and a rapid stream of car*
bonio acid gas passed through it, entering the
vessel by the longer and leaving it by the shorter
tube J the latter dips into a mixture of alcohol and
dilute sulphuric add.

In this manner a large yield of perfectly

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NIOEE— NIPPLES

1096

CQloorless nicotine is obtained. In order to obtain
the pare alkaloid, caustic baryta is added to the
■olntion, the latter evaporated to dryness, and the
pure nicotine extracted with ether.

To estimate nicotine, weigh ont IS gr. of
tobacco, digest for S4 hours with alcohol of 85%
aadified with 16 drops of sulphuric acid, ao as to
make ISO c.c. Evaporate SO cc. of the filtered
liquid, and add iodohydrargyrate of potassium to
the residue. The number of cubic centimetres
employed, mnltiplied by 0*00405 (0-001 of the
eqniv^ent of nicotine), givea the quantity of
alkaloid oontuned in 6 gnus, of tobckcco {JAinoff'
•tjr).

Ftop., See. Nicotine is a coloorless, volatile
Uquid; highly acrid and pungent; smelling
strongly of tolMcco ; txnling at 250° C. ; soluble
in water, ether, alcohol, and oils ; and combining
with the acida^ forming salts, many of which are
eiystallisable. Qoiokly assumes a brown colour
on espoenre to light and air. It is a frightful
poison ; i of a drop will kill a rabbit ; a single
drop will kill a lar^e dog. Nicotine is the sub-
stance which was employed by the Count Bocarm^
for the purpose of poisoning his brother-in-law,
OostSTe Fougnies, the particulars of which were
developed in the celebrated trial, in Belgium, of
that nobleman, in 1851. Good Virgrinia and Ken-
tucky tobacco, dried at 212° F., contain from
6% to 7% of nicotina ; Havannah tobacco (eigari),
leas than 2% (SeUoming).

nOSS, or Ramtll Seeds (Qititotxa abyninioci,
Ous.). The plant is a native of tropical Africa,
bnt is cultivated in many parts of India for the
sake of the small black seeds, from which an oil
is expressed, used as a lamp oil and as a condi-
ment.

NIQHTIUSE. 8yn. Ikoubub, Efhialctb,
la. The common canses of nightmare are indi-
gestion uid the use of narcotic and intoxicating
sabstances. Its prevention consists in the selec-
tion of proper food, and in duly attending to the
state of the stomach and bowels. Heavy and late
snppers should be particularly avoided, as well as
•U articles of diet that are of difficult digestion,
or apt to induce flatulency. When it arises from
strong drink, tobacco, or opium, these should bo
abandoned, or employed in smaller quantities. A
teaspoonfnl of aromatic spirits of ammonia, mag-
nesia, or bicarbonate of soda, taken in a glass of
cold water on going to bed, is a good and simple
preventive. In cases accompanied by resUessness,
a few drops of laudanum or tincture of henbane
may be added. An occanonal aperient is also ez-
oelient. See Ceakomii.b.

NIOHT'SHAIIE (Deadly). Sy*. BsLLASomrA
(B. P., Ph. L., E., k D.). " The leaf, fresh and
dried (leaves and root, Pli. D.), of Atropa bella-
donna, Linn." " The fresh leaves and branches
to wUch they are attached; also the leaves
separate from the branches, carefully dried, of
Atropa belladonna, gathered, when the fruit has
begun to form, from wild or cultivated plants in
Bntain" (B. P.). "Oval, aent^ very perfect,
glabrooSk when bruised exhaling a disagreeable
odomr. THiib herb which grows spontaneously in
hedeea and nncoltivated places is to be preferred
to that which is coltivated in gardens" (Ph. L.).
BaUadoDii* is • powerful narcotic, and is used

as an anodyne, antispasmodic, and discntient, in
a variety of diseases — neuralgia, arthritic pains,
migratory rheumatic pains, spasmodic rigidity
and strictures, angina pectoris, whooping-cough,
fevers, phthisis, kc; also as a prophylactic of
scarlet fever, as a resolvent in enlarged and indu-
rated glands, to produce dilatation of the pupil,
&c. — Doee. Of the powder, commencing with
1 gr., gradually and cautiously increased until
dryness of the throat or dilatation of the pupil
occurs, or the head is affected. See Atbopia.

KIOHTBHASS (Woody), agn. BiTm-swiUTs
DuLOAKABA. (B. P., Ph. L., B., & D.), L. The
"new shoots (caules) of Solanmm dnleamara,
Liud." " The dried young branches of the SoUmmm
dnleamara (bitter-sweet), from indigenous plants
which have shed their leaves" (B. P.). "It ia
to be collected in autumn, after the leaves have
fallen " (Ph. L.). Diaphoretic, diuretic, and (in
large doses) narcotic. See Invubioh op DxriiOA-

iriH BASK. See Azadibaohta Ikdica.
NIO'BIUK. See TAinALnu.
NIPPLES (Sore). The most common form of
this atFeetion is that termed " chapped nipples "
by nurses. As a preventive measure, the part
may bo moistened morning and evening, for some
weeks before the period of lactation, with a litUe
mm or brandy, which ia more effective if slightly
acidulated with a few drops of dilute sulphuric
acid. Some persons employ tincture of tola, or
compound tincture of beiuoin (Friar's balsam) for
thia purpose.

When chaps, cracks, or like sores, arising from
lactation, are once developed, one of the safest
and most effective remedies is tincture of catechu,
applied 3 or 4 times a day, by means of a camel-
hair pencil.

The celebrated nostrum of Liebert for cracked .
nipples, 'CoimStique infaillible et prompt eontre
lee gergnree on crevaetee anx eeine et autrei,' is
a lotion formed of 10 gr. of nitrate of lead dia>
solved in 4 fi. oz. of rose-water, and tinged with a
littie cocbineaL The parts are moistened with
the liquid, and are then covered with fine leaden
nipple-shields, two of which are provided for the
purpose. This is repeated soon after each time
the child leaves the breast; and the nipple is
carefully washed with a soft apongpe and lukewarm
water, and gently dabbed d^ with a very soft
towel, before the infant is agun applied to it.
This remedy is very successful, and has acquired
great popularity and patronage in Brussels, Paris,
Frankfort, and other parts. It must be recol-
lected, however, that aU applications of ao active
or poisonous nature should be employed with the
greatest possible caution, as, unless unusual care
IS taken, a portion of the remedy may remain
concealed within the delicate pores of the skin,
and be sucked off by the infant, to the serious
disturbance of its health.

The ' Medical Press ' gives the following as a
good application for fissures of the nipples : — 1.
Salol, 1 dr. ; ether, 1 dr. ; cocaine, 4 gr. ; collo-
dion, 5 dr. Pure cocaine should be usra, not the
hydrochlorate, and in compounding the applica-
tion advantage should be taken ol the solvent
properties of the ether.
a. The nipples should be cleaned with a littie

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1096

NITRANILIira!— NITEIC ACID

warm water, to which hai been added a «mall
amount of borax, before applying i — Balsam Pern,
i dr. s Tinot. Amicn, 1 dr. ; 01. Amygdaln, i oi. ;
Aqnn Calcia, i oz. Shake well and apply to the
nipples with a camel-hair brash.
' All medicaments mast be thoroughly removed
before an infant is put to the breast.

BITSAir niUTE. This substance is obtained
by acting on nitrobenzene with a mixture of
faming nitric acid and oil of Titriol; dinitro-
benzene is formed, which is dissolved in alcohol,
and the resolting solution subjected to the re-
ducing action of ammonia and sulphuretted hy-
drogen, as described under Ahiuhs. Mitraniline
forms yellow, acicnlar crystals, little soluble in
cold water, but freely soluble in alcohol and ether.
Three forms of this substance are known, viz.
ortho-, meta-, and para-nitraniline. There are
also 8 dinitranilines, and 1 trinitraniline.

HITSATE. Sgn. Nitbab, L. A salt of nitric
acid («. g. Ag.NO„ nitrate of silver) . The nitrates
are very easily prepared by the direct solution of
the metal, or its oxide or carbonate, in nitric
acid, which, in most cases, should be previously
dilated with water. By evaporation, with the
osoal precautions, they may be obtuned either in
tiiepulTemlent or eiystalline form.

litit. The nitiates are characterised by (1)
derflagrating when thrown on red-hot charcoal;
for the feeble attraction existing between oxygen
and nitrogen, and the disposition of these elements
to assume the gaseoos state, cause nitrates to be
readily decomposable by heat; (2) by an aqueous
solution, after bwng mixed with half its bnlk of
strong sulphuric acid and thorongfaly cooled,
yielding a brown clondy layer when a freshly
made solution of ferrous sulphate is poured on to
the surface t (3) mixed with a few drops of hydro-
cUoric add and a little indigo solntion and boiled,
the blue colour is discharged ; (4) when mixed
with a few drops each of dilute sulphuric acid
and peitasaium iodide solution to which a drop of
ftareh paste has been added, the immersion of a
■trip ol zinc-foil in the mixture will cause the
nitric acid to be reduced to nitrons add; this will
liberate iodine, which will tnm the starch blue.
See Nl^io Aon>, and the respective metals.

nTBX. Nitarate of potaasa. See Potasbivk.

nTBICACIS. HNO^ Syn. AzonoAon>;
AOIDVII KITMUUK (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.),

AQtrAIOBTIB.

iVM. 1. (Ph. E. and Ph. L., 1886.) Porifled
nitre (dried) and snlphnrio acid, equal parts; mix
in a glass retort, and distil with a moderate heat,
from a sand-bath (or naked gas flame. Ph. E.)
into a cool receiver, as long as ihe fused materials
omatinne to evolve vaponn. " The pale yellow
aeM thus obtained maybe rendered nearly colour-
less (if derired) by gently heating it in a retort "
(Ph. B.). 8p. gr. 1-600. In the present Ph. L.
this acid is inclnded in the materia medica (see
»«fM)).

' 2. (Ph. D.) The nitrate of potassa is dissolved
in wat«r, the solutitm treated with a little nitrate
of silver, filtered, evaporated to dryness, weighed,
and then treated as above.

S. Nitrate of aoda (cabic nitre, Chili saltpetre)
is introduced, in qoantities varying between 4 aad
10 Iba, into a cylindrical inm letovt, which it

will only half fill, and after the lid is luted on
and the oonnection made with the condensers, an
equivalent of oil of vitriol is poured in through
an aperture provided for the purpose, and the
charge is worked off with a gnidually increased
heat. The condensing apparatus consists of a
aeries of 6 or 6 salt-glazeii stoneware receivers,
about l-6th part filled with cold water. The
product of this process, the strongest brown
and fuming ' kitkous acid ' of commerce (aqua-
KATIS, ymtlSa VITBIO AOID ; AOEDDK inTBOeuii,
ACiDuic KiTBioru TUHASi), has usually the sp.
gr. of about 1*46. It contains about 46% of
HNCV It is rendered colourless by gently heat-
ing it in a glass retort, when it forms coxkbb-

CtAI. VITBXO AOID (sp. gr. I'S? tO 1-4).

4. (PirsB KiTsio AOID.) By mixing tb*
strongest commercial acid witii about an equal
quantity of oil of vitriol ; redistilling ; collecting
apart the first portion which comes over, and ex-
posing it in a vessel slightly wanned and sheltered
from the light, to a enrrent of dry air made to
babble through it until the nitrons acid with
which it is contaminated is completely removed.

Prop. Pnre liquid nitric acid is colourless,
highly corrosive, and possesses powerful acid and
oxygeuiaing properties. Phosphorus, sulphur, and
even charcoal are oxidised by it. All the metals
in common use are acted upon by nitric acid ex-
cept gold and platinum, but tin and antimony are
not dissolved. It forms nitro- substitution com-
pounds with many organic substances, «. g. nitro-
benzene, C,Hs(N^. The sp. gr. of the strongest
liquid acid has the sp. gr. 1*617 at 60° F., and
contains about 67% of HKO|. " On boiling nitric
acid of difFeront degrees of concentration at the
ordinary atmospheric pressure, a residue is left
boiling at 240° F., and 29 in. barometer, having
a sp. gr. 1-414 at 60° F.» (Fomut). Acid of
less density than 1'414 parts with water gradn-
ally becomes stronger by boiling, but acid of
less sp. gr. than 1*414 is weakened by exposnre
to heat. It begins to boil at 184° F., bnt cannot
be distilled unchanged, for heat partially decom-
poses it into oxygen, water, and nitric peroxide.
When exposed to intense cold, liquid nitrio acid
iieezes. It is rapidly decomposed, with loss of
oxygen, by contact with most organic and many
metellic and non-metallic bodies. In many cases
these reactions oceor with considerable violence,
and the prodnction of light aad heat. It staina
the skin yellow.

Pttr., Ifc. The nitric add of commerce is
generally contaminated by hydrochloric add,
nitrous acid, sulphuric acid, or chlorine, or by
thdr soda or potash salts, and, occasbnally,
iodine, together with an excess of water. The
last is readily detected by the sp. gr., and the
others by the appropriate tests. "90 gr. by
weight, mixed with ^ oz. of distilled water, require
for neutralisation 1000 grain measures of the volu-
metric solution of soda. Evaporated, it leaves no
residne. Dilated with six volumes of distilled
water, it gives no predpitate with chloride of
barium or nitrate of silver — indicating abaeooe
of snlphnrio and hydrochloric acids " (B. P.). 5
measures of acid, sp. gr. 1*5, mixed with 8 of
water, eondenaea into 64 meaaore^ and makes the
sp. gr. 1*48. " Free from oolour. Bsposad to the

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KITBIC ACID

loor

^,H emits rery acrid vaponn. Totally ToUtilised
Irjr heat. IKlvted with S times iti Tolnme of
water, it gives no precipitate with rather nitrate
at nlrer or chloride of barium. 100 gr. of this
acid (sp. gr. 1-42) are saturated by 161 gr. of
crystallised carbonate of soda" (Ph. L.). The
Ph. B. states that the density of commercial nitrio
acid is 1-880 to 1-890. " If dUnted with distiUed
water it precipitates hat slightly, or not at all,
with solution of nitrate of baryta or nitrate of
■Iver." The best ' double aqnaf ortia ' of the shops
(aqsafoitia duplex) has nsoally the sp. gr. 1-86;
and the single aquafortis (aquafortis simplex), the
■PL gr. 1*22 ; but both are oommonlysold at much
lower strengths.

The nitric add of oommeroe may be freed from
inpuritiea by one or other of the following
methods:

1. By the addition of a little nitrate of silver,
■• long as it produces any cloudiness, and after
repose, decanting the dear acid, and rectifying it
at a heat under 218° F. To ensure a perfectly
ooloorless product, a small portion of pure black
oxide of manganese shoold be pnt into tiie retort
(ilfarniy).

2. By agitating the add with a little red oxide
of lead, and then rectifying it, as before.

8. By adding 1% of bichromate of potash to
the acid before rectifying it. This answers well
for acid not stronger thui sp. gr. 1-48.

4. By rectification at a gentle heat, rejecting
the first portion that comes over, recdving the
middle portion as genuine add, and leaving a
residuum in the retort ( Or«).

Tmit. 1. It stains most oi^anic colonring
matters yellow, but it merely reddens litmus. 2.
When mixed with a little hydrochloric add or
chloride of ammonium, it acquires the power of
dissolving gold leaf. 8. Morphia, bmcia, and
stiyehnia give it a red oolonr, which is heightened
by ammonia in excess. 4. When placed in a
tnbe, and a fresh solution of ferrous sulpate is
cautiously added, a dark colour is devdoped at
the line ol. j miction, which is distinctly visible
when only fihni V*"^ °^ nitrie add is present.
This test may be often conveniently modified by
dropiBng into the liquid a crystal ra ferrous sul-
phate; the fluid immediately surrounding this
erystsd then aeqnires a dark Inown colour, which
disappears npon simple agitation of the fluid, or
by heating it. 6. When mixed with a weak solu-
tion of sulphate of indigo, and heated, the colour
of the latter is destroyed and a yellow liquid is
left. 6. When saturated with csrbonate of
potassium or sodium, and evaporated to dryness,
the residuum deflagrates when thrown on burning
coals. 7. When the mixture of a nitrate with
cyanide of potassium, in powder, is heated on a
piece of platinum, a vivid deBagration follows,
attended with detonation (Fratniiu}. It is
stated that snlphate of anilme is an extremely
driicate test for nitric add. The following is the
method of its application : About a cubio centi-
metre of pare concentrated sulphuric add (sp.
gr. 1-84) is placed in a watch-glass; half a cubic
centimetre of a solution of snlphate of aniline
(fbrmad by adding 10 dropsof oommeroial aniline
to to ejB. at dilntad salfihiirio acid in tiis propar-
tJMi of 1 to 6) is poned on, drop by dmp; a

glass rod is moistened with the liquid to he
tested, and moved circularly in the watch-glass.
By blowing on the mixture during the circular
agitation, when a trace of nitric add is present,
circular ttrUt are developed of a very intense red
colour, tinting the liquid rose. With more than
a trace of nitric add the ooUnir becomes carmine,
passing to a browmsh red. This prooass serves
-to detect the presence of nitrio acid in the aal>
phnrie add of commerce. It will also reveal the
presenee of nitrates in water (' Fharmaosntical
Year-book'). 8. Pnt a very small piece of
diphenylamine into a test-tube, and poor a little
■nlphnrio add over it, and then add a drop or two
of water, so as to increase the temperature snfl-
dently to effect the solution of the diphenylamijie.
Now add very gently the solution to be tested, and
if only a trace of nitrie or nitrons add be present^
a beautiful and very permanent bine coloratioa
is produced at the junction of the two liquids ; but
if there be any quantity of the nitrogen oom>
pound, the ooionr becomes almost black. This
reaction is so delicate and certain that, in the case
of a solution of nitric add containing about 1 part
B. P. add in 10,000 of water, it is most dis-
tinct; 1 part of nitrite of potassium in 30,000
of water gives also almost unmistakable evidence
of the presence of the nitrogen add.

Bttim. The strengtii of nitric add may be
roughly estimated by its sp. gr. ; but more noeof
rately by ascertaining the amount of carbonate
of sodium, or other salt of known compositio*,
which is required to neutralise it. To render
this assay trustworthy, it must be, in all oases,
also tested to detect the presence of impurities.

The following process for the quantitative
estimation of nitric add is by Fischer (' IXngL
Polyt. Joum.,' ccxiii, 423 — 427) :— tlndigotin
prepared by reduction of indigo by means of
grape-sugar, alcohol, and caustic sods, oxidation
m tiie air, and solution in sulphuric acid, may be
kept unchanged for years. 6 c.c. of such a solu-
tion, diluted with water and mixed with 80 c.o. of
pure sulphuric acid, is titrated by adding •
standaixl nitric add solution until the blue colour
gives place to a light green; the indigo solution
is then diluted, so that 1 cc. shall be equal to
0*0026 milligramme-equivalent of nitric add, or
0*2626 milligramme of potassium nitmts. If a
water is bang examined it is run into. 4 cc. of the
titrated indigo solution, mixed with 20 c.o. of
sulphuric acid, until the blue colour changes to
light gpreen. 10, divided by the number of cc.
of water used, expresses the milligramme-equiva-
lents of nitric acid per litre ; thus, if 4 cc. of
water are used, there are 2*6 milligramme-equi-
valents of nitrio add, equal to 262*6 milligrammes
of potassium nitrate per litre. If a preliminary
test with brudne has shown that the water con-
tains very little nitric add, 8 c.o. only of the
indigo solution must be used, or sometimes as
little as 1 C.C. If more than 8 ex. of water is
required to destroy the blue colour, 100 cc. mnst
be evaporated down to the volume of 8 cc. and
then titrated. The volume of snlphurie add mnst
be at least double the sum of the volumes of
indigo and water; the temperature mnst not sink
under 110^.

The nitrates may all ha tested as above bf first

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NITBIC ANHTDKIDE— NITBO-BENZENB

adding a small qaantity of pure aolphoric add,
which will liberate the nitric acid of tiie nit.

AtU., ^c. See Aoidb.

U»»t. Nitric acid is employed in auaying, in
dyeing silk, Ac., in etching on copper, in the pre-
paration of gun-cotton, oxalic and snlphuric
acids, &c. In chemical operations it is very valu-
able as an oxidising agent. In madieiiu it is oaed
as a caustic to corns and warts ; and in doses of
1 to 10 drops, in a tumbler of water, in liver com-
plaints, fevers, dyspepsia, syphilis, to remove the
efFects of mercury, or as a substitute for that
drug, Ac. Externally it is empltrred in the form
of Ibkths, lotions, and ointment. Dr Collier state*
that a strong lotion of nitric acid is almost a
speciSe in lepra and several other kindred sldn
diseases.

Coneludinff SemarJa. The common laboratory
source of nitric acid is nitrate of potassium, but
it may also be obtained from other nitrates by a
similM process. Nitrate of sodium is frequently
nsed instead of nitrate of potassium, it is dieaper
and is more convenient in some respects, for the
residuum is more easily dissolved out of the retort
or cylinder. The residuum of the common pro-
cess with nitre (' sal enixum ') is chiefly employed
as a flux by the glasshouses, and as a aoorce of
potash in the manufacture of alum.

By proper management nitre yields more than
} of its wdght of pure nitric acid, sp. gr. 1'6 ;
and nitrate of soda, its own weight of acid,
sp. gr. 1'4.

By the patent process of M. Mallet, dried
nitrate of soda is decomposed by dried or mono-
hydrated boracic acid, on heating the two together.
The products are nitric acid, which distils over,
and biborate of soda (borax), which remains in
the retort.

The crude coloured nitric acid of commerce
(aqoafortis) was originally prepared by distilling
a mixture c^ nitre and copperas, and is still some-
times obtained in this way.

According to Apjohn and others, the strongest
nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-520, is a monohydrate ; that
of the sp. gr. I'SOO, a sesquihydrate ; that of
1'486, a binhydrate ; and that of 1-244, a quadri-
hydratej or containing respectively 1, H, 2, and
4 atoms of water. (See beltno.)

Vitrle Add, Anhy'drona. N,0,. 8fn. Nitbio
ASHTDBIDS. This interesting substance was first
obtiUned in a separate form by M. Oeville, in
1848.

iV«p. {Deville.) Nitrate of niver is dried by
exposure to a current of dry carbonic add at a tem-
perature of 356° F., and the tube containing it is
then immersed in a water-bath heated to 203° F. ;
pure dry chlorine gas is next passed through the
apparatus, and, as soon as the reaction commences,
the temperature is reduced not lower than 154°
F. ; the production of crystals in the receiver,
which must be cooled by a powerful freezing mix-
ture, soon commences ; lastly, the liquid portion
of the product is removed by a current of dry car-
bonic add gas.

Prop., 4fo. Colourless prismatic ciystals, which
melt at 85° F., boU at about 118^ and at a
■lightly higher temperature begin to suffer de-
composition. Added to water, much heat is gene-
rated; it nq^y attacks organic bodies, even

caoatchoac; sometimes it explodes spontaneonsl^.
When brought in contact with water nitric add
is produced with evolution of heat.

VitricAaid,I>ilnte. Sgn. AorDtni Knmora
DiLUTUM (B. P., Ph. L., E., and D.), L. Prtp.
1. (Ph. L.) Nitric add (sp. gr. 1-42), 8 fl. o».;
distilled water, 17 fl. oi.; mix. Sp. gr. 1-088.
" 1 fl. oz. is saturated by 154 gr. of the crystals
of carbonate of soda." It contains about 12% of
pure anhydrous acid.

2. (Ph. E.) Nitric add (1-600), 1 fl. oa. ; dis-
tilled water, 9 fl. oz. Or, commercial nitric add
(1-890), 1 fl. OS. Si dr. i water, 9) fl. oz. Sp. gr.
1-077. It contains 11-16% of pure dry nitric
acid.

8. (Ph. D.) Nitric add (1-600). 4 fl. oz.;
water, 29 fl. oz. Contains about 9*7% of pine
add. The above are used for convenience in dis-
pendng.— Dom, 15 drops to i fl. dr., or more.
The above must not be confounded with the acidom
nitricum dilutnm. Ph. D. 1826, which had the sp.
gr. 1-280 ; nor with the following :

4. {Mtnrf't.) Sp. gr. 1;148; equal in eatn-
rating power to hydrochloric add sp. gr. 1-074,
and sulphuric add 1'185. Used in assaying.

6. (B. P.) Nitric add. 6 parts ; distilled water,
sufficient to make the mixture, when cooled to 60^
F., meamire 81 puts. Contains 15% of anhydrous
nitric add.— ret<. Sp. gr. 1-101. 6 fl. dr. (861-8
gr.) by weight reqairc for neutralisation 1000 gr.
measures of the volumetric solution of soda, and
therefore contain exactly one equivalent in
grains of anhydrous add, namely, 64 gr. — Ute.
Tonio, astringent, lithonlytie. — ^Dose, 10 to 80
minims.

Nitric Add, Turning. Sgn. Nitboub xan>t ;
AOEDtTH KlTBionH VUMAITS, L. The red f uimng
nitrons or nitric acid of commerce is simply nitric
acid loaded with nitric peroxide (which tee). That
of the Ph. Bor. is distilled from nitre, 2 parts j
oil of vitriol, 1 part.

BITSIC ANET'DKtDE. See Nitbio Aom,

Ay H YDBOUfl •

HI'TBIC OXIDX. See Nitbosbh, Oxism o*.

NITBITS. A salt of nitrons add ; «. g. KNOf,
nitrite of potassium.

Tatt. 1. White precipitate with silver idtrate;
soluble in excess of water.

2. Qrey predpitate (metallic' mercury) with
merenrons salts.

8. Brownish-black coloration with ferrous snl-
phate.

4. Blue coloration with a little poiassinm
iodide, a drop of starch paste, and a few drops of
dilute snlphnrie add. This test serves to detect
the presence of small quantities of nitrite in
potable waters. Fresenius recommends that the
sample be acidified with acetic acid and then dis-
tilled; the first few drops which pass over are
collected in a beaker containing the solution of
potassium iodide, starch, and sulphuric add.

SITBO-BEN'ZXHE. C,H,NO,. Prtp. By
treating benzene with strong fuming nitric add,
with heat. The vessd must be kept oool. After
the violence of the reaction is over, the liquid is
diluted with water, and the heavy oily fluid which
separates is collected, washed with water, then
with caustic soda, and finally distilled with steam. A
modification of this process ia now used on the large

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NITBOOBN

1009

scale. Manafleld patented a prooee* in 1874 for
ita piepamtion from coal-tar.

iVqp., Src. Iiight yellow, yery sweet, but burn-
ing taste; smells of bitter almonds; scarcely solu-
ble in water, but readily soluble in alcohol and
ether; little affected by reagents ; boils at 210° C,
and at low temperature solidifies to needles, melt-
ing at S° C. ; sp. gr. 1'2. It is very poisonous, a
qiulity which Letheby asserts it acquires owing
to ita conversion in the animal economy into
aniline. Heated with an alcoholic solution of
caostic potash, and the mixture submitted to dis-
tillation, it yields a red oily liquid, from which
large red crystals of azobenzene separate. These
are nearly insoluble in water, freely soluble in
alcohol and ether, melt at 149° F., and boil at
659*4° F. DiKTFBO-BiurzaHB is made by dissolving
benzene in a mixture of equal volumes of the
atnmgest nitric and sulphuric acids, and boiling
the liquid for a few minutes ; the crystals whi<£
form as it cools are insoluble in water, but are
freely soluble in alcohoL Several other nitro-
benzenes are known.

Utes. Nitro-benzene is extensively used as a
anhetitute for the essential oil of bitter almonds
in perfunurg. It is much more extensively used
in the manufacture of pure aniline for the colour-
ing matters known as aniline blue, aniline black,
and magenta. Ferrand states that the presence
of nitro-benzene in essence of bitter almonds may
be detected as follows : — Heat to ebullition, in a
tast-tnbe^ 3 or 4 c.c of a 20% alcoholic solution
of potash, together with 10 drops of the sus-
pected essence. If mtro-benzene be present,
the mixture takes a red colour ; if the essence of
bitter almonds be pure, it becomes a pale straw-
colour.

VITBOOEH. N=>14. Sj/n. Azotb;Nitbo-
esmmf, Azomc, L. A gaseous elementary sub-
stance, discovered by Kutherford in 1772, and
found to be a constituent of the atmosphere by
Lavmsier, 1755. It is found combined both in the
organic and inorganic kingdoms of nature; it forms
about 4-6ths, or 7919% by volume, or 76-99%
by weight of the atmosphere, enters largely into
the composition of most animal substances, and is
a conatitnent of gluten, the alkaloids, and other
vegetable principles.

Awp. 1. A small piece of phosphorus is placed
in a capsule floating on the surface of the water
of the pneumatic trough, and after setting it on
fire a bell- jar is inverted over it ; aa soon as the
oombustion is over, and the fumes of phosphoric
anhydride have subsided, the residual gas is
washed by agitation with water, and with a solu-
tion of potash. It may be dried by either letting
it stand over fused chloride of calcium, or by pass-
ing it through concentrated oil of vitrioL

a. A porcehun tube is filled with copper turn-
ings, or, preferably, with spongy copper (obtained
by reducing the oxide with hydrogen), and is
then heated to redness, a stream of arj atmo-
spheric air being at the same time directed through
it. By repeating the process with the same air,
and finally passing it over fragments of pumice
moistened with strong solution of potash to absorb
carbonic anhydride, tiie product is rendered quite
pore.
3. Chlorine gas is passed into a solotion of pure

ammonia, care bring teken to employ a contider-
abU exeeti of the latter ; the evolved gas, after
bring dried, is pure nitrogen. There is some danger
of producing the explosive compound, chloride of
nitrogen, with this process.

4. {Corenminder^ From solution of nitrate of
potassium, 1 vol. ; concentrated solution of
chloride of ammonium, 3 vols.; gentiy heated
together in a fiask, and the evolved gas paaaed
through sulphuric arid. Pure.

6. By boiling a solution of nitrite of ammo-
nium, or, whidu amounts to the same thing, a
mixture of one measure of a solotion of nitatto
of potasrinm and 8 measures of a solution of
chloride of ammonium. Both solutions must be
concentrated. This is the easiest method of pre-
paring nitrogen and of obtaining the gas in a
pure state.

Note. The nitrite of potassium to be employed
in this process is best prepared by passing nitrous
anhydride, evolved from starch and nitric acid,
into a solution of potash (sp. gr. 1'88) till it im-
parts an acid reaction to test-paper, and then
neutralising by the addition of potash.

6. From lean flesh digested in nitric arid at a
gentie heat.

_ Prop., ifc. Pure nitrogen is a colourless,
o'donrlesa, tasteless gas, neither combustible nor
capable of supporting combustion or respiration.
It is neutral to test-paper, does not affect lime-
water, and is only slightly absorbed by pure
water. Ito sp. gr. is 0*9718. It is recognised
by its purriy negative qualities. It is, however,
capable of directly combining with borax and
silicon, and more readily with magnesium and
titanium at high temperatures. With hydrogen
it forms ammonia, NHg. Forms very unstable
compounds with the halogens, and entms into the
composition of gun-cotton, the fulminates, nitro-
glycerin, AiO. Has been liquefied at a pressure
of 800 atmospheres at a temperature of 18° C.

Nitrogen, Chlo"iide of. NC1|. Sg*. Niiiio-
dXir TItIOHLOBIJ», TbBOBXOBIDB 01 -siTRoawB,
This compound was discovered by Dulong in 1811,
but its nature was first accurately determined by
Sir H. Davy. Some chemiste regard it as possess,
ing the composition NCl|(NHClj).

Prop. (^lAsbig.) Dissolve chloride of ammo-
nium, 1 oz., in hot water, 12 or 14 oz., and aa
soon as the temperature has fallen to 90° F. invert
a wide-mouthed glass bottie full of chlorine
over it. The gas is gradually absorbed, the solu-
tion acquires a yellowish colour, and in the course
of 15 to 20 minutes yellow oil-like globules of chlo-
ride of nitrogen form upon the surface of the
liquid, and ultimately sink to the bottom. The
globules, as they descend, should be received in
a small leaden saucer, placed under the month of
the bottie for the purpose.

Prop., S[c. Chloride of nitrogen should only
be prepared in very small quantities at a time.
Both ite discoverer and Sir H. Davy met witii
severe ii^juries while experimenting on it. Its sp.
gr. is 1*66 ; it volatilises at 160° F., and between
200° and 212° fuhninates violently. Contact
with combustible bodies at ordinary temperatures
immediatriy causes detonation. The explorive
power of thie eompound teeme to exceed Hat qf
ever]/ inomit eubttanee, not eve» eKceptwg ^Umi-

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NrriumBN

naHnff liher. A minate globale, no larger than
a gnun of mnBtard aeed, placed on a platina
■poon, and tonched with a piece of phoaphoms
(tack on the point of a penknife, immediatelj
explodes, and ahivers the blade into fragmenti, at
the game time that the Teasel that eontain* it is
broken to pieces. Olive oil, naphtha, and oil of
tnrpentine have a similar efFect.

iritrogMi, I'odlde of. NHTi- A dark brown
or black inaolable powder, which is most safely
-and conveniently prepared by saturating alcohol
(ap. gr. 0'852) with iodine, adding a large quan-
tity of the strongeat pare solntion of ammonia,
and agitating the mixtare; water mast now be
added, when, iodide of nitrogen will be precipi-
-tated, which mast be carefnlly washed with cold
distilled water and filtered off. The filter con-
taining the precipitate shonld be spread ont on a
sheet of glass and torn into small piecea while
the iodide ia atill moist. The precipitate shonld
be simply exposed to. dry in the air.

Prop., ^0. It detonates violently as soon as
it becomes dry, by the slightest pressure or fric-
tion, even that of a feather, and often aponta-
neonsly ; but thia explosion is scarcely so powerful
as that of the chloride of nitrogen. It also
explodes whilst moist, though less readily. Jt
should only be prepared in very small quantities
-at a time. Recent reaesrehes have shown that
-it contains hydrogen.
_ Vitrogen, Ox'ides of. Nitrogen forms five dis-
tinct compounds with oxygen.

1. Hltroua Ox'ide. Sgn. Pkotoxibb ort hi-
nioenr, LuraHnta gas; NirEOOBsn pbo-
TOXTDtnc, L. JPitp. (1) Prom fused nitrate of
ammonium, introduced into a glass retort, or a
flaak furnished with a bent tube, and then ex-
posed, over a apirit-lamp or charcoal-chauffer, to
a temperature of about 889° P. ,• the temperature
must not be too high, or the gaa will contain nitric
oxide and nitrogen : the evolved gaa may be col-
-leeted in hladdera, gas-bags, a gaaometer, or in
the pneamatic trough over warm water. The gas
may be purified bypassing it through three wash-
bottlee, one containing water, one a solntion of snl-
-phate of iron, and the other a solution of potash.
(2) Nitrous oxide may also be made in the same
■way, from crystallised nitrate of ammonia, or by
exposing nitric oxide for some days over iron
filings moistened with water, but, without great
eare, the product is not always fit for respira-
tion.

Prop., (f». Colourleas ; possesses an agreeable
odour and a aweetlah taate, and when pure doea
not affect a aolution of nitrate of ailver ; at 46° P.,
under a pressure of 40 atmospheres, it is liquid ;
this, when exposed under the receiver of a power-
ful air-pump, changes into a snow-like solid ; at
— 160° P. it is a tainaparent, colourless, crystal-
line body; itsnpports combnation, and ia absorbed
by cold water. 8p. gr. 1-620. Ita moat remark-
able property ia its action on the ayatem when
inspired. A few deep inspirations are usually
succeeded by a pleasing state of excitement, and
a strong propensity to laughter and muscular
eiertion, which soon subside, without being fol-
lowed by languor or depression. Its effects, how-
ever, vary with different oonatitntiona. From 4
to 12 ^oMti may be breathed with safely. It

produces temporary insenribility to pain, like
chloroform or ether; but its use is dangsrona
when affections of the heart, lungs, or brain are
present. Thia gas is suoeessf nlly and extensivdy
employed as an anaisthetic in dental surgery. It
can now be bonght in a liquid state in wronghfe-
•iron vessels.

Oht. Ko particular caution is required in pie-
paring the above compound, except the use of too
mnch heat. The temperature should be so arranged
as to keep the melted mass in a state of gentle
ebullition, and shonld not be allowed, under any
circumstances, to exceed about 500° P. Should
white fumes appear within the retort after the
evolution of the gas has commenced, the heat
shonld be at once lowered, as, when heated to
about 600°, nitrate of ammonia explodes with
violence.

2. Vitrie Oxide. NO. $fn. Dsutoxxdm of
NiTBoamr, Nitboub sai, Bixoxidb ov hitm^

OBN; NlTBOGIHII BHrOXYBUH, L. lV«p. By

-pouring nitric acid, ap. gr. I'S, on metallic copper,
in the form of turnings, clippinga, or wire. Bffei-
vescenoe ensues, and nitric oxide ia evolved, and
may be collected over water or mercury in the
pneumatic trough. The residual liquid yielda
oryatals of nitrate of copper on evaporation. A.
gentle heat asaiats the action.

Prop., <fo. A colourless, tasteless, inodorous,
irreapirable, and inoombuatible gas. In contact
with free oxygen it produces dense orange or red
vapours, chiefly conaiating of nitric peroxide
(NO,), which are freely abaorbed by water. Nitric
oxide ia abaorbed by a solution of ferrous sulphate,
which it tarns of a deep brown or nearly black
colour, which is removed by boiling. Sp. gr. 1'0S9.
In the presence of water and excess of oxygen it
is converted into nitric acid.

8. Hitrons Anhydride. NgO^ Syn. NirxoasK
TBioxisB, Akhtdbodb mTKOVB Aon>. Prep. (1)
Heat 1 part of powdered starch with 8 parts <n
nitric acid of sp. gr, 1*26, and pass the evolved
gases first through a drying tube 2 feet long con-
taining fused ehloride of ealcinm, and then into a
dry and empty (J -tube cooled to 20^ P. by sur-
rounding it with a mixtare of poonded ioe and
cryatalliaed chloride of calcium,

(2) Heat nitric acid (ap. gr. 1*3) with an equiva-
lent of white arsenic; pass the gas which comes'
off through a (J -tube surrounded with cold water,
then into uiother containing chloride of calcium,
and finally collect in anoth« cooled with ice and
salt.

Prop., S[o. Nitrous anhydride is a gieen liquid
which boils at 14° C. and emits red fumes, and
which on admixture with water at ordinary tem-
peratures is decomposed, producing nitric acid and
nitric oxide. If nitrons anhydride be mixed with
water at tMnperaturea below 0° F. the two com-
bine, and a blue solution is formed which (pro-
bably) contains nitrous a<ad (HNOj). See NiXBOVB

AOID.

4. mtrogan Pentozlde. N/),. iSy*. Nmio

PRHTOXIDB, NITBIO ANETIIKLDB, AlTHTSBOUS
KTTBIC AOID. See NiTBIO AOID (AVHTDBOTTB).

6. Hitrogen Peroxide. NO,, fiy*. Nitbio pbb-

OXIDB, PbBOZISB of HriBO&BV, NlTBO(»BIT

TBTBOZIDB, Httohitbio avetsbidb. This oon-
ponnd forms the chief oonatitBeat of the red

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mrSO-OLTCSBIN

UOl

dune* wUcli develop on mtring nitric oxide with
ait or axggtfo.

JVip. By hanting thoroughly dried nitrate of
lead in b Tetnt. and coodacting the evolved gasei
into a U-tnbe muronnded with a freezing mixture
of ioe and nit.

iVop., Ifc If the U -tahe be perfectly dry, and
the cold intenwi the nitric peroxide obtained
aanimea the form of transparent cryitali which
melt at 10° F., hot the preaence of the slighteat
trace of noietnre preventa their formation, and
prodocei initead a coloorleaa liquid which, as the
temperatore riaea, acquire* a yellow and ulti-
mately an orange-red colonr. Nitric peroxide
diwolvea in nitric acid and tami it of a yellow or
red hoe. The lo-caUed ' mtrotu acid ' or 'fimumg
nUrie aeid' of ceaimerce owe* it* deep red ooloor

Olyeeiln.

^5»ln. + 8

H:h*»(Ko.}«)

4-8

(i}«>

It wa* (BaeoTBTed in 1847 by Dr Sobraro, •
popil of Pekmze.

A«p. 1. Koppptepara* nitroglycerin by mlx-
ia^ 8 part* of ■olphnric add, <^ ip. gr. 1*767,
wUb 1 part of fnanuig' nitric add. 2800 grm*. of
the mixed adda are added to 850 gmu. of gly
oarin, gnat care being neceaaaiy to avoid any
•Icivation of tamperatme, which woold lead to a
violent reaetioa, reeolting in the convenion of the
glycerin into oulic add.

After atsnding 6 or 10 minotea, the nizture i*
paiiredinto4or6timesit*buIkof very cold water
to wUeh a rotatory motion has been imparted. The
nitre-glycerin fall* to the bottom of the vessel as
an cnly-looking liquid, which i* washed by de-
eantataon. 1% of magnesia is sometime* added to
the nitro-glyoerin in order to nentnlise any add
ariang from deeompodtion.

Z. Bdttger ha* devised a proces* for the pre-
paration ^ nitro-glyoerin, which being, as he
afirms, entirely free from danger, adapts it for
leetnre experiment* : — A few grain* of pore gly-
cerin, free from water, are poiued into a teat-tube
wfaieh i* sorroanded by a freesing mixtnre, and
containing a mixture of 1 vol. of the moat con-
centrated nitric add (1*52 sp. gr.), and 2 vol*, of
the itrongeat sulphuric add (1-8S sp. gr.). Then,
as quickly a* possible, the whole ia poured into a
larger quantity of cold water. The nitro-glycerin,
which haa formed like oil drop*, sink* rapidly to
the bottom. It i* then washed levetal times by
deeantation with fresh water, and, lastly, with a
weak solution of soda. Remoye the water with a
few pieoea of fused chloride of caldnm.

If nitro-glyoerin is not snffldently purified
it ia UabU, on being kept, to decompose and be-
come dangerona. Nitro-glycerin is extansivdy
used far blasting. Mixed with varion* inert inb-
stanee* it ia the explonve prindple in dynamite,
kieselg^ahr, glyoxylin, lithofractenr, dnolbi, nitro-
magnite, blasting gelatin, gelatin dynamite, Ac.

Prop., ^. Nitro-glycerin is a heavy yellow or
brownish oily liquid ; ap. gr, 1*6. It is very poison-
ous, it dinolvea in ato>hol, ether, and wood
naphtha, fran all of which it may be recovered
by the addition of water, in which it is insohible.
Dissdvad in either of theae aolntianait beeome*
eooTsrtod into • erystalUne nn«* whan expoeed

to the preaence of this compound. At very low
temperature* water convert* nitric peroxide into
nitric and nitrous adds; at ordinary tempera-
ture* it tian*form* it into nitric acid, nitron* acid,
and nitric oxide. It boils with decomposition at
71° F. It is believed that the molecule at low
temperatnres is N^O^, wluch decomposes into
2N0,.

Hirso-oLTCsanr. c,H,(NO,)r Sy». Oio-

XOnr, NlT]li.TK 0> OliTOBBTL, T&I VITBITI, NiTSO-
LBUX, FUUtIiri.IINa oil, TBIVIXBO-aLXOKBIV.

This dangerously explouve compound, from the
use of which in mining, quarrying, and such like
operations so many fatal accident* have occurred,
is glycerin in wluch 8 atoms of hydrogen have
been replaced by 8 molecules of nitroxyl (NO|)ja*
illnatrated by the following formula :

HitrMljcalB.

to a low temporature. If suljected to a blow it
explode* with fearful violence, a angle drop
plaeed upon paper, and atruck upon an anvij^
giving riie to a report that is almost deafening.
Neither a apark nor the application of a lighted
body i« said to cau*e it* ignition, which takaa
place with difficulty even if it be applied to a thin
layer of the substance. 100 parts dF nitro-glyoeriB
yield on oombostion : '

Water .20 part*.

Carbonic add . 68 »

Oxygen . . . 8-S „
Nitrogen . . . 18*5 „

100-0

(Wivntr.)
Am the sp. gr, of nitro-glycerin ia 1*6, 1 part by
bulk will yidd by oombortion :

Aqueous vapour . . 654 vols.
Carbonic iLiad . . 468 „
Oxygen. . . 89 „

Nitrogen . . . 236 „

1898

(Tf^agiur.)

Other experimenters affirm that, instead of free
oxygen, nitrous oxide is one of the product* of
the combustion of nitro-glycerin. Accoording to
Nobel, the heat liberated when nitro-glycerin is
exploded causes the expansiou of the gases to be
8 time* thdr original bulk; thereforo 1 vol. of
the snb*tance will yield 10,884 vol*, of gas, whilst
1 part by bulk of gunpowder only yields 800 vols,
of ga*. If theae date be correct the ezplodve
force of nitro-glycerin i* 18 times greatOTthan
that of powder, bulk for bulk, and 8 time* greater
weight for wdght. The manufacture of nitro-
glycerin is attended with considerable danger,
since very slight friction or pgressuro is sufficient
to determine its explosion. Hence many method*
have been suggested for guarding against accidents
from it during storage. One of these consist* in
mixing it wit£ findy powdered glass.

Wurtz advisee the nitro-glycerin to be mixed
with •olntiooa of nitrate of lime, sine, or mag-
neaia, the solntionB to have a *p, gr, equal to the
aitn>-glyo«rin. By tki* means a hMmile** emol*
(ion wo^d b* f<»raMd, and the aitro-gly eacin woald

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1108

NITBO-HTDEOCHLORIC ACID— NOCTTJA SEGETUM

be recoverable when required for ose by simply
adding water. Nobel'a plan conaists in duiolTing
it in wood spirit.
HITSO-ETSROCHIiO'SIC ACH). Sgn. Nitbo-

HVBIATIO AOID; AQTTA BiaiA, AOtDUK KITBO-
HYSBOOELOSIOTTM (B. P.), A. KITBO-mTBIATIOnif ,

L. } EAir BiOALB, Ft. Pr«p. 1. (B. P.) Nitric
acid, 3 parti ; hydrochloric acid, 4 parts ; water,
25 parts. Mix the acids 24 honrs before adding
the water. (This precaution is necessary to allow
of the development of the chlorine, and the chloro-
nitrons and chloronitric gsses which resnlt flrom
the mntaal decomposition of the two acids, and
upon which the therapeutic activity of the agent
depends.) Colonrless. Keep the mixture in a
cool and dark place.

2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Nitric acid, part; hydro-
chloric acid, 2 parts (both by measnre) ; mix in a
refrigerated bottle, and keep the mixture in a cold
and dark place. Used to dissolve gold and plati-
num; and in medicine, in liver complaints, syphilis,
the exanthemata, kc., either internally, in doses
of 5 to 16 drops in water, or externally, as a foot-
er knee-bath. It is also occasionally employed as
a caustic.

3. (AQUA BBSIA WITH BAK-AIOIOHIAO.) Nitric

acid (sp. gr. 1*2), 16 fl. oz. j lal-ammoniac, 4 oz. ;
dissolve. Occasionally used by dyers; does not
keep well.

4. (Dtbbs' aquafobtib.) Colourless nitric
acid (sp. gr. 1*17), 10 lbs. ; hydrochloric acid (sp.
gr. 1'19), 1 lb.; mix. Used by dyers.

NITBO-FBUS'SIDES. Aseriesof saltsdiscovered
by Dr Flayfair, and obtuned by the action of nitric
acid on the ferrocyanides and f erricyanidea. The
most important of these salts is the nitro-prusside
of sodium, Na4Fe,Cy,o(NO),.4Aq.

iV«p. Dissolve 2 parts of powdered ferro-
cyanide of sodium in 6 parts of common nitric
acid, previously diluted with its own volume of
water. When the evolution of gaa has ceased,
digest the solution on a water-bath until it no
longer yields a blue but slate-coloured precipitate
with ferrous sulphate. Cool the liquid, filter,
neutralise the filtzate with carbonate of sodium,
and again filter. This filtrate, on evaporation,
yields crystals consisting of a mixture of idtro-
prnsside of sodium and nitrate of potassium ; the
former, which may be recognised by their rhom-
bic shape and their fine ruby colour, should be
picked out and preserved.

Uie. As a test for soluble sulphides, with
which nitro-pmsaide of sodium strikes a beautiful
violet tint. According to Playfair this is the
most delicate test for alkaline sulphides. The
sulphur in an inch of human hair may be detected
by it.

HITSOUS ACID. See Nitbous Aithtsbisb,
under NlTBOSBir, OxiDM o>.

BI'TSOUS OXISS. See Nitboobk, Oxidbs
0>.

HOCTITA 8EGXTTJK, Westwood; Agroti*
tegetum, Uchsenbeimer. The CoKKOir Dabt
Mote. The large plump caterpillars of this
moth are known as surface caterpillars, because
tiiey work mischief to plants just at or just under
the surface of the ground. There are several
species of caterpillars which ate also termed sur-
face caterpillars, as the cater^llar of the Heart

and Dart moth, Agroti* eseUimatio»it, tot ex-
ample, among others. Most of these are very
injurious to root crops of all descriptions, and the
common Dart moth caterpillars especially attack
turnips of all kinds, and mangel-wurzel, though
they by no means despise wheat and other com
plants, and they are found frequently in celery
and parsnip beds and in cabbage plots.

Not only does this caterpilkr eat the young
leaves of turnips and mangel-wurzel, gnav^ng
them off close to the crown, and thus killing the
plants outright, it also bores holes in the bulbs,
causing them to decay. Much loss of weight ii
often occasioned in this way, and bulbs that are
intended for clamping or storing will not keep
when bored in many places by these caterpillars.

White turnips are even more subject to be
burrowed into than swedes, as they are softer
and their skins are not so thick. Much com-
plaint came as to injury done by these cater-
pillars to white and red 'Tankard' turnips in
Hants and Wilts, in which countdea many of these
early sorts are sown. The plants are dedmated
to begin with, and it was remarked by a careful
observer that directly the plants were out of
' rough leaf ' the caterpillars came up from the
ground to feed upon the leaves, and that they
dragged pieces of leaf down with them, Curtis,
quoting Le Kenx, speaks of this habit of carrying
off leaves for food down with them into their
holes ('Farm Insects,' by J. Curtis, p. 124). When
the turnip leaves became old and hard the cater-
pillsrs fastened upon the bulbs, and with such
vigorous onslaught that when the sheep were put
upon them hardly a bulb had escaped from many
perforations and consequent rottenness.

In 1884, in which year the ravages of the
insect were very great, many mangel-wnrsel
growers remarked that their young plants got to
a certain point when the tap-roots were about the
size of a slight skewer, and then vrithered and
died. Examination was made, and it was seen
that the tap-roots were bitten completely through
just beneath the surface of the soil. Wireworms
again were blamed, but it was soon ducovered
that large caterpillars, proving to be those of
Agroti* *egetum, were swarming in the ground,
and were the cause of the mischief.

Much damage is constantly occasioned in what
are known as ' seed-beds,' or nurseries for cabbage,
broccoli, cauliflower, and other plants, in the
market gardens of Kent, Essex, Bedford, and
other counties. A market-garden farmer, work-
ing nearly 1000 acres of land in Essex, estimated
his losses, directly and indirectly, from injOry to
his 'seed-beds ' at over £100 in 1884.

These caterpillars were very abundant in Eng-
land and in Scotland in 1879, also in 1884 and
1886 heavy losses were sustained by root growers
in various parts of the kingdom.

The Agroti* ttgOum is known upon the Con-
tinent and in America.

In (Jermany its attacks are as severe as in the
United Kingdom. Taachenberg writes of it as
very deatructive to vegetation, and says it is
known in Asia, Sonth Amca, and North America
(' Fraktische Insekten Kunde,' von Dr E.
Taschenberg). According to Kaltenbach, it has
committed ravages in Silesia, Pomerania, and

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NOLI- IfE-fANaEBB— NOMENCLATUBE

1103

Hungary (' Die Pflanxen Feinde,' von J. H.
Kaltenbaeh). Niirdlinger holds that it is spread
all oyer Europe, and has done infinite mischief in
Pnusia, Poland, and Bnssia (■ Die kleinen Feinde
des Landwirthaehaft,' von Dr H. Kdrdlinger).

Westwood cites a notice of it in the ' Annals'
of the Entomological Society of Fiance in 1884.
It is called in Fntnce la noettteUe dea moittotu,
and is particnlarly tronbleeome to sngar-beet,
tobacco plants, and maize.

There are several species of AgroHi in America,
which hart crops of varions kinds, whose cater-
pillars are staled 'ont-worms.' The Ayrotit
tigetum. Hams says, is known in America as
JjfrotiM mettoria, or rather, this insect is its
representative there.

I^e Sittory. The common Dart moth belongs
to the Nat. Ord. LBPiDorrasA, and to the genns
Agrotii of the family Noatuida, which has, as
Westwood pcnntt ont, 400 species in Great
Britain.

The perfect insect, or moth, is from 10 lines to
an inch in the length of its' body, and messnres
■D inch and • half across the wings when ex-
panded fnlly. In colomr its body varies very
modt from shades of grey to shades of brown.
Stephens says it is almost impossible to obtain two
specimens precisely similar (' lUostrations of
British Entomology, Hanstellata,' by J. F.
Stq>hens). The males differ from the females,
tiMr general colonr being lighter than that of
the females. The fore or anterior wings of the
male are greyish brown. Those of the female
are brown, or reddish grey, as some entomologists
say. Cnrtis says they are nearly clay-ooloared
in some spedmens.

Upon the fore-wings there are pecnliar pointed
marks from which it takes the name of 'Dart'
moth.

Its hind or posterior wings are white, with dark
divisions or nervnres. Those of the female are
pearly white or light'grey.

As the name of its family implies, it flies by
night, or in the twilight or dusk, remaining during
the day npon trees, palings, hedges, plants, and
wieds. It rests with its wings folded down its
back in penthonse fashion, being inconspicuous
on account of its colonr.

Eggs are laid singly by the moth, and fastened
to the under sides of leaves, the stems or stalks
of plants of the Sratiioa tribe if conveniently
near, or of otiier plants when these are not ob-
tainable. Moths of tiliis species have been seen
flying about late in October in some seasons.

The eggs are like poppy seeds. Caterpillars
come from them in about 10 days and fall at once
to the earth and go into it, beginning to feed at
once upon leaves of plants near to them and con-
genial to thdr tastes. In about 8 weeks they are
full grown — that is, an inch and a half in length,
•nd thick in proportion. At this time their
appetites are enormons, apd their power of oon-
somption of vegetation is most wonderf uL

With their strong jaws shaped like a spoon or
scoops and famished with 6 teeth, they both bite
asd gnaw leaves and stems, and scoop ont barrows
in tSa hard bnlbs.

Thqr are smooth and shiny, dusky grey in
colour, not iafieqaently with a slight pink shade

on their backs, having spots or freckles, as Cnrtis
calls them, npon their skins, and a doable line of
dark colour down their bodies, and one line on
either side of them. They have dark or brown
heads, and 6 pectoral, 8 abdominal, and 2 anal
feet

The caterpillars remain in this form, feeding
greedily, nntil the food fails, or the frosts drive
them down deep into the earth, where they remain
in oval-shaped cases of earth until the spring,
and then become brown chrysalides and soon
change into moths.

Prevmttion. When swedes and turnips have
been attacked by the caterpillars of this moth,
they should not be polled, but fed off early by
sheep folded on the land. The treading of the
sheep and their manurial matters woold kill
them, or drive them down below and starve them
ont.

After an attack upon mangel-wurzel the ground
should be ploughed np deeply. If wheat is put
in after this crop it would be very advisable to
apply a dressing of lime or lime ashes. Bnt it
would be far safer not to put wheat or any crop,
and to fallow the land and keep it well and deeply
stirred in the spring, and then to take spring
tares.

A crop of turnips, swedes, mangel-wurzel, or
cabbage should never be taken directly after
either of these crops.

As these caterpillan feed upon com plants if
they cannot get plants of the Snutiea, it is not
desirable to put oats or barley in infested fields
in the spring following an attack.

All weed growth must be carefully kept down,
especially charlock, or cadlock, as it is called in
some places, both in fields and in the sides of
fields.

Remediei. Frequent stirring with hone-hoes
between the drills is calculated to disturb the
caterpillars and to kill a certain number of them.
Side hoeing will also check them.

Soot scattered on both sides of the plants and
chopped lightly in by hoes has been proved to be
of much Mnefit. Qaano also dry and well tri-
turated, sprinkled close to the plants and boed in,
has been adopted in several cases with advantage.
Agricultural salt sown close to the plants at tiie
rate of 8 or 4 cwt. per acre is stated to be useful,
care being taken not to put the salt on the plants.
A mixture of quicklime and sulphur — black sul-
phur, or tulphur vivum — is an ^ective dressing
put in close to the rows and covered in by means
of hoes. About 7 lbs. of black snlphnr to a bushel
of quicklime is the proportion of this mixture.

Natural JSnamiat. Books, starlings, peewits,
partridges, and moles are greedy devourers of
these fleshy caterpillars, and shoold be encouraged
in fields where these are at work (' Beports on
Insects Iinurions to Crops,' by Chas. Whitehead,
Esq., F.Z.S.).

HOLI-lEB-TAVaEBE. See Lupttb.

HOXSBCLATUBS (Chemical). The spoken
lang^nage of chemistnr; notation is the symbolic
written langoage of the science. The following
information wul doubtless prove osef ul to many
of our readers, as serving to explain terms which
are necessarily of frequent occurrence in this
work:

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IIM

NOMENCLATVBE

Aoiss. a. When a nibituice prodooes only one
•eid eomponnd, the name of this acid ii formed
by adding the tiermination -10 to that of the
radical, or to the leading or characteristic portion
of it ; aa nUphuno add, an add of ralphur.
This is Latinised by cbang^g-io into -iotju; as
aeidum nitpitiriouH. b. When a body forma two
acid componnds containing oxygen, the name of
the one containing the smaller proportion of that
substance ends in -ouij as uilroVB acid, which
contains 1 atom 'of nitrogen and 8 of oxygen;
nitnc acid, containing 1 atom of nitrogen and S
of oxygen. In this case the Latin name ends in
>OBUM; as aeithim nitrosuu. e. When a sub-
stance forms more than two acids with oxygen the
Oreek prepoaition Bnrpo- (below or under) is pre-
flzed to the name of the add in -ottb or -lo next
above it; as STtoehloroui aeid. _ d. When a
new acid compound of a substance is discovered,
containing more oxygen than another add of the
same substances already known, the name of
which ends in -10, the prefix FSB- or ktpjib- is
added] as smiodic aaid. This may be 111ns-
tinted by the oxygen adds of chlorine :
Hypodilorontaddfae«{iHiiijr})ocA2oronm) HCIO
Chlorons „ ( „ ehloronm) . . HClOj

Chloric „ ( „ ehlorioun) . . HaO,

^"cWon^l-^ " P-rcl.Unc^) .nCiO,
OxiDBB. The names of these have, in general,
reference to the number of atoms of oxygen
which they contain. When a metal forms only
one basic compound with oxygen, this compound
is simply called the oxide of such a metal ; but as
most substances form- more than one compound
with oxygen, certain prefixes are introduced to
express the proportions. In such cases it is gene-
rally found that one out of the number has a
strongly marked basic character, and contains one
atom of each of its constituents. This is called
the oxide, protoxide, or monoxide, and forms the
standard to which those both above and below it
are referred. Thus, snppodng H to be the metal,
we may have :

Suboxide or dioxide {tuboxydum, duM^dumi) . 11,0
Oxide, protoxide, or monoxide (Mq^(I«m,jpro-

toxydmm) HO

Sesqoioxide (<M9««oay<<w») M,0,

Binoxide, dioxide, or deatoxide {hiaoxydtm,

dttoctj/dtm) HO,

Teroxida or trioxide (ttro^dmm, trioxydMm) HO,

{That contain-
^^^n^«E
oxygen.

The anhydrous oxides (such as N,0, and
SO,), from which the acids are derived, may be
best termed odd-forming osidtt; whilst the lower
oxides, because they have the power of acting as
bases and of forming salts when brought into
contact with adds, are termed hasio oaidu (Soteoe
and Schorlemmer).

Saxtb. a. Acids having names ending in -10
give rise to salts whose names end in -i.TB ; thna
nitno aeid yields nitrAnta, e. g. nitrate of tilver.
•ATI is Latinised by -ut, e. g. mirate of tUear
hecomet arffnHi nUrtB.

b. Acids possessing names ending in •ovs forat

salts having names ending in -itb ; thus tulpiur-
ova add produces tulpiiTU, e. g. tuifUte e/f
todium. -IT! is Latinised by -is ; e. g. mJpiite
of todium becomes ntlpkia.

e. The preceding names are presumed to refer
to nenttal compounds. In add salts the prefixes
noticed above are added to express the pi^>onder-
anoe of the acid radical over the metal. KH.SO4
is called add tulpkatt of potatnum, smlphate
qfpotatnum, or sunlphato qfpotatk, the neutral
sulphate being K,S04.

d. In bittie salts, or those in which the metal is
in excess of the add radical, the prefixes lUB-and
Di- are employed ; «. g. the formal* of naatral
acetate of lead is PbAy This salt, when boiled
with oxide oi lead (a base), furnishes [PbA^FbO]
and [FbA,.2PbO]. They are both, therefore,
bade acetates ; and to distinguish one from the
other the former is called -Diaeetate and tibe latter
Taiaeetate of leadj di- referring to the presenoe
of two atoms of lead, and tri- to three.

Formerly the salts of the metals of the alkalies
and alkaline earths received names which indi-
cated the existence in them of the oxides of such
metals. Thus the terms carbonate of soda, ni-
trate of potash, carbonate of lime, sulphate of
magneaia. namea by which these floids are stiU
designated by some chemists, are now substituted
by the more systematic and leas speculative names
of carbonate of sodimn, nitrate of potasmum,
carbonate of caldnm, and sulphate of magnesium.
Another, and still better system of nomendatnze
u that in which the metallic or basic radical ia
mentioned first; t. g. caldnm sulphate instead of
sulphate of calcium, ammonium chloride for
chloride of ammonium. When the fame radicals
form more than one series of salts, each series is
distinguished by appeniUng the terminations -10
and -OTTB to that part of the name which refers to
the basic radical ; e.g. mereurova chloride (HgCl),
NMtvano chloride (HgCI,) ; ferrova tulpkate
(FeSO4),/«rl0 sulphate (FeiCSOJ,).

Nos-KITAUUO BoDiBB, &C. The names of the
compounds formed by the union of the non-
metallic elements, and certain other bodies, with
the metals and with each other, either terminate
in -ISB, Latinised by -iDm, or in -usbt. Latin-
ised by -TntBTUK; as anmilSB or arsmiiusiT
(arieuTDVit, arteniVBMTUn), bromrot, earblDS
or earbvaxt, ohlorran, (^yoaiDB, fluonoK, hg-
dma, iodiDV, tulphtDV or eulpKwsi, te. The
first of these terminations now prevails among
English scientific chemists. The prefixes already
noticed are also em^doyed here.

HiTAra. The names of the metals (those of
them, at least, that have been given daring the
present oentoiy) end in -im or (less frequently)
In -ux i as potaenuM, eodivu., platiuvu. The
Latin names of several of the non-metallic ele~
mentary bodies also end in -lUX ; as iodinivu,
nitrogenwit, &c.

Alkaloids. The names of the organic bases
which resemble the alkalies in thdr properties
end dther in -lA, -ka, or -ihb; as morphlk,
guiFA, tirgehuign. These terminations are now
limited, as much as possible, to substaoces exhi-
biting basic properties, but were fcnaerly very
iMsely ap^ied.

Many eDamista reject tibe first two temina-

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NOBFOLK FLVID— NOTICES

1106

tions. Mid Apply -nni to evexy substance of this
elMs ; M mufrpiaTB, quinun, anilxm, Ac.

Orkn. Oaantio Substajtcbb. The names of
ommic radicals generally terminate in -yx ; as
etMYli, metkYL, btiuOTL, &c. : they mostly contain
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Compounds cor-
responding to the electro-negative elements have
the termination -OGEir ; as eganoaxg, amidoatv.
Neutral eomponnds of carbon and hydrogen,
mostly liquid, have the termination -OL; as
gUfceroij, pj/rrov: such substances are nsnally
alcoholic in character. Other nentral substances,
generally solid, have the termination -nr; as
paraffxs, tu^kthalrs. Compounds resembling
ammonia, and generally considered as ' substito*
tion compounds' of that body, terminate in
•iMixM ; as attyUnnrB, propgliXTS-a.

The Ijatin genitive or possessive of the above
oompoiindfl in —

-as is 'atis

•is

w

-itis

•icom

9*

•ici

■osQin

tt

-od

•idnm

If

•idi

•etnm

ft

-e»

•imn

»

■a

-mn

»

•i

-Ul
•naj

Xx. Acetas (acetate), acetatis, of acetate;
arseius, arsenitis; citricum, citricij arseniosum,
srsemosi ; iodidnm, iodidi ; sulphnretum, sulphur-
eti ; sodium, sodii ; platinum, platini ; morphia,
morphia; qnina, quints; narcotina, narcotins.
The genitives of common names vary with the
termination. Host of those ending in -a make
•K, and most of those in -us and -um make -i ;
bat there are many exceptions, among which
eonut (a horn) and tpiritu» (spirit), which are
unaltered in the genitive singular, may be men-
tioned as examples.

NOKFOIiK TLJJID. Prep. Take of linseed
oil, 3 pints ; black resin, \ lb. ; yellow wax, 12
oz. ; melt, and add of neat's-f oot oil, 1 quart ; oil
of tnrpentine, 1 pint. Used to preserve and
soften leather.

HOK'luM. An unexamined metal,the oxide of
which, according to Svanberg, exists in certain
varieties of ZIBOOK.

"KOBXAL" SOLUnOKS. This system was
first adopted by Jfoir, and is now almost univer-
sally followed, on account of its simplicity and
oonvenience.

A so-called "normal" (or "N.") solution is
one which, at a temperature of 16° C, contains
per litre the hydrogen equivalent of the active
reagent weighed in grammes (H = l). Thus a
normal solution of the (monobasic) hydrochloric
acid contiuns 86*4 grms. of the pure compound
HCI in one litre (the molecular and also the equi-
valent waght of HCI being 85-4 + 1 •^ 86-4) ; a
nonnal solution of the (di^sic) sulphuric acid
contains 49, i. e. V gnus, of the pure compound,
HjSO^ in one litre (the molecular weight of
^SO^ being 98, but the equivalent weight 49) ;
one OS the (mono^acid) caustic potash contains
66 grms. KOH (the molecnlar and also the equi-
valoit weight Ot KOH bdng 66) ; one of the

(di-acid) sodie carbonate contains 53, t. «. -ij^ grms.
of Na,CQ) (the molecular weight of Na,CO, being
106, bat the equivalent weight 58), and so on.

It is obvious that an amount of caustic potash
expressed by the formula KOH is equivalent to
an amount of hydrochloric add expressed by the
formula HCI, thus :

KOH + Ha=KCl + HOH.

Again, an amount of sodic carbonate expressed
by the formula NajCOj is equivalent to an amount

by tne
of hy(

I'drochloric acid expressed by the formula
.thus:

N«^-f8HCl-2NaCl + H^-f CO^
It must, however, be borne in miad that the
first thing to be oonaidered with regard to any
partioolar solution for use in volumetric analysis
18 not neoessarily its equivalent hydrogen w^ht,
but its reaction in the analysis in qnestion. Tbxtt
tin is a tetravalant metal, but when a solution of
stannous chloride is used as a reducing agent in
the estimation of iron, a nnmber (in grammes)
corresponding to the half, and not to the fourth,
of its molecular weight is required, as is shown
by the equation —

FeaCl, •«- 8nCl,= 2FeCL + SnCl^.
(See Sutton's ' Tolnmetric Analysis,' 6th edition,
P- 28.) ^ ^

Semi-normal (—V qnintinonnal yi\, deeiiMr-

mal (^),andoentinonnal (^) solutions are like-
wise freqnentiy employed.

Where the 1000 gr. measure is used as the
standard in place of the litre, the weight of the
compound in grains is taken instead of that in
grammes. Since 1000 gr. measures occupy but
a small volume, it is found convenient in practice
to prepare solutions of 10,000.

VOSTSUKS. See Patbkt MsDionrBS, &c.

HOTICEB. The following sections of the
Public Health Act refer to serving and delivery
of notices under that statute :

(S. 266.) Notices, orders, and other such docu-
ments under the Public Health Act may be in
writing or print, or partly in writing and partly
in print ; and if the same require authentication
by the local authority, the signature thereof by
the derk to the local authority or their surveyor
or inspector of nuisances shall be soAdent
authentication.

(S. 267.) Notices, orders, or any other docu-
ments required or authorised to be served under
the said Act may be served by delivering the
same to or at the residence of the person to whom
they are respectively addressed, or where addressed
to tiie owner or occupier of premises, by ddiver-
ing the same or a true copy Uiereof to some per-
son on the premises, or If there is no person on
the premises who can be so served, by fixing the
same on some conspicuous part of the premises ;
they may also be served by post by a prepaid .
letter, and if served by post shall be deemed to
have been served at the time when the letter con-
taining the same would have been delivered in the
ordinary course of post, and in proving such ser-
vice it shall be suffident to prove that the notice,
order, or other document was properly addressed
and put into the postl

Any notice required to be given to the owner or

70

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U06

NOVABOENT— NUISANCE

oocnpier of any premises may be addressed by the
description of the 'owner' or 'occupier' of the
premises (naming them) in respect of which the
notice is given, without further name or deacrip-
tion.

JSitforeing the Drainaga of Soute*.

(S. 28!) Notice is to be given to the owner
or occnpier, bat in case of the failure of either to
comply, and the authority having to do the work,
the expenses fall on the owner.

Ituuffiaent iVtojr Aecowumodation.

(SS. 86 and 37.) The same procedure as under
the above section.
The CUanting and Whitmoathing of Sonnet.

(S. 46.) Notice to the owner or occupier. —
The person on whom the notice is served is liable
to a penalty if it is not complied with.
The Semocal of Manure or Filth, ^e., i» an
Urban Dittriet.

(S. 49.) Notice to be served on the person to
whom the manure belongs, or to the occupier of
the premises whereon it exists. If the urban
authority have to remove it themselves, the ex-
pense of removal falls upon the owner of the
manure, &e., or the occupier of the premises, or
where there is no occupier, the owner of the
premises.

In the eaee of Nuieance*.

(S. 94.) Notice is to be served upon the per-
son causing or permitting the nuisance to remain,
or, if he cannot be found, on the owner or occu-
pier of the premises on which the nuisance arises j
but if the nuisance arises from the want or defec-
tive construction of any structural convenience,
or where there i* no occupier, notice is to be served
on the owner.

In the COM of Soutti, 1(0., regmiring Diiiin-
feetion.

(S. ISO.) Notice is to be given to the owner or
occupier, and in case of non-compliance, the per-
son on whom the notice is served is liable to penal-
ties, and the expenses of the authority doing the
necessary works falls upon that person (with
certain exceptions in case of poverty).

HOVAB'GEST. Prep. From recently precipi-
tated chloride of silver by dissolving it in a solu-
tion of either hyposulphite of sodium or of cyanide
of potassium. Used chiefly to restore old plated
goods. The liquid is rubbed over the metal to
be coated with a little prepared chalk, and the
part is afterwards polished oft with a piece of soft
leather. A powder recently sold under the same
name is formed by mixing the preceding article
with chalk, and drying the mass. It is made
into a paste with a Uttk water, spirit of wine, or
gin, before applying it.

HOTAUB'UK. From a solution of neutral
trichloride of gold, as the last.

H0ZI0U8 IBASSS. See OrFSKsm TB.u>ltB.

HOTAU. Syn. Cb^hb sb hotau. This is

a pleasant nutty-tasting liqueur ; but from the

large proportion of prussic acid which it contains,

a small quantity only should be taken at a time.

iV«p. 1. Bitter almonds (bruised), 8 oz. ;
•inrit (22 u. p.), 1 quart; sugar, 1 lb. ; (dissolved
in) water, } pintj macerate for 10 days, fre-
quently shaking the vessel; then allow it to
repose fbr a few days, and decant the clear portion.

8. As the last, but substituting apricot or
peach kernels (with the shells, bruued) for the
almonds.

8. To either of the above add of coriander seed
and ginger, of each, bruised, 1 dr.; mace and
cinnamon, of each, \ dr.

4. (Wholesale.) To plain corral, at 64 to 60
n. p., containing 3 lbs. of sugar per gallon, add,
gradually, essence of bitter almonds, q. s. to
flavour.

6. (Ck^MB SB VOT^U SB MASTIiriQUS.) Loaf
sugar, 24 lbs. ; water, 2^ galls. ; dissolve, add of
proof spirit, 6 galls. ; orange- flower water, 8 pints ;
bitter i^monds (bruised), 1 lb. ; essence of lemons,
2 dr. ; as above. See LiQrBUBS.

irniSAVCE. The following are the chief
clauses of the Public Health Act respecting
nuisances:

DefinUion of Nnieanoei.

1. Any premises in such a state as to be a
nuisance or injurious to health.

2. Any pool, ditch, gutter, watercourse, privy,
urinal, cesspool, drain, or ashpit, so foul as to be
a nnisance or injurious to health.

8. Any animal so kept as to be a nnisance <nr
itgurious to health.

4. Any accumulation or deposit which is a
nuisance or ii^urious to health.

6. Any house, or part of a house, so over-
crowded as to be dang^erous or injurious to the
health of the inmates, whether or not members of
the same family.

6. Any factory, workshop, or workplace (not
already under the operation of any general Act
for the regulation of factories or bakdiouses) not
kept in a cleanly state, or not ventilated in such
a manner as to render harmless as far as practi-
cable any gases, vapours, dust, or other impurities
generated in the course of the work carried on
uierun that are a nnisance or injurious to health,
or so overcrowded while work is carried on as to
be dangerous and injurious to the health of thoae
employed therein.

7. Any fireplace or furnace which does not, as
far as practicable, consume the smoke arising from
the combustible used in such flreplace or furnace,
and is used for working engines by steam, or in
any mill, factory, dyehouse, brewery, bakehouse,
or gaswork, or in any manu&cturing or trade
process whatsoever ; and —

Any chimney (not being the chimney of a
private dwelling-house) sending forth black smoke
in such quantity as to be a nuisance ;

Shall be deemed to be nuisances liable to be
dealt with summarily under the Public Health
Act: Provided —

First. That a penalty shall not be imposed on
any person in respect of any accumulation or
deposit necessary for the effectual carrying on
any business or manufacture, if it be proved to
the satisfaction of the court that the accumulation
or deposit has not been kept longer than is neces-
sary for the purposes of the business or manu-
facture, and tiiat the best available means have
been taken for preventing iigury therein to the
public health.

Secondly. That where a person is summoned
before any court in respect of a nuisance arising
from a flreplace or furnace which does not con-

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NURSING— NUTMEG

1107

■ume the smoke arUing from the combnstible
naed in mch fireplace or furnace, the court may
hold that no noiaance is created \Tithin the mean-
ing; of this Act, and diamisg the complaint, if it ia
aatisfied that snch fireplace or famace ia con>
■tracted in inch a manner as to consnme as far
aa practicable, having regard to the natare of the
manufactnre or trade, all smoke arising there-
from, and that such fireplace or furnace has been
carefully attended to by the person having the
charge thereof. (P. H.. s. 91.)

The Act also defines and specifies — 1. The
doty and powers of a local authority to inspect a
diabnct with the view to an abatement of any
nnjsan(». 2. The process of information to be
pnrsned in representing a nuisance to any local
anthority. 3. Procedure on failing to comply
with notice. 4. The power of the Court to make
an order dealing with snch nuisance. 6. The
penalty for neglecting to obey such order. 6. The
power of complaint by prirate individuals. 7. The
power of the police to proceed in certain cases.
8. The cost and expense of executing the provi-
■ions relating to nnisancea. 9. The power of sale
of manure, £c. 10. The supervision of nuisances
eaosed by drains, privies, &c. 11. The proceed-
ings to be taken in certain cases agiunit nuisances
ia ships, Ac.

VUB'BIVG. Milk is the natural food of the
mammalia during the earlier period of their exist-
ence. ' It contains all that is necessary for the
nourishment of their bodies, and on it they thrive
and grow. Its secretion oidy actively commences
at the time when it is required for the sustenance
of the offspring, and it either materially lessens
in quantity, or wholly disappears, as soon as the
necessity for its existence has passed away, and the
little being who depended on it has acquired
snfflcient age and strength to exist on cruder
aliment. The nursing mother, when in a state of
perfect health, and properly supplied with a suffi-
ciency, without excess, of nutritious food, elabo-
rates this secretion in the fittest condition to en-
sure the health and vigour'of her offspring.

The milk of woman varies with the food, health,
age, &c., of the nurse. That produced from a
mixed animal and vegetable diet neither acesces
nor coi^nlates spontaneously, like cow's milk;
and when gently evaporated in an open vessel,
" the last drop continues thin, sweet, and bland."
Acids and rennet, however, coagulate it readily ;
and so does the gastric juice of the infant, as
shown by the condition in which it i* often
ejected hj the latter. The milk of a woman who
Uvea whoUy on vegetable food acesces and coagu-
lates with eqnal readiness and in a precisely
nmilar manner to cow's milk. The quality of the
milk also varies with the progress of the <Ugestion.
Within- the first honr or two after a meal it is
thin and serous, and then gisdnally improves in
richness and flavonr, until at about the 4th or
6th honr it possesses these qualities in the highest
degree. Tlus, then, is the period at which the in-
fant dioald be applied to the breast, which,
according to the present habits of society, would
be daring the hour immediately preceding each
meal except the breakfast. After about the 5th
or 90k hour the milk gradually loses its peculiar
colour and odour, mtil towards the 10th or 12th

hour after eating food it becomes yellowish, bitter,
and often nauseous, and in this condition is fre-
quently refused by the infant. This points out
the impropriety of a nurse fasting longer than 4
to 6 hours, except during the nighty when the
period may be extended to 7 or 8 hours, but never
longer. The time after accouchement is another
matter that influences the character of human
milk in respect of its wholesomeness for the in-
fant. The milk secreted soon after delivery is
very thin and serous, but in the course of a few
days it becomes thicker, richer, and more nu>
tritious J and a gradual change in the same direc-
tion proceeds during the usual period of suckling.
When the mother suckles her own infant, or the
' age of the milk,' as the nurses say, corresponds
to that of the child, all goes on weU ; but when
the former much exceeds the latter, the reverse is
the case. Thus it is found that an infant is in-
capable of completely digesting the milk of a nurse
whose own child is much older than itself; and
that an infant of a few weeks old will often starve
on the milk intended by natore for one several
times its age. It is, therefore, necessary, in
selecting a wet-nurse, to be certain that her con-
dition, in this respect, closely corresponds to that
of the mother of the infant, or that it does not
differ on this point more than 8 or 4 weeks. In
respect of the use of high-flavoured or improper
food and beverages, medicine, &c., it appears that
all these substances immediately affect the milk,
and impart to it more or less of their peculiar
flavour and properties ; and, except with remedies
administered under medical advice, in nearly all
cases prove injurious to the infant. The diet of
a nurse should be nutritious and succulent, and
its healthy digestion should be promoted by exer-
cise and pure air. Strong liquors, more especially
spirits, act like slow poisons on the infant, and
their habitual use by a nurse should, therefore,
be considered as a positive disqualification for the
duties of her office. The care of the mother or
wet-nurse should be particularly directed to the
maintenance of her own health and equanimity,
by which both the health and good temper of the
infant will be, as far as possible, ensured. A
grieving, irritable, or angry mother forces her bad
qualities on her offspring, in the shape of fits,
convulsions, or hopeless marasmus. See IlTFAiroT,
Milk, IirFAim, Foos ton, &c.
FUT'KEG. 8yn. MTBiSTiOiE svoLam, Nv-

OIBTA, NUX KOBOHATA, N. ICTBIBTIOA, N. ABO-

MATioA, Mtwbtioa (B. P., Ph. L.), L. "The
shelled seed of Mgristica offieinalU, Linn. (Jf.
tnotchata, Thnnberg), or nutmeg tree." It is
chiefly used as a spice and condiment, but it is
also esteemed as an aromatic in fiatulency and
diarrhoea. — Dote. Half a teaspoonf al, or more,
grated. The distilled and expressed oils (oLKCii
Kybibticx) are also officinal.

Of the different varieties of nutmegs met with
in commerce, those known as Penang are the most
valuable. Next to these rank the Dutch or
Batavian kind, and after these the Singapore
nutmegs. In the Duteh or Batevian variety the
exterior is composed of a number of white fur-
rows, with brown projections, which aspect is
caused by their having been dusted over with lime
previons to their ezpwtatioD. Besides the above.

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1108

NUTBITION— OAT

ibere is also a yery inferior description, known as
the long* or wild nntmeg, which are met with
either in the shell, oat of the shell, or in the shell
with the mace attached.

Nntmegs are sahjeot to the lavages of a worm
which would seem to devour or destroy their aro-
matic principle, since when attacked by this pant-
site they lose both their odour and taste.

In 100 parts sound nntmegs contain —

Volatile oil 6-0

Liquid fet 7-6

SoUdtat
Acid .
Starch
Gnm .
Ligneous fibre
Lois

1000

(Boncutre.)
HITTBI'TIOV. The phenomena of life are
accompanied by the constant and unceasing waste
of the materials of which the animal body is com-
posed. Every act of volition, every exertion of
muscular power, every functional action of the
organism, whether perceptible or imperceptible
and involuntary, every juay of chemical affinity
and decomposition, even thonght itself, occasions
the disorganisation and destmction, aa living
matter, of a portion of onnelves. But the pro-
cess of respiration, and the various important
changes with which it is connected, tend, more
than all the other vital functions, to waste the
substance of the body, the temperature of which
it is its special office to support This loss, this
change, which commences with life and termi-
nates only with death, is compensated for by the
constant renewal of the whole frame by the depo-
ntion and assimilation, or organisation, of matter
from the blood, which thus becomes gradually
thinner and impoverished, unless, in its turn, it
receives a corresponding supply of its vital ele-
ments. This it does from the food, which, by the
function of digestion, is converted into a ' chyle,'
and after being taken up by the ' lacteals,' passes
into the blooot of which it then becomes a part,
and attaches itself to those organs or tissaes, the
loss of which it is intended to supply. This
constitutes nntrition.

HUTS, Cob (Jamaica). OmpkdUa Mandra,
Linn., a small tree eznding a white jnice, which
dries black, and bearing a yellow globose fur-
rowed drupe, called Noisettier in the French W.
Indies, and known in Jamaica as pig or hog nut.
When ripe the seeds burst from the pericarp ;
they are eaten raw or roasted. By compression
they yield a £ne flavoured oil.

Huts (Hickory). Catya alba, Nntt, and C.
tomentota, Nutt., the former species affording
the principal supply. They are natives of Norl£
America, and the woods are both tough and
elastic, especially that of C. alba, which is much
nsed for spokes tor carriage wheels, shafts, &c.

Hnta (feccan). Carya olivtfformu, Nutt.,
occasionally to be found in English fruit-shops ;
the kernels are sweeter than those of the former.
HUT TSEX (of Haatoni Anstnlia). Mae.
adamia Umifolia, F. Huell. The seeds of this
tree are edible.

HUX VOKICA. Syn. Eoochio. itvt, Poiboh
H., VOHIT K. ; Nuoxs Tomof, Nttx Tomci.
(B. p., Ph. L., E., and D.). L. " ThjB seed of
Strgchnoi nmx-vomica, Linn." (Ph.L.)|(imported
from the East Indies (B. P.). This drug is chiefly
known as a violent excitant of the cerebro-spinal
system. In small doses, frequently repeated, it
is tonic, diuretic, and, occasionally, laxative ; in
slightly larger ones it is emetic; and in large
doses it is an energetic and fearful poison. — JDom,
1 to 8 gr. ; in paralysis, nervons affections, im-
potence, chronic dysentery, chronic diarrhoea, Ac.
Its frequent use is sud to render the system proof
against the poison of serpents. See SixTOHXljrs^
its active principle.

OAK. The British oak is the Qmreui nAur
of Linnaus, of which there are two varieties,
Q. feiancviata and Q. tetiiUflora. The wood of
the oak is more durable than that of any other
tree, and "for at once supporting a weight,
resisting a strain, and not s{dintering by a
cannon-shot, it is superior to every other kind."
It nevertheless " warps and twists much in dry-
ing, and in seasoning shrinks about l-32nd of
ite width." Foreign oak is less durable, bat mote
brittle and workable. The bark (oax-babk;
QUSSOOB OOBTSZ, QUBBCU8, B. P., Ph. L., B.,
& D.) is nsed as an astringent and febrifoge^ in
doses of 30 to 120 gr. frequently ; an astringent
decoction is also made of it, but ite chief esa^oy-
ment is in tanning leather. The peculiar appear-
ance of old oak or ' wainscoting ' is given to the
new wood by exposing it, whilst very slightly
damp, to the fames of ammonia.

Oak, Cork. Quereut tuber, Linn. The cork
tree grows in Spun, South France, Italy, and
Algeria. Cork is the thick outer bark, which
may be removed from the same tree at intervals
of 6 to 10 years after it attains an age of about
80 years. The cork collected previously is of in-
ferior quality. The bark is heated, loaded with
weights to flatten it, and then slowly dried. The
operation of removing the cork does not interfere
with the healthy growth of the tree ; it is said
rather to favour it. A cork box called a 'tarro'
is nsed in the province of Alentqo, Portugal, by
agricultural labourers for carrying their food in,
and to keep it cool.

OAT. S^ Atxha, L. The common cul-
tivated oat is the Atena taiiva, Linn., a gnunina-
ceons plant, of which there are several varieties,
as the Afuna tativa alia, or white oat ; A.t. nigra,
or black oat ; the potato oat, &c. Other species
are also cultivated, as Arena nuda, Linn., ^con,
or naked oat; A. ttrigota, or Spanish oat, Ac
The seed (oatb; cabtopbisxb, bkkiva ateux
cbttsa) form the common horse-corn of this conn-
try, but in the northern parts of the country it is
extensively used as food for man. The husked
grain constitutes gboatb, and its meal oatmbax.
The latter does not form a dough with water, aa
wheaten meal or flour does.

Oate consist of from 24% to 28% of hnsk, and
74% to 78% of grain. According to M. Payen,
th^ contain of starch, 60-69% ; acotised msditer,
14*89% ; saccharine aad gammy matter, 9.26% ;
fatty matter, 6-60% ; oeUalcse, 760% ; rilica and
saline matter, 8-26% . The husks oontain be-

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OATMEAL

1109

tween 6% and 7% of saline matter {Prof.
Norton). The ash amounts to 2-18% , and con-
sists of potaosa and soda, 26-18% ; lime, 5-96% ;
magnesia, 9-96% ; oxide of iron, -40% ; phos-
phoric acid, 43-84% ; sulphuric acid, 10-45% j
chlorine, -26% ; sUica, 2-67% ; alumina, -06%
{Jokntton).

The yield of oats is from 20 bushels per
acre in poor soils, up to 60, 70, and even 80
bushels per acre in rich soils. The weight per
bushel varies from 36 to 45 lbs, and the pro-
duct in meal is about one half the weight of the
oats.

A large proportion of the oats given to horse*

White ost— long. Met., Sad ud Srd eoati not lepanble. a. Compouid graias x 100; ), Ou do. x 500.

passes oil undigested. It has hence been pro-
posed to prevent this loss by either coarsely
bruising them in a mill, or by pouring boiling
water over them, and allowing them to macerate
till cold, when they are to be given to the horses
withont straining off the water. It is stated on
good authority that oats thus treated will not only
Catten quicker, but go twice as far as withont pre-
paration. Oat bruisers are now manufactured
by most agricultural implement makers.

Under t^e microscope the oat is seen to consist
of 2 or 3 envelopes ; the outer being composed of
longitudinal cells; the second obliquely trans-
verse and not very clearly seen ; in this the cells
are wanting in part, or pass into the cells of the
third coat ; the third envelope consists of a layer,
usually single, of cells, like wheat. Before the
envek^pea are searched for the husks must be re-
moved. The starch-cells are small, many-sided,
and cohere into round composite bodies, which are
very characteristic, and which, by pressure, may
be divided into separate grains. A high power is
necessary for the examination of these latter. The
■tarch of the oat does not polarise light.

OATICEAL St/n. Atbhjb vabisa, F. vs.-
nicnrrBus aysita (Ph. D.), L.

Oatmeal is the grain of Qxe oat deprived of the
skin, kiln-dried, and afterwards ground. It is
regarded as one <>f the most nutritions of our

cereals, being rich in nitrogenous matter, fat,
starch, and sugar. According to Letheby it con-
tains in 100 parts —

Nitrogenous matter . . 12'6
Carbo-hydrates . . . 6S-8
Fatty matter . . . S"6
Saline matter . . . 8-0
Water 150

100-0

Ereusler has shown that the nitrogenous prin-
ciple of oatmeal contains gluten-casein, a sub-
stance very similar to the Icgumin of peas and
beans. Letheby points out that, although it con-
tains more nutrient material than wheat, its
higher price renders it less economical as an
article of diet. Oatmeal forms the staple of the
food of the farm labourer both in Scotland and in
England, being consumed more largely by the
Scotch than the English peasant. Scotch oat-
meal is superior to English in nutritive value.
Oatmeal, when mixed with water, does not possess
sufficient tenacity to enable it to be made into
bread. It can, however, be baked into excellent
cakes, which, when made in Torkahire, are
leavened, and when in Scotland, unleavened.

The qualities of indigestibility and a tendency
to produce irritability of the bowels and skin,
have been ascribed to oatmeal ; before it was so

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OBESITY— OFFENSIVE TBADE8

prepared u to effectoally remove from it the hosk
and hairs by efficient screening, it was in Scotland
a freqnent aonrce of intestinal concretions. These
concretions, the natare of which was vmrsvelled
b; Dr Wollaston, consisted principally of phos-
phate of lime mixed with the hairs and husks of
the oats.

Of 80 samples of oatmeal examined by the
'Lancet' Sanitary Commissioner, no fewer tluui 16
samples, or more than one half, were adnlterated.
The substance generally used for this purpose is
barley meal, which is only half the price of oat-
meal. Hosks of barley, wheat, and of the oat
itself, are also frequently used. Bice and maize
are also sometimes added. That supplied to the
army, navy, and the workhouses, was very com-
momy adulterated with whiting, plaster of Paris,
or ground bones. The mineral sophisticant may
be detected by the excess of ash, which should not
exceed 2-36% . These frauds are readily detected
by the microscope.

&riU or groat* are the decorticated grain of
the oat, which when bruised or crushed constitute
Emhden groats. Flummery (known in Scotland
as sowafu) is made by steeping the husks of the
grain in water, until they become slightly sour,
the strained liquid being boiled down to the con-
sistence of gruel. Oatmeal soon becomes sour
and rancid. It should be purchased at such
shops as have a quick sale for it. See Aoabi,

SlIBABOUT.

0BS"8ITT. Sg*. Obbsitas, PoLTBiJBOA, L.
Unhealthy or troublesome fatness or corpulency.
Sometimes the secretion of fat, and its accumula-
tion in the adipose membrane, is almost af rapid
as that of water in anasarca, on which account
some of the old writers have called obesity a dropsy
of fat. Persons in easy circumstances, of indolent
habits, who live freely, and who are of a cheerful
and contented disposition, are those most liable to
obesity. The treatment consists in the very
gradual reduction of the diet, until it falls rather
below the average quantity required by a healthy
adult; the very gradual disuse of fermented
liquors, more especially beer ; the gradual abridg-
ment of the time devoted to repose, until it does
not exceed 5 or 6 hours; the employment of
several hours daily in exercise in the open tax, at
first moderate, but increased day by day in energy,
until it becomes laborious ; and, lastly, arousing
the mind from a state of lethargy to one of active
or even harassing employment.

In some cases the aocnmulation cf talt has been
enormous. Bright, of Haldon, weighed 728 lbs. ;
Daniel Lambert, of Leicester, 739 lbs. ; a girl, 4
year* old, noticed in the 'Phil. Trans.,' 1813,
weighed 266 lbs.

Persons affected with obesity are generally
■hort-lived.

The system known as 'Banting' is a rtxj
rational and i>hvsiological cure for obesity, u
conrists essentially in the reduction of the fats
and carbo-hydrates of the food to a minimum, and
the adoption of a chiefly animal diet vrith exercise.

OBSTSUCnOV QV UXAL AUTHOBITT. Va-
rious penalties are mentioned in different sections
of the Public Health Act for the <rftence of oh-
■tracting offioen, tc, representing the local
authori^, in carrying out tlie Act. The follow-

ing section, which we select, deals with the sab-
ject generally :

Sio. 306. " Any person who wilfoUy obsimcta
any member of the local authority, or any person
duly employed in the execution of this Act> or who
destroys, pulls down, injures, or defaces any board
on which any bye-law, notice, or other matter is in-
scribed, shall, if the same was put up by authority
of the Local Oovemment Boud or of the local
authority, be liable for every such offence to a
penalty not exceeding £5.

" Where the occupier of any premises preventa
the owner thereof from obeying or carrying into
effect any of the provisions of this Act, anj
justice, to whom application is made in this
behalf, shall by order in writing require such
occupier to permit the execution of any works re-
quired to be executed, provided that the same
appear to such justice to be necessary for the par-
pose of obeying or carrying into cnect the pro-
visions of this Act ; and if within 24 hoar* after
the making of the order such occupier fails to
comply therewith, he shall be liable to a penalty
not exceeding £6 for every day during the con-
tinuance of such non-compliance.

"If the occupier of any premises, when n-
quested by or on behalf of the local anthoriiy to
state the name of the owner of the premiaea
occupied by him, refuses or wilfully omita to
disclose, or wilfully mistakes the same, he shall
(unless he shows cause to the satisfaction of the
court for his refusal) be liable to a penally not
exceeding £6."

O'CHBES. These are native earthy com-
pounds of day, coloured with oxide of iron, with
frequentiy a little chalk or magneua. The
differences in the colour arise partly from the
qoantity of iron present, and parUy from the
state of oxidation in which the iron is fonnd.
Several varieties are known in eommaree —
Bbowk ooebb, Fbivoh o., Oxfobo 0., BXS o.,
BoKAK o., TBLLOW o. All these, with the ex-
ception of the first and fourth, have a yellow
colour. ABHBirlAH BOLK, Ikdias ksd, V»ri-
TiAH B., and SPAinaH bbowit are also ochres.

All the ochres are darkened by ealdnatian.
The yellow ochres acquire a red or reddish-brown
colour by this treatment. The ingment called
'light red' is thus prepared firom yeUow ochre.

ODOBTAVQIA. See Tooihachx.

O'DOBAXXHTS. Syn. Odobjlxbvta, L.
Substances employed in audieiiu on' aceonnt of
their odour. They differ from disinfectants in
only disguising, but not destroying, noxious
vapours, ice. Akkojtu, BTBOira rnrBSAB, and
FASTILLSB fumish the most familiar examples of
this class of substances. See Dnnmorijm^

PlBFTTKEB, &C.

ODOXTB. The emanation of an odoriferous or
scent-giving body. See Fbxtuxsb.

(EBAB'THIC ETHSB. See Siebb ((Enan-
thic).

07FEirBITS TBABXB. These are declared
by Section 112 of the Pablie Health Act to be
that of a

Bk>od boiler, I Soap boiler.

Bone boiler, Tallow melter,

Fellmonger, I Tripe boiler,

and

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OFFICINAL— OILS

1111

"Any otber noxioog or offenaive trade, bnii-
nen, or manofiustoie shall be liable to a penalty
not exceeding ,/!^^ pound* in respect of the utab-
Uthmant thereof, and any person carrying on a
liDiinesa so established shidl be liable to a penalty
not exceeding forty thillingt for every day on
which the offence is continned, whether there has
or has not been any conviction in respect of the
establishment thereof."

OTFIcmrAIi. 83*. OTFtonrAUB, L. A
term applied to substances or medicines ordered
in the Pharmacopoeia.

Oil. Sgn. OiWTM, L.J HtniE, Fr. This
name is given to nnmerons liquid or semi-liquid
substances, expressed or drawn from animal or
vegetable bodies ; to various products of the
distiUatiou of bituminous minerals; and to se-
Teral nnctooos miztores in pttfumery and fhar-
maey.

To facilitate reference, we have grouped the
principal substances generally called ' oils ' into
classes, nnder the following heads : — OrLB (Dry-
ing) ; 0ns (Empyrenmatic) ; Oils (Fixed) j OlM
niedicated); Oils (Mineral); Oils (Mixed);
O1X8 (Perfumed); Oils (Volatile). See these
articles also belom.

Oil, Conaol'idated> 8g%, CAXPTiooir, Fao-
TITIOT7B OAouTOEOTTO. A substauce having most
of the properties of india rubber, prepared by
oxidising boiled linseed oil, or any oUier oil that
hardens on exposure to the atmosphere. To
obtain the solid oil, plates of glass are dipped
into linseed oil, the films are then allowed to dry,
and the process is repeated again and again until
the plates are coated with many layers of per-
fectly oxidised oil. Instead of plates of gluss,
extensive surfaces of prepared cloth are employed
when the manufacture is carried out on a large
scale.

The solid oil, having been scraped or peeled
off the surfaces, is worked with a small pro-
portion of shell-Iac, by means of a mixing ma-
chine with hot rollers, until a material singularly
like caoutchouc is produced. The consolidated
oQ can be rolled on to fabrics, so as to form
a waterproof cloth, having the finish and fiexi-
bility of rubber-cloth. By the action of heat the
consolidated oil may be converted into a hard
sabstance resembling vulcanite and ebonite. Its
useful applications appear to be very numerous,
bat its manufacture has not as yet made much
progress.

OIL-OAS. A mixture of several gaseous hy-
drocarbons, obtained by passing common whale-
fat resin, the heavy petroleum or shale oil, or the
tany residues left after the distillation of these
two latter substances, or other cheap animal oil,
through red-hot tubes, or by allowing it to fall
in drops on red-hot stones or bricks arranged in
an iron retort, or other suitable apparatus. The
gas has great illuminating . power, requires no
porifieation, and is quite free from the ammo-
niacal and sulphnr compounds which vitiate coal-

He sp. gr. of oil-gas varies with the heat
employed in its production. It averages from
(y76 to -90, but it may rise as Ugh as 1-1.

The composition of oil-gas, as given by Payen,
is as follows :

Olefiant gas and homologues
Marsh gas ...
Hydrogen ...
Carbonic oxide . .
Nitrogen

oa-gu.

22-5

eo-3

7-7

16-5

4-0

Ou train
Pstroleom
rstidnes.

17-4
68-8
24-8

0II8, BLEACHHTQ of. According to a
German chemist (PtucAor) this is usually ef-
fected by means of 2% of concentrated sulphuric
acid, and a subsequent washing with water. In
many cases a i>erfectly pure oil is spoilt by an
incomplete washing after the action of the sul-
phuric acid. Such is often the case in the colza
oil, largely used as a sonrce of illumination.
Unless the purified oil is completely washed, the
wick of the lamp is blackened in a very short
time, and frequent cutting and trimming become
requisite. By Puscher's new method tUs wash-
ing is greatly facilitated ; instead of using pure
sulphuric acid, he takes a mixture of equal parts
of spirit at 96% and ordinary concentrated sul-
phuric acid. Half the quantity of acid usually
employed is thus replaced by spirit. The effect
is most satisfactory. No resmification of the oil
is produced as when sulphuric acid alone is used,
and from the first the mixture is perfectly homo-
geneous. Qradually the mass becomes cloudy,
takes a green colour, and finally becomes black.
Id the course of one or two days, during which
the vessels are left quite quiet, a comparatively
small quantity of a black deposit has found its
way down as a sediment ; it occupies only a small
space in proportion to the bnlk of the oil so
treated.

In testing the efficacy of this new process, ex-
periments were made on 200 quarts of oil at a
time. Walnut and colza oils become by this
treatment as clear as water; linseed oil still
retains a distinct yellow ting^ when seen through
a certain thickness.

Before being sent out oils treated in this
manner must be submitted to a thorongh wash-
ing with cold water, used in liberal quantities.
It has been found in practice that the addition of
the spirit economises one half of the solphuric
acid, and yields a mnch superior product.

OUs (Drying). All the fixed oils have an
attraction more or less powerful for oxygen, and,
by exposure to the air, they either become hard
and resinous, or they only thicken slightly and
become sour and rancid. Those which exhibit
the first property in a marked degree, as the oils
of linseed, 'poppy, rape, and walnut, are called
' drying oils,' and are used as vehicles for colours
in painting. The others are frequently termed
' glutinous ' for ' non-drying oils.' Chemically
speaking, the drying oils are the glyoerides A
linoleio and allied acids. The principal vege-
table drying oils are Unseed, poppy-seed, grape-
seed, and nut oUs. Castor and ootton-seed inls
seem to be intermediate between the drying and
non-drying oils, and are sometimes classed with
the latter {Camrnvn).

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1112

OILS

Light ezerti a conaiderable influence upon the
absorption of oxygen by the drying oils ; while
the procees is veiy slow in the dark ; it is most
quickly accompUshed in a bine or colonrless light,
and less qoiekly in a red, yellow, and green light
(JBramtt).

The resinijyiug or drying property of oils is
greatly increased by boiling them, either alone or
along with some litharge, sngar of lead, or white
vitriol, when the prodnct forms the * boiled oil '
or ' dicing oil ' (oLVUK dkbicoaiitdm) of eom-
meree. The oxalate and oxide of manganese
have recently been naed with some sacceas. The
efficacy of the process, according to Liebig,
depends on the elimination of substances which
impede the oxidation of the oiL The following
tormaim »xe adopted for this purpose:

1. Linseed oil, 1 gall.; powdered litharge, )
lb.; simmer, with frequent stirring, until a
pellicle begins to form; remove the scum, and
when it has become cold and lias settled decant
the clear portion. Dark coloured ; used by house-
painteit.

2. Linseed oil and water, of each, 1 quart ;
white vitriol, in powder, 2 oz. ; boil to dryness.
Paler than the last.

8. Pale linseed or nut oil, 1 pint ; litharge or
dry sulphate of lead, in fine powder, 2 oz. ; mix,
agitate frequently for 10 days, then set the
bottle in the sun or a warm place to settle, and
decant the clear portion. Very pale.

4. Linseed oil, 100 galls, j calcined white vit-
riol (' sulphate of zinc '), in fine powder, 7 lbs. ;
mix in a clean copper boiler, heat the whole to
286° P., and keep it at that temperature, with
constant stirring, for at least one hour; then
allow it to cool ; in 24 hours decant the clear por-
tion, and in 8 or 4 weeks more rack it for use.
Used for varnishes.

5. (Zisi^.) Sugar of lead, 1 lb., is dissolved
in rain-water, i gall. ; litharge, in fine powder,
I lb., is then a[dded, and the mixture is gently
simmered until only a whitish sediment remains ;
levigated litharge, 1 lb., is next diffused through
linseed oil, 2| galls., and the mixture is gradu-
ally added to the lead solution, previously
diluted with an equal bulk of water; the whole
is now stirred together for some hours, with
heat, and is, lastly, left to clear itself by expo-
sore in a warm place. The lead solution which
subsides from the oil may be used agun for the
same purpose, by dissolving it in another lb. of
Utfaarge, as b^ore.

6. (Wm*.) Into linseed oil, 286 galls., pour
<Al dt vitariol, 6 or 7 lbs., and stir the two to-
gtHket for 8 hours; then add a mixture of
fkdler'f^arth, 6 lbs., and hot lime, 14 lbs., and
•gain stir for 8 hours; next put the whole into a
eopper with an equal quantity of water, and boil
fbr about 8 hours; lastly, withdraw the fire, and
iriien the whole is cold, draw off the water, run
the (ul into a^y suitable vessel, and let it stand
for a few weeks before using it.

7. ('Allg. Folyteoh. Zeitung.') Binoxidc of
manganwo (in coarse powder, out not dusty), 1
part; nnt or Unseed oil, 10 parts; mix, and keep
the whole gently heated and frequently stirred
for 24 to 86 hours, or until the oil begins to turn
reddish. Recommended for zinc paint, but is

equally adapted for other purposes for which
boiled oil is employed.

Obt. There is often a difficulty in obtaining
the oils ' bright ' after boiling or heating them
with the lead solutions j the best way, on the
small scale, is either to filter them through
coarse woollen filtering-paper, or to expose the
bottle for some time to the sun or in a warm
place. On the large scale, the finer oils of this
kind are often filtered thiongh Canton fiannel
bags. The litharge and sulphate of lead used in
the above processes may be again rendered avail-
able for the same purpose by washing them in
hot water, to remove adhering mucilage.

OILS (Empyreumat'ie). Sgn. Olia ixft-
SBUICATIOA, L. The ' empyrenmaUc oils' of the
old pharmaceutical writers were oily fluids ob-
tained by the dry distillation of various substances,
animal, vegetable, and mineral. But few of them
are in use at the present day, though f ormulm are
given for them in some of the foreign pharma-
copoeias. Two or three have useful applications
in the art*, and it is therefore necessary that we
should briefly describe their preparation. When
the ingredients are of a liquid or pasty nature, or
become so when heated, they are usually mixed
with about twice their weight of sand, powdered
glass, or other like substance, to divide them, and
thus expose them more efCectually to the action
of the fire. Care must also be taken to provide »
well-cooled receiver, which must be furnished
with a tube to carry off the non-condensable gases
liberated at the same time as the oil. The pro-
ducts of the first distillation are generally purified
by rectification, either alone or along with water.
In general, they require to be preserved from the
light and ur.

The following are the principal substance* be-
longing to this class :

Oil of Al'oes. Syn. Alobho oit; Olbtk
AliOBTjOTTK, L. Prep. 1. From Socotrine or
hepatic aloes distilled along with sand.

2. (Batavian — Cadet de Gasaoonrt.) Olive oil,
1 lb. ; hepatic aloes and myrrh, of each, in pow-
der, 2 oz. ; olibannm, i oz. ; distil in a sand-bath,
from a stoneware retort. Used as an external
vermifuge for children ; a portion is rubbed two or
three times a day over the umbilical regions.

Oil of Am'ber. Sj/n. Olsuk arccnn, L. iV«p.
From coarse pieces of amber, distilled in an iron
retort, either alone or reduced to powder and
mixed with sand. The oil is separated from the
fetid liquor and succinic acid which passes over,
and rectified along with about 6 times its volume
of water, by a gentle heat. It then forms ' BBO-
TXPOQ) OIL OP AXBBB ' (OLBVIC BVOOIjn— Ph. L.

1836, o. B. raormoATirK — Ph. D. 1826, o. 8.
PUBissiMUit— Ph. E. 1841).— iVorf., 20% .

Prop., ^e. It has a pale yellow colour, a strong,
ungrateful odour, and a not, acrid taste; heat
and air blacken and thicken it ; it boils at 186° F.
8p. gr. '758 at 76° F. It is antispasmodic, rube-
facient, and stimulant. — Dote, 6 to 12 drops, made
into an emulsion with mncilage; in hysteria, epi-
lepsy, and convulsive affections. Externally, as a
friction, either alone or combined with laudanum
or sweet oil, in rheumatism, tic-doulouretix, hoop-
ing-cough, &c.

Oil of Amber, Oxidated {ArHfioial Jtuii:).

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OCLB

Ulf

Prep. Put into » cup 1 dr. of oil of amber, and
•dd to it, drop by dtop, 8i fi. dr. of strong nitric
■cid; let it stand for 3S hoars, then sepante
and wash the reainons matter. Antiapoamodio
and nervine. — Dote, 6 to 10 gr. For children, ^
tolgr.

QU, Aa'iinaL Pnp. 1. (Empyretimatic or
Fetid : Oil o> haxtbhokh, Dippkl'b o. ; Ounrx

AIOHALX JIKfTBIUXATIOUlf , O. OOBlTlr OSBTI, O.

DlPPSUi, L.) Cliiefly obtained as a secondary
prodnet in the mannfkctnre of bone-black. Fetid
•nd dark-oolonred. Used chiefly to make lamp-
Uack. It contuna —

2. (Ethereal: RBormXD OIL o* HABTIHOBV;
Ounnt AmxAix .STHXBirrK, O. oobicu oibyi
VEOnnc^rvu, Loco olbi Arouus Diprnn,
L.) a. A finer kind of animal oil, made by slowly
■distilling oil of hartshorn, and collecting only the
flnt portion that comes over. Pale and limpid.
Sxpoanre to light discoloors it.-

6. (Ph. Bor^ Fetid animal oil distilled in a
•and-bath, and the product rectified with 4 times
its rolnme of wtAac, White, limpid, fragrant.
loght discolours it.

OaofBiieh. £^. OsxuK BBTin.a, L. Prep.
From the inner burk of the birch, by heating it
in an earthen pot with a hole in the bottom, to
allow the oil to flow throogh into another jar
snnk in the gronnd and lated to it. Thick, bal-
■amic, fn^frant. Used chiefly to drees mssia
leather.

oa of Box-wood. ^M. Ouinc Bxrzi, O. b.

■MPTMTTIIATICUK (PL L. 1746), L. iV»p.

From box- wood sawdnst Repated resolvent;
anodyne, antispasmodic, and diaphoretic. — Doie,
6 to ao drops i in convnlsions, epUepsy, gonorrhoea,
tee. Externally, in toothache, Ac.

on of Bricks. %>. Olxitk ULTKBirnnc (Ph.
L. 1746), L. Prep. From olive oil, mixed with
brick-dost, and distilled j or from hot bricks
stewed in olive oil, then broken to pieces, and
distilled.

(Ml of Brisks (Xaetitions). Sffn. Olsvh latiki-
mnc tACftmvu, L. Pnp. From linseed oil, 1
lb. ; ml of turpentine, J lb.; oil of bones or of
hartshorn and Barbadoes tar, of each, 1 oz.;
simply stirred well together. This is generally
•nbatitnted for the preceding in the shops.

oa of Cada. 0fn. Olxuk OASixinc, L.;
Hviu DB OAsa, Fr. Prep. From the Jmt^Mrue
oageedrme, or Langaedoc juniper. Used as oil of
tar, iHiich is commonly told for it.

00 of Ooa'lacnm. /%■. Olkitx svaiaoi, O.
e. SKFTsirrxATioux, L. Prep. From g^naia-
dun shavings or raspings. Bepnted balsamic,
pectoral, ud reaolvent.

Ml «f HMrtslum. Bone oil and rectified bone
oil are commonly sold tor it^ bat are inferior to it.
See Oil, Aiukal {above).

on, Fapor. Sg». Rao oiL) PrBOTEOins Jt ;
OLnTX oKtxtM, L. Prep. On the small scale,
fay boming paper on a cold tin plate, and oolleet-
{ng the 0(1; on the large scale, by the deatrnctive
dktOlation of paper or linen rags. In baldness,
toothache, earache, &c.

oa of Soot. Syn. Olxux rmaaa (Ph. L.
1746), li. Prep. From wood soot. Fetid ; re-
nntea aatispasmodic and nervine.

OOofTar. <%«• Smix-ovx.; Ounmnsi,

O. p. ■a.wa.mt, O. tmdm, O. non uqvisx, L.
Prep. By simple distillation firom wood-tar.
Keddiah and strong-scented. By one or more
rectifications it becomes colonrless and limpid. It
soon gets thick. Used in ringworm and several
other skin diseases, made into an ointment with
lard. It is poisonons if swallowed in large doses.

Ml of Tobae'ee (Brnpyrenaiatle). Ih/u. Oannt
TABAOi BKPTXBVMATionK (Ph. U. S.), L. Prep.
From tobacco, in coarse powder, gradrntily heated
in a green glass retort to dull redness, and kept
at that temperature as long aa any ml passes over ;
the (nly portion is then separated from the water
in the receiver, and kept for oae. Highly nar-
cotic and poisonons.

Oa of Wax. am. Ournt tnnm, L. ^ep.
From beeavrax and sand distilled together ; ue
product is rectified once or oftener. Bepoted
cUuretic — Doee, 8 to 6 drop*.

OILS (Fixed). Syn. Fat oils, Unotuovs a ;

OLBA PIZA, O. BZPBMBA, L. ; HutLBI SXABBia,

Fr. The fixed oils are compounds of carbon, hy-
drogen, and oxygen, obtained from the organic
kingdoms, and characterised by their insipidity,
nnctuosity, insolubility in water, and being lighter
than that fluid. Olive oil, whidi is obtained from
the vegetable kingdom, and spermaceti oil, which is
obt^ned from the animal kingdom, may be taken
as types of the rest.

The fixed oils are chiefly found in the fruit
and seeds of plants, and in thin membranons
cells, forming what is called the adipose tissue,
in the bodies of animals. Aeeording to their con-
sistence, they may be classed into 'oils,' 'bvt-
Km,' and ' tallows.'

Prop., Jjv. Among the best known properties
of the fixed oils are — the permanent stain they
give to paper, which they render transladd;
their non-volatility at the ordinanr temperatnre
of the atmosphere, or at that of boiling water,
or, indeed, at any temperatare insniBcient for
their decomposition ; their constantly floating on
the anrfaee of water when added to it; and,
laatly, their inability to mix with that fluid.
Some of them, as palm oil and cocoa-nnt oil, are
solid at ordinary temperatures ; bat the majority
are fluid, unless they have been considerably
cooled, when they separate into two portions—
the one solid, oonsiating chiefly of stearin, ' or
some analogous lubstanoe; and the other liquid,
consisting diiefly of olein. Nearly all of them,
when exposed to the air, absorb oxygen rapidly,
and either gradnally harden or become rancid
and nauseous. From the first are selected the
' drying oils,' used by painters; the last are used
as food, in cookery, and for machinety, lamps,
&c. All of these oils, when heated to their
boiling-points (600° — 600° F.), suffer decompo-
sition, yielding various hydrocarbons ; and when
suddenly exposed to a red heat they furnish a
gaseous product (cnl-gas), which has been em-
ployed for illumination. It is owing to this
property of oil and liquid fats that candles and
liunps give their light. With the caustic alkalies
and water the find oils unite to form soap.
When some of these <rfls are absorbed by porous
bodies, and thns expose a vastly inereasea snrfaee
to the ur, they absorb oxygen with such rapidity
as to generate a oonalderable degree of heat.

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Paper, tow, cotton, wool, rtraw, ghavings, &o.,
mcustened with oil, and left in a beap, freely
exposed to tlie air or ton, often spontaneonaly
inflame. In this way many exteniive Area have
arisen. The above is more particularly the case
with linseed, rape, nnt, and olive oil. The first,
made into a paste with manganese, rapidly
becomes hot, and ultimately inflames spontane-
ousW.

tiie speciflo gravities of the flxed oils range
between 0866 and 0-970.

Prep. The flxed oils, except where otherwise
directed, are obtained from the bmised or gronnd
fmit or seed, by means of powerful pressnre, in screw
or hydraulic presses, and are then either allowed
to clarify themselves by subsidence or are filtered.
Both methods are frequently applied to the same
oil. In some cases the impurities are removed by
ebullition with water, and subsequent separation
of the pure oil. Heat is frequently employed to
increase the liquidity of the oil, and thus lessen
the difficulty of its expulsion from the mass.
With this object the bruised moss, placed in bags,
is commonly exposed to the heat of steam, and
then pressed between heated plates of metal.
This is always necessary with the ' bntyraceous
oiU.'

Another method is by Imiling the bmised seed
' in water, and skimming off the oil as it rises
to the snrfiace. This is the plan adopted for castor
oil in the West Indies.

In a few cases, for medidnal purposes, the
bruised mass is mixed with half its weight, or an
equal weight, of alcohol' or ether, and after 24
hours' digestion the whole is submitted to pres-
sore, and the alcohol or ether removed by distil-
lation at a gentle heat. The first menstruum is
commonly employed for croton oil on the Con-
tinent ; the second for that of ergot of rye.

Furif. Several methods are adopted for
refining or purifying the fixed oils, among which
are the following :

1. The oil is violently agitated along with
H% to 2% of concentrated sulphuric acid, when
it assumes a greenish colour, and, after about a
fortnight's stxinding, deposits much colouring
matter, becomes i»ler, and bums with greater
brilliancy, particularly if well washed with steam
or hot water, and clarified by standing or by
filtration. This answers well for most recently
expressed vegetable oils. It also greatly improves
most of the fish oils.

2. A modification of the last method is to
well mix the acid with the oil, then to blow
steam through the mixture for some time, and
afterwards to proceed as before.

8. FiBH on. (WHAliB, 8IAI., &C.) Is purified
by-

a, 'Violentiy agitating it with boiling water, or
by placing it in a deep vessel with perforated
bottom, t&ough which high-pressure steam is
forced for some time j it is afterwards clarified
by repose, and filtered through coarse charcoal.

b. The oil is violently agitated with a boiling
hot and strong solution of oak-bark, to remove
albumen and gelatin, and next with high-pressure
steam and hot water; it is, lastly, dried and
filtered.

e. The ml, gently heated, is stirred for some

time with about 1% of good cnloride of lime,
previously made into a miik by trituration with
water ; about li% of oil of vitriol, diluted with
20 times its weight of water, is then added, and
the agitetion renewed and maintained for at least
2 hours ; it is, lastiy, well washed with steam or
hot water.

d. Mr. Davidson treate the oil first with •
strong solution of tan, next with water and
chloride of lime, then with dilute sulphuric acid,
and lastly, with hot water.

«. Mr. Dunn's method, which is very effec-
tive, and admirable on account of ite simplidty,
is to heat the oil by steam tofrom 180° to 200° F.,
and then to force a current of air of corresponding
temperature through it, until it is sufficiently
bleached and deo&rised; it is, lastly, either at
once filtered, or is prerionsly washed with steam,
or hot water.

/. Another method is to violentiy agitate the
oil for some time with very strong brine, or with
a mixed solution of blue vitriol and common salt,
and then either to allow it to clarify by standing
or flltering it through freshly burnt charcoal.

4. ALXOiri), OABTOS, LIHBBBD, »UT, OLITE,

BAPB, and some other vegeteble oils are readily
bleached by either of the following processes :

a. Exposure in glass bottles to the sun's rays,
in some sniteble position, open to the south-east
and south. This is the method employed by
druggists and oilmen to whiten their castor and
linseed oils. 14 to 21 days' exposure to the sun
in clear weather during summer is usually suffi-
cient for castor oil i^en contained in 2 to 4-
quart pale green glass bottles (preferably the
former), and capped mth white gallipots in-
verted over them. The oil is filtered before
exposing it to the light, as, if only in a slight
degree opaque, it does not bleach well. Almond
and olive oil are, 'when thus treated, apt to
acquire a slight sulphurous, smell; but this may
be removed by filtration through a littie animal
charcoal, or, still better, by washing the oil vrith
hot water.

b. Heat the oils in a wooden, tinned, or well-
glazed earthen vessel along with some dry 'filter-
ing powder' (1 to 2 lbs. per gall.), with agitation
for some time, and then filter them in the usual
manner through an oil-bag. In this way the
West-end perfumers prepare their 'whitk a»

XOKS oil' (oIBTTX AirraDALE AI.BII1C) and

their 'whitk olitb oil' (olxvk oliys al-
BTTX). Formerly, freshly burnt animal charcoal
was used for this purpose, and is still so employed
by some houses.

6. Mr Bancroft reHnes oils iob kaoeikbbt
AND LUBBlOATiKa FVBFOBIB generally, by agitat-
ing them with a lye of caustic soda of the sp.
gr. 1-2. A sufficient quantity is known' to have
been added when, after standing, a portion
begins to settie down clear at the bottom.
About 4% to 8% is commonly required for lard
oil and olive oil. After 24 hours' standing the
clear supernatcmt oil is decanted from the soapy
sediment, and filtered.

6. Not only the oils above referred to, but aU
other oils and fats, may be rendered perfectly
colourless by the use of a littie chromic acid ; or,
what is the same, by a mixture of a aoIiiti<m of

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bicloomate of potaah and rofficient gnlphoric,
hydrochloric, or nitric acid to combine with the
alliali, and that liberate the chromic acid.

7. Paxk oil and coooA-sirr oil are generally
refined and bleached by either chromic acid or
chlorine, or by heat.

a. The ' butyraceom oil' is liquefied by heat
in a wooden vessel, and 7% to 9% of good chlo-
ride of lime, previonsly made into a smooth
cream with water, is added, and the whole assi-
dnonsly stirred tmtil the ingredients appear
united ; the mixture is then allowed to cool and
solidify. It is next eat np into small lumps,
which are exposed to a free current of air for 2,
i, or even 4 weeks ; these are melted in a wooden
vessel heated by high-pressnre steam circulating
through leaden pipes, or in a cast-iron boiler
lined with lead, and an equal weight of oil of
vitriol (dilnted with about 20 times its weight of
water) is poured in, and the whole gently boiled
nntil the oil is discoloured and runs clear ; the
fire is then moderated, and the whole allowed to
settle ; lastly, the fire is removed, and the oil is
left to cool very slowly.

b. The process with chromic acid has been
already noticed, but is more fully explained
bglott.

0. The oil, heated to the temperature of about
S&CK' F., is exposed to the action of high-pressure
steam, which is continuously ' blown ' through it
ba 10 or 12 hours, or even longer. The process
u grntly facilitated by the introdnction of some
chromic acid.

8. Mr Watt's methods of purifying fats and
oila are very effective, more especially for those
intended for iUnmination. They are as follows :

a. (For nSH oils.) Each ton is boiled for
i an hour with caustic soda, } lb., previously
made into a weak lye with water ; or steam is
Idown through the mixture for a like period ; oil
of vitriol, } lb., diluted with 6 times its weight of
water, is next added, the whole again boiled for
15 minutes, and allowed to settle for an hour or
longer, when the clear oil is run off from the
water and sediment into the bleaching tubs; here
solution of bichromate of potash, 4 lbs., in oil of
vitriol, 2 lbs., previously diluted with wster, q. s.,
together with a little nitric acid and some oxalic
acid, are added, and Cfter thorough admixture of
Om whole, by blowing steam through it, strong
nitric acid, 1 lb., diluted with water, 1 quart, is
poured in, and the boiling continued for ) an
hour longer; a small quantity of naphtha or
rectified spirit of turpentine is then mixed in,
and the oil is, finally, well washed with hot water,
and left to settle.

b. {Vat FAUC Olli.) The <^ is melted by
the heat of steam, and after it has settled and
cooled -down to about 130° F., is carefully de-
canted from the water and sediment into the
ft^imning tubs ; here a mixture of a saturated
aohitioo of bichromate of potaah, 25 lbs., and
tnl of vitriol, 8 or 9 lbs., is added, and after
thorough admixture, hydrochloric acid, 60 lbs.,
is poured in ; the whole is then constantly stirred
until it acquires a uniform greenish colour, or is
•affldently decoloured, a little more of the
hleaching materials being added if the latter is
not the case, after wlu^ it is allowed to stand

for half an hour to settle ; it is next ma into a
wooden vat, where it is washed, &c., as before.

e. (For VBaBTABLB OILS.) These are treated
with a solution of chromic acid, or with a solu-
tion of bichromate of potash, or some mineral
acid, as noticed at No. 6. For OOLZA, LurgBBD,
HiTBTASD, HUT, and &AFI OIL, a little hydro-
chloric acid is added; but for alxons, oabiob,
OLiVB oil, and poppt oil no such addition is r«.
quired.

9. Rakcio oils and patb are recovered by
boiling them for about 16 minutes with a little
water and calcined magnesia, or by filtering them
through freshly burnt charcoal.

Obi. In reference to the above processes, it
may be useful to remark that chlorine, the com-
mon bleacher and deodoriser of other substances,
cannot be well employed directly in the purifica-
tion of oils, as certain chemical reactions occur
when these substances are brought together, which
increase the colour instead of removing it, and are
often otherwise injurious. The same remarks
apply to the use of the ' chlorides,' which fre-
quently fails in unskilful bauds, and is, indeed,
ot questionable utility, except, perhaps, in the
case of palm oil. Even charcoal exerts little of
its usual energy on the oils, and whilst it removes
or lessens their offennve odour, sometimes in-
creases their colour. The addition of 1% or 2%
of very pure and recently rectified naphtha or oil
of turpentine to lamp oil is a real improvement,
since it increases its combustibility and its illumi-
native power.

Oils pob XBDiCAii wxbosbb, as castob oil,
OOD-LiviB oil, &c., must not be subjected to
any process beyond mere clarification by subsi-
dence, filtration though Canton flannel or porous
paper, or, at the utmost, washing with warm water,
as otherwise their active and valuable properties, if
not wholly removed, will be considerably lessened.
See Filtsatiov.

Pur. The fixed oils vary greatly in their
value, and hence the constant inducement to the
unprincipled dealer to adulterate the more ex-
pensive ones with those of a similar character, but
of an inferior kind or grade. Various methods
are adopted to detect these frauds, among which
the following are the most valuable of those
capable of general application. Others referring to
individual oils will be found under the respective
heads.

1. (From the odour.) The method of applying
this test is to beat a few drops of the oil under
examination in a small porcelain, platinum, or
silver spoon or capsule (a watch-glass answers
well), and tp carefully compare the odour evolved
with that arising from a known pure sample ot
the same kind and quality of the oil similarly
treated. The odour of the two, when each is
pure, is precisely alike, and immediately suggests
the plant or animal from which it has been ob-
tained. The presence of ldtsbbs, wt, bafs,
BBAL, IBAI5, Or WE ALB OIL is thus readily de-
tected, and the imperfections of the sample, even
if pure, rendered much more perceptible.

2. (From the density.) a. According to M.
Penot, every oil supposed to come from the same
plant, or the same animal, has its own particular
density, which, at the same temperature, never

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OILS

deviates more than a few thousanda. To apply
this test, the relative density or sp. gt. of the
sample must he determined. This may be done
by means of a 1000-gr. bottle or an ordinary
' ASIOXBTBB;' or, more conveniently, by an ' ilaIo-
krbb' or ' OI.BOHETIB,' constnicteicl and gra-
duated for the purpose. ' Fischer's blaIokstsr '
or ' oilrBAi;.uroB ' is much employed on the Con-
tinent for this purpose, and is a very useful in-
strument. On the large scale, the weight of an
accurately measured imperial gallon of the oil
may be taken.

b. II. Lanret, an eminent Parisian chemist, a
short time since observed that the variations of
the density of an oil from adulteration are ren-
deted much more apparent when it is examined
in a heated state. To render this discovery prac-
tically available, he plunges an ' clinometer,' gra-
duated for the given temperature, into a small tin
cylinder nearly filled with the oil, and then places
this in a vessel containing boiling water ; as soon
as the whole has acquired a uniform temperature,
he observes the point on the scale of the instru-
ment at which it floats. This point for —

Colza oil is 0*

FishoU 88°

Poppy oU 124°

Hemp-seed oil .... 136°

Linseed oil 210°

0. By employing a sp. gr. bottle or small glass
globe, fitted with a stopper in which is hermeti-
cally fixed a capillary tube of about 8 or 9 inches
in length, we may apply the above principle of
M. Lauret with the greatest accuracy. This little
apparatus is filled with the oil, and then immersed
in boiling water for a suflcient length of time for
it to acquire that temperature ; it is then removed
and weighed. The smallest adulteration is, it is
said, in this way immediately detected.

When the density of the given sample has been
taken and the name of the oi) used to adulterate
it is known, the quantity of the latter present
may be approximately determined from the
spedflc gravities by the common method of alli-
gation. See MiZTTTBBS, Abithubtio 07.

3. (Sulphuric acid test.) a. Beidenreich found
that when oil of vitriol is mixed with the fatty
oils, very intense chemical action commences, the

temperature of the mixture rises, and the mass
becomes coloured. These changes are sufficimtly
varied in the case of the different oils to furnish
us with the means of identifying many of them,
and of determining their purity. The method of
Heidenreich is to Uy a plate of white glass overs
sheet of white paper ; on the glass he places 10 or
16 drops of oil, and then adds to it a small drop
of concentrated sulpfanric acid. The appearances
which follow differ with the character of the fatty
oil examined, whether the acid is allowed to act
on the oil undisturbed, or the two are stirred to-
gether with a glass rod. In many cases, as with
tallow oil, a peculiar odour as well as a change of
colour is developed, and a further means of de-
tection supplied. Heidenreich has minutely de-
scribed these reactions, which, for the most part,
closely resemble those given in the table below.
It is necessary, however, in order to ensure great
accuracy, to compare the effect of the reagent on
the sample with those which it produces on pure
oil of the same kind and character under precisely
similar circumstances.

b. Penot, who has foUowedJup the researches
of Hddenreich with considerable success, recom-
mends the employment of 20 drops of oil, instead
of only 10 or 15; and the use of a small capsule
of white porcelain, instead of a plate of glass.
He also employs a saturated solution of bichro-
mate of potash in sulphuric acid, which he uses
in the same proportion as before; but in this
case the oil and the reagent are always stirred
together.

The observations of M. Penot have been repeated
in many cases by Mr Cooley, and the results, with
additions, and rearranged, are given in the table.

" By perusing this table," writes M. Penot, " it
will be observed that the same oil does not, under
all circumstances, yield precisely similar results
with the same reagent. This depends on the
place of growth, the age uid the manner of press-
ing. If, however, any oil be examined compara-
tively with a perfectly pure one, the proof of
adulteration may be rendered if not certain, at
least probable, by noting the difference. Thus I
obtained, by adding 1 part of either whale, train,
or linseed oil, or oleic acid, or 10 parts of rape-
seed oil, the following resn]j« :

ViMM or Oil.

KxAaxirrs.

Snlpliute Add.

Net Stimd.

Stimi.

SolaUon of Bidutmute of Potash.

Slimi.

Rape oil with whale-
train oil

Rape oil with Unseed
oU

Bape oil with olein or
<deic acid

Uore red ground than Brownish-olive co-
with rape oil loured

No perceptible difference Olive coloured
from the rape oil

No perceptible difference Qreenish brown
from the rape oil

Small reddish lumps on a grey

ground.
Small and more numerous red

lumps on a very dark green

ground.
Small brownish lumps on an

olive-coloured ground.

* The adulteration being ascertained as fkr as I agents or by its odour when gently heated, as ho-
is possible, the oil is then tested by endeavouring fore described. This having been found out,
to discover the adulterating oil, either by re- i small quantities of the suspected oil are added to

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U17

» perfectly paie oil of the kind under examination.
Every mixtore is then tested by the re&gonts
until precisely similar resvdts are obtained as
those yielded by the oil ander examination.
Thos the proportions of the two mixed oils will be
disoovered by approximation."

i. (From increase of temperature.) M. Man-
men£ proposed the increase of temperatnre aris-
ing from the admixture of mono-hydiated sul-
phorie add (oil of vitriol, sp. gr. 1-845) with the
fatty oils as a test of their purity, but a sufficient
number of observations have not yet been made to
fonush data for a general ap^cation of this
metbod. According to KM. Faisst and Knanss,
who h»ve re-examined the subject, the following
aie tlieremiltswhenlG grms. of oil are mixed with
6 grma. of the add :

Ktt <jf Temperature.
Almond <nl .... 725°

OUre „ 68-0°

Pbppy „ 127-0°

Bspe or colia oil . . . VOOiif
Tiinieed oil (with Nordhauaen or
fuming aod only) . . . ISS-Cf
The above method is less liable to error when a
larger quantity of the substances are used.

6. The presence of ?ibh oil in tiie vegetable
oils may be readily detected by passing a stream
of cUortne throng them j the pure regetable oils
tit not materially altered, but a mixtnre of the
two turns dark brown or blade.

6. Hr Coleman states that the presence of
mineral oils in animal or vegetable dls can be
eanly detected by two characteristic tests: (1)
The fluorescent properties they impart to all ani-
mal or vegetable oils. (2) The strongly marked
aromatic burning flavour they communicate to
mixtares containing them. The first-mentioned
property is brought out by smearing a metallic
■ur&ce, such as tin plate or steel, with the oil,
and thren viewing it at different angles in the
open air or sunlight. Mr Coleman suggests that,
in examining a c^k-coloured oil, it may first be
neoeaauy to refine the sample by successive treat-
ments with concentrated sulphuric add and weak
■oda aolntion or lime-water ; so small a quantity
■s 8i% may then be detected by the bluish colour
noticed on viewing the oil at certain angles and
by taating it.

Th« abeenoe of resin mI must aUo be proved.
Hitric acid is said to be a good test, as the
edouT developed is much greater than in pure
mis. Sometimes it may be detected by the smell.
The presence of 10% of resin or mineral oil in
non-orjing oils delays their solidification with the
nitmte of mercury test ('Jonraal of Applied
Cbemirivy.' Dec, 1874).

7. MissEate ChnneC American Jonmalof Phar-
macy,' It, 406) states that the cohenon figures of
oils majr be Bsefolly employed as tests of the identity
and purity of the oils. She says, " A number of
experiments on this subject have led me to the
condodcn that a little patient practioe will teach
the eja of the observer in a short time to detect
the ehatmeteristic dillerences of the figures. To
make tiiese perfect it is neoesMry to observe the
tine in formkig, for a^itfArwaijunixb some varie-
ties form figures vecy like; but with this pre-
cantion e*ch is entirely chaiaoteristie.

" It is essential that the dish used, &&, be per>
fectly clean, so that when filled with water no
dust or lint fioats upon the surface, as this mate-
riallj interferes with the perfect formation of the
figure.

" A single drop is let fall from a burette or
glass rod held steadily above the water upon the
centre of the surface. The experiments made with
fixed oils are as follows : — Poppg-teed oil spreads
instantly to a large figure, retaining an entire
outline, and for a few seconds the saxtmee is
unbroken, except the bare intimation of a bead»d

" In a few moments little holes appew round
the edge, and soon the whole surface is broken
in like inannnr ; these increase in sixe very slowly.
In fifteen minutes tiie edge begins to open, form-
ing indentations, which gradnsJly work their way
across the figure. As they increase in length
these begin to curve, and in three quarters of
an hour have doubled themselves two or three
times.

" Ood'Uver oil spreads in a laige film ; a
little way from the edge a row of small holea
appears, and in a minute or two the sur&ce i>
covered with them; these gradnally enlarge^
assuming irregular shapes, soon separated by
branching lines.

" Cod-Uver oU with lard oil spreads very like
the former, but in a few moments the edge opens,
and the film separates partly across ; in a moment
one of the projecting points begins to curve itself
towards the centre, balding more and more until
it forms a coil; meanwhile a few holes have
appeared, which spread irregularly, throwing out
projecting points.

" Caetor oil spreads instantly, the edge remain-
ing entire; openings appear quickly in thirigr
seconds, and increase gradually, but unevenly,
those nearer the edge bdng larger, and lengthen-
ing out irregularly as they spread. The figure
lasts some time.

" Cattor with a little lard oil makes a smaller
flgnre, and not nearly so much broken; in Ave
minutes the holes open into each other, and the
figure breaks up from the edge.

"A mixture of eattor and poppy-teeA oiU
spreads to form a lacework border, but smooths
out to an entire edge soon, and within a tew
seconds openings appear. The figure, in size and
general appearance, is more like castor oil alone,
but ibe holes spread less uniformly in a given
time, a few being larger, but the greater portion
much smaller. In fifteen minutes there is a
general tendency to break up,

" Caeior with a little oroton oil throws out
a spray, which in a few moments unites into a
thin film. The ^ray, as it spreads, draws out
the inner portion into radiate points, which open
into a beautiful network, the centre cohenng
clos^.

" Oroton oil throws out, in spreading, a fine
spray in advance of the more closely cohering
portion, which foUows quickly. The outer edge
breaks up unevenly into little indentations, the
border of the inside portion being quite broken,
but gradually becomes nearly entine. The surface,
too, oas openings, which increase quite rapidly in
size, the outer ones bdng much the larger. In

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the 6 nal breaking' up, before the holes open one into
another, the outlines are beantifully fringed."

8. " Spontaneons combustion ensues when a
handful of cotton waste is emhned with oil and
placed in an air-bath at 130° to 200° F. Boiled
linseed oil required 1^ hours; raw linseed oil,
4 hours ; lard oil, 4 hours ; refined rape, about 9
hours" (J. J. Coleman, 'Journal, of Applied
Chemistry,' Dec, 1874).

Mr. Gdiatljr fbund that an admixture of 20%
of mineral oil retarded combustion, and 60%
prevented it completely.

9. M. Bnrstyn (TJre's 'Dictionary of Arts,'
&c.), believing that the value of a fatty oil as a
lubricant depends on the amount of acid it con-
tains, has invented a method for volumetrlcally
determining the acidity. The process is as fol-
lows : — A tall cylindrical vessel provided with a
ground-glass stopper, and having two marks on
it to indicate respectively 100 c.c. and 200 c.c,
is filled to the first mark with the oil to be tested,
and to the second mark with 88 to 90 per cent,
alcohol. The cylinder is then closed'and'well
shaken. Equal quantities other than 100 c.c.
can be employed without any other change in the
process. After standing two or three hours the
oil settles, and the clear alcohol, which contuns
in solution the free acids and a little of the oil,
rises to the top perfectly clear ; 26 c.c. of the
clear solution is taken from the top by means of
a pipette. A few drops of alcoholic turmeric is
added, and the acid determined by means of
a standard solution of potash, as in addimetry.
The change from yellow to brownish red takes
place with great sharpness when neutralisation is
reached.

The number of cubic centimMres of potash em-
ployed, multiplied by 4, g^ves the quantity of
normal solution requisite to neutralise the free
acid in 100 c.c. of oil. As it is not an individual
acid, but a variable mixture of acids, it is not
possible to calculate the percentage of acids
present. These numbers, however, may be taken
as degrees of acidity. For instance, an oil of 3°
of acidity is one wluch contains enough free acid
to nentralise 3 c.c. of normal alkali.

If we assume that oleic acid predominates,
which in most cases is the fact, 1° of acidi^ corre-
sponds to 0*28% by weight of oleic acid. The olive
oil of commerce has an acidity ranging from 0*4°
to 18°. The first passes as very fine, and is called
free from acid or salad oil, while the latter is
known by smell and taste as very rancid. Oil
that has 4° — 6° of acidity has been found to
answer very well as a lubricator.

The relation which exists between the degree of
acidity and any injurious effect upon metals is
shown by the following experiments : — 4 shallow
vessels of sheet brass, having a surface of 40 sq.
cm. each at the bottom, were filled to the depth
of 2 mm. with oils of different acidity, and ex-
posed to the air at the ordinary temperature.
The vessels were soon more or less covered with
green fatty salts, and the oil too acquired a green
colour. Oil and vessel Ko. 1 were the only ones
in which no change could be perceived. At the end
of three days the vessels were cleaned with ether
and wdghed. The following table shows the
amounts of action :

Vessel No. 1, filled with oQ of 0-8° lost 0-OS gr.
„ No. 2. „ 4-6° „ 0-22 „

„ No. 8, „ 7-8° „ 0-86 „

„ No. 4, „ 8-8"' „ 0K)4 „

9. Sii^* lodiiu Abtorpiion Mttkod (Dingler'a
' Polytechnisches Journal,' t. 268, p. 281). Hake
a solution of 25 grms. iodine and 80 grms. mer-
curic chloride, each in \ litre of 95% alcohol;
mix the two solutions, stand 12 hours, and ti-
trate against standiud sodium hyposulphite.
Weigh out from 0-2 to 0-8 gr. of the oil ; ^ssolve
in 10 c.c. chloroform ; add excess of the iodine
solution ; allow to stand two hours, and then deter-
mine the excess of iodine by the sodium hyposol-
phite solution. The number of grammes of iodine
taken up by 100 grms. of the oil is then found.
This number is compared with a standard number.
The following is a list of numbers for pure sub-
stances :

Iodine.
Hnbe.

mSi^

Shark-liver oil .

. 268-2

Manhaden oil .

. 170-8

Porpoise oil

—

. 131-2

SealoU .

—

. 103-4

Linseed oil

. 168-0

. 176-7

Walnnt oil

. 1480

— .

Poppy-seed oil .

. 186-0

—

Cotton-seed oil .

. 106-0

. 107-9

Rape-seed oil .

. 100-0

. 99-4

Almond oil

. 98-4

—

Castor oU.

84-4

—

Olive oa .

. 82-8

. 81-8

LardoU .

59-0

. 47-2

PalmoU .

. 61-5

. 48-6

auiow<^

. 40-0

—

Cocoa-nnt <ul .

8-9

6-8

Oleic acid.

—

. 86-2

Olein

—

. 82-8

The quantity of metal destroyed, in equal times
and under equal conditions, increases with the
acidity of the oil.

The table on p. 1119, by Mr Bottome, describes
the most striking phyrical jH-operties of some of
the principal fixed oils.

*,* The following are the prindpal fixed oils
met with in commerce, or which are objects of
interest or utility :

OU of Al'monds. Sg*. Olbux aktsda^b
(B. P., Ph. L.), O. uttanLLixvu (Ph. D.), O.
AVTO'DAi.iA oomnring (Ph. E.),L. Prep. "Braise
the fresh almonds in a stone mortar, then put
them into a hempen sack, and express the oil,
without heat" (Ph. E.). The oil of almonds
B. P. and of commerce is obtained from either the
bitter or sweet almond, but chiefly from the first,
on account of their less value, and the marc
being employed in the manufacture of essential
oil.

JProp^ ^. Oil of almonds is bland, demulcent,
emollient, and nutritious ; possesses a purely
oleaginous taste, and is one of the most agreeable
of the fixed oils ; when taken in quantity it is
mildly laxative; it is little affected by cold, and con-
geals with difficulty ; is soluble in 86 parts of cold
and 6 parts of boilmg alcohol; ether dissolves it
freely. Sp.gT. 0-916 to 0-918.— .^e. |>ro<{. Sweet
almonds, 46% ; bitter a., 41% .

Pur. It 18 extensively adulterated with poppy.

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Tablb giving the reaction* of varicnu oils with StrLPmriuo AOID and loitA a taturated toUtUon of
BlOHBOKATi oil POTASH •« tulpkufio ooid. BeoiTuigcd from M. Fsitot'b table, with additions,
by Ur CooLXX.

%* Tie remit i»dieat«i it oUaimtd in eaeh eaie bg the action qf one drop of the bsasbht on

iwenU/ irope of OIL.

KsAannt.

Setontad SolnUon of

NlXX OT Olb

Solphnric Add.

Biehroaiate or Fotaah
in Sulphuric Acid.

No! ilimd.

StW4dm

SUmtl.

Almond oU . .

DirtT green
Little reaction

Yellowiah email Inmpa.

Cutor oil . . •

Yellow, with •Ughtspoto

SUlhUr green.
Beddiah ■ brown dota.

Cod-Uver ofl (fint ttmfU

Deep purple in tke centre, npidlj toning

Deep purple, paaaing into
purple brown, reddiah
brown, aod gcadnally

<lf f»l4 oiO

brown, whilat Tielet or muple dsnds or

changing to a clear
bright green.

enee. the eolonr of which remaini nnal-
tereo for eome minntea after the central

deepening to an in-

tenae brown, approach-

Hemp-ieedoU. . .

portion hai tnmed nearljr black

ing black
Greeniah brown

Small yellow hiinpi or

ground

clota on a green ground.

Liniced oO (/rm Ue

Brown email Inmpa on a

Small brown lumpa on an

Ufper BkUu)
(film Paru)

Beddidb hnnm, len dark colonred

grey ground
Brown aloti on a green

almoatoelonrlcaa ground.
Small brown Inmpa on a

„ (»W«*A) .

Qiotnnt brown

ground
Brown data on a greenidi-

green ground.
Brown lumpaon a green-

LiTor-tnia oil .

Sukrad

grey ground
I&rkred

iah-grer ground.

Hidia-wtiraoa . .

Slightly reddiah brown VBdemeath a thin

Olire green

Light brown imall Inmpa

greriihftlm

on an olire-ooloured
ground.
Olive brown.

BUek-Blutard oa .

OliTeireen
Dirty bnwn

Neafi-tDotoU. . .

lellow alight apota

Brown apota on a brown-

Nal oU (r«emO

iah ground.
Small brown Inmpa or

clota.
Small brown Innpa.

„ (MW ymr oU)

Tallow

Dirt; blown, leai dark
coloured
Dlrly brown

„ (,moU«r). .

Orange yellow

Small browniah Inmpa.

Olein, oleic and, lud, or
tallow oil
OlinoU . . . .

Beddiah apota, with reddiah circlea

Bright cbeatiint oolonr.

Yellow

Dirty brown

„ (eaoOur iiMflt'.

Orange yellow

Browniahgrey

Brown.

„ (frmn fmmtid
oliva)
Poppf oil (recmt cald
dnm)
„ ireeiHt, u-

Orange yellow

Browniahgrey

Brown.

Yellow apota

(Hive brown

Small yellow Inmpa on a
white ground.
Small yellow Inmpa on a

Greeniah-yellow apota

OUto brown, taming more

fn^ed ma

on the green

greeniah-grey ground.

tlifUieel)

„ (SM j/tr oU,

Graeniah apota

Olire green

Small yellow lumpa on a

ntrmU
vfakMl)

green gronnd.

Kape or colca wUtn^) .

Tellowiah-brawn aireaka, anmnnded by a

Brewniab, tonisg on the

Small yellow lumpa on a

blaiah-green ring

olire gr«en

green ground.

(nemf) .

Green

Bluiah green

omall yellow Inmpa on a

„ (OM ywr »li)

Greea

Bluiah greea

green gronnd.
Yellow lumpaon abrightcr

green ground.
Small yellow lumpa, nun

„ lOMffTfU,

Green

Olire green

rmgk kot-

numeroua, on an olire-

Whale-tiatii(^ .

amall reddiah Ininpa en a brownieh gnmnd

Beaemblea wine kea

greeu ground.
Small, bright, cheatnut-
coloured lumpa on a

nut, and teel oil, and not unfreqnently with re-
fined rape or colza oil, and lately with nitro-ben-
cene, q. r. If adalterated, the sp. gr., boiling-
point, solnbility, taatei, and odonr will be altered
(see aioti«).

Detection of Niiro-bentene in Bitter Abnond
Oil. Warm a specimen with mangimese dioxide
and snlphoric acid. Nitro-benzene does not lose
its odonr, bat afta a time smrils lilce oil of cin-
namon, while bitter almond oil derelops a dis-

agreeable odonr, which soon disappears, leaving
the oil odourless (Horpurgo, in ' Cnem. Central-
blatt,' 1890, i, 879).

OU of Bay. iVep. 1. (Ezfbbbbkd o. as b.;
Olkitk laubi, O. iiAUJUUUU, L.) By expression
from either fresh or dried bayberries, as oabtor
OIL. Limpid ; insipid.

2. (By deeoction: Bvtiib oy b.; Olsttx

LAITBI irOBILtB, O. L. TBBUIC, L.) Fiom the

berries, by boiling them in water, and slamming

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1121

o9 the olL Qreen, bntteryj chiefly imported
twna Itftly. Used in broiie*, (pnlna, rnenmatism,
desfneH, au!.—Prod., 20% .

Oa of BMch. %». Ouuic >ASi, L. Prep.
From the nata of Floffui tyleatiea, Linn., or
beech mart. Clear; keep* well; when washed
with hot water, it is used for salads, and burnt in
lamps. Sp. gr. 0-9225.— IVoA, 16% .

(HI of Belladon'na. ^». Olsuh billasowx
azKiHiTif, O. B. BACOJt, L. Prep. From the
seeds or berries of Atropa belladonna, or deadly
nightshade. Yellow ; insipid. Used for lamps in
Swabia and Wortemberg, and as an application
to bruises. The marc is pcnsonous. It freezes at
34° F. Sp. gr. 0^260.

on of B«n. 8g%. Oil as bbhut; OLimi
BAl^TntUK, L. Prep. From the seeds of
Moringa pierygorperma (ben nuts). Scentless,
colourless; keeps long without growing rank ; by
standing, it separates into two parts, one of which
fireezes with difficulty, and is hence mnch nsed in
perfomeiy. 8p. gr. 0^12 to 0-916 at 16-6° C.

Oil of Bonne Seed. See On op QihoblXiT,

OU of Brasil Vnti. By*. Olhtk bbbthol-
LKTUB, L. Prep. From the kernels of the fmit
of JBerthoUetia exeeUa, or Brazil nuts. An oil of
a blight amber colour, congealing at 24° F. Sp.
gr. 0 917. It has been used as a substitute for
oliTe oil in plasters and ointments.

00 of Oaea'o. Sgn. Bums ov o. ; Olittx

CACAO COKCBBTUK, BCTTBUX CACAO, L. Prep.

From the seeds of Tkeobroma eaeao, or chocolate
nnts, gently heated OTer the ftne, and then de-
corticated, and pressed between hot iron plates.
Sp. gr. 0-946 to 0-962. It has lately been used
in the adulteration of American lard (^AUen), and
in Qermany it is refined and used instead of
batter.

Oil. Caitor. Sgn. Rionri oLiuic (B. P.),
OtsiTx CA8TOBXI, O. Biciin (Ph. L., E., and D.),
L. " The oil prepared by heat, or by pressure,
from the seeds of Eioinie eommunit, Linn."
(Ph. L.), the Palma Okriiti, or Mexican oil-bush.

The best castor oil (coiJ>-l>BAWir CA8T0B OIL ;
OLBTTH Bicuii siVB isvb) IS prepared by press-
ing the shelled and crushed fruit (seed) in hemp
bags in an hydraulic press, and heating the oU
thus obtained along with water in well-tinned
vessels, until the water b(dls and the albnmen
and gnm separate as a scum ; this is oareAilly
removed, and the oil, as soon as it has become
cold, is filtered through Canton flannel. The
commoner kinds are of a darker colour, and are
prepared by gently heating the crushed seeds,
and pressing them whilrt hot. Another method,
sometimes adopted, is to put the crushed seed
into loose bags, to boil these in water, and to skim
off the floating oil.

Prop. It is the most viscid of all the fixed
oils; when pate it mixes in all proportions with
alcohol and ether, and also dissolves, to a certain
extent, in rectified spirit, but a portion of the oil
•eparates on standing. Camphor and benzoic
acid increase its solubility in spirit. By long ex-
posure to the air it becomes rancid, thick, and is
oltimately transformed into a transparent yellow
mass ; light hastens these changes. Exposed to
oold, a solid, white ctystalline fat separates from
the liquid portion, and when cooled to 0° it con-

goals into a yellow transMrent masi, which does
not again liquefy until iijie temperatore rises to
abont 18° F. Sp. gr. 0-9flll to 0-9618, at 60°;
0-9690, at 65° (Sanssure) ; 0-9676, at 77° (Sans-
van).— Prod., 88% to 46% ,

Pur., Ae. Pure castor oil rotates a ray of
polarised light (x) = -i- 12-16°. This behaviour
may be used as a test of its purity. Castor <nl is
sometimes adulterated with rape oil or with lard
oil, a fraud which may be detected by its dimin-
ished density; and, when the added oil exceeds
33%, by its insolubility in its own weight of
alcohol of 0-820. In many cases croton oil is
added to increase the purgative quality of the
mixture. A compound of this kind is vended in
gelatine capsules under the name of 'cokcbit-
tbatsd 0A8T0B oix,' the use of which is fraught
with danger. "I have heard of several cases in
which very violent and dangerous effects were
produced by these capsules" {Pereira). The
best is imported from the East Indies in tin
canisters. The oil obtained from the seeds of MM-
mu viridie, Willd., or lamp-oil seeds, is often
mixed with or sold for castor oiL

Ctet, ^e. Castor oil is an exceedingly nsefiil
mild purgative, particularly when abdominal
irritation should be avoided, as in inflammations
of the stomach and bowels, preg^nancy, surreal
operations, &c. — I>o»e, 2 fi. dr. to 1 fl. oz.

Oil, Cocoa-nut. Sgn. CoooA-irux buttbb;
Olbux 000018 vuonmLB, L. By expression
from the kernels of the ooooa-nut, or fruit of the
Coeoi ftuoifera.

Oil, Cod-Uver. ^. Mobbhva OLBim (B.
P.), Cos-FiBH orL; Olbuii jboobib asbixi, O.

QASI, O. 0-. JCOBBHUA, OlBUK KOBKHVJI fPh.

L.), L. " The oil extracted from the fresh liver
of the Oadu* morrima by a steam heat or water*
bath not exceeding 180° F. TeUow." "The
oil prepared from the liver of &adu* morrima,
Linn." (Ph. L.).

The common cod-liver oil of commerce druns
from the livers of the cod-fish when freely ex-
posed to the snn, and just beginning to putrefy.
It is dark oolonrod, strong, and nauseous, and is
now chiefiy employed in this country by the cur-
riers, for dressing leather. It is the 'OLBUX
JICOBIB A8ELLI FlTSCirii ' of Continental writers.
Formerly, the less fetid varieties of this crude oil,
after the impurities were removed, either by sub-
sidence or filtration, constituted the only cod-
liver oil used in medidne. As its employment as
a remedy increased, its revolting flavour, and its
great tendency to permanently disorder the
stomach and bowels, were found to be serious
obstacles to its general use. It was observed that
the oil as it exists in the liver of the cod is bland
and nearly colourless, and has only a slight flshy,
but not a disagreeable flavour. The attention of
persons interested was therefore immediately
directed to the subject, and improved methods of
obtaining the oil were adopted on the large scale.

The methods of preparing cod-liver oil are
noticed in another part of this work, but we
think it advisable to add to these a description of
the plan adopted by llessrs Charles Fox and Co.,
of Newfoundland, Scarborough, and London, the
well-known manufacturers and importers of cod-
liver oil :

71

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" The Newfoandland fliberiea are entirely car-
ried on in small boati, principally by the hand-
line system, and qnite close to the shore. The
boats go ont early in the morning, and return
aboat fonr o'clock in the afternoon. The fish, on
landing, are handed over to a ' flsh-room keeper,'
whose dat; it is to split and open the flth, and to
deposit the livers in small tubs holding 17 or 18
galli. each. The tnbe are soon afterwards col-
fected from the different 'fish-rooms,' and con-
veyed to the manufactory. The livers are here
thrown into tabs filled with dean oold water,
and, after being well washed and jerked over, are
placed on galvanised iron-wire sieves to drain.
They are next pot into covered steam-jacket- pans,
and submitted to a gentle heat for about three
qnarters of an hour, after which the steam is
turned otF, cold air again admitted, and the whole
allowed to repose for a short time, during which
the livers subside, and the oil separates and floats
on the top. The <»1 is then skimmed ofF into tin
vessels, and passed through flannel strainers into
tubs, where it is left to subside for about 24
hours. From these the purer upper portion of
oil is run into a very deep, galvanisM-iron otatem,
and again leA to clarify itoelf by defecation for a
few days. It is now further refined by carefully
passing it through clean and very stent mole-
skin filters, onder pressure. The transparent fil-
tered oil is received in a clean, galvanised-iron
cistern containing a pump, from which the casks
are filled for exportation. The latter, before
being filled, are carefully seasoned and cleaned,
to prevent thrar imparting either flavour <»r colour
to the pure oiL"

The superiority of the oil prepared as above
consists essentiaUy in every part of the process
of extraction being performed whilst the livers
are fresh, and in no chemical means being
adopted to give the oil a factitious appearance.
Its natural pale colour is thus preserved from
contamination, and its medicinal virtues main-
tained intact.

Much of the light brown oil of commerce is
obtained from OadMt aaUarint (the dorse), O,
earbonarnu (the coal-fish), and O. poUaehivt
(the pollack).

J^r., ^. "The finest tA\," remarks Dr
Pereira, " is that which is most devoid of colour,
odour, and flavour. The oil, as contained in the
cells of the fresh liver, is nearly oolourlefs, and
the brownish colour possessed bjr ordinary cod-
liver oil is due to colouring matters derived from
the decomposition (putrefying) of hepatic tissues
and flnids, or from the action of the air on the
<^ (age). Chemical analysis lends no support to
the opinion, at one time entertained, that the
brown oil was superior, as a therapeutic agent, to
the pale oil. On the other hand, the disgusting
odour and flavour and nauseating qualities of the
brown oil preclude its repeated use. Moreover,
there is reason to suspect that, if patients could
conquer their aversion to it, its free use, like that
of other rancid and empyreumatic fats, would
disturb the digestive functions, and be attended
with iqinrious effects " (' Elem. Hat. Med.,' tee.,
8rd edit., Ui, 2289).

Teitt. Among the tests of purity, that gene-
rally relied on is known as the ' stUphnric acid

teat.' See Oils (Fixed): Puriij/. Dobh on.
and other fish on., sold as ' xiohi-bbowk ood-
LiTXB on.,' exhibit with this test much lighter
reactions, which closely resemble those of livbb-
TSAnr and WHALB-TBAia on..

Boudard adds fuming nitric acid to a portion
of oil; if pure it becomes rose-coloured, but this
effect is interfered with by the presence of other
flsh oils.

To detect the presence of combined iodine,
upon which, by some, the therapeutic value of
cod-liver oil is thought to depend, the sample is
saponified by trituration with a little caustic
potash and hot water, the resulting soap cau-
tiously incinerated, the ashes digested with water,
and the whole thrown on a filter. The usual tests
for iodine may be then applied to the filtered
liquid.

The presence of iodine artificially added is beat
detected by agitating the oil with a little recti-
fied spirit, and then testing this last for iodine.
Or, a little solation of starch and a few drops of
sulphuric or nitric acid may be at once added to
the oil, when a bine colour will be developed if
iodine, or an iodide, has been mixed with the
sample.

The sp. gr. of the pale oil is 0-9281 to 0 9288 ;
of the hght brown oil, 0-924 to 0-9245 ; of the
dark brown dl, Oil29 to 0-9816. The density
is, however, apt to vary a little with the quantify
of moisture present.

JTie*, Ife. Cod-liver oil is a most valuable
medicine in a great variety of diseases, more
especially in gUmdular indorations and enlarge-
ments, scrofula, phthisis, rheumatism, gout, cer-
tain cutaneous diseases, amenorrhoea, chlorods,
caries, rickets, &c. To be of service, however, its
use most be continued for several weeks, and the
oil must be recent.>-i>at«, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls,
S or 4 times daily, or oftener.

Oil, Ciol'ia. From the seeds of Bnutiea cam-
putrit, var. oleifira, or eolta da primttmpt, a
variety of Bra$$ioa campettrit, Luin. It may
be re^^uded as a superior sort of rape oil. Bums
well in lamps, especially after being refined.
Used also for lubncating purposes and in the
manufacture of india-rubber. Sp. gr. 0'9186, at
60° Y.—Prod., 39% . The term ' colza oil ' is
commonly applied to ordinary refined rape.

Oil, Cotton-saed. S^. Olbvx eossTPii bb-
xiHTJX, L. From the seeds of Oi>ttgj)imm bar-
hadefue.

The yield is about 10%. Sp. gr. emde oil
-0-928 to 0-93, refined oil - 0-92 to 0-928
(Oilmour). It possesses slight drying pro-
perties.

XJit*. It is used for paints, lamps, lubrication,
soap-making, and especially in the adulteration
of olive, linseed, sperm, and lard oils. In the
'blown' condition it has recently been much
used tor adulterating American lard.

2W. One of the simplest is that proposed by
Leone (' Gazetta,' 19, 865). It is applicable to
the detection of cotton-seed oil in fats (lard and
olive oil. Add a few c.c of a 1% solution of
silver nitrate in alcohol, addifled with 0*5% of
nitric acid, to a few c.c. of the fat, and heat on the
water-bath for 6 or 6 minutes. If the adulterant
be present, • brownish-yellow ring is formed at

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1U8

the mufaoe of separation of the two liquids.
The reaction is sufficiently delicate to detect the
presence of 6% of ootton-seed oil inlaid. In the
case of olive oil heat most be applied for 10—18'
minutes. With other oils a white ring is observed,
which changes on prolonged heating to green.

Oil, CrotoB. Sy». Cbotohib olbvh (B. P.),
Ouiw OBOTOKis (Ph. E.), O. Tiaui (Ph. L.),
L. From the shelled seeds of Oroton tigUum or
Molucca gruns. Imported chiefly from the East
Indies. It is one of the most powerful cathartics
known, and acts when either swallowed or merely
placed in the month. Externally, it is a rube-
facient and counter-irritant, often causing a crop
of painfnl pnstnles, like tartar emetic. — Dote, 1
to 2 drops, on sugar; in apoplexy, &c. It is
poisonous in larger doses. Sp. gr. 0-942 to 0-963.
—Prod. TJnshelled seeds, 32% to 26% ; shelled
do., 88% to 86^.

Pare croten oil is soluble in an equal volnme of
alcohol of 0-796, but in 2 or 8 days abont 96% of
the oil separates. In France the marc is ex-
haosted with alcohol, and the oil thus obtained
is added to that previously obtained from the
same seeds by expression. The East Indian oil
(oLBinf CB0T0iri8 sxonoVK^ is usually of a
pale yellow ; that pressed in England (o. OBOTO-
xis AH&LlOAirrH) is much darker.

Oil of Cn'cnmber. Syn. Olbux ovoubbita,
L. From the seeds of Caeurbita pepo or squash,
and the C. tnelopepo or pumpkin. Fikle, used
sometimes as a soothing application to piles. Sp.
gr. 0«2.

OH of Eggs. Sf». Olbvx on, 0. o. titbui,
O. OTOBUX, L. From the yolks of eggs, gently
heated until they coagulate and the moisture
has evaporated, and then pressed or broken up,
digested in boiling rectified spirit, the tincture
filtered whilst hot, and the spirit distilled oft.
Bland; emollient. The common pkn is to fry
the yolks hard; but the oil is then darker
coloured and stronger. The P. Cod. orders them
to be exhausted with ether by displacement.
Formerly used to ' kill ' qnicksilver, and still held
in great esteem in some parts of England for
sore nipples and excoriations. — Frod, 10 to 12
eggs yield 1 oz. See Mizbd Oils.

OQ of flarden Cress. 8vn. OlrBlw LBPlsn
SATm, L. From the seed. Drying. Sp. gr.
0*24,— iVwJ.. 64% .

on of Qar'den Spnrge. Syn. Ojxvu la-
THTBI8, O. BUPHOBBUB L., L. From the seeds
of SwpiotHa latigrit, or garden spurge. Ca-
thartic.— Dott, 8 to 8 drops. Sp. gr. 0-9281.
—Prod., 80% to 41% . Croton oil mixed with 6
times its weight of nut or rape oil is nsnally sold
fbr it.

Oil of CHagelly. Byn. Oil op sbbaxuic or
SBSAin, Bsmni oil, Tbbl o., Til o.; Olbux
SB8AXI, L. From the seeds of Seiamum orientaU,
Wind., or gingelly. Pale ; bland. Used in
salads, punts, &c. ; also to adulterate oil of
abnonds. — Prod., 46% .

Oil, Soord. See Oil ov Cucdkbbb.

Oil of Sroond Kntt. From the nuts of Araehit
Jigpogtea. Ckiloarless. Sp. gr. 0'916. Used in
making soap, as a lubricant, and in the adaltera-
tion of expensive oils.

(HI of Onrgvn. See Balbah, OvBauii,

Oil of Hemp. ^s. Ouiric OAmABU, Ii.
From the seed of Ccmnabii lativa, Linn., or com-
mon hemp. Mawkish. Sometimes used for frying,
but chiefly for paints, soaps, &c. Freely soluble
in boiling alcohol; does not thicken nntil
cooled to 6° F. Sp. gr. 09276.— iVoA, 18%
to 24%.

Oil of Jatra'pha. ^». Oil o> wild oaacob
BBBOB ; Olbvic jatbofhx, L. From the seeds
of Jatropha purgatu. Somewhat resembles
obotoh oil. Used for lamps in the East Indies.

Oil, Knndah. <%». Tallicoobab o. ; Olbvx
TOULOUCOUBX, L. From the froit of Carapa
Toulouoouna, Bancid, nauseous, vermifuge,
rubefacient, emetic, and purgative. Chiefly xuei
in lamps.

Oil, Lard. iS^ii. Tallow o., Cbusb olbih,
C. OLBio ACID ; Olbux adifib, L. By separating
the olein of lard from the stearin by means of
boiling alcohol. Only applicable where spirit is
cheap. The product IS, however, excellent. The
crude oleic acid, or lard oil of commerce, is chiefly
obtained as a secondary product in the manu-
facture of stearin. It is pnrifled by agitation
with sulphuric acid, and snbsequentiy by steaming
it, or washing it with hot water. Bums well in
lamps if the wick-tube is kept cool. Superior
to olive oil for greasing wool. Sp. gr. 0-9008.

Oil, Linseed. Sjyn. Ouivx ldti (B. P., Ph.

L., E. & D.), L. 'Prtp. 1. (COLD-DBAWH LOT-

BBBD OIL; Olbux libi bibb ishb.) From the
seed of Zinmm utitatutimum, Linn., or common
flax, bruised or crushed, and then grronnd and
expressed without beat. Pale, insipid, viscous ;
does not keep so well as the next. — Prod., 17%
to 22%.

2. (Obdibabt libsbbd oil.) As the last, but
employing a steam heat of about 200° F. Amber-
coloured ; less viscous than the last ; congeals at
2°— 4° F. ; soluble in 6 parts of boiling and 40
parts of cold alcohol. Both are drying and
cathartic— Son, 1 to 2 oz. ; in piles, &c. Chiefly
used in making paints, printing inks, varnishes,
floor-cloths, Ac. Sp. gr. varies nom 0-93 — 0-935.
—Prod.. 22% to 27%.

8. (Boiled lihsbid oil.) See Oils (Dry-
ing).

Oil of Kace (Expressed). See Oil o> Nut-
ma (Expressed).

Oil of Kale Fem. See Ezxbaot o> Malb
Fbsb.

Oil of Knstard. Sj/n. Olbux bibapib, L.
Prtj). 1. (Oil o> whitb kubtabd.) From
Sinapit alba, or white mustard, but chiefly from
Sinapi* arvnuit, S. ehinenrit, S. diehotoma, 8.
glatica, 8. ramosa, and 8. tori. Sweet. Used
for the table. Sp. gr. 0-9142.— Prod., 86% .

2. (Oil OB BLAOK KUBTABD; OlBUX BIHA-

FIB JSIOBI, L.) From the 'hulls' of black
mustard seed. Viscid, stimulant. Used in rheu-
matism. Sp. gr. 09168 to 0-9170. See OiLB
(VoUtile).

8. (Oil ob wild kubtabd ; Olbux bapbabi,
L.) From the seed of Raphannu raphanittrum,
Linn., or jointed charlock, or wild mustard.
—Prod., 80% .

Oil, Keaf s-foot. 8gn. Nbbtb oil, Tbotteb
o.; Olbux bubitluk, 0. bebtibuk, Axuhqia
FBDUX TAVBI, L. YcJlow or colourless. Froq)

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OILS

ne«f B-feet by boiliug (hem in water, and skim-
ming off the oiL Doei not thicken by age.
TTted to soften leather, to clean ftre-arms, as a
' low-temperatore ' lubricant, Ac.

Oil, Int. Syn. EAzsL-HiTt o. ; Olbitk vvcia,
O. coBTti, li. From the kernels of Coryltu
avellana, Linn., or haiel-niit tree. Pale, mild-
tasted, drying ; saperior to linseed oil for paints
and varnishes. It is employed to adalterate oil
of almonds, &c. Walnnt oil is also frequency
■old for nnt oil. 6p. gr. 0-9260.— iVod., 68%

Oil of SnVmag (Sxpreiaed). Syn. EzPBSBgaD

OIL or KACI, BVTTBB 0> K. ; OlStm KTSI8-

nOM (oOSOBBTTTJt — Ph. L.), Mybibticx asifs

(Ph. EJ, M. BUTTBUIC, O. MXBIBTIOS BZFBBB-
fltnC (B. p.), O. KOBCHATA, O. VtSCItTM, L.

"The concrete oil expressed from the seed of
Mgritliea ^ffteinalit," Linn. (Ph. L.), or common
nutmeg. The nutmegs are beaten to a paste,
encIos«i in a bag, exposed to a vapour at hot
water, and then pressed between heated iron
plates. Orange-coloured, fragrant, spicy; buty-
raceous, or solid. It is a mixture of the fixed
and volatile oils of the nutmeg. When dis-
colonred and hardened by age, it is called
'Baksa boaf' (Ox. hacis nr mabbis). When
pnre it is soluble in 4 parts of boiling alcohol and
in 2 parts of ether. It has t>een lued in rheu-
matism and palsy, bnt is now chiefly employed for
its odour and aromatic qoalitiea. From the East
Indies.— JVv<i., 17% to 28% .

OH, Olive. &r». Salad oil, Swxn o.;
Olita olsvx Tb. p.), Olbvh OLiyAXVif, O.
OLirx (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The " oil expressed
from the fruit " of " Olea europaa, Linn." (Ph.
L.), or common olive. Five different methods
are employed to obtain the oil from the fruit :

1. (YiBonr OIL; O. o. ytBOimnrx, L.; Hthlb
TlSBOi, Fr.) From olives, carefully garbled,
either spontaneously or only by slight pressure, in
the cold. That yielded by the pericarp of the
fruit is the finest.

2. (Ordinary ' Fnrs oil.') This is obtained by
either pressing the oUves, piervionsly crushed and
mixed with lioiling water, or by pressing, at a
gentle heat, the olives from which the viivin oil
vas been obtained. The above processes furnish
the finer salad oils of commerce. The cake which
Is left is called ' QBIOVOH.'

5. (Sboodd QUALITT.) By allowing the bruised
fruit to ferment l>efore pressing it. Yellow,
darker than the preceding, but mild and sweet-
tasted. Much nsed for the table.

4. (' QOBOOir.') By fermenting and boiling the
pressed cake or marc in water, and skimming off
the oil. Inferior.

6. Oil ov thi ikfsbhal' bbsioitb (Olbuu
OMPBACurtrv) is a very inferior quality of oil,
which is skimmed off the surface of the water in
the reservoirs in which the waste water which has
been tisad in the above operations is received, and
allowed to settle. The last two ire chiefly nsed
for lamps, and in soap-making, &c.

Of the principal varieties of olive oil known in
commerce and distinguished by the place of their
production, ' Pbotsitob oil' is the most esteemed ;
' Flobbxob oil ' and ' LvooA oil' are also of very
fine quality ; ' Obboa oil ' comes next, and then

' Oallipoli oil,' which rorms the mass of what
is nsed in England ; ' Sicilt oii^' which has a
slightly resinous flavour, is very inferior; and
' Spasibh oil ' is the went impwted.

Prof., Ife. Olive oil is a nearly inodorous, pale
greenish-yellow, unctuous fluid, with a purely
oleaginous taste, peculiarly grstefnl to the palate
of those who relish oil. It does not suffer active de-
composition at a heat not exceeding 600° F., and
when cooled to 82° it congeals into a granular solid
mass. It is very slightly soluble in alcohol, but
its solubility is increawd by admixture with castor
oil. It is soluble in 1^ parts of ether. When
pure it has little tendency to become rancid. 8p.
gr. 0^14 to 0-918, at 60° V.—Prod., 82%, of
which 21% is furnished by the pericarp, and the
remainder, which is inferior, by the seed and
woody matter of the tnit.

Air. Olive oil, with the exception of that of
almonds, bong the most costly A the ordinary
fixed oils of commerce, is, consequently, the one
most subject to adulteration, Nut, poppy, rape,
and lard oil are those most commonly used for
this purpose. The addition of any other oil to
olive oiliendera it far less agreeable to the palate,
and, by increasing its tendency to rancidity, much
more likely to offend and derange the stomach
and bowels of those who consume it. When pnre,
and also fresh, olive oil is most wholesome as an
article of food or as a condiment.

The detection of the sophistication of salad
oil is a matter of no great ^fficnlty. The palate
of the connoisseur will readily perceive the
slightest variation in the quality of his favourite
condiment. Other methods, however, of a more
accurate and certain description, and of more
general application, are adopted. Amongst these,
in addition to those mentioned above, are the
following:

a. When pnre olive oil is shaken in a phial,
only half filled, the 'bead' or bubbles rapidly dis-
appear ; bnt if the sample has been mixed with
poppy or other oil the bubbles continue longer
before they burst.

b. Olive oU begins to soUdiiy at S2°— 60° F.,
and is completely solidified when a small bottle
containing it is surrounded by ice; but when
mixed with poppy oil it remains purtiy liquid,
even when the latter forms only l-4th of the
mass ; if more than l-8rd of poppy oil is present
it does not solidify at all, unless cooled mnch
below the freezing-pdnt of water.

<r. (Ph. K.) When pure olive oil is " carefully
mixed with l-12th part of its volume of a solution
of 4 oz. of mercury in 8 fi. oa. 6 dr. of nitric
acid (sp. gr. 1'6), it becomes in 8 or 4 hours
like a firm fat, without any separation of liquid
oil."

d. M. Pontet recommends tlie mercurial solu-
tion to be made by Resolving 6 parts of mercury
in 7| parts of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-86), withont
heat ; of this solution he adds 1 part to every 48
parts of the oil, and well shakes the mixture every
80 minutes, until it begins to solidify. This it
does after about 7 hours in summer and 4 or 6
hours in winter, and when the oil is pure it will
have formed in 24 hours a hard mass. The other
edible oils do not famish a hard mass with nitrate
of mercury. The solidity of the mass is exactly

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in proportion to the qoantity of foreign oil pre-
sent. When the lophiaticstion is eqn^ to l-8th
of the whole a distinct liqciid layer aepanttesj
when the mixture contains half its rolnme of an
inferior oil, one half only of the miztnre becomes
solid, and the other half continues liquid. A
tempeistnre of about 90° F. is the best to cause
the oil and coagulnm to separate perfectly from
e&ch other. 'Wlien the oil has been adulterated
with animal oil the mixture solidifies in about 5
hours j but in this case the coagfulnm consists of
the animal ail, whilst the olive oil floats on the
surfac^ and may be decanted for further exa-
mination. This ooagnlum, on being heated, ex-
hales tiie well-known odour of raudd fat or melted
tallow.

«. The following is Dr Langlies' process for
proving that olive oil does not oontaui any seed
oil:

He mixes 8 grms. of the oil to be tested with
1 grm.^ of nitric acid (8 parts add to 1 part
water) in a test-tube, or a small stoppered flask,
and heats the liquid in a water-bath. If the oil
is pore the mixture becomes clearer, and takes a
yellow colour like purified oil ; if it is adulterated
with seed oil it aoqtiires the same transparency as
the pure oil, but becomes red. With 6% of seed
dl the reddish colouring is eharacteristic j with
10% it is deddod. The reaction does not require
more than from 15 to 20 minntes. The colouring
of the oils lasts for 8 days. A large number of
other tests have been proposed during the last
few years, but all the above have been tested and
proved.

Dttg, ^. The dietetical uses ot olive oil are
wall known. In Spain and Italy it is commonly
employed as a substitute for butter. It is highly
natritioos, but is digested with difficulty by some
persons, and hence should be avoided by the dys-
peptic lAke almond oil, it is occasionally em-
pkraed as a laxative and vermifuge, and is,
perhaps, one of the mildest known. £i pharmaeg
it is extensively employed in the preparation of
cerates, liniments, ointments, and plasters. —
Dote. For an adult, i to 1 wine-glassful as a
mild aperient; for an infant, i to 1 teaspoonful,
mixed up with an equal quantity of honey, syrup
of roses, or symp of violets. The white fibrous
sediment which forms in the recently expressed
oil is the ' ahuboa ' of Fliny, and was formerly
highly esteemed in medicine.

Oil, Olive, Sropplaga. Sj/n. Swnx-OIL s.
The ' foots ' or ' deposits,' and the ' drippings ' of
the casks, dstems, and utensils. Used for ma-
cbinet;, making soap, &c.

00, OUt* (QqrgMattd). 8^ Otsux oiiira
OXTsnAXUX (Ph. Batav.), L. Olive oil, 16 os.,
ia plaeed in a receiver snrronnded with ice or very
eold water, and chlorine is slowly transmitted
thniagh it for several days, or nntil it becomes
thick and visdd, after which it is well washed
with warm water.

Oil, Palm. Sg*. Paui butieb; Oxbto
FAUCS, L. From the fruit of SUutgvineentiM
and S. melanoeooea, the Guinea oil palms.
Orange or red coloured; butyraceous or solid;
smells of violets J unchanged by alkalies ; bleached
by sunlight^ age^ ezpomte, ehkirine, chromic add,
and oil of viteiol] melting-point varies between

76° and 95° F. Sp. gr. 0-968. Demulcent. Used
to colour and scent ointments, pomades, ic ; but
chiefly to make soi^ and candles.
' Oil, Palm Sut. iS^ii. Paui-hut xbbhbl o.
Extracted from the kernels of the palm fruit.
Primrose-vellow. Used in soap-making.

Oil, Pl'Vey. I^n. Pinit tallow, P. oak-
MAB, P. BsaiK. From the seeds of Valeria
iadica, Linn., or pnnoe tree. Resinous flavoured,
fragrant; made into candles. Sp. gr. 0-926.

(HI. fop'py. Syn. Olxuu pafavskib, L.;
Olibtib, Huilb blavohb, Fr. From the seeds of
Papover tomnifemm, Linn., or white poppy.
Sweet; pale; dries and keeps well. Used for
salads, punts, and so^n, and to adulterate
almond oil. It does not freece until cooled to
0° F. Sp. gr. 0-918 to 0-»i40.— Prod., 48% to
64%.

Oil of Pumpkin. Sgn. Olbum oucurbitjb,
L. Expressed from the seeds of the pumpkin; a
sootiiing application to piles.

Oil, Sape. i^M. Colza ou., Bbowv o.;
Oi-Birx BAPA, L. From the seed of Mrattioa
»*pi, Linn, (cole or rape), and &om B. eam-
pettri*, Linn, (wild navew or rape). (Uutinoosi
buttery at 26^ F. Dries slowly; makes soft
soaps and good ointment^ bat bad plasterai
Smokes much in burning, unless well refined.
Sp. gr. 0-9180 to 0-916.— iVoi, 32% .

Oil, BBFnniD or Palb Rafb (Olbitx jusm
BBnxux, Ol. B. albttk), is prepared from erode
rape oil by agitating it with about 2% of oil of
vitriol, previously diluted with about twice its
weight of water, and, after 10 or 12 days' lepose*
decanting the clear oil, and filtering it through
Canton flannel or felt. The quality is improved
by washing it with hot water or steam before
flitration. Used for lamps, blacking, and ma-
chinery ; also extensvely employed to adulterate
both almond and olive dL It forms the common
' B'WBBT OIL ' of the oilmen and druggists.

Oil, BeaL Sj/ik Olbitx phoojb, L. From
the hood seal and harp seal, and other species of
Phocisje. PaIiB 8BAL Dili is that which drains
from the blubber before putrefaction commences,
and forms about 60% of the whole quantity of
oil obtained. It is very clear, free from smell,
and, when recently prepared, not unpleasant in
its taste. RxFnrBD sxal oil is the last, washed
and filtered. Banks close after sperm oiL BBOW?r
or DABE 8BAL OIL is that which subsequently
drains from the putrid mass. It is very strange
scented and. nauseous, and smokes in burning.
Used for lamps and dressing leather. A fuU>
grown seal yields 8 to 12 galls, of oil; a small
one, 4 to 6 galls.

OU of SwaiMun. S9»- On, o> Qmasus
(above).

011, Bhark-llver. Prepaied from thelivert'ot
various spedes of shark. Used in tanneries to
adulterate cod-liver oil. The lightest.of the fixed
dls. Sp. gr. 0-865 to 0-876.

Oil, Skate. Sgn. OLBtrx baix, L. From the
livers of Saia batit, Linn., or common skate,
as cod-liver dl; also from Saia riinohattie,
or white skate, and Baia elaeata, or thomback.
Often mixed with cod-liver dl.

Oil, Spermace'tL /%». Spbbx oil; Olbux
OBXAOBI, L. From the 'head matter' of l%«eier

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OILS

maeroeepialiu, or spcarmsceti whale; a species
once common in all the principal seas, but now
chiefly confined to the Sontbem Ocean, It is
veiy limpid, smells little, and burns well; and
has longr been repated the best oil for lamps and
machinery, as it does not thicken by age or fric-
tion. The solid portion is refined for candle-
making. It is frequently adulterated with refined
teal oil. Sp. gr. 0-876.

Oil, Snn'flowsr. Sgn. Olkvh hbliastei, L.
From the seeds of Selianthtu anintu* and S.
perenntt. Clear, pale yellow, tasteless ; thickens at
60° F. Used for salads and lamps. Sp. gr. 0*926.
—Prod., 16% .

OU, Xeel. See Oil, Oiksbllt.

Oil, Tohac'oo-ieed. 8gn. OuuH tabaci (bz-
FHEBBim), L. From the seeds of IficoUana taba-
cum, Linn., or true tobacco plant. Pale ; dries
well; equal to nnt oil. Its production has re-
cently been carried on with considerable sncceas
in some parts of Russia. Sp. gr. 0923.

Oil of Tonloneon'na. See Oil, Kwdas.

Oil, Train. See Oil, Whalb.

Oil, Tnrkey-red. The soluble product obtained
by the intersection of varions oils with sulphuric
acid. — Prep. Mix castor oil with sulphuric acid
diluted with i its bulk of water; stand. Wash
with salt and water, and saponify with caustic
alkali. — Uae. As a mordant in . Turkey-red
dyeing.

Oil, 'Walnut. Syn. Olbvk juolassib, O.
StTOlS J., L. From the kernels of the nuts of
Juglant regia, Linn., or common walnut tree.
Soon gets rank ; dries well. Used in paints, and
occasionally in plasters. When ' cold drawn ' and
washed it is sometimes eaten with salad. Sp. gr.
about 0-926.— iVod., 48% to 62% .

Oil of Wax. 8yn. Buttbs ov wax ; Olbdii
CBBX, L. From beeswax, by quick distillation
in a close vessel. Butyraceous. By rectification
along with quicklime it yields a liquid oil.

Oi^ ?n>al«. ^n. Tbaik oil, Whalb tbain
o. ; Olbvx balxhx, O. obti, L. From the
blubber of the Balttna mi/ttieeiu*, Linn., or the
common or Greenland whale, by heat. Coane;
stinking. Sottthbbit whalb oil is the best.
Used for lamps, machinery, ftc. Sp. gr. 0-923.
^-Prod. per fish, about li tons for each foot of
bone.

Oil of Wheat. iSt^. Olbvv tbioiti, L. From
bruised Colne wheat, with heat. In chilblains,
ringworm, and sevend other skin diseases.

Ml of Wine-seed. 8gn. Obapb-stonb oil ;
Olbck vitib TunnsiE LAPlstnr, L. From the
seeds of grapes, separated from the marc. Pale
yellow, bland, emollient. Used for salads and
lamps. Sp.gr. 0-918 to 0-92.— Prod., 14% to 18%.

•»• The numbers given above, under 'pro-
ducts,' unless when otherwise stated, refer to the
respective fruits, kernels, nuts, seeds, &c., deprived
of their husks, pods, shells, and every other por-
tion destitute of oil.

Ona (Kedleated). Sj/n. Olba ooota, O.
nrrvBA, O. ICBSIOATA, L. These are prepared by
infusion or decoction. The bruised ingredients
are either simply digested in 2 to 4 times their
weight of olive oil tor some days, or they are
gently boiled in it until they become dry or crisp,
great care being taken that the heat towards the

end of the process is not greater than that of
boiling water. As soon as the process is complete,
the oil is allowed to drun from tlie ingredients,
which are then (if necessary) submitted to the
action of the press. The product is commonly
run through flannel or a hair sieve whilst stiU
warm, after which it is allowed to repose for a
week or ten days, when the clear portion is
decanted from the dregs. The green or recent
plants are usually employed for tUs purpose, but,
in many cases, the dried plants, reduced to
powder, and digested for 6 or 8 hours in the oil,
at the heat of hot water, with frequent agitation,
yield a much more valuable product. They
are nearly all employed as external applica-
tions onW.

%* The following are the most important
preparations of this class :

Oil of Adder's-tongne. Sgn. Olbxtx opbio-
OL0B8I, L. From the herb, as OIL OB bblla-
DomrA. A popular vnlneraiy.

Oil of Ants. 8gn. Olbuu FOBmoABUH . Digest
4 oz. of ants in 16 oz. (by weight) of olive oU with
a gentle heat, and strain.

OU of Bal'iam Apple, ^n. Olbtk balsa-
MIHX. Prep. Balsam apple (deprived of seeds),
1 oz. ; oil of almonds, 4 oz. ; digest and strain.

Oil of Belladon'na. Syn. Olsuk bblla-
DOinrx (P. Cod.), L. Prep. From the fresh
leaves, bruised, 1 part ; olive oil, 4 parts ; digested
together at a gentle heat until the moisture is
evaporated ; the oil is then strained off with pres-
sure, and filtered.

OU of Cantha'ride*. Sgn. Olbtk castha-

BISIS, 0. CANTHABIDIBUB, L. Pr^. (P. Cod.

1889.) From Spanish flies (powdered), 1 part;
olive oil, 8 parts ; as oil of BBLLASomrA. Sti-
mulant and rubdFacient. Used as a dressing to
indolent sores, blisters, &c.; and in dropsy,
rheumatism, gout, &c. OiL OF thb oil bib^JI
{Meloe protoarahaut, Linn.) is prepared in a
similar manner.

Oil of Cap'sicnm. Syn. Olbttk oafbioi, L.
iV»j>. (Dr TumbuU.) From powdered capsi-
cnm or Cayenne pepper, 4 oz. ; olive oil, 1 pint ;
digested together for 6 hours, with beat,
and strained. Stimulant; rubefacient in colic,
cholera, &c.

OU of Cham'omile. Sgn. Olstk abthbhisib,
Ol. ceailbhbli, L. From the dried flowers
(rubbed to pieces), 1 part; olive oil, 8 parts;
digested together, with heat, for 6 hours. Stimu-
lant, emollient, and vermifuge.

OU of Col'ooynth. Sgn. Olkuh oolocthtbi-
DIB, L. From the pulp) as oil of chavomub.
Diuretic. In dro^, neuralgia, rheumatism,
worms, Ac.

OU of Eaith'wonns. Sgn. Oixuit ltticbxi-
COBUX. (E. Ph. 1744.) Washed earthworms, i
lb. J olive oil, li pints ; white wine, i pint. BoU
gently till tiie wine is consumed, and press and
strain.

OU of Elder Flowers. iS<^ Weitb oil of
BLDBB; Olbttk baxbuoi albvh, O. baxbtt-
onrux (P. Cod.), L. Prep. From the flowers, as
OIL OF OEAXomLB. Emollient and discnssive.

OU of Elder Leaves. Syn. Obbbit oil, Osbbit
OIL of eldeb. Oil of swallows; Olbttk yi-
BlSB, O. 8AXBU0I yniSB, L. Prep. 1. Green

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1127

elder leaves, 1 lb.; olive oil, 1 qoart; boil gently
nnUl the leitve* an crisp, press oat the ou, and
again heat it till it turns green.

2. As before, bat by maceration, at a heat nnder
212° F. More odoroos than the last.

3. Klder leaves, 1 cwt.; linseed c^ S ewt. ; as
Nov 1.

Oba. The last form is the one nsnally em-
ployed on the large se^. It is generally coloured
with verdigris, i lb. to the cwt., jnst before put-
ting it into the casks, and whilst still warm ; as,
withont great skill and a very large qnantity of
leaves, the deep green colonr so much admired by
the ^orant cannot be given to it. The oil is
got from the leaves by allowing them to drain in
the pan or boiler (with a cock at the bottom),
kept well heated. Emollient; in great repute
among the vnlgar as a liniment, in a variety of
affections.

Oil of FeB'ngreek. £^. Olbux KBinraBiBoi,
L. Pnp. (P. Cod.) From the seeds, as on.
or OAifTHABisEB Or d OBAKoxiui. SmolUent
and resolvent.

on of Foz'glove. Syn. O-lbvm. sioitaIiIB, L.
Rrep. (P. Cod.) From the fresh leaves, as on
OF BSLLisoHXA. Used as an application to
chronic nleers and indarations, painfnl swellings,
ie. As nsnally met with it is nearly inert.

OOofQardenHiglifshads. iSyit. Olstx bolaki,
L. Prvp. (P. Cod.) From the leaves, as on.
OF BFLiiAOOHirA. Anodyne and discnssive.

Oil of Oarlic. 8fn. Olbvh alui ihfubux,
h. From garlic, as oil op BmxASOinrA. Used
as a liniment in deafness, diarrhoea, infantile oon-
vnlsiona, palsy, rheumatism, &c.

Oil, Green. 8y. Oi.srx Tzxnii, L. From
bay leaves, origannm, roe, sea-wormwood, and
eldier leaves, of each, ii os. ; olive oil, 1 quart ; as
on. of xudib. Detergent, stimulant, and re-
solvent. Qreen oil of elder is now nsoaUy sold
for it.

OU of Hemlock. S^». Ouxm ooHn, L. Prep.
(P. Cod.) As OIL OF BSLLASOHirA. Anodyne
and emollient; in painful ulcers, glandular tn-
moora, Ac

Oil of Hen'bana. 8yn. Olfxtx htoboyaki, L.
Pnp. (P. Cod.) As OIL OF BKLLASomrA. Used
as the last, in various painful local affections.

OU, Iodised, Kaishall's. £y». Olkum iodatux.
Prep. Oil of almonds, 16 parts ; iodine, 1 part.
Tritmate and digest till dissolved.

Oa of Jn"aip«t (by Infosion). /fi[y». Olhtx
JCTiPSBi ixrwoit, L. From the crushed ber-
ries, as OIL OF BBLLASOHiTA. IMuretic and vul-
nerary ; in frictions, &c.

oa «r Lfi'les. 8m. Olxith liliobijii, L.
From white lilies, 1 lb. ; olive oil, 3 lbs. ; as OIL
OF BKUiASomrA. Emollient ; nsed to rnktea and
ripen tnmonrs, indniationa, Ac.

OUof Kel'not. Jt^. Olbvk KBLiLOTi, L. As
the last, avoiding much heat. Emollient and
resolvent.

on of Mn'diaga. $!>». Olbvk xtoilaoi-
in7ii,0. ouxxuoiiAeinBir8,L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
L. 1746.) Harsh-mallow root, i lb. ; linseed and
fenugreek seed, of each, braised, 8 oz. ; water, 1
qnart; bcil 1 lioar, add of olive oU, 2 qoaits, and
boil until the water i» consumed.

2. Fenugreek seeds, 8 as.; linseed oil, 1 qnart;

infuse a week, and stnun. Onee a highly popular
emollient application in various local affections.

Oil of Kn'dar. Sg*. Ousux kitdarib, L.
From mudar bark (in coarse powder), 1 dr. ; warm
olive oil, i pint ; digest 24 hours and strain. Used
as an application to cntaneous ulcers, the bites of
venomous animalB, &c, and as a fricUon in
worms.

OU of 0"pliuii. 8y- AvoDTSB on., Ofiatbd
0. ; Olbuk 0FIATT7X, L. Prep. From opium
0n powder), 1 dr. ; olive oil, 2| fl. ox. ; digest at
a gentle heat, with frequent agitation, for 6 or 6
hours. The powder should be rubbed in a mortar
with a few drops of the oil before adding the
remainder. As a local anodyne. The above u the
only reliable formula for this preparation. Others
are extant ; but whilst the products of several are
much stranger, those firom others have only l-6th
or l-6th the strength.

OUb, Otonisad. (Sr Thompton.) Sg». Olea
ozoxAXA. Prep. Pass oxygen gas into the oil
(cocoa-nut, sunflower, cod-liver cdl, &c.) nntU it
will dissolve no more. Then expose for a con-
siderable time in the direct rays d the sun. Used
in phthisis.

OU of Fellitory. fi^a. Olbitx ftbkihbi, L.
From bruised pellitoi^ root, as OIL OF bblla*
soim'A. Used as the last.

OU of Black Pep'per (by Infoaion) . 8yn. Olsvm
FITBBIB iRFirBVif, L. From black pepper, in
coarse powder, as on. OF OAPBloinc Stimulant
and rubefacient ; in frictions.

OU of Poison Oak. Sya. Olbux bhoib toXi*
ooDBirsBi, L. Prep. From the leaves, as on.
OF BBLLASOirvA. Eztemally ; in paralysis, &c.

OU of Bhu'barb. Sg». Olbvx bebi, L. Prep,
From rhubarb (in powder), 1 part ; oU of almonds,
8 parts; digested together In a gentle heat for 4
hours, and strained, with expression. As an ap*
plication to indolent ulcers, and as a friction
over the abdomen in diarrhoea, English cholera,
&c., or as a laxative when the stomach wiU not
bear medicine.

OU of Bo"saB. 8gn. Oixtnt bo&s, 0. boba-

OBUX, O. B. IKFUBUX, O. BOBATVX, L. Prep.
From the fresh petals, pulled to pieces, crushed,
and digested for 2 or 8 days in the sun, or a
warm situation, in 4 times their weight, of olive
oil, and then pi-essed ; the process being repeated
with fresh roses. Ph. E. 1744 and P. Cod, are
nearly similar. Alkohv, bbk, or olitb oil,
coloured with ALEAmtT, and scented with attar of
roses, is now almost universaUy sold for it. Used
for the h^.

OU of Sua. <S^». Olbvx BVTiB (ihfubto)
li. Prep. (P. Cod.) From fresh rue, bruised,
as OIL OF OEAMOimM. Beputed antispasmodic,
emmenagogne, stimulant, and vermifuge. In
frictions.

OU of St John's- wort 8t/». Olsvh htfbbioi
(Ph. L. 1746), O. E. BIXFLBZ, Baxbaxuk e., L.
Prep. From the flowers, 1 part; olive oil, 6
parts; digested together until the oil is weU
coloured. Antispasmodic, stimulant, and resolvent.
A mixture of equal parts of BAFB OH. and OBBBH
XLSBB on. is usuaUy sold for it.

OU of Bcam'mony. 1^. Olevx boaxxokii,
O. FUBOANB, L. iVtp. (Van ifoiu.) From
Bcammony (in powder), 1 dr. ; hot oil of almonds.

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OILS

8 fl. oz.i trituiate together until cold, and the
next day decant the dear portion. — Do*t, i to 1
table-apoonful.

Oil of 8tramo"nlam. 8^. Olbvu HTBAKOirn,
li. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the leaves of thorn-
apple or gtramoninm, as oil op bblxadokba.
Anodyne and discnssive; as an application to
painful tmnoorg, joints, Ac.

Oil of Tobao'co (by Infailon). Sgn. Olevic
SABAOi, O. T. isrvBmt, L. Prep. From fresh
tobacco leaves (bmised), like oil ov ohakokilb.
As an application in ringworm, irritable ulcers,
pediculi, Sk. ; and aa a friction in itch, nenialgia,
painful indnrations, &o. It most be used with
extreme caution, as it is poisonous.

Oil of Tooth'wort. iSys. Olxux sqvaxabix,
L. Prep. From the herb of Lathrita Mquatnaria,
Linn., as OIL ov St Johit's-wost. Astringent
and vulnerary. This must not be confounded
with another preparation sometimes called 'OIL
OF toothvobt'(oijiux PLVMBAonna EvjLovsa),
and which has been occasionally used in itch, as
the latter is acrid and apt to cause mach irri-
tation.

Oil of Turpentine, Bnlphnrated. Sgn. OLBim
TSBXBiKTSiKX gTmcBiTBATUM. Prep. Sulphu-
rated linseed oil, 1 part; oil of turpentine,
8 parts.

Oil of Turpentine (for acoustic use). Sgn.

OLSITK TBBKBnrTHINX AOOUSIIODII. (Mr

Ma»U.) Oil of almonds, 4 dr.j oil of turpen-
tine, 40 minims.

OU of WormVood. Si/n. Olxuk ABsniTHn,
L. 2V«p. From the fresh herb, as oil oi
lilub. The P. Cod. and Fh. Wurtem. order
only 1 part of the herb to 8 purts of oiL Applied
to the abdomen in dyspepsia, cUarrhoea, heart-
burn, worms, Ac It is seldom oaed in this
oonntiy.

OILS (Xinaral). %«. HYDBOCiBBOV oils.
An important class of Uqnids, consisting solely of
carbon and hydrogen — the elements of ordinary
coal-gas, and obtuned by the distillation of coal,
lignite, petroleum, and other bituminous sub-
stances. For the purposes of illumination, many
of these oils are in most respects superior to the
fixed or fatty oils oontuning oxygen. Tliey give
a whiter and more brilliant light, and are pro-
duced at a much lower cost. The lamps in which
they are burnt, when properly constructed, are
leas liable to get out of order than those adapted
for the combustion of ^attr oils, and require leas
attention when in use. The experiments of Dr
Franldand on the relative value of the ordinary
Illuminating agents (see iLLUicnrASioir) prove
that the mineral oils are cheaper than all other
portable illuminating agents in common use, and
that they give the largest amount of light with
the least development of heat, and the smallest
production of carbonic acid. Some oils adapted
for burning in lamps are very volatile and highly
inflammable, and their safety depends on their
proper extraction. These volatile liquids are
used in the arts as substitutes for spirits of tur-
pentine, as solvents for various substances, and to
increase the illuminating power of coal-gas.
Othen are of a gnatj nature, and are too heavy
to be conveniently used in lamps. These, how-
•T«r, are well «d^>ted for luMcating fine mv

chinery, and are extensively employed instead of
sperm oil by the cotton manufacturers of Lan-
cashire. When tlie mora volatile ingredients are
separated from the burning oils, the latter are
perfectly safe. Most of the mineral burning oils
now in use are, we believe, free from danger in
this respect See Tettt (below).

Siet. For many years the manufacture of
burning oils by the distillation of bituminous
shales has been extensively carried out on the
Continent, but the discovery which formed the
foundation of the modem manufacture was made
nearly 80 years ago by Hr James Young. This
gentleman took the lease of a spring of petroleum
in 1847, and after numerous experiments succeeded
in obtaining two useful oils from the crude liquid ;
the one being adapted for lubricating machinery,
and the other for burning in lamps. The almost
total cessation of the flow of petroleum terminated
the business after 2 years' working, and led Mr
Young to institute a series of experiments with a
view to obtaining artificially by the destructive
distillation of coal. These experiments resulted
in the discovery of an oil which Mr Young named
' parafSn oil,' as it had many of the chemical pro-
perties of tiie solid body of })araffin, discovered
80 years before by Beichenbach in beech- wood tar.
Young's patent (dated Oct. 7, 1860) involved the
slower distillation of coals, at a lower tempera-
ture than had hitherto been employed for the
purpose, and this novelty in practice resulted in
a copious production of liquid hydrocarbons. The
gas or cannel coals were found to yield these
Uqnids in largest quantities, that variety known as
Boghead coal or Torbane Hill (this species of coal
is now exhausted — Ed.) minenl being specially
adapted for the patented process (see PABAPrar
OUt below). 8oaa after Young's discovery native
petroleum was brought from Rangoon, and puri-
fied by distillation, so as to produce oils very
similar to the coal products. During the last few
years, however, ridi sources of pebolenm have
been discovered in North America, whence are
imported the greater part tt the vast quantities
of petroleum oil, both for burning and lubri-
cating purposes, together with the paraffin sjdrit,
or naphtha, which are consumed in this country.

Teete, Preeautioiu. The Sanitary Commission
of the ' Lancet ' took as the limit of safety an oil
that gave oft inflammable vapour when heated to
180^ F., and this has been generally accepted by
dealers. If an oil gives oft inflammable vapours
before being heated up to 180°, it ia oonsidared
unsafe for domestic use.

1. A rough-and-ready method of testing the in-
flammability of a samiMe is to pour a little out on
a dry flat board, and try whether it can be ignited
reaxUly by a lighted paper. If it catches fire like
turpentine or brandy, tiie oil is dangerous,

2. The following plan, proposed by Mr Teget-
meier, requires no scientific knowledge and no
apparatus but wliat is to be found in every house^
mule it is sufficiently accurate for all practical
purposes:

"Take an earthenware dish, holding about
half a pint (a breakfast-cup will do), fill the cup
full from a kettle of boiling water, pour this into
an earthenware quart jug, then fill the same cup
again with boiiuig water from the kettle, and

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OILS

iisd

poor it also into the quart Jng', then flU the cop
with oold water, pat it into t& jog, shake the jug
to mix the hot and cold water, then ponr the tepid
water from the jng into the cup till the cup it
halt full, then pour about a table-spoonful of the
oil to be tested on the tepid water in the cup, take
the oil-can with the oil out of the room, then
touch the lorface of the oil in the cup with a
lifted splinter of wood, or a match without sul-
phur. If the match canses a flash of flame to
appear on the surface of the oil, the oil is below
the standard of safety, and should not be used ;
if no flame appears, the oil is up to the standard.
We may mention that in this tnal no time should
he lost after pouring the boiling water from the
kettle, as the water may get too oold, but the
whole may be gone through in from 2 to 8
minntes. It is well to have a saucer at hand, and
if the oil shonld be a bad oil, and ignite with the
Batch, place the saucer on iha mouth of the cup,
and the flame is exthignished. This trial should be
done bj di^light, and at a ^stance from a Are,
and the diMctions mnst be followed exactly in the
order as given aboTe."

3. Prorided that the oils to be examined have
been produced by careful fractional distillation,
their relative volatility, as indicated by their spe-
cific gravity, shows to a great extent the facility
with which they ignite. The lightest oils are
taare v<riatile and more easily inflimied than those
which are heavier. Oils much under 0-80 inflame
directly a lighted match is thrown into them,
whereas oils at about 0'816 to 0-823 (if unmixed
prodocts) cannot be set on fire in this manner.
The specific gravity test cannot, however, be de-
pended on to determine the inflaming point of
any commercial oil. A heavy oil, badly rectifled,
may contain a proportion of very volatile vapour,
and have a low inflaming point ; whereas a much
lighter oil may be perfectly safe, from its having
the more vol^le portions carefully removed.

4. (Van der Wtgda.) The oil to be tested is
idaoed in a gradoated tube closed at one end ; the
open end is then closed with the finger, and is
then placed mouth downwards in a vessel of water
that is heated from 43° — M°C. The vapour from
the portion volatilised at this temperature then
eolloots in the upper part of the tube, and expels
a corresponding quantity of oil. See Pbtro-
Kzinc.

In Qreat Britain petroleum is defined by Act
of Parliament as being any oil which gives off an
inflammable vapour at a temperature leas than
lOOPF.

To prevent aecidsnts with paraffin or petro-
leam bunpa, the following precautions ought to
be observed:

The lamps should be filled and trimmed by
daylight.

They should never be over- filled ; the oil shonld
not be allowed to come into contact with the metal
work of the burner.

Any portion of oil spilled on the outside of the
lamp should be carefully wiped awav.

When not in use the wick shomd be turned
down into the wick-holder.

%* The principal products noticed below rank
high among the nnmeroos varieties of mineral oil
now in the market, but there are many others

equally good and safe. Their properties are de-
scribed in accordance with the results obtained
by Mr W. B. Xegetmeier, who has carefully exa-
mined the mineral oils :

Oil, Al'bertite. From 'Albertite,' a lustrous
black mineral foand in New Brunswick. A
sample was shown in the Colonial Department of
the International Exhibition of 1862, but the oil
has not yet appeared in the English market.

Prop. Odour very slight; illuminatiug power
high; boiling-point 838° F.,or 126° above that of
water.

Oil, Amerioan. See Pitbolkck Oii. {btlow).

Oil, Apyroeo'tio. ^a. Noh-bzplositb oil.
A burning oil, and prepared, we believe, from
American petroleum.

Prop. Slightly coloured; perfectly limpid;
odour slight, but not perceptible during combus-
tion. The most remarkable property of this oil
is that, in spite of its limpidity, the point at
which it gives off inflammable vapour is 180° F.,
or 80° above the requirements of the Petroleum
Act.

Oil, BeI'montiiM. From Rangoon tar, or Bur-
mese petroleum, by distillation; superheated
steam being employed as the heating agent

Frop. Colourless; odour not unpleasant; sp.
gr. 0-847 ; but although so heavy, the oil is alto-
gether free froin viscosity, and will rise rapidly
in a comparatively long wick; inflaming point
134° F. ; bums with an exceedingly white light,
and possesses a very high illaminating power.

Obt. Besides the above lamp oil, several beau-
tiful and useful products are obtained. At Brst
there comes over a very volatile liquid, termed
Shbbwooo oil;, used for removing grease from
fabrics, cleaning gloves, &c. ; then comes the
Bblhohtini oil, already noticed; then two lu-
bricating oils, the one light and the other heavy ;
and, last of all, when the temperature is con-
siderably elevated, the beautiful white, trans-
Incent solid known as Belkoktinb distils over.
This last is a kiud of paraffin, and is used for
making omaiCental candles.

OU, Cat'eline. An excellent burning oil, pre-
pared from American petroleum.

Prop. Bright, limpid, with scarcely a trace of
colour; odour very slight, and quite free from any
objectionable character ; sp. gr. - 0-806 ; lowest
point of ignition 144° F.; burns with a pure
white lifcht, free from smoke and smell.

Oil, Col'iarine. A heavy hydrocarbon oil,
adapted for burning in lamps constructed from
the old ' Modenton ' and ' Caroels,' formerly so
much used for the fatty oils.

Prop. Limpid; quite inodorous; of a pale
amber colour; sp. gr. about 0-888; temperature
at which the vapour can be permanently ignited,
250^ F. Tested in the altered moderator it gives
an intense white light, without smoke or smell.
Compared with vegetable colza oil, its illuminat-
ing power is in the proportion of 8 to 2.

(At. This oil is suitable for burning in lamps
where 'colxa' and other vegetable and animal
oils have been usually consumed. Similar oils
are prepared by other firms.

Oil, Kachin'eiy. Sgn. LuBBKUTiHa oii^
SHARDia o., SpnrsLB o. The heavier hydro-
carbon oils obtained in distilling coal, shale, and

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OILS

petrolenm have almost saperseded the ta,ttj oils
for labricating parposes. They have very little
chemical action on the ordinary metali, and toe
not affected by cold. The lightest of theae com-
paratively heavy oils are aaed for spindles, or
other kinds of rapid machinerj- ; the heaviest for
the bearing parts of heavy machinery ; and those
of an intermediate character for snch machines
as printing-presses, agricnltaral steam-engines,
&c. In America and on the Continent this oil is
also osed for making gas. See Oil, Bblkoh-
nirs {above), and Oil, P^bavfiit (btlow).

Oil, Fu'affln. Sgn. Pabafpiiti oil. This
name was given by Mr Yonng to the oil prodnced
by the distillation of cannel coal, Boghead coal,
&c., at a temperatare considerably lower than
that employed in the mannfactme of illnminat-
ing gas. The following is a brief outline of Mr
Young's process :

Mannf. (Young's patent.) Coal, bitnminons
schists, or shales of the lower carbouiferoas
formation broken into small fragments, are in-
trodnced into perpendicular tabes or retorts,
about 11 feet in height, by conical hoppers at
their npper extremities. Four of these tubes
constitute a set, being built into one furnace, and
charged by a single workman. They pass com-
pletely through the furnace, and are closed below
by dipping into shallow pools of water, while the
openings into the hoppers above are shut by
valves. The coal in each tube is gradually
heated as it descends to that part which passes
through the furnace, and when it reaches the
bottom of the tube it has parted with its volatile
constituents, and is raked away as refuse, the
coal from above descending as it is removed.
Thus the action of these perpendicular retorts is
continuous, and the distillation goes on aninter-
rnptedly both day and night, 'file vapours pro-
duced are conducted by iron tubes to the main
condensers, which consist of a series of syphou
pipes freely exposed to the air. The quantity of
nncondensable gas formed is inconsiderable ; and
it is this result, so different from ^hat obtained
in the ordinary gasworks, that marks the great
▼alue of Young's process. The crude oil, a dark-
coloured, thick liquid, is then distilled to dryness
in large iron cylindrical stills, and is thus freed
from the excess of carbon which is left behind as
coke. The oil, after distillation, is further puri-
fied by the action of strong sulphuric acid, which
chars the principal impurities, and causes them
to subside in the form of a dense, black, heavy
acid tar. To separate the remaining impurities,
and that portion of the sulphuric add which
remain* in the oil, it is next subjected to the
action of caustic soda. As thus purified, the
parafBn oil, which is also called shale oil and
Scotch oil, contains fonr distinct commercial pro-
ducts. To effect their separation, the process of
fractional distillation is first employed. The
first elevation of temperature drives over the
lighter and more volatile portions, which, when
purified by a subsequent distillation, yield the
fluid known as 'paraffin naphtha,' 'petroleum
spirit,' or ' benzoline.' This product is nsed as a
substitute for 'turps,' as a solvent for India
rubber, for cleaning gloves, and for burning in
those naphtha lamps so much employed by cos-

termongers, and workmen in rulway tunnels,
Ac. On the perfect separation of this naphtha
the safety of the burning oil depends. This
bomiog oil, the ' paraffin oU ' of commerce, comes
over at a much higher temperature than the
naphtha. It is a perfectly safe lamp oil, and has
a greater illuminating value than an^ other oil
in the market. Its properties are noticed btlow.
The third product in point of volatility is a com-
paratively heavy liquid (machine^ oil), largdy
used for lubricating purposes. From this oil,
and others which coma over at a very high tem-
perature, the fourtii commercial product is sepa-
rated by the action of artificial cold. This last
product is the beautiful translucent solid
panUBn, now much used iu candle making, for
which purpose it is specially adapted, being a
most elegant substance, and surpasnng all other
candle materials, even spermaceti, in illnminating
power. The softer kinds, when dissolved in
naphtha and mixed with a littie vwetable oil, are,
according to Stenhouse, excellent for waterproof-
ing wood, e.ff. matches, barrels, deepers, Ac;
also for waterproofing hose, cloth, linen, leather,
&c. To these fabrics they also impart greater
tensile strength. The naphtha solution also
makes a good lubricating 'cream.' For a de-
tailed account of the processes carried on at the
Bathgate works, see Hr Tegetmeier's paper in
' England's Workshops ' YOroombridge and
Sons). See Oil, PAXAnnr, Pbtbolbux.

In Qermany and other countries the extraction
of the crude oil is effected in ovens of special
construction, but neither the yield nor the quality
of the output is so good.

Young's method has been improved upon in
detail by various patents ; that of Henderson is,
perhaps, the most important.

" Lignite or brown coal is extensively nsed on
the Continent for preparing paraffin and paraffin
oil. The following are the final products of the
distillation :"

a. Volatile oil, called photoform and solar oiL

b. Paraffin.

e. Volatile spirit, called benxoL

d. Phenol, or carbolic acid.

In the preparation of paraffin oil from native
petroleum, the oil is obtained by direct distilla-
tion from the petroleum, and snbseqnentiy sepa-
rated from the more or less volatile hydrocarbons
(the paraffin naphtha, the lubricating oila, and
the solid paraffin) that are associated with it, by
fractional distillation as in Young's process ;
whereas, when procured from bitun^ona mine-
rals, it is derived from the tar or emdt oil,
which has to be previously extracted from the
bituminous matters by destmctive distillation.
There are various methods for obtaining this tar
or crude oil, which, although differing in detail,
are in genentl prindples veiy similar to that de-
scribed in Young's p^^ent Thus, whilst in many
works elated horixontal retorts are employed, in
other establishments vertical ones, to the bottoma
uf which are attached receptacles for the receipt
of the exhausted coal or other material as it ftUls
from the retort, the same as in Young's appa-
ratus, are extensively adopted. When horizontal
retorts are employed they are made of cast iron,
and vaiy in length from 8 to 10 feet, being from

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OILS

1181

28 to S4 inches wide and from 9 to 14 Inches
deep. The charge is introdnced by an opening
in the end of the retort, by which aperture the
•xhansted residne is removed when necessary.
This aperture is closed by a tightly fitting cast-
atfa cover while the distillation is going on. At
the other end of the retort is a pipe for carrying
off the products of distillation. This communi-
cates with a larger pipe, and this latter with the
condensing apparatus. A number of these re-
torts are set together in a row, with a f nmacc at
one end, and flues eztonding beneath the retorts,
while the upper parts of the retorts are covered
with brickwork, to prevent the oil vaponis from
being decomposied by the heat of the waste fur-
nace gas passing to tiie chimney through the flues
above the retorts.

The gaseous products of the distillation of the
tar, leaving the retort by the exit tube already
described, are cooled by being made to pass
fhrongh a number of iron pipes exposed to the air,
or surrounded by water, and thus becoming con-
densed, pass into a reservoir in the form of the oil,
which forms the material from which the various
hydrocarbons are separated by fractional distilla-
tion. Accompanying the oil vapours are certain
oncondenBable gases; these escape through a pro-
perly contrived oatlet which is made in the con-
densing pipes ; in some works these escaping gases
•re utilised as foel, and in others for purposes of
illmniTiation.

In other works saperheated steam is driven
into the retorts during the process of distilla-
tion; but although this has the effect of sweeping
the oil vapour more quickly ont of the retort into
the condenser, it is questionable whether this ad-
vantage covers the extra cost of the production
of the steam (Payne's 'Industrial C^emiatry,'
edited by Dr Paul).

In many parts of Germany the extraction of
the crude oil or tar from bituminous substances is
eibcted in ovens. In these ovens the bituminous
body is thrown upon a layer of burning fuel, which
covers the bottom of the oven, the result being
that the bituminous matter is resolved into gaseous
bodies which are lost, and tar wluch flows down-
wards toward the burning fuel, which, being
covered with a layer of clay, is prevented ftrom en-
tering into violent combustion. This method,
howerer, is only resorted to on a small scale, since
it is foond that in most cases the tar obtained by
means of it is not of a kind suited for yielding
psraiBn and paraffin oils.

The preparation of the tar or crude oil from
eo«l, shale, &c., of the character already speci-
fied, eonstitntea one of the most delicate and diffl-
eolt btanchea in the manufacture of paraffin oils
Mid paraffin, tee. The chief sources at failure to
be avoided are the overheating of the oil vapour,
its consequent decomposition into useless gaseous
products, and its inefficient condensation.

It has been shown by Yohl tiiat even when the
construction of the retorts is not of the best, an
average yield of tar may be obtained by the proper
condensation of the vapours. " The complete con-
densation of the vapours of the tar is one of the
mott diiBenlt problems the mineral oil and paisffin
naaafiurtora: DM to deal with ; while the means
nsiuUy adopted for condensation, snch as large

condensing surfaces, injection of cold water, and
the like, have proved ineffectual. It has often
been attempted to condense the vapours of tar in
the same manner as those of alcohol, but there
exist essential differences between the distillation
of fluids and dry distillation. In the former case
the vapours soon expel all the air completely from
the still and from the condenser, and provided,
therefore, that, in reference to the sixe of the
still and bulk of the boiling liquid, the latter
be large and cool enough, every psrt of the -
vapour mast come into contact with the condens-
ing snrfaces. In dry distillation the process is en-
tiraly different, because with the vapour* — say of
tar — permanent gases are always generated. On
coming into contact with the condeiuing snrfaces
a portion of the vapours is liquefied, leaving a
layer of gas as a coating, as it were, on the con-
densing surface. The gas being a bad conductor
of heat prevents to such an extent the further ac-
tion of the condensing apparatus, that a large pro-
portion of the vapours are carried on, and may be
altogether lost. A sufficient condensation of the
vapours of tar can be obtained only by bringing
all the particles of matter which are carried off
from the retorts into contact with the condensing
surface, which need neither be very large nor ex-
ceedingly cold, because the latent heatof uie vapours
of tar u small, and consequently a moderately low
temperatnre will be sufficient to condense those
vapours to the liquid state. The mixture of gases
and vapours may be compared to an emulsion such
as milk, and as the particles of butter may be sepa-
rated from milk by churning, so the separation of
the vapours of tar from the gases can be greatly
assisted by the use of exhausters, acting in the
manner of blowing fans. It is of the utmost im-
portance in condensing the vapours of tar that the
molecules of the vapours be kept in continuous
motion, and thus made to touch the sides of the
condenser. The condenser should not be con-
structed so that the vapours and gases can flow
uninterruptedly in one and the same direction"
(S. Vagnar).

An important condition for the safe and quiet
distillation of the tar or crude oil is that it should
be free from water. Unless the removal of the
water is effectually accomplished the tar may boil
over, and, coming into contact with the fire under
the still, may give rise to an alarming conflagra-
tion. The dehydration of the tor is affected in an
apparatus constructed for the purpose, consisting
of sn iron tank placed within a larger tank ; a
space of about two inches intervening between the
two tanks is filled with water, which is heated to,
and kept at a temperature of, between 60°%nd 80°
C. for 10 hours, by the end of which time the am-
moniacol water, having separated from the lighter
tar, is drawn off by a stopcock placed at the
bottom of the tank, whilst the tor is decanted
through a valve at the top.

In America the distillation of the natural
petroleum oils is carried out in cylindrical stills
capable of holding as much as 1600 galls, each.
The retorte employed in the distillation of the
tar, or crude oils obtained from shale and other
lutuminons compounds, are often constructed of
large cast-iron flanged pans, each capable of con-
taining from li to 8 tons of the oilt " and form-

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OILS

ing the body of the retort. The pan ia set in
brickwork with flues running roond the opper
portion, and beneath it is a perforated dome of
brickwork, through which the flsme and hot gas
from the f umnce paaa up round the bottom of the
pan before entering the flues b; which the upper
portion of the pan is heated. To the flange of the
pan is fitted a flanged cover, having on one side a
discharge pipe through which the vapour is passed
to the worm of the condenser. In the centre of the
cover is a manhole. The oil condensed in the worm
is discharged through a pipe into a receiver, and
the uncondensable gas escapes through an ascend-
ing pipe " (Palak).

The processes to which the crude oil or tar and
the natural petroleum are next submitted difFer
only in the degree of treatment with certain
agents to which these prodncta are subjected
when, after similar methods of fractional distUla>
tion, they have been isolated from each other.
The benzoline and paraffin oils (both for burning
ftnd lubricating purposes) separately yielded fay
the natural oils seldom require purification, or if
so, in a minor degree only, whilst the same bodies
as obtained from the crude shale oil or tar mnst
be submitted to various processes of depuration
before they are fit for the market. Thus the
crude petroleum or burning oil derived from tar
is characterised by a more or less dork colour and
disagreeable smell — properties which are partly
due to the presence of carbolic acid and its homo-
logaes. By agitating the paraffin oil with a solu-
tion of caustic soda these objectionable substances
are removed.

The oil, having been next separated from the
alkali by subsidence, and any remains of the soda
having been removed from it by washing with
water, is next mixed with an aqueous solution of
sulphuric acid in the proportion of 6% of acid
(sp. gr. 1'7). The acid removes from the oil cer-
tain basic substances derived from the tar, which,
like the carbolic acid, give to it a bad odonr and
a dark colour. In this operation thorough ad-
mixture of the acid with the oil is important, and
this is generally effected by mixing the two in
vessels furnished with paddles. After a time, and
when the mixture has separated into two layers,
the upper one^ >. «. the paraffin oil, is drawn off
from the lower or acid layer, and well washed
with water j in some instances lime-water is used
for the washing, in others the water is impreg-
nated with caustic alkali. With some samples of
crude paraffin oil the above operations have to be
repeated 2 or 8 times, and even redistilled before
the oil becomes sufficiently pure and ooloorless
for sale. When redistilled, the last portions
which come over are often found to yield some
solid paraffin in addition to that furnished fay the
first fractional distillation. The 'paraffin,'
'naphtha,' 'petroleum,' 'spirit,' or 'benzoline'
(by all of which names it is known), which forms
the more volatile portion of the tar, and which is
the first to pass over from the retort, is subjected
to the same treatment as that used for burning
oil ; as for the denser lubricating oil, which passes
over after the burning oil has collected, this
being freed from any of the latter, is set aside in a
cool place, in order that any soUd pataffln it con-
tains may crystallise oat, and be separated bom it

The waste carholate of sod* remiltiiig from the
treatment of the oil with the caostiealluli, having
been decomposed by snlphuric add, the libented
carbolic acid is utilised either as a disinf edant,
or for saturating railway sleepers ; and sometimes
as a source of certain tar colours ; or it may be
used in the manufacture of gas, the soda which
remains in the coke being extracted by lixiviatioD.
The waste sulphuric acud combined with the am-
moniacal liquors that always accompany the first
stages of the distillation of the tar is made into
sulphate of ammonia.

The following conspectus of operations and
quantities (variable with the oil and the state of
the markets) will render the whole modem pro-
cess of refining more intelUgiUe (Dr If ills' ' De-
structive Distillation'). See next page.

"Within recent times considerable attention
has been bestowed on the piodaction of a highly
illuminating gas from the less valuable liquid pro-
ducts of the paraffin industry. Thos, ' Oieen ' oU
of sp. gr. 0-894, from add tar, has been found to
yield 87 c ft. per gall, of such gaa. Anoilofqk
gr. 0-844 has, however, furnished 88 c. fL per
gall. ; a gravity of 0-822 corresponds to 90 c fU
with less tar, and that of a thinner ^o^i^. The
produce of tar from the lighter oils is in geoenl
about i to 1 gall, of tar of sp. gr. 1-061 for ereiy
6 galls, of oil ; from the heavier oils, aboat_ li
galls. It is, of course, neither aeid nor alkslinft
After passing through condensers and a washer,
the gas traverses two pniiflers containing layelt
of chopped straw, sawdust, and lime. It U ad-
mirably adapted for compression, the origins!
compression being 30, the working pressure 6 to
10 atmospheres. Before such treatment it hu
the sp. gr. 0*7; during the process it deposits
1 gall, of light 'gasoline' per 1000 & ft, ths
eventual lighting power being 25-9 candles, sad
the consumption (in a railway carriage lamp)
0-78 c. ft per hour" (Mills' ' Uestmctiva DUtil-
lation ').

Frop. The paraffin oil of commerce is of s
very pale amber colour, or it may be quite colour-
less, but possessing a strong blaisb flooresceaes;
is bright, perfectly transparent, and remarksUy
limpid. Its sp. gr. is 0*823. Its point of tem-
porary ignition is 160° F., that of permanent
ignition being a few degrees higher. Its odour
is very slight. Its rate of comoustion is slow,
as may he Inferred from the absence of the
lighter oils, as indicated by its high sp. gr.
and inflaming point At the same time its lim-
pidity proves t£e ahaenoe of the heavier (rili, sod
accounts for its rising through a lon^ wick
with freedom, and bnming withoat chamng ths
cotton.

Oil, Fetrolenm. Bgtt. KsBMunra on, BaimD
FBTBOurox, Pabaisih oil. Petndanm oonnsti
chiefly of a mixture of ^^ hydrides, and occurs
abundantly in the Upper Devonian aad Carboni-
ferous Limestone formations. It is found in all
parts of the world, and is probably not confined to
any one geological formation. The American
petroleums vary greatly in pn^ierties, and nu-
merous methods of re&iing are employed b^ ths
manufacturers. The Canadian petnueom is nebei
in aromatic compounds and poorer in gaseoos
paraffin. It contains sulphuretted hydiugea,

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Optraiien* and Quantitiet.
diideoU
DUtiUed

Washed with acid tan

I
Waahed with soda tan

Distilled

Light oil
Waahed with li% acid, 170° T.

Waahed with 1% soda, 78° T.

I
DistiUed

Heavy oil careen')

Coolod to 2° C.
Filtered and pressed

I I

Naphtha Srd sanlight oil
•TOO* '806'

Washed with 2% acid, \7Cf T.

Waahed with 8% soda, 4° T.

Intermediate
'860-865'

Green oil

I

Hard scale (40° C.)

Washed with 2% add, 170° T.
Washed with 1J% soda. 72° T.

Bninigoil '805'
[Distaied]

IHstUled with 1% soda

'860' oil

Washed with 2|% acid, 17(f T.

Washed with 8% soda, 7° T.

lUn

Scaled Une oil
Washed with 8% add, 170^ T.

Washed wHh 4% soda. 7° T.

I
Lubricant '868.'

I ■
'Blue oil'

Cooled to 8° C.

Filtered and pressed

Soft scale (88° C.)

wUch imparta to it a very disagreeable smell,
which is difficnit of removal. In pnrifying this
<nl, some make nse of both adds and alkalies,
othen employ alkalies alone, and steam is applied
at Tsriona degrees of heat. Some of the oils pro-
dooed are of excellent qnality, bot others are in-
ferior, and do not ascend the wick in snffldent
qnantity to afFord a constant light.

The petrolenm of the United States is chiefly
obtained in PennsylTSnia by boring operations.
The onl wells discharge large volumes of gas con-
tuning hydn^en, manh gas, and ethane, which
are used for heating and lighting purposes in the
ndghbouzing district.

The liquid which spouts, flows, or is pumped
out of uie wells condsts chiefly of members
of the r»T*<Wn aeries, of which the following is
alist:

Ketbane . . . CH4 . . . gas.
Sthane • • • • vi^s * * »
Propane . ^tUt »

Bntane • • . . C4H10 . „

BoiUst

Pentane .

. . C,H„ .

. 88° C.

Hexane . .

• • CjHk .

• 70°,,

Heptane .

. . C,H,. .

. 98° „

Octane . .

. • C.H,, .

. 126° „

Xonane . .

. . C,H» .

• 148° „

Decane . .

. . CigH]) .

. 168° „

Dodeeame .

. . C„H, .

. 202°,.

Hexadecane

• • C^H^ ,

. 278° „

When the petrolenm is distilled, the hydro-
carbons as far as butane are evolved in a gaseous
state ; these are collected and subjected to the
action of a condensing pump, which liquefies a
portion of them, yielding the liquid sold as cymo-
gene, which is used in freezing machines on
account of the cold produced by its rapid evapo-
ration. It consists chiefly of butane. The liquid
constituents of the petroleum are separated by
the process of fractional distillation, which de-
pends upon the difference in their boilii^-points.
The portion which distils over below 76^ C. con-
sists chiefly of pentane and hexane, and is sold as

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pelrohum tpirit or patroUum ttitr, and used for
dissolving india-rubber and for making varnishes.
1'he next fraction of the distillate is chiefly
heptane, and is sold for baming in paraffin lamps
ander the name* of beoioline, paraffin oil, and
mineral sperm oil. The oi]a boiling below 76° C.
are not safe for burtdng in ordinary lamps, be-
cause they so easily evolve vsponr, which forms
an explosive mixture with air. That portion
which distils over between 150° C. and 200° C.
consists chie6y of nonane and dodecane, and is
used for lubricating machinery. At still higher
temperatures the liquid which distils over consists
of hexadecane and other hydrocarbons richer in
carbon. These form soft solids like vaselin ; those
containing most carbon form the wax-like crys-
talline solid originally termed paraffin (Bloxam's
'Chemistry').

Hr Bovuton Redwood says, in his 'Cantor
Lectnree on Petroleum,' that " of the producing
wells in the United States the great raajoriiy
famish only a few barrels a day, but some are
stated to have yielded for a short time as much
as 260,000 gidls. per 24 hours." The production
of oil in Pennsylvania is now on the decline ; the
wells have to be bored deeper every year, in some
instance* to a depth of 6000 feet, and the yield
is not so good. Thus the famous Bradford field
is steadily drying up, and the Bichbnrg field is
regarded as not of a durable character.

For more than 2000 years Baku, on the Caspian
8ea, has been famous for its marvellons springs of
petroleum, and there is historical evidence that
for nearly 1000 years its oil resources have been
drawn upon . The Zoroastrian fi re- worshippers re-
sorted to Baku 1000 years B. 0. to pav their de-
votion to the perpetual flames of fire which burnt
around the natunl oil springs. Oil is found not
only at Baku but throughout the whole of the
Caucasus, covering an area of about 1200 miles
across. It exndes in places 9000 feet above the
level of the sea and 600 feet below it. The area
worked at Baku is 1886 acres ; the wells average
360 feet by 10 inches, and yield an average of
1,000,000 galls, a day, frequently under enormous
pressure. At Tagieffs wells a fountain com-
menced playing at the rate of 500 tons of petro-
leum per hour on Oct. 5, 1886. It* height was
284 feet. In a few days it reached a maximnm
of 2,760,000 galls, per diem. Since the Russian
Government threw open the oil industry to foreign
capital the production of petroleum has been in-
creasing by millions of gallons yearly.

Hitherto the wont of transport facilities has
impeded the development of the trade, but now
the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea are united by
rail and pipe lines, and tank steamers are coming
into use, the marvellous abundance and cheapness
of the oil must cause it to prove a formidable
competitor with the produce of America, especially
as from Baku petroleum can be extracted a better
and safer kerosene and an inoompambly better
lubricating oil of hi^h sp. gr., whilst the refuse
furnishes an inexpensive fuel {Marvin).

The Baku petroleum is, according to Mendle-
jeS, strongly characterised by the presence of ole-
flnes. Its sp. gr. for a given boiling-point is
greater than that of American or Scotch oil. It
contains no solid paraffin. The residues from

the rectification process are used a* fuel at Um oQ
works and on board the oil steamers.

There is nothing whatever in the geological
history of Baku and the Caucasus to warrant the
belief that the supply is not of a practically
inexhaustible character (ifarns).

Petroleum is also worked in japan, California,
the Argentine Republic, Italy, Bavaria, Hanover,
Roumania, Alsace, and in the Limogne Valley,
Turkestan, the Pni^Jab, Beluchistan, Egypt, Ac

A great future is predicted for the oil-fields
TOcently acquired by Kngland in her annexation
of Burmah. The so-called Rangoon tar yields a
splendid heavy illuminating oil (30-38% , sp. gr.
0*832) and an excellent lubricatmg oil (61'24% ,
sp. gr. 0-901).

1889— rffi|>0f<«.

PetroleBni. Otlknu. £.

From Russia . . . 81,682,885 . 628.833

„ Germany . . 207,687 . 10,592

„ HoUand . . 77,484 . 6,207

„ Belgium . . 111,817 . 4,220

„ France . . 119,811 . 4,206

„ ITnited States

of America 70,789,663 . 1,932,850

„ other foreign

countries . 89,777 . 1.976

Total from foreign —^—^

--- 2.588.883

countries . 102,878,674

from British —

possessions 2,682

64

Grand totia. . 102,881,256 . 2,688.947

None of the native petrolenms ooaUun cartmlie
acid and other impurities which exist in the oils
distiUed from coals and shales ; hence their puri-
fication is simple and comparatively cheap.
" The oil prepared from petroleum i* almoiit
oolonrless] it has a sp. gr. of about '810. and
when of good quality only a slight and rather
aromatic odour " {Pajfin). See PbtboIiSVX and
above.

Oil, Shale. As we have stated, prodaets analo-
gous to those derived from eannel ooal are
obtained t^ the destructive distillation of bitu-
minous shales and schists, and lignites or Inown
coals. On the Continent the produetion of shale
oils has of late years declined considerably, owing
to their nnsuccessful competition, invaaatot ptiee,
with the American petroleam oils. The oil
obtained from bitnmiuons shale or from ooal is
generally of higher specific gravity than that pro-
cured from petroleum ; it is deeper in colour, and
not so pleasant in smell.

OILS (Klzed). Sgn. Couvouim oixb; Oi.i:a
OOKPOBITA, Olba xixia, Ii. Under these names
are commonly included various mixtures of oils
and other substances that possess an nnctnons
appearance. When not otherwise stated, they are
prepared by simply agitating the ingredients
together, and, after a sufficient time, decanting
the clear portion, which, in some caseo, ia then
filtered. A few of them only possess any import-
ance. Some of them are nighly esteemed as
remedies among the vulgar, and the use of others
is confined to veterinary medicine.

The following include the principal mixed oils
of the shops, to which the names of a tew other

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1186

oompoimda, which are frequently called ' oUi' by
the ignoiant, are added, for the purpose of f acili-
tating a reference to them.
Oil, Awm'itic. Sg». Exb oil ; Oixxm aooub-

XICUK, O. ISBSBnrTHINXAOOUaTIOTTK, L. Prtp.
From oil of tnipentine, 1 part; oil of almonds,
6 part* J mix. In atonic deafneaa, accompanied
with indoration of the wax. 1 or 2 drops are
poured into the ear, or on a piece of cotton wool,
which it then gently placed in it.

Oil ftir Bley^e Xamps. Camphor, i oz. ; iperm
oil, 2 ox. : paraffin oil, 6 oz.

QU, Biack. Sgn. Outtk niobux, L. Prep.
1. Oil of turpentine, 1 pint; rape oil, S pints;
oil of vitriol, i lb.; agitote well together with
care; then add of Barbadoes tar, 8 oz. ; again
agitate well, and in 10 days decant the dear
portion. Linseed oil is preferred for the above
by many persons.

2. (Pereivall.) Sweet oil, 1 pint; oil of tor-
pentuie, 2 oz.; mix, add gradually of oil of
vitriol, 1^ oz. ; again mix, and leave the bottle
open until the next day. Detersive, stimulant.
Used by farriers for mange, lus.

Oil, British. Syn. Cokkon on of vtxaa;
Oisvu BsiTAiriricuK, O. fit&b tttlsiiui, L.
Frap. From oil of turpentine, 1 quart ; Barbadoes
tar, 1 lb. ; oils of rosemary and origanum, of each,
1 OS. Stimnlant. Formerly reputed to possess
the moet astonishing virtues.

Oil, Cam'phorated. Liniment of camphor.

OQ, Carboliied. Syn. Oiwtk OASBOiuixvx.
Pure carbolic add in crystals, 1 part ; olive oil,
10. 20, or 40 parts ; mix, and dissolve by the aid
of heat. Used as a local antiseptic application,
alao for oiling catheters.

Oil, Camm. Liniment of lime.

QU, Chaberf (. Sjfn. CEABEBi'a sxptbvit-

XAXIC OtL; OLKUK ChABBBTI, 0. OONTBA

TJraiAX Cbabbbti, L. Oil of turpentine, 8
parts; Dippd's animal oil, 1 part; mix, and
distil 8 parts. It must be preserved from the
air and light. Used in tapeworm. — Dote, 1 to 2
teaspoonf nls, in water, night and morning, until
6 or 6 fl. oz., or more, have been taken ; a cathartic
being g^ven every third day.

00, Cologne. This is a convenient mixture for
the ready preparation of eaa de Cologne and for
perfuming dental and other preparations. Oil of
bergamot, 8 oz.; oil of lemon, 4 oz.; oil of orange
ped (sweet), 2 oz. ; oil of bitter almonds, 2 oz. j
(ril of lavendier, 4 oz. ; oil of rosemary, i oz. ; oil
of neroli, 1 oz. ; oil of cloves, i oz. ; extract of
musk, 8 oz. ; alcohol, to make 64 oz. Use 8 oz.
of the ' oil ' to 1 gall, of alcohol (Druggists'
Circular).

OiLXzatar. Sy. OLBTncBXOBSTBSirsBf&riqr).
Green oil, 16 lbs.; euphorbium, mustard seed,
castor, pellitory, of each, 1 oz. ; digest and strain.
The original form is more complex. The follow-
ing is also used. Bape oU, H pints; green oil,
i pint ; <»ls of wormwood, rosemaiy, and origa-
num, at each, half a dr.

OU, Far'nltttT*. Sg». Mahooant oil. Oil
■ZAnr. JPrtp. 1. From refined linseed oil, 1
pint; alkanet root, i oz.; digested together in a
warm place until the former is suffidently
eoloore^ when it is poured off and strained.
g. Pale boiled oil, 1 pint; beeswax, i lb. j

mdted together, and coloured as before. Gives
a superior polish, which becomes very tough
by age.

8. Linseed or boiled oil, 1 pint ; Venice turpen-
tine (pure), 6 oz. ; as before. The above are used
for mahogany and other dark-coloured woods.

4. Linseed oil, 8 oz. ; vinegar, 4 oz. ; oil of
turpentine, mucilage, rectified spirit, of each,
i oz.; butter of antimony, i oz.; hydrochloric
acid, 1 oz. Mix.

6. Linseed oil, 16 oz. ; black resin, 4 oz. ;
vinegar, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, 8 oz. ; butter of
antimony, 1 oz. ; spirit of salts, 2 oz. ; melt the
redn. add the oil, take it off the fire, and stir in
the rinegar ; let it boil for a few minutes, stirring
it ; when cool put it into a bottle, and add the other
ingredients, shaking all together. The last two
are specially used for reviving French polish,

6. (Pale.) a. As the preceding, omitting the
alkanet.

b. From nut oil, } pint ; beeswax (finest), 8 oz, ;
melted together.

0. To the last add of copal varnish, 8 or 4 oz.

The last three are employed for pale woods.
They are all applied by means of a rag, and are
' polished off ' with a ' woollen rubber ' or ' fur-
niture brush.' A little strong vinegar, or a few
drops of hydrochloric acid, are sometimes added.
See Polish.

Oil. Hair. See Oil (Perfumed).

Oil and Eaitshom. Liniment of ammonia.

OU, I'ron. Syn. Oleuk vrbbi, 0. kabtib,
L. The old name for the liquid formed when
perchloride of iron is allowed to deliquesce by free
exposure to the air. It is excessively caustic and
corrosive.

Oil, Lime. See Ciloium (Chloride).

OU, Kaeas'sar, See Oils (Perfumed).

OUflbtt'Taw. Prep. From clarified beef mar-
row, 1 part; oil of almonds, 8 parts; melted to-
gether and strained through muslin. It is usually
scented with ambergris, cassia, or mace, and
slightly tinged with palm oil or annotta. Used
for the hair.

Oils, Ifamhall's, Prep. From linseed oil and
rape oil, of each, 1 lb. ; green oil and oil of tur-
pentine, of each, i lb. ; oU of origanum, | fl. oz. ;
oil of vitriol, i oz. ; weU shaken together.

Oils, Klzed. Syn. Olsuk kiztuk ooionmB,
L. Prep. From Unseed oil and green oil, of each,
1 lb. ; oU of turpentine, i lb. ; Barbadoes tar and
balsam of sulphur, of each, 2 oz. ; oils of spike
and origanum, of each, 1 oz. Stimulant and rube-
facient. Used by farriers for sprains, Ac See
Oels, Siakfobd's (helou)).

Oils, Hewmarket. Prep. From oils of linseed,
turpentine, and St John's-wort, of each, 8 lbs. ;
oil of vitriol, li oz. ; wdl shaken together, and the
dear portion decanted in a few days. A favourite
remedy for sprains in horses.

Oils, Klne. 8t/n. Old hizbd oils ; Olbvxbx
OKKIBUB, L, Prep. From train oil, 1 gall. ; oU
of turpentine, 1 quart ; oil of amber and oil of
bricks, of each, 6 oz. ; oU of spike and oil of ori-
ganum, of each, 2 oz. ; Barbadoes tar, 2^ lbs. ; oil
of vitriol, 2 oz. ; camphorated spirit, i pint ; mixed
togrether as the last. A favourite remedy with
provincial farriers.

OUofPetre. See Oil, Bbiubh (aio««).

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Oil, Fhof'pliontad. 8gn. Ulhuk phosphoba-
TCK, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Bor.) Phoiphonu (dried
Mid sliced small), 6 gr. ; oil of almonds, 1 oz. ;
mix, place the phial in hot water, agitate for some
time, and, when cold, decant the clear oil from the
undissolved phosphorus.

2. (Magendie.) Phosphoras (sliced), i dr. ; al-
mond oil, 1 oz. ; macerate in the dark, with fre-
quent agitation, for 14 days, then, after repose,
decant Uie dear portion, and aromatise it with a
little essence of bergamot.

8. (B. Ph.) Prtp. Takeotphosphomsandoil
of almonds, of each, q.B. Heat the oil in a porce-
lain dish to 800° F., and keep it at this tempera-
tare for about 15 minutes, then let it cool and
Alter It through paper. Put 4 fl. oz. of this oil
into a stoppered Dottle capable of holding 4^ fl.
oz.; then add to it 16 gr. of phosphoros. Im-
merse the bottle in hot water nntil the oil has ac-
quired the temperature of 180° F., removing the
stopper two or three times to allow the escape of
expanded air ; then shake the oil and phosphorus
together untU the latter is entirely dissolved. —
J)ose, 6 to 10 minims.

Obi. A fi. oz. of oil dissolves rather less than
6 gr. of pure phosphorus. The large excess or-
dered in the second formula must be merely for
the purpose of increasing the extent of surface
acted on. It is, however, with the otherprecautions
given, quite unnecessary. The products of both
formnlBB have the same strength.— 2>0M, 6 to 10
or 12 drops, in milk, barley-water, or gruel, or
made into an emulsion ; in chronic rheumatism,
gont, &c., and as a powerful diffusible stimulant
in various diseases, with debility and general proa-
traUon of the vital powers, &c. Externally, as a
friction. It is chiefly to the presence of phos-
phorus that cod liver owes its wonderful remedial
power in these affections.

Oil, Qult'ter. Prep. 1. Bed precipitate, 2 dr. ;
aquafortis, 1 ox. ; dissolve, add of olive oil, oil of
turpentine, and rectifled spirit, of each, 2 oz.;
and agitate well and frequently tor 8 or 4
hours.

8. Ointment of nitrate of mercmy (Ph. L.),
1 part ; nut oil, 8 parts ; melt togeuer, and stir
nntil the mixture is cold. Used by farriers for
quitters, &c.

Oils, Sadlay**. From Barbadoes tar, i lb. ; lin-
seed oil and (nl of turpentine, of each, i pint;
gently warmed, and shaken together.

Oil, Shav'iiig. See Ebbrnob of Soap.

Oil, Sheldrake's. Frep. From pale boiled nut
oil and copal varnish, equal parts, melted together
by the heat of hot water, and, when perfectly
mixed, placed aside in a bottle for a week to
settle, after which the clear portion is decanted.
Used by artists to grind thnr colours in to
brighten them.

Oil of Spike. 1. (Fabbibb's.) From oil of
turpentine, 1 quart ; Barbadoes tar, 1^ oz. ; alka-
net root, i oz. ; digested together for a week.
Used as a stimulating liniment by farriers.

2. (PAnrrBB'B.) a. From rectified oil of tur-
pentine, 8 pints ; oil of lavender, 1 pint ; mix.

b. Oil of torpentine (warm), 6 parts ; lavender
oil bottoms (genuine), 8 parts; agitate well to-
gether, and in a fortnight decant the clear away.
Used t^ artists and enamellers.

Oils, Stkmftrd'a. S^. Lobd SiAWOis'g
uxBo ons. Prep. Dissolve camphor, 1 oz., in
rectified spirit of wine, i pint ; add oH of ori-
ganum, 3 01.; oil of tarpentine, \ pint; green
elder oil, 2 lbs.; and agitate until mixed. The
rectifled spirit is now generally omitted, the cam-
phor being dissolved in the green oil by ^id of heat
before adding the other ingredients. Stimulant.
Used by famers.

Oil of Stona. This very old-f asliioned prepara-
tion is, says the ' Druggists' Circular,' of variable
composition, its chief ingredient being cmde
petrolenm. Some recipes direct equal parts of
American petrolenm and Barbadoes tar, and again
this mixture is dilated with turpentine as fol-
lows:— ^American petrolenm, 1 part; Barbadoes
tar, 1 part ; spirit m turpentine, 8 parts. Another
more complex petrolenm mixture, usually called
British oil, was also sometimes sold as 'oil of
stone.'

Oil, Snl'phnrated. Sgn. Balbix as btofhitb ;
Olbuv bulphttbatuk, Balsaxux bulphubib,
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1746.) Flowers of sulphnr.
1 part ; olive oil, 4 parts ; boil together in a vemA
lightly covered, until they assume the consistence
of a thick balsam.

2. (Ph. L. 1824.) OUve oil, 16 fl. oz. ; heat it
in a sand-bath, and gradually add of washed sul-
phur, 2 oz., stirring until they combine.

Prop., ^e, Baliuun of snlphor is a dark red-
dish-brown, viscid fluid, having an extremely
disagreeable and penetrating odour, and a strong,
nauseous taste. The local action of balsam of
sulphur is that of an acrid and irritant; ita
remote effects those of a stimulant, expectorant,
and diaphoretic. Externally, it is occasionally
used as an application to foul ulcers ; and was
formerly commonly employed internally in
chronic pulmonary affections, in doses of 20 to
60 drops. It is now seldom given internally
except in veterinary practice.

Oils, Three. Sgn. Ovsuu si tbibvs (Fas
Motu), L. Oils of brick, lavender, and turpen-
tine, eqnal parts. As a stimulant liniment-
Oil of YlrrioL Sulphuric add.

Oils, Ward's. Syit. Wass'b whttb otu.
From powdered camphor, rape oil, oil of turpen-
tine, rectified spirit, and liquor of potassa, equal
parts, agitated together for some time, and again
before use. Beef brine was formerly used inrtead
of liquor of potassa.

Oil, Watdunakw's. Prepared by placing a
clean strip or coil of lead in a small white glass
bottle filled with pure almond or olive oil, and
exposing it to the son's rays at a window for
some time till a curdy matter ceases to be depo-
sited, and the oil has become quite lim^d and
colourless. Used for fine work ; does not become
thick by age.

Oil, Wedell's. Syn. Bbzoab on.; OLXVlf
BBZOABDICVK, L. From nnt oil, | pint; cam-
phor, i oz. ; dissolve by a gentle heat, and, when
cold, add of essence of bergamot, 1 dr., and let it
stand over a little alkanet root until sufficiently
coloured.

Oils, White. ^. Whitb boo-oiu. Prep.
1. Tolks of eggs, 4 in nnmber; oil of turpentine,
i pint ; mix, add of liquor of ammonia, 8 fl. oz. ;
oil of origannm, i oz. ; soaper's lye, i pint; water,

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f pint ; agitate well, and strain throogh a coarse
hair sieve.

2. Rape oil, } pint ; liqnor of ammonia and oil
of tarpentine, of each, 3 os. ; agitate nntil they
form a milk.

^ 8. (Stduood.) Whites and yolks of 2 eggs ;
<nl of tarpentine, H ox. ; triturate together, add
of Gonlard's extract, | oz.; mix, next add of dis-
tilled vinq^, 1) pints, and, lastly, of rectified
spirit, H fl. 01. Stimulant and detergent. Used
by&niers.

Oil, Worm (Cuiae). Sg». Olkvm yisKi-
FvevK CAtmnm. Prep. From oil of tarpen-
tine and castor oil, equal parts; tinged yellow
with a little palm oil or annotta. — Dote. For a
middle-sized dog, ( oz., repeated in 2 or 8 hoar*
if H does not operate.

OILS (la FnrftuMry). Ortk Sobitibj) oiu;
OlMA nx.i. ODOSATA, L. The oils which nsoally
form the basis of these articles are those of
almonds, ground nut, cotton seed, ben, or olives ;
bat others are occasionally used. The methods
adopted for their preparation vary with the
nature of the snbstuices whose fragrance it is
intended to convey to the oil. The Continental
perfumers employ three different processes for
this purpose, which they technically distinguish
by terms indicative of their natoie. These are as
under:

1. A gnfficient quantity of the essential oil of
the plant, or of the concentrated essence of the
sahstaace, if it does not furnish an oil, is added
to the fixed oil which it is desired 'to perfume,
nntil the latter becomes agreeably fragrant ; the
whole is then allowed to repose for a few days,
and, if any sediment Mia (which should not be
the case when the ingredients are pure), the clear
portion is decanted into another bottle. When
alcoholic essences are thus employed, the fixed
oil should be gently warmed, and the admixture
made in a strong bottle, so as to permit of it
being ewked and well agitated with safety ; and
in this case the agitation should be prolonged
nntil the whole has become quite cold. In tiiis
wi^ all the ordinary aromatised and perfumed
oils of the English druggists and perfumers, as
those of bei^mot, cusia, doves, lavender,
lemon, milleflenrs, neroli, nutmeg, oranges,
roses. Sec, are made ; but those of a few of the
more delicate flowers, and of certain other sub-
stances, can only be prepared of the first quality
by one or other of the processes described below.

In general, 1 to li dr. of the pure essential oil,
or 8 to 4 fi. dr. of the alcoholic essences, are
found snfficient to render 1 pint of oil agreeably
fragrant, i dr. of pure attar of roses is, how-
ever, enongh for this purpose, owing to the very
powerful character of its perfnme; but even a
leas quantity than this is commonly employed, on
account of its cosUiness, the deficiency being
made op by a mixture of the oils of rhodium,
roaenuuy, and bergamot. Most of the oils of
this class are intended for hur cosmetics.

2. (By nmrBiOH.) Dry substances, after
being reduced to powder, or sliced very small —
flowers or petals, after being carefully selected,
and piekea fran tba stems and other scentless
pertioM and soft or metoons matters, as am-
bergris, dret, or musk, after bong rubbed to a

TOK. XI.

paste with a little oil, cither with or without the
addition of aboat twice their weight of clean
sand or powdered glass, to facilitate the reduc-
tion, are digested in the fixed oil for about 1
hour, at a gentle heat obtained by means of a
water-bath, continual stirring being employed all
the time ; the mixture is then removed from the
heat, covered np, and left to settle until the next
day, when the clear portion is decanted into
clean bottles. When flowers are employed, the
free oil is drained off, and the remainder obtained
by the action of a press. The process is then
repeated with fresh flowers, five or six times, or
even oftener, nntil the oil is sufficiently perfumed.
For ambergris, mask, or civet, the digestion is
generally continued for 16 to 20 days, during
which time the vessel is either freely exposed to
the sunshine, or kept in an equally warm situa-
tion.

The first quality of the oils of ambergris,
balsam of Pern, benzoin, cassia, cinnamon, civet,
orange flowers, orris, roses, styraz, and vanilla
is made by infusion.

3. (By IBB VIAWBS8.) a. Upon an iron
frame a piece of white, spongy cotton cloth is
stretched, and then moistened with almond or
olive oil, usually the latter ; on the cloth is placed
a thin layer of the freshly plucked flowers;
another frame is similarly treated, and in this
way a pile of them is made. In 24 or 80 hours
the flowers are replaced by fresh ones, and this
is Tepeated every day or every other day, until
7 or 8 different lots of flowers have been con-
sumed, or the oil is sufScientiy loaded with their
odour. The oil is then obtained from the ootton
cloth by powerful pressure, and is placed aside In
bottles to settie, rendy to be decanted into others
for sale. Sometimes thin layers of cotton wool,
slightly moistened with oil, are employed instead
of cotton cloth.

The oils of honeysuckle, jasmine or jessamine,
jonquil, may blossom, myrtle blossom, narcissus,
tuberose, violet, and, in general, of all the more
delicate flowers, are prepared in the above
manner.

b. The native perfumers of India prepare thdr
scented oils of bela, chnmbul, jasmine, &c., in the
following manner: — ^A layer of the scented
fiowers, about 4 inches thick and 2 feet square, is
formed on the ground ; over this is placed a layer
of moistened tel or sesamum seels, 2 inches
thick, and on this another 4-inch layer of fiowers.
Over the whole a sheet is thrown, which is kept
pressed down by weighta attached round the edges.
The flowers are replaced with fresh ones after the
lapse of 24 hours, and the process is repeated a
thnrd and even a fourth time, when a very highly
scented oil is desired. The swollen sesamum
seeds, rendered fragrant by contact with the
flowers, are then submitted to the action of the
press, by which their bland oil is obtained strongly
impregnated with the aroma of the flowers. Tbo
expressed oil is then set aside in dubbers (bottles
made of nntanned hides) to settie. We have
employed poppy seed in this country, in a dmilar
manner, with great success.

e. The flowers are crushed in a mortar or mill,
with one half their weight of Manohed sweet
almonds, and the next cUy the mas* is gently

7S

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OILS

heated and sabmitted to the action of a powerful
press ; the liqaid thus obtained is allowed to repose
for a week, when the upper portion of oil is de-
canted and filtered. This plan is occasionally
adopted in this country for the oils of roses and
of a few other flowers. (See below.)

The solution of a few grains of benioic a<ud,
or of gu(n benzoin (preferably the first), in any
of the above oils, will materially retard the
accession of rancidity, if it does not prevent it
altogether.

The oils of the last two classes (2 and 8) are
chiefly nsed to impart their respective odours to
the simple oils, pomades, Ac. ; and in the manu-
&ctare of scented spirits or esprits. The follow-
ing formulffi are given as examples of both olnssm
of preparations :

Oil of A]iilwr|ili. From ambergris, 2 dr.;
oil, 1 pint; by iniurion.

Oil of Bea'toln. From gum benzoin, 7 dr. ; oil,
1 pint; by infosion.

Oils for the Hair. Sg». Hctlbs AVTiQTiia,
Fr. These are numerous. All those scented
with the simple perfumes are prepared in the
way explained under class 1 (oioiw). The selec-
tion depends entirely upon the judgment of the
operator or the fancy of the purchaser. In
general, a mixture of two or three perfumes is
preferred in these countries to the pure fragrance
of any single flower, and a grossness of taste is
exhibited in these matters which surprises onr
Continental neighbours, and the inhabitants of
Italy more particularly. Some of these oils are
coloured. _ A red tinge is given to them by allow-
ing the oil to stand for a few honrs over a little
alkanet root (2 dr. to the pint) before scenting it.
The application of a g^entle heat facilitates the
process. Yellow and orange are given by a little
annotta or palm oil ; and green, by steeping a
little green parsley or lavender in them for a few
days ; or by dissolving 2 or 8 dr. of gum gnaiacnm
in each pint by the aid of heat, and, when cold,
decanting the clear portion. Hnile antique an
jasmin, Huile antique & la fieurs d'oranges, Huile
antique it la rose, Huile antique & la tubiireuse,
Huile antique ii la violette, ac, are simple oils
flavoured with the respective perfumes or their
preparations. — Huile antique & la rose is the
ordinary oil of roses coloured with alkanet root.
—Hnile antiqne verte is simple oil coloured green,
as above, and scented. — Huile antique aux mille-
fleurs is so scented with several perfumes that
■ none predominate. A mixture of bergamot,
lemons, lavender, neroli, pimento, and ambergris
or musk, is commonly employed for the purpose.
Oil, Kaoas'sar. %». Hvilb ds xaoabsab.
iV«p. 1. (SovlamPi.) Oil of ben or almonds
(reddened by alkanet root), 1 pint; oils of
rosemary and origanum (white), of each, 1 dr. ;
oil of nutmeg and attar of roses, of each, 16
drops; neroli, 6 drops; essence of musk, 8 or
4 drops.

2. (Ds Wagutt.) Oil of ben, 1 quart ; nut oil,
1 pint; rectined spirit, i put; essence of berga-
mot, 8i dr.; tincture of musk and esprit de
Portugal, of each, 2.dr. ; attar of roses, i dr.;
alkanet root, q. s. to colour.

Oil, Kar'niw (ForAuMd). 1. Simple marrow
oil, scented at will.

2. (Fluisb si Java.) Harrow (ril, colonred
with a little palm oil and scented.

3. (Bvil/B oOKoesm.) Manow oil, 4 oz.;
spirit of rosemary, li oz. ;' oil of nutm^, 12 drops.

4. (HvJLB FHUiOOOifB d'Avbbhu) Cold-
drawn nut oil and marrow oil, equal parts; scent
at will, q. s.

5. (HviLB DE FH^HIX.) Clarified beef mar-
row, lard, pale nut oil, and expressed oil of maoe,
of each, 4 oz. ; melt together by the heat of hot
water, strain through linen into a vrarm stone
mortar, add of oils of cloves, lavender, mint, rose-
mary, sage, and thyme, of each, i dr.; rectified
spirit^ 1 oz., in which has been dissolved by a
gentle heat balsam of tolu, 4 dr.; camphor, 1
dr. ; triturate until the whole is cold, and then
put it into bottles. All the above are used to make
the hair grow, and to prevent it falling oft.

Oil of Knik. Prap. From grain musk, 1 dr. ;
ambergris, | dr. ; oil of lavender, 20 drops ; oU>
1 pint, by inf uaon. A second qiulity is made by
working the same ingredients, after the oil ia
ponred from them, with f pint of fresh <hL This
also applies to oix o> akbibsbib and Hirii.B

BOYALB.

OU of Koik and Am'bargrU. %*. Hvns
BOTALB. Prep. From ambergris, 2 dr. ; grain
musk, i dr. ; oils of cassia, lavender, neroli, and
nutmeg, of each, 10 drops ; m\, 1 pint ; by infusion.
See above,

OUofS^raz. Prep. From liquid styrax (pore),
6 dr. ; oil of nntmeg, 10 drops ; ambergris, 6 gr. ;
oil, 1 pint ; by infusion.

Oil of Vanilla. Sgn. Huiui il la tahou.
iVop. From purest olive or almond oil, H pints ;
vanilla (finest, in powder), 2 oz. ; oil of berga-
mot, 1 dr. ; attar of roses (finest), 16 drops ; by
infusion.

0118 (7oUtiI»). (Although essential mis are
volatile oils, volatile oils are not always essential
ones as the term is understood. This is the case
with the petroleum and paraffin oils obtuned by
the distillation of native petroleum and bitu-
minous bodies. To describe the two as synony-
mous is therefore incorrect. — Es.) Sjfn. Olba

SBBTILLATA, OUtA DIBTtLLATA, OlBA BSSBBTIAUL,

OlAA VOLATIUA, L.; Httileb tolatilbb, Fr.
The volatile oils are an extensive and important
class of bodies, derived from the vegetable king-
dom, and found in almost every part of the ma-
jori^ of the plants which produce them, exoept
the cotyledons of the seeds, in which, in general,
the flxed oils are exclusively stored up. Their
presence confers upon flowers, leaves, frnit, seeds,
roots, bark, and woods their peculiar and charac-
teristic odours; but among these they are not
equally distributed in the same individual, and
are often altogether absent from some of them.
To them we are indebted for our most delightful
perfumes, and our choicest spices and aromatics.
Some of them are found to possess valuable medi-
cinal properties, and others are invested with the
highest possible interest on account of their pecu-
liar chemical constitution, and the reactions which
occur when they are brought into contact with
other bodies.

The volatile oils are often called < essences,' and
the same loose and unmeaning term is also com-
monly applied to their alcoholic solutions.

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Prop. The volatile or essential oils we nsnnlly
more limpid and less anctuoas than the fixed oila ;
bat aome of them are batyraeeong or ciystalline.
Nearly all of them consist of two or more oils,
diflering in their sp. f^r.and boiling-points, one of
vhich is generally liquid, the other, in some cases,
crystalline. All of them, when perfectly pure,
are ooloorlesa, thongh before rectification nearly
the whole of them have m pale yellow tint,
and some of them are brown, bine, or green.
Their odour is that of the plants which yield them,
and is nsnally powerf ol ; their taate is pungent
and burning. They mix in all proportions with
the fixed oils, dissolve freely in both alcohol and
ether, and are sparingly soluble in water, forming
• perfumed ' or ' medicated waters.' Their boil-
ing-point usually ranges between 310° and 325°
T., and is always considerably higher than that of
water. They resist saponification, and (excepting
oU of cloves) do not combine witii the saUfiable
bases. Their density fluctuates a little on either
side of water. The lightest oil is that of citrons
(sp. gr. -847), and the heaviest that of sassafras
(sp. gr. 1-096). When cooled sufficiently, they all
solidity. The common temperature of the atmo-
sphere is sufficient for this with some of them, as
the oils of roses and aniseed ; whilst others require
to be cooled below the freezing-point of water
before they assume the solid form. In this state
they appear to consist of a crystalline or semi-
erystaUine substance (stearopten, stearessence),
and a fluid portion (eleopten, oleiessence). The
two may be separated by pressing the concrete oil
between the folds of bibulous paper, in the cold.
By exposure to the air the volatile oils rapidly
■Morb oxygen, and become partially converted
into resin. This is the cause of the deposit that
usually forma in them (especially in the expressed
oil of orange) when kept in an ill-corked vessel.
The solid crystalline matter which separates from
them when kept in closed vessels is stearopten,
as mentho and thymol.
^ Clan. Chemically consideTed, the essential
cnla may be divided into three great classes :

1. Oils composed of carbon and hydrogen only
(binary volai^e oils, carbo-hydrogens, hydro-
carbons, terebenes, camphenes), of which oil of
birpentine may be regarded as the type. These
are characterised by being, as a class, less soluble
in rectified spirit and in water than the other
essential oils. The oils of bergamot, capivi,
cubebs, elemi, hops, juniper, lemons, orange peel,
pepper, the grass oil of India, the laurel oU of
Quiana, and some others, belong to this class.

2. Oils containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxy-
gen (oxygenated- oils), including most of those
used in medicine and perfumery. These, as a
claw, are more soluble m rectified spirit and in
water than thoee containing carbon and hydrogen
only. To this class belong the oils of almonds,
aniseed, cassia, oedar-wood, cinnamon, cumin, jas-
mine, lavender, meadow-sweet (Spiraa ulnuaia),
orange flowers, pennyroyal, peppermint, spear-
mint, rosemary, rose-petals, valerum, winter-green
( GMtWktriaproeumi4ui), uid others too numerous
to meotion. A few of these oxygenated oils con-
tuinitrogea.

8. Oils oontaining sutphor (snlphwetted oila).
These an characterised by their extreme pun-

gency, suffocating odour, vesicating power, pro-
perty of blacking silver, and being decomposed by
contact with most other metallic bodies. The oils
of assafoBtida, black mustard-seed, garlic, horse-
radish, and onions are of this kind. Some sul-
phuretted oils contain nitrogen.

Prep. The volatile oils are generally procured
by distilling the odoriferous sulMtancea along with
water; but in a few instances they are obtained
by expression, and still more rarely by the action
of alcoboL

According to the common method of proceed-
ing, substances which part freely with tlieir oil
are put into the still resting on a perforated dia-
phragm, along with about an equal weight of
water, and are at once submitted to distillation.
Thoee substances which give out their oil with
difficulty are first soaked for 24 hours, or longer,
in about twice their weight of water, to each
gallon of which 1 lb. of common salt has been
added in order to raise its boiling-point. The
distillation is conducted as qnickly as possible,
and, when one half the water has come over,
it is returned into the still, and this oohoba-
tion is repeated when necessary, nntil the dis-
tilled water ceases to be mixed with oil. The
heat of steam or a salt-water bath should be pre-
ferably employed. When a naked fire is used the
still should be deep and narrow, by which means
the bottom will be better protected by the gra-
dually decreasing quantity of water tomurda the
end of the process, and empyrenma prevented.
When the distilled water is to be repeatedly coho-
bated on the ingredients a convenient and econo-
mical plan is to so arrange the apparatus that,
after the water has separated from the oil in the
receiver, it shall flow back again into the still.
An ordinary worm-tub, or other like condensing
apparatus, may be employed ; but in the case (S
those oils which readily solidify the temperature
of the water in the condenser roust not ful below
about 66° F.

The mixed vuwnrs which pass over condense
and fall as a milky-looking liquid into the re-
ceiver. This separates after a time into two por-
tions, one of which is a solntion of a part of the
newly eliminated oil in water, and the other is
the oil itself. The latter either occupies the upper
or the lower portion of the receiver, according as
its specific gravity is less or greater than that of
distilled water. The separation of the oil and
water is effected by allowing the mixed liquids to
drop into a ' Florentine receiver ' (see engr?) when
the oil is the lighter of the two, by which means
the latter accumulates at a, and tiie water flows
over by the spout (i).

The same receiver may be employed tor oils
heavier than water by reversing the arrangement;

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but a glass ' separator ' (see engr.) is, in general,
found more convenient. In this case the oil
accnmolates at the bottom of the vessel, and may
be drawn otf by the stopcock provided for the
purpose.

The essential ofls of lemons and oranges of com-
merce, and of some other fmits, are chiefly ob-
tained by snbinitting the yellow rind to powerful
pressure ; but in this way they are not so white,
nor do they keep so well, as when distilled, although
in the case of the fruits referred to the oils
are more fragrant than when prepared by any
other method.

Chevallier gives the following rules for the
distillation of essential oils :

1. Operate upon as large qnantitiee as possible,
in order to obtain a greater product, and one of
finer quality.

2. Conduct the distillation rspidly.

8. Divide the substances minutely in order to
facilitate the extrication of the oil.

4. Employ only sufficient water to prevent the
matter operated on from burning, and the product
from being contaminated with empyreuma.

6. For substances whose oil is heavier than
water saturate, or nearly saturate, the water in the
still with common salt to raise the boiling-point,
and thus to enable the vapour to carry over more
oil.

6. Employ, when possible, water which has been
already distilled from off the same substances, and
has thus become saturated with oil.

7. For oils naturally fluid keep the water in
the refrigerator cool; but for those oils which
easily become solid preserve it at 80° to 90°

r.(f).

To the above may be added :

8. Collect the oil as soon as possible after it
separates from the water with which it passes
over, and in its subsequent treatment keep it, as
much as possible, from free contact with the air.

Dr Ure remarks, " The narrower and taller the
alembic is, within certiun limits, the greater will
be the proportion of oil, relative to that of the
aromatic water, from like proportions of aqueous
and vegetable matter employed." "Some place
the plants in baskets, and 8usx>end these imme-
diately over the bottom of the still under the
water, or above its surface in the steam ,■ but the
best mode, in my opinion, is to stuff an upright
(nrliuder full of the plants, and drive down through
them steam of any desired force, its tension and its
temperature being further regulated by the size

of the outlet orifice leading to the condenser. The
cylinder should be made of strong copper, tinned
inside, and encased in the worst conducting species
of wood, such as soft deal or sycamore."

The newly distilled oils may be separated from
adhering water, which frequently renders them
partially opaque or ' cloudy, by repose in a tern-
I perature between 60° and 70° F., and subsequent
decantation ; but to'render them qnite dry (anhy-
drous) it is necessary to let them stand over
some fragments of fused chloride of calcium.
This is not, however, required with the commercial
oils.

The rectification of the volatile oils is commonly
performed without water by the careful applica-
tion of a heat just sufficient to make them flow
over pretty rapidly, so that they may be kept
heated for as short a time as possible. One haff,
or at most two thirds only, is drawn off, that left
in the retort being usually mixed with the raw oil
intended to be sold in that state. This method
often leads to much loss and disappointment, and
we have known more than one rather dangerous
explosion result from its use. A better plan is to
rectify the oil from strong brine, and then to
separate any adhering watw, either by repoee or
chloride of calcium.

iVes. Volatile oils should be preserved in
well-closed and nearly fnll bottles, in the shade,
and should be opened as seldom as possible. By
age they darken, lose much of their odour, in-
crease in density, and become thick and clammy.
It is then necessary to distil them, by which the
undecomposed portion is separated from the resin.
Agitation along with animal charcoal will restore
their clearness and original colour, but notiiing
more.

Par., TstU. The essential or volatile oils of
commerce are very frequently adulterated with
the fatty oils, resins, spermaceti, or alcohol, or
with other essential oils of a cheaper kind or lower
grade. The presence of the first three of these
may be readily detected by placing a drop of the
suspected oil on a piece of white paper, and ex-
posing it for a short time to heat. If the oil is
pure it will enfdrely evaporate, but if adulterated
with one of these substances a greasy or translu-
cent stain will be left on the paper. These sub-
stances also remain nndissolved when the oil
is agitated with thrice its volume of rectified
spirit.

The presence of alcohol may be detected by
agitating the oil with a few small pieces of dried
chloride of calcium. These remain unaltered in a
pure essential oil, but dissolve in one containing
alcohol, and the resnltingsolntioA separates, form-
ing a distinct stratum at the bottom of the vessel.
When only a very little alcohol is present the
pieces merely change their form, and exhibit the
action of the solvent on their angles or edges,
which become more or less obtuse or rounded.

Another test for alcohol in the essential oils
is the milkiness occasioned by agitating them
with a little water, as well as the loss of volume
of the oil when it separates after repose for a
short time.

A more delicate test of alcohol in the essential
oils than either of the preceding is potassium, as
employed by M. Beral : — 12 drops of the <^ are

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plaoed on a perfectly dr; watch-glass, and a
piece of potassium, about tiie size of an ordiuary
pin's head, set in the middle of it. If the small
fragment of metal retains its integrity for 12 or
15 minutes, no alcohol is present ; but if it ^s-
appears after the lapse of 6 minutes, the oil con-
tains at least 4% of alcohol ; and if it disappears
in less than 1 minute, it contains not less than
25% of alcohol.

Boettger states that anhydrous glycerin pos-
sesses the property of dissolving in alcohol, with-
out mixing with the Tolatile oils. The mode of
applying the glycerin is as follows : — The oil to
b« examined is well shaken in a graduated tube,
with its own Tolame of glycerin (sp. gr. 1-25),
Upon being allowed to settle, the mixture sepa-
rates into two layers. The denser glycerin sepa-
rates rapidly, and if the essence has been mixed
with alcohol, this is dissolved in the glycerin, the
augmentation in the volume of glycerin showing
the proportion of alcohol present.

This species of adulteration is very common, as
it is a ganeml practice of the druggists to add a
little of the strongest rectified spirit to their oils,
to render them transparent, especially in cold
weather. Oilof cassia is nearly always treated in
tihis way.

The admixtoie of an inferior essential oil with
one more costly may be best detected by pouring
a drop or two on a piece of porous paper or cloth,
and shaking it in the air, when, if occasionally
amelled, the difference of the odour at the begin-
ning and the end of the evaporation will show
the adolteration, especially if the added sub-
stance is turpentine. The presence of the latter
may also be deteeted by agitating the oil with
rectified spirit, when it will remain undissolved.

The following method, which may also be used
as a test for the presence of turpentine, is based
npon its power ai dissolving fats : — Take about
60 gr. of oil of poppy in a graduated glass tube,
and add an equal quantity of the sample of
Msentisl oiL Shake the mixture up thorou|;hly
sod then allow it to stand ; if the essential oil be
pare, the mixture becomes milky, and does not
dear until after several days have passed, where-
as it will remain transparent if even so little as
5% of essence of turpentine be present.

Turpentine may be detected as an adulterant
in lemon oil by heating a portion of the sample
in a dry test-tube, with a {ueoe of copper bntyrate
about the size of a pin's head ; the temperature
is dowly raised to 170° but must not exceed ISO''.
If the (HI of lemon is pure the copper salt dis-
solves and colours the oil gieen. If turpentine
is present the oil becomes tnrind, is coloured
yellow, and reddish-yeillow copper protoxide is
separated.

The purity of essential oils may likewise, in
many eases, be determined by taking their sp.
gr.; or, with still greater accutacv and conveni-
ence, by measuzing their index of refraction, as
snggested by Dr Wollaston. A nngle drop of
oil is sufficient for the application of the last

The adulteration of a heavy oil with a light
one, or the reverse, may be detected by agitating
the suspected oil with water, when, in most cases,
the two will separate and form distinct strata.

Hiss Crane believes that the cohesion figures
afforded by the volatile oils, like those of the
fixed ones, will be found useful indications of
their purity. The application of her method is
precisely similar to that followed in her examina-
tion of the fixed oils as already described. She
finds that —

Oil of X^trpeniine, by itself, spreads instantly
to the whole size of the plate (a common soup
plate), and almost immediately the edge begins
to break into irregular shapes, when a rapid
motion takes place over the surface of the film,
and there seems to be a contest between the
cohesion of the oil particles and the adhesion
between them and the water. The oil makes
repeated efforts to gather itself closer together,
when the water instantly reacts, giving a wavy
appearance to the whole figure.

The play of colours at this point is beautiful,
and serves to bring out the lines more perfectly.
In a few seconds innumerable little boles appear
over the surface, which soon are separated only
by threaded lines, and the figure is like the most
exquisitely fine lace.

Oil of Cinnamon forms a figure not more than
half the size of the last-named. In a few
seconds small portions are detached, and shortly
separate into distinct drops, four or five larger,
and a number of smaller ones, scattered about.
With mixtures in different proportions of oil of
t»rpe»tine, the figures formed differently, taking
more of the characteristics of the adulterant as it
predominated.

Oil of Nutm^ forms a large figure instantly,
the edge showing a beaded line. It gathers itself
together and spreads again, very like oil of tur-
pentine, but the surface presents more the ap-
pearance of watered silk. Within sixty seconds
some holes aroear, and in eighty more the sur-
face is covered with them j these scarcely spread
to more than a sixteenth of an inch in diameter,
but from the first each is bordered with a dotted
edge. The figure lasts some time without chang-
ing materially, except the openings lengthen out
into an oblong shape, remaining entirely dis-
tinct. The play of colours is very fine. With
the addition of one third of the oU of tntytniina,
the first spreading is little different, but openings
appear in half the time, and tbe dotted border
does not come as soon; in about fonr minutes
the figure is most characteristically marked, and
soon breaks up entirely, this being the distinctive
difference between the pure oil and the mixture.

OU of Pappermint spreads instantiy to a large
figure, and in 10 or 16 seconds openings appear,
which increase rapidly in size. At first they
look somewhat like the last-named, but are not
nearly so numerous, and the border soon is more
like tiny drops. In li or 2 minutes they begin
to run together, and the figure breaks up.

With the addition of turpentine oU the figure
forms more slowly, and the breaking up is less
rapid, but in five minutes the outlines only re-
mun.

Since the demand for menthol has extended, it
is no uncommon circumstance to meet with speci-
mens of peppermint oil, supposed to be genuine,
from which the menthol has been abstracted. To
detect tMs fraud, the following test may be found

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uiefal : — A test-tabe, psrtuUy filled with the oil
and corked, is placed in a freezing mixture of
snow and salt, for 10 or 16 minutes. At the end
of that time, if the oil has not been tampered
with, it will have become cloudy, thick, or of a
jelly-like consistence. If 4 or S crystals of men-
thol be then added, and the tube be replaced in
the freezing mixture, the oil will, after a short
time, form a solid frozen mass of crystMls. If, on
the other hand, the oil remains limpid, it may be
concluded that the menthol has been remoTed.

Oil of Btrgamot spreads instantly; in 80
seconds tiny openings appear, not very abundant,
and increase in sice slowly ; in 6 minutes they are
not larger than oil of »utmeg at li minutes. At
first they have a dotted border, but as they in-
crease in size this changes to a scalloped film,
which spreads, until, in 8 or 10 minutes, they are
joined together over the whole surface. This,
with the turpewtiM oil, gives a watered surface
in spreading, much more marked, and with a fine
play of colours.

B. B. Davies, ' Fharm. Joum.,' 8rd, xiz, esti-
mates the pnrity of essential oils by their power
of ^baorbing iocUne ; for the details of the method
the original communication should be referred ta

Uut, Sfo. The volatile oils are chiefly used by
perfumers and rectifiers, and in medicine. Some
of the cheaper kinds are largely employed as
vehicles for colours, and in the manufacture of
Tarnishes. The dose of the aromatic and car-
minative oils is from 1 to 10 drops, on sugar, or
dissolved in a little weak spirit. This does not
apply to oil of bitter almonds, the dose of which
is i to i a drop.

*a* The following list includes short notice*
of nearly all the volatile oils which have been ex-
amined, as well as of some other substances of a
similar character which commonly pass under the
name:

Oil of AlUa'xla. From the roots of AUioria
tMeinalii, or sauoe-alone. Identical with the oil
M black mustard.

Oil of All'sploe. See On. ov Pduhto.

Oil of Al'mottda. See Oil o> BimB Al-
KOin>B.

OU of American Arbor Tit«. Syn. Uvaa
oftcBS BLAVC, Fr. From the fresh tops of 2%ti;a
oemdMfotM, or American arbor vita tree. Yellow ;
firagrant; stimulant. Used in frictions for rheu-
matism.—iVo<i., li% to 2% (nearly).

Oil of Angol'ica. From the dried root of A»-
gtUea arekangeliea. — Prod., 25% (fnlly).

Oil of An'iaood. Sf*. Oliuk ahibi (Ph. L.,
E^ and D.}, O. BasiKTiALB araa, L. From the
fruit (seeds) of Pimpinella aiuntm, or of IUiei»m
a»it(Uum. Nearly colourless. It is very fre-

ritly adulterated with one or other of the
per oils, in wluch case spermaceti or camphor
is added to it, to make it ' candy.'

Prop., 1(0. When pure it congeals into a solid
crystalline mass on being cooled to B0° F., and
does not melt again until heated to about 68°.
Treated with iodine, it quickly congeals into a
■olid hard mass, witii a perceptible increase of
tempmatnre, and the development of orange-
eolonred and grey fumes. Sulphuric add, with
heat, turns it of a rich purple-red colour, and the
compoiyid soon afterwards becomes inspissated

and hard (resinifled). In alcohol of -806 it is
soluble in all proportions, but rectified spirit
(-SS8) dissolves only 42% of this oil. Sp. gr. (re-
cent) 0768; (one year old) -gSSS to -9866; (old)
-9866 to -9900. The foreign oil is generally the
heaviest.

Oil of aniseed is carminative and pectoral ; and
both itself and preparations have long been in
favour with the masses in coughs, colds, &c. In
preparing it care must be taken that the temper-
ature of the water in the receiver and refrigerator
does not fall lower than about 68° Y.—Proi.
(From the dried fruit of commerce) av. 2%
(nearly). See Oil of Stas-asiu.

Oil, Ap'plo. See Amtl (Valerianate of), and
EsasscE OP ArPLS.

Oil of Ar'oic*. 8)%. Olivk tsxios., O. *..
BASiciTM, L. From the roots of ArDioa montana.
Yellowish brown. Sp. gr. -940.— iVoii. 16 Iba.
yielded 1 oz. of oil. T&s oil from the flowen of
arnica is blue.

Oil of Aaarabac'ca. Sgn. Olkux ababi, O. ▲.
LIQCIDUM, L. From the roots of Aaarvim ouro^
pamm. Yellow ; glutinous. Twobntynu;eons<41a
pass over at the same time.

Oil of AMaftaf ida. <S>ya. Oliuk abafotida.,
L. ' From the gum-resin. C<nitains sulphur. Ver^
fetid and volatile.

Oil of Balm. Sgn, Olbuk muBOB, L. From
the herb (Melima offieinalU). Fkle yellow ;
fragrant. Sp. gr. -970 to -976.— JVoii. 100 lbs.
of the fresh fiowering herb yielded 1 oz. of oil
{M. Be^hami). A mixtnre td oil of lemons and
rosemary is commonly sold for it.

Oil of Balsam of Pern. See CnnrAianra.

OU of Ber'gamot. ^s. Bbboakot, Ebbbvob
OF B. ; Olbux bsbsamii, O. bbbsakots, L. By
expression from the yellow portion of the rind <n
the fruit of Oitrut hergamia, or bergamot orange.
Pale greenish yellow; highly fragrant. It is
obtained purer by distillation, but its perfume is
then Blightiy less delicate. Sp. gr. -876 to -885.
— Prod. The rind of 100 bergamot orang««
yielded by distillation nearly 3 oz. of oil (if. .Bogr-
Win.

Oil of bergamot is frequently adnlterated with
rectified spirit, or with the oils of lemons, oranges^
or turpentine. The presence of these substance*
may be detected in the manner explained nnder
OiLB (Volatile), Puritg and Tutt (aati), as well
as by the altered density of the oil. Pore bergs-
mot oil is much more soluble in rectified spirit than
either of the others, and is further distingoished
from them by its free solnbilify in solution of
potasia, forming a clear solution.

OU of Uf tar Almonds. Sgn. Ebbbvob ov b.

A.; OLBUK AKTeDAXJE AX ABK, O. A. BaSBHTIALB,

L. From the ground cake of bitter almonds from
which the fixed oU has been expressed. The com-
mon plan is to soak the cake (cmmbled to frag-
ments) for about 24 hours in twice its weight of
water, to which { or i of its weight of oonunon
salt has been added, and then to submit the whole
to distillation, allowing the first half of the water
that passes over to deposit its oil, and to run back
again into the still. Pale golden yeUow ; oolonr-
MS when rectified; tastes and smeUs strongly
natty, like peaeh kemds. It oonmsts of 8fi% to
90% of hydnde of benzoyl and 8% to 12% of hy-

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drocyanic acid with a variable quantity of benzoic
acid and benzoin. The deuaity TarieB a little with
the age of the oil, and the temperature and
i*Ittdity with which it haa been distilled. Sp. gr.
(recent) 1-0626; (trade crude oil) 1079 {O.
Wijftl); (old) 1-081 (1-0836— i»«r«iro). "E»-
aential oil of almonds, free from adulteration,
should have a sp. gr. at moat of 1-052 " ( Ure).
According to Prof eesor Redwood, the density may
Twry from 10524 to 10822. The light oil con-
tains the most hydride of benzoyl, and the heavy
oil the most benzoin. — Proi. Prom less than
•2% to -5%.

Pur. This oil i* generally adulterated with
dicaper oils, and in nearly every case with alcohol
When it is pore — mixed with oil of vitriol, it
strikes a clear crimsmi-red colour, without visible
decomposition — mixed with an alcoholic solution
of potassa, crystals are eliminated. Iodine dis-
solves only partially and slowly in it, without
farther visible resalU. Chromate of potassa does
not affect it. Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1*42) causes no
immediate reaction, and in the course of 3 or 4
days crystals of benzoic acid begin to appear;
bat if only 8% or 10% of alcohol or rectified
spirit is present, a violent effervescence speedily
commences, and nitrons fumes are evolved. By
using nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-5, the smallest quantity
of alcohol may be detected.

Obt. This oil does not pre-exist in the almond,
bat is formed by the action of ?rateT and emulsion
on a peculiar crystalUsable substance, called
amygdalin. It is essentially the hydride of
benzoyl, but it always contains a portion of hydro-
(syanie or pmssic acid, to which it owes its very
poSsomoos properties. It is occasionally employed
M a snbstitnte for hydrocyanic add in medi-
cine i but its principal consumption is as a flavour-
ing ingredient and a perfume by cooks, confec-
tioners, liqnoristes, and perfumers. For this
pnipose it is dissolved in rectified sj^ts. See
Ebbxkoi. — Doie, i to 1 drop.

An <nl closely resembling that from bitter
•Imonds is obtained by distillation from the leaves
of the peach and cherry-laurel, the bark of the
plnm-tree, the bruised kernels of cherries, plnms,
and peaches, the pips of apples, and from several
otiier vegetable sabstances that possess a nutty
odonr and flavonr.

A voH-FoiBoxoira oiii at ALMOima has been
introdnoed. This is simply the ordinan oil of
commerce freed from hydrocyanic acici, and is
intended to be substitnted for the cmde, poison-
ous oil for domestic purposes. Unfortimately,
the pnrified essence does not keep well, and is
often converted after a few months into little else
than a solution of benzoic acid, almost devoid of
the nsnal odonr and flavonr of the bitter almond.
"Ko wonder, then, under snch circumstances,
that the public preferred the preparations they
had been accnstomed to, which were not so liable
to change" {SedieooS). The following methods
have been adopted for this purpose.

1. (LtMjf.) Agitate the crude distilled oil
with red taiAe ot mercury in slight excess, and
alter a few days' contact, rectify the oil from a
little fnah oxide of mercury. The product is quite
pnte whan the process is properly managed. The
cyanide of mercury thos formed may be either

employed as such or reconverted into mercury and
hydroi^anic acid.

2. (Haeleoj/.) Commercial oil of almonds,
1 lb. ; fresh-slaked lime, q. s. to form a milk-like
liquid; afterwards add of solution of potassa.
It lbs. ; water, 3 pints ; agitate occasionally for
48 hours, then distil over the oil, and rectify it
from a fresh mixture of lime and potassa.

3. (^Redteood.) The oil is mixed with an equal
quantity of water, and the mixture is digested in
a water-bath with red oxide of mercury and
small quantities of fresh-slaked lime and proto-
chloride of iron, with as little access of air as
possible; as soon as decomposition of the acid
has taken place, the whole is introduced into a
copper retort, snd submitted to distillation. The
product is perfectly free from hydrocyanic add.
The first process is, however, the simplest, cheapest,
and best.

The sp. gr. of this non-poisonous oil is 1*061
{O-. Whipptl). That of pure colourless hydride
of benzoyl is 1043 ; it boils at 856° F., is soluble
in 85 parts of water, and in all proportions in
alcohol and ether. Exposed to the air, it greedily
absorbs oxygen, and becomes converted into a
mass of crystallised benzoic acid. The pnrified
oil of almonds does the same, only less rapidly.

Oil of Almonds (Faoti"tlonB). Sys. Ebsbkob
ov XISB1.IIB, NiTKO-BXKZOL. The preparation of
this article on the small scale is explained under
NlTBO-BBNzOL. It is now extensively prepared
as a substitute for the oil of almonds obtained
by distillation. The following is Mansfield's pro-
cess. The apparatus consists of a large glass
worm, the upper end of which is divided into
two branches, gradually dilating so as to form
two funnel-shaped tubes. Into one of these con-
centrated nitric acid is poured, and into the other
benzol, which need not, for this pnrpose, be chemi-
cally pure. These bodies meet at the point of
junction of the two tubes, and the rate of their
flow is regulated by any appropriate means.
Chemical reaction instantly takes place, and the
new compound is cooled by its passage through
the worm, which is refrigerated for the purpose.
It has then only to be washed with water or a
very weak solution of carbonate of soda for the pro-
cess to be complete. The product has the sp. gr.
1-209, boils at 416° F., has an intensely sweist
taste, and an odour closdy resembling, but not
actually identical with, that of oil of bitter al-
monds. Unlike genuine oil of almonds or hydride
of benzol, it is insoluble in water, and does not
distil without suffering partial decomposition. It
is chiefly used to scent soaps, and to adulterate
the genuine oil. The benzol for this purpose
is obtained from coal-tar. See Bbitzol and

NiTBO-BBNZOL.

OU of Boxwood. (Ph. L. 1746.) Bs*. Olrttm
BTTXi BicPTBEUHATiOTTK. Distilled from frag-
ments of boxwood in a retort, with a sand-bath
gradually increased in heat. Anodyne, antispas-
modic, and (Uaphoretic— Dose, 10 to 80 drops
(Jourdan says 4 to 6 drops in gonorrhoea). It
relieves toothache.

Oil, Brandy. See Oil o> Obapb.

on of Bn'dm. Ouinx babosks. O. biow jb,
L. From the leaves of JBorosmaersaafa. Yellow;
lighter than water ; smells of the leaves.

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114i

OILS

Oil of Q^'apiit. ^. Cajiputi on, Eta-

POOTIB O.; CAJBrVTI OIiBVK (B. P.), OLBVM

CAJAPVTi (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. From the dried
leavea of the Melaleuca leucadmtdron, Linn., var.
minor. Colonrleu when pure (that of commerce
is usually green) ; odorons ; aromatic ; taste hot
and penetrating. Its odour has been compared
to a mixture of those of camphor and cardamoms.
It boils at 343° F. 8p. gr. -925 to -927. When
rectified about 3-4ths of the quantity paases over
colourless, and has the density -897 ; the remain-
ing portion is green, and has the density -920 to
'925. Its green colour is derived from chlo-
ride of copper, the presence of which may be
recognised by the red precipitate occasioned by
uitating the oil with a solution of ferrocyamde
of potassium {Qnibottrt). From the East Indies.

Pure oil of o^epnt is slightly soluble in water,
entirely and freely soluble in alcohol, dissolves
iodine, and when dropped on water rapidly difFuses
itself over the surface, and soon completely evapo-
rates. A spurions kind (faotitioub oil of oa-
J8FUT), made of oil of rosemary, flavoured with
camphor and the oils of peppermint and carda-
moms, and coloured with verdigris, is occasionally
met with in the shops.
_ Oil of cajeput is a powerful antispasmodic and
diffusible stimulant. — Dote, 8 to 6 drops, on sugar ;
in cholera, colic, epilepsy, hysteria, rheumatism,
spasms, toothache, Ac.

Oil of Cam'phor. Sgn. Liquid oahfhob;
Oliuic CAKFHOBiE, O. 0. TOI.ATILX, L. Ob-
tained from incisions in the wood of the cam-
phor tree of Borneo and Sumatra (Dn/obalanop*
aromatica), in which it exists in cavities in the
trunk ; also by distillation from the branches of
the Campiora offlcinarum, or laurel camphor tree.
Colourlais when rectified. 8p. gr. *910. — Prod,
60 lbs. of the crude brown oil yield 40 lbs. of pure
white oil and 20 lbs. of camphor. It rapidly
oxidises in the air. Used to scent soap. See
Cakphob (Liqnid).

Oil of Cs^away. 8ji: OiiIUK oabui (B. P.,
Ph. L., E., & D.), O. 0. asaBirriALB. L. From
the fruit of Camm eonn (caraway seeds). Nearly
colourless J aromatic ; carminative. Sp. gr. -940 ;
(oldV946to -gM.— iVod. Av. 6% (nearly). It
is frequently adulterated with oil of cumin.
Added to purgative medicines to prevent griping.

Oil of (Mr'aamomi. Sj/n. Olkuv cabsakom i,
O. 0. issaHTUXB, L. From the seed of Mettaria
cardamomum, or true cardamom. Colourless;
fragrant; carminative. Sp. gr. ■94S. — Prod.,
h% (nearly). The capsules (' lesser cardamoms ')
yield only about 1% of oil {M. Sa^iaud).

Oil of CaaeuUla. Sgn. Olbvic oaboablllx,
L. From the bark of Oroto* eUuteria, Swartx,
or cascarilla tree. Very tngmat.—Prod., -4%
to -76%. ^

Oil of Cu'sla. Sy: On o* Chhta cnnrAXOH ;
Oliuk oabbia (Ph. £^, L. From cassia buds,
or from cassia bark. Golden yellow; aromatic;
fragrant. It is generally adulterated with recti-
fied spirit. Nitric acid converts the pure oil into
a crystalline mass. Sp. gr. 1-071 to 1-078 ; (old)
1-078 to 1090. —JroA From the buds 1%
(barely) ; from the bark of commerce, -76% . It
is frequently sold for oil of cinnamon.

Oil of Co'dar-wood. From the wood of a species

of Cedrm*. It connsts of two hydrocarbons ; one

a volatile liquid (cedrene), and the other a solid
crystalline compound containing oxygen. Used
in preparing objects for the microscope. — Prod.,
-2% to 26% .

Oil of Ca'drat. Sfn. Essbvcb ov obdba;
Olbuk oesbi, O. citbi fikux, L. From the
exterior yellow rind of the fruit of Oitnu tudiea,
Risso, or citrons, either by expression or distilla-
tion, as oil of bergamot. The first portion of oil
that comes over is colourless, the latter portion
greenish. Very fragraut. Sp. gr -847. — Prod.
100 citrons yield nearly 1 S. oz. of pale and i fl.
oz. of green oil. See Oil op Citboit {bdom).

Oil of Cel'eiy-seed. Sgn. Oixvn apii, L.
From the fruit (seed) of Apium gramoln*. Dia-
retic ; stimulant. — Prod., \% to \% (^nearly).

on of Cliam'amile. Sg*. On op Rokak

OHAKOSinB ; OLIDX ANTHBMIDIg (Ph. L., E., &
D.), 0. CHAIUBKILI, O. C. PLOBUM, O. B88BVTIAX.S

bz PL0BIBV8 o., L. IVom the flowers of A»tk«mU
wAUi*. In the Ph. L., English oil of chamomile
(AKTHBKiDia 01.11711 AKaLlcUK) is Ordered.
Blue ; turns yellow and brown by exposure and
age ; odour characteristic. Sp. gr., EngHsh (from
theflowers), -9083; foreign, -9289.— iVo<l. t'reah
flowers, •!% (barely); reoentlv dried (finest
commercial), 6% ; av. of 6 dried samples, •2&%
(nearly). If much water is employed, even
the above small quantities of oil will not be
obtiuned.

Oil^of chamomile is reputed antispasmodic,
tonic, and stomachic. 1 to 3 drops on a lump of
sugar, taken just before retiring to rest, is an
excellent preventive of nightmare, and will fre-
quently induce quiet sleep where more active
substances have failed. Cnfortunately, the oil
of the shops is generally either adulterated or
old, and commonly both, in which case the oil
acts as an irritant. A common plan is to mix it
with old (^ of lemons, a fraud which may be
detected by the lessened density of the oil, and by
its diminished solubility in recafled spirit.

OU of Cheny-lanid. Sgn. Olbuk i^attbo-
OBBAai, L. Fiom the leaves of Cerant lamro-
ceratut, or common laureL Closely resembles oil
of almonds, but is said to be weaker. Like that
substance, it is powerfully poisonous. — Ptod„
100 lbs. fresh leaves (undeveloped, June), 10*18
oz. ; do. (half-grown, June), 7*2 oz. ; do. (fiUl-
grown, 8 weeks on tree, July), 4-90 oz. ; do. (do.,
8 months on tree, Stmt), 7*04 os. ; do. (16 months
on tree), 2-24 oz. (CirMwoa).

OU of Chor'Ta. Sgn. Ouuh chjcbopbtixi,
L. From the braised fresh herb, macerated for
2 or 8 days in salt and water, and then distilled.

OU of Cin'namon. Sg*. Hydbidb op odtka-
HXL i OLitm ciNirAKOia (B. P., Ph. L., £., and
D.), O. 0. TBBi, L. From the bark of Oiima-
Moimtst teglaimmm, macerated for several days
in salt and water, and then distiUed. Yellowish
or red; very aromatic; both odour and taste
resemble that of the bark. Sp. gr. 1 -035.— IVecf.
11 lbs. yielded 1 oz. ; 100 lbs. yielded 1-66 oz. {M.
Bagbaid).

Pw. Oil of cinnamon, owing to its high
price, and the consequent jpremium for its adul-
teration, can scarcely be obtained pure from the
shops of this country. Oil of cassia and highly

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OILS

1146

reetiSed spirit are the lubatancea uiually em-
ployed for this purpose. The increased sp. gr.
resaldng from the first, and the diminished sp.
gr. from the second, afford read; means of de-
tecting these frauds. The presence of oil of
cassia may also be detected by an experienced
person by the odour, which differs a little from
that of pnre oil of cinnamon. Oil of cassia is
less limpid than oil of cinnamon, and it stands a
greater degree of cold without becoming turbid
or congealing. " Wine-yellow, when recent ;
cherry-red, when old ; odour purely cinnamonic ;
nitric acid converts it nearly into a uniform crys-
talline mass" (Ph. E.}. During this reaction
the odour of bitter almonds is perceptible. Both
oil of cassia and oil of cinnamon are thus con-
yerted into a brown balsam ; with oil of cassia,
however, a brisk decomposition occurs sooner,
and at a slighter heat. It also forms a crystal-
line compound with ammonia. These reactions,
nnfortnnately, are not characteristic. " The most
distinguishing chaneteristic of the cinnamon oils
is, perhaps, their relation to the alcoholic solu-
tion of canstic potash. Both dissolve in it
readily and dear, with a reddish, yellowish-brown
colour ; after some time, however, the solution
becomes very turbid, and a rather heavy undis-
solved oil precipitates, when the solution gradu-
ally becomes clear again" {Ure). The palest oil
is considered the best.

Obt. Oil of cinnamon is chiefly imported
from Ceylon, where it is distilled frqm bark that
is unfit for exportation, ifhe dark oolonred oil is
nanally rectified, when two pale oils are obtained,
one lighter, and the other heavier, than water ;
bat 10% of oil is lost by the process. The oil
distilled from the root of the tree (o. onrarAKOMl
KAOioia) is much weaker than that from the
bark. The oil from the leaves ^o. c. youOBUx),
also imported from Ceylon, smells of cloves, but
has a less density than oil of cloves.

Oil of cinnamon consists essentially of hydride
of cinnamyl, but unless when very recently pre-
pared, it also contains a variable proportion at cin-
namic add formed by the oxidation of the hydride.
on of afroa. 8^. Esbbkob ov oitooh;
Oliuii oitbi, L. From the lees of citron juice j
or from the peels, as dl of lemons or bergamot.
The Ust generally goes by the name of ml of
eedrat. Both are fragrant (see aboee).

OQ of Cltnm Flowers. Sy*. Olbuk oitbi
rummt, L. Ambei^coloured ; highly fragrant.
—lyod. 60 lbs. yield 1 OS.
0)1 of doves. 8^. EasEKoa o> olotdbj

Ounm OABTOFHTLIX)Binf , O. OAKTOFETUJ (B.

p.. Ph. L., E., and D.}, 0. En&nrLii o. (Ph. D.,
1S2S), L. From the onexpanded flowers (doves)
of the Stgenia eatyopj^ttata, or Molucca clove-
tree, soaked for some time in salt and water, and
then sobmitted to distillation ) the distilled water,
after having deposited its dl, bdng returned three
or firar time* mto the still, and again ' worked
off' from the same materials. Nearly colourless
when recent, gradoally becoming pale yellow and
nltimately light brown, by age; lughly aromatic,
with the characteristic odour and flavour of
elovei. It is the least volatile of all the essential
ofls. Sp. gr. 1-056 to 1061.— iVod., 16% to 22% .
Par. Oil of cloves is frequently adulterated

with inferior essential oils, especially with those
of pimento, pinks, and clove-gillyflowers, and,
occasionally, with castor oil. 1. Pure oil of
cloves forms a bntyraceous coagulum when
shaken with pure liquor of ammonia, which
crystallises after fusion by a gentie heat. 2.
Treated with an alcoholic solution of potassa, it
entirely congeals into a crystalline mass, with
total loss of its characteristic odour. 8. Shaken
with an equal volume of strong caustic soda lye,
it forms, on repose, a mass of delicate lamellar
crystals. 4. Solution of chromate of potassa con-
verts it into brown flakes, whilst the salt loses its
yellow colour. 6. Chlorine turns it first green,
and then brown and resinous. 6. Nitric acid
tarns it red, and a reddish-brown solid mass is
formed ; with heat, it converts it into oxslic add.

7. It dissolves freely in sulphuric acid (oil of
vitriol), yielding a transparent, deep reddish-
brown eolation, without any visible decomposition.

8. Mixed, gradually, with about l-3rd of its weight
of oil of vitriol, an add liquor is formed, together
with a resin of a rich purple cdour, which, after
being washed, is hard and brittle, and forms a red
tincture with rectified spirit, which is precipitated
of a blood-red colonr by water. 9. It dissolves
iodine freely, without any marked reaction. 10.
It dissolves santaline freely. 11. Mix 1 drop of
the oil with a small trace of solution of aniline
by means of a glass rod, and then shake with 6
or 6 C.C. of distilled water. By the addition of a
few drops of sodium hypochlorite to the mixture
the chuaoteristic blue coloration due to phenol
will be devdoped in a few minutes, if the adal-
terant be present; whereas with the pnre oil
nothing but the pnrplish-violet colour of aniline
wiU be percdved. Stirring or shaking most be
avoided after the addition of the hypochlorite.
The presence of 1% of phenol can thus be demon-
strated in 1 drop of the oil.

Ohi. Clove oil contains a heavy oil, sp. gr, 1'079

fcaiyopbylic acid), and a light oil, sp. gr. -918
clove hydrocarbon) ; by rectification, much of the
light oil is lost, and the product becomes denser
(1-861— Jo»o*<r«).

Oil, Cog'nae. See On., Obafb (JmIow).

Oil of Copail)*. 8g%. Oil ov OAPin ; OiiBinc
OOPAIBJB (B. P., Ph. L. and E.), L. Prep. 1,
(Ph. £.) Balsam of capivi, 1 oe. ; water, \\ pints ;
distil, returning the water into the still, nntil oil
ceases to pass over.

2. (Wholesale.) From the crude dl which
separates during the manufacture of 'spedflc
solution of copaiba ' and ' soluble capivi,' by dis-
tillation along with a little salt and wator.

Pmr., (fo. Colourless when pnre ; that of com-
merce has frequently a g^enish tinge, derived
from the copper utensils ; odour, not disagreeable
when recent. Sp. gr. -876 to -878.— iVod., 60%
to 66% . When addterated with oil of turpentine,
its solubility in rectified spirit is sr^ly di-
minished, and the solution is turbid. — Dote, 10 to
15 drops, in sugar ; in the usual cases in which
copaiba is ordered. 20 to 60 minims, three times
a day (B. P.).

OUofCorlaa'dMr. Sgn. 0unn(00UARSBi,L.
From the fruit (seeds) of Ooriaudnmt taUvum.
Yellowish ; aromatic ; carminative. — Prod, (dried
frait),6i%to6%.

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1146

OILS

OU, Corn. The name given by Mulder to a
pecatisr fatty compound foand in the f awl oil of
the distilleries of Holland. It has a very power-
ful odour, resembling that of some of the umbelli-
ferous plants, and is unaffected by caustic potassa.
See Oil., FcsEL.

Oil of Cu'bebB. SSf*- OlBVX OVBBBABTrM, O.

ouBBBJi (B. p.. Ph. E. and D.), L. From the
fruit of Oubeba qffteinalii, or cabeba, coarsely
ground. Aromatic, hot, and bitter tasted ; odour,
that of the fruit ; faintly green, colourless when
pure. Sp. gr. 129.— Prod.. 9% to 11% .

Pur., 4*0. When pure, iodine has little action
on this oil, and immediately gives it a violet
colour, without any very marked reaction; nitric
acid turns it opaque, and the mixture changes to
a pale red when heated ; sulphuric acid turns it
of a crimson red. When adulterated with oil
of turpentine, its viscidity, solubility in recti-
fied spirit, and its density are lessened; when
mixed with castor oil it leaves a greasy stain on
paper. — Dote, 10 to 16 drops, in the usual cases
in which cnbebs in substance is given. 6 to 20
minims (B. P.), suspended in water by mucilage
and sugar.

Oil of Cninlii. Syn. Olvcm ottvihi, O. ot-
KINI, L. From the fresh fruit (seed) of Cuminmm
eyntinum, or cumin. Pale yellow; smells and
taites strongly of the seeds. Sp. gr. -976. — Prod.,
2i% to 8% .

Ob*. Oil of cumin is a mixture of two oils
differing in volatility, and which may be sepa-
rated by careful distillation. The more ToIaUle
one has been named cymol ; the other cnminol.

Oil of SUl. %». Oliuh ASVTBi ( Ph. L. and
E.), L. From the braised fruit (seed) of Anethum
ffravtolmu. Pale yellow ; odour, that of the fruit ;
taste, hot and pungent; carminative. Sp. gr.
•188 to -882.— iVorf., 4% (nearly).

OilofXl'der. Sj/n. Attab of blbbb vlowbbb ;
Olbux bambvoi, L. From elder flowers (Sum-
btumt nigra). Bntyraoeous; odour not very
marked.

OilofEl'eml. 8yn. OiiEtnc blbhi, L. From
the resin. Isomeric with oil of turpentine.

OU of Er'got. Sgn. Ethbbbai. o. ot b. ; Ocbvk

BBOOTS, 0. B. iBTHBBBim, O. BBOAXIS COBITirri,

L. Prepared by evaporating the ethereal tincture
at a very gentle heat, and, preferably, allowing
the last portion of the ether to escape by sponta-
neous evaporation. Brownish-yellow ; lighter
than water; soluble in ether and solution of
potassa ; only partly solable in alcohol. It appears
to be a mixture of volatile and fixed oil, with
some reeinoua matter. — Dote, 10 to 20 drops, in
hsmorrbagee ; 10 or 12 drops every 8 or 4 hours,
in cUarrhoBa ; 20 to 60 drops, as a parturifacient,
&c. Extenudly, in rheumatism, toothache, &c.

Obt. The above is the oil of ergot now em-
ployed in medicine. It mnst not be confounded
wiw other preparations occasionally called by the
same name, but which difier from it in character.
Among the latter are the following :

a. A fixed oil obtained by distilling off the
spirit from the alcoholic iinctore. It has the
odonr of rancid fish oil, and the distilled spirit
has also a putrid odour.

b. A fixed oil, obtained from ooanely pow-
dered ergot by strong pressure between iron

plates, at a heat of about 212° F. It is fluid,
coloared, smells strongly of tlie drug, but is
nearly destitute of its leading qualities. Both
the preceding contain some volatile oil and resin-
ous matter.

c. An empyreumatic oil obtained by distilling
ergot per te. It is light brown, viscid, acrid, and
nauseous.

d. A volatile oil obtained by digesting pow-
dered ergot in solution of potassa at 126 F.,
diluting the saponaceous mass thus formed with
one half to an equal weight of water, neutralising
the alkali with dilute sulphuric add, and then
submitting the whole to distillation in a chloride
of sodium or oil bath. It is white, adherive^
butyraceous, and tasteless. It appears a product,
rather than a simple educt.

«. This is the ethereal oil, first described, in its
purest form. It is colourless, translucent, oily,
and acrid-tasted, with the odour of ergot ; it has
a high boiling-point, at which it suffers partial
decomposition, but may be volatilised at a lower
temperature, like the other oils. By long expo-
sure to heat, it thickens and partly solidifies;
light and air darken it; it is lighter than water,
very slightly soluble in water, but sufficiently so
to impart to it its peculiar odour; it is solable in
pure alcohol, in ether, the volatile and fixed oils,
alkaline lyeii, liquor of ammonia, creaaote, and
naphtha. The dilute mineral acids clear it bvt do
not prodnoe any marked reaction.

Oil, Sthe"teal. See Oil of Wihji (betom).

Oil of Eucalyptus. Sgn. Olbvx mcxLTPfl
aiiOBUxj. See Euoaltftits.

Oil of Fen'nel. Sjfn. Olbvh fskicvu (Ri.
D.), O. V. omciirALis (Ph. E. &. D.), O. v. ditlcib,
L. From the fruit or seed of PonteiUmmt dulee,
or Bweet,'fennel (Ph. L.). Colourless; odour that
of the plant; tastes hot and sweetish; congeals
at 60'' F. ; carminative and stomaebic. It consists
of two oiU ; the one solid and identical with that
of oil of aniseed. When treated with nitric add,
it affords benzoin. Sp. gr. 'Og?. — Prod. Dried
fruit (of commerce), 3% to 8-6% . The flowering
herb ^elds -86% of a similar oil.

Obt. The oil of fennel of the shops is the
product of the fruit of FanieuUmt vnlgare, at
common, wild, or bitter fennel. It closdy re-
sembles that of sweet fomel, but is scaroely so
agreeable either in taste or smell. It is ehiefty
used to scent soaps.

Oil of Hr-wood. Sj/n. Ourtx pivt snTSB-
TBig. An essential oil, distilled from the leaves
of Pinut ttflvettru. Much used, as in int»^1«^nn
in sore throat and laryngeal catarrh.

Oil of Fleabane. (Ph. U. S.) Sfm. OacoK
BBiaBBOKTiB Cahadbitbib. An essential (^ dis-
tilled from Srifferon eanadtiuit. — Dote, 6 minims,
in htemorrhage.

Oil, Fn'sel. See page 778.

Oil of Oalbannm. Sgn. Olbitx SAlSAin (Fh.
Bor.),L. Fromgalbanam,2Ibe.; water,16fl.ox.;
distilled together. Tellow ; resembles oil of assa-
f cetida, but milder.

011 of Garlic Syn. Svlphidb OV AU.YX.
From the bruised bulbs or ' cloves ' of Attmm
so^tewM, or garlic. It possesses the pecnliiw odour,
taste, and otiier properties of the bulos, in a highly
exalted d^ree.

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OILS

1147

Ob*. Wben a mixture of oil of bUck mnstard
And sulphide of potaaainm ii ezpoaed in a aealed
^lass tabe to a tempeiatare above that of 212° ¥.,
■nlphocyanide of potanium and garlic oil are
formed. On the oUier hand, when the compound
of garUc oil and chloride of mercory (fonned by
adding to an alcoholic lolatiun of the oil a like
■elation of the chloride) is gently heated with
snlphocyanide of potassiom, mustard oil, with
all its characteristic properties, is called into
azistence.

Oil of Ctauildie"ria. See On. o> FixTBinaB-
BBBBT (beUm).

(Ml of e«ra"iiiitm. Sim. On. o* onrenB-OBABS,
O. or BPnnHABD. libe oil of commerce which
paaaea under this name, and which was formerly
imported from the East Indies, was not obtained
fnnn any species of Qtranium or Palaryommm,
bat probably from a species of Andropoyo». Of
recent years, however, genuine geranium oil,
obtained from the rose geranium {Ptlargomum
rottmmi), has been and continues to he met with in
OUT markets. This essential oil is manufactured
in immense qnantities at La Trappe de Staonelli,
not far from the Bay of Sidi Fermch, in Algiers,
where aboot 40 acres of the plant are in culti-
vation. " Three harvests are gathered every year,
and each yields from 170 to S)0 kilograms of oil,
or eqoal to 600 to 600 kilogiams per annnm. The
valne of this prodnet never falls below 40
francs the kilogram, the average gross value being
therefore from 20,000 to 26,000 francs, or at least
i.20 per acre. Seven distillatory apparatus are
employed in this mannfactoi? " (" The Paris Exhi-
bition," ' Pharmaceutical Journal,' 8rd series,
No. 4S8). A finer oil is yielded by the rose
geranium when grown in Kianoe, bat it is much
dearer. It is often employed to adulterate otto of
rosea. See On., Obabb (bttow).

Oil of Stn'ger. Sgn. Ohvnt BneiBBBn, L.
From the dried root (rhizome) of Zinffibar (^fici-
uaU, or ginger of commerce. Bluish green;
possesses a lew agreeable odour than that of good
ginger, without any ponseney.— JVoii., 44 of
1% (jr. Bagbimd).

Oa of CkMwaftet (Ph. V. S.) Sgn. Oj,mt.
OBMBOStaaa. Distilled from the seeds of Cluno-
podimm amUtlmuuiietim. — Dot*. From 4 to 8
drops, with treacle or milk, for 8 nights in snc-
eession, for children. For adnlt, { dr. Ver-
mifuge.

Oil of endn-spiilt. Aw. Obaih oik. Two
distinct substances are fonnd in spirit distilled
from fermented grain ; one of which is bntyrace-
ona and highly offensive (com oil of Mulder — ?),
the other uqnid (crude fnsel oil). The relative
proportions of these substances to each other,
•ad to the sprits whiah they contaminate, vary
with the materials and the management of the
process. The 'SXAnr on. ' of the London recti-
fiers wmsittt ehiefly of fnsel or potato oil, mized
with alcohol and water, and with small and vari-
able proportions of solid ethyl and amyl-eom-
pounds of certain fatty aeids (osnantUo and
maigario). Hie latter ate said to be similar to
the bntyraoeoaa matter before referred to, as well
as the solid Cat of the whisky distiUeries con-
dneted oo the old plan. According to Hr
Bowney, the fosd oil of the Scotch distiUeries

contains capric add. See On. or Cokk (above),
and FvsBL Oil.

Oil, Grape. %». Bbahbt oil, Cositac o.
This is essentially the sulphate of amyl. It is
prepared by dissolving the fusel oil of marc
brandy in strong rectified spirit, and then adding
concentrated sulphuric acid ; alcohol and excess
of acid are removed by washing the newly formed
compound with water. Dissolved in rectified
spirit, it forms ' bbaicvt bssbncb,' which is used
to impart the cognac flavonr to plain spirit. See
Svlphatb ov Amtl and Amyl-ithbb, also Oil
ov Mabo Bbakst (btlow).

Oil, Qraas. Several of the grasses (Or ami-
sooeis) yield fragrant volatile oils. See Oil of
Obbakium, Obabb Oil (of Namnr), Oil ob

LbM OH-OBAB8, OiL OB SPBIHS-eBABB, &C.

Oil, Oxasi (of Vamnr). Svn. India asxas
OIL. From Audropoffon ealamna aromatic**,
Royla, supposed to have been the 'sweet
cane' and 'rich aromatic reed from a tax
country' of Scripture; formerly supposed to
be obtained from Afidropogo» Ii*arameu*a,
Stimnhint and highly fragrant. See Oil ob
Spikbhabd.

Oil of Hops. Sjf*. Olbvx LrpULi, L. From
commercial hops, by distUhUiion along with
water. It may also be collected during the
brewing of beer. Odorous; acrid; narcotic;
soluble in water; becomes resinous by exposure
and age. 8p. gr. -910. Chiefly used to increase
the aroma and flavonr of old or damaged hops.

Oil of Horse-mint. Sh^n. Olbdk xoitabojb
(Ph. U. S.). L. From the fresh herb of *b-
»arda punctata, a plant indigenous in the U. 8.
of America. Dark amher-colonred ; fragrant;
pungent; carminative; rabefitcient; and vesi-
cant. It is a sonrce of thymol.

OU of Horse-iad'ish. Sg*. Olbou. abmo-
BACLS, L. From the fiesh roots of CoaUtaria
armoraeia, Linn„ or common horse-radish.
Pale yellow; heavier than water; acrid; vesi-
cant ; identical with that from black mustard.—
Prod., -6% (nearly).

Oil of Hyssop. Sg*. Olbvk htbbopi, L.
From the flowering herb of Sjf**opia qffleinali*.
Aromatic ; stimulant. — Prod., -26% to -88% .

011 of Jargonelle Fear. See Aktl (Acetate).

Oil of Jai'mine. Sj/n. On. o> jBgSAXnnt;
Olivk JABMnri, O. i. tolatilb, L. From the
flowers of Jatmumm gramdifiorwn and J. fra-
grau, carefully picked, by placing them in alter-
nate lavers with cotton wadding imbued with
olive oil, in any snitable vessel, and renewing the
flowers till the fixed oil becomes strongly odoE>
OUB, and then distilling the wadding along with a
little water. The volatile oils of hyacinths,
jonquil, tuberose, violets, and most of the more
delicate flowers are obtained in the same way.
(Jsed in perfumery. From the East Indies.

Oil of Jn'niper. Bgn. Jttrifbbi olbuk (B.
P.), Olbuk jtbibbbi (Ph. L., E., and D.), O. i

BAOOIB J., O. BBBBBTIALB i B. J., L. From
either the wood, tops, or berries, preferably the
Isst. The berries shorold be chosen fully grown,
bat still slightly green, and should be bruised
before behig phused in the still. In the 'Ph. L.,
English oil of juniper (o. fuKiPBBi AVBLicinr)
is ordered, Ciolonrless, or very pale greenish-

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1148

OILS

yellow; odooT Mid taite, iweet uid terebintbi-
nitte ; rather vucid ; lolable in rectified spirit ;
rendered opaqae and reiinoai by ezporare and
age. It is reputed carminatiTe and diaphoretic,
and possesses powerful diuretic properties. 8p.
gr. -911 (English, 8688 ; foreign, -8834— ^roaiM).
— JProd. Green berries, -23% ; ripe do. (one year
(.Id), J to 1% (fully).

Pur. It is frequently adulterated with oil of
turpentine, a fraud readily discovered by the
lessened density, viscidity, and solubility, in
rectified spirit, of the oil.

Ob*. Oil of juniper consists of two oils— one,
white and most volatile, sp. gr. '8893 ; the other,
darlc-coloured and less volatile, sp. gr. '8784;
together with some resin left in the retort.

Oil, Krnaihols. Aw. OiMvu tbkpumuk, L.
From Hungarian balsam, a teiebinthinate exnda-
tioii from the Piiuu pumilio, or mountain pine of
Southern Europe. Fragrant; golden yellow;
tastes oily, acidulous, and resinous.

Oil of lAiirel. i^. Oil of bwkbt bat;

OUVM I.AVSI TOLATIU, O. L. BBBBirniLliI, L.
From either the berries or leaves of Xoimi*
noHlit, Linn., or sweet bay-tree. Pale yellow,
clear, odorous, aromatic, stimulant, and narcotic.
Sp. gr. -871.— Prod. From the leaves, i% to 1%
(fully).
Oil of Lavender. Sfn. Ebbbitob of l.; La-

TANDVI.X OLBUM (B. P.), OlBVII LATAySULA

(Ph. L.), O. L. YB&B (Ph. E. and D.), O. l..
BtlOM, O. L. BSSBiniAUi, O. L. VIiOBVIf, L. The
oil (OLBUK LAYAHDUi^ Aireuoim) distilled
from the flowers of Lavandula vera (Ph. L.).
Very pale lemon-bellow; highly fragrant; taste,
wurm and not disagreeable; carminative, anti-
spasmodic, and stimulant. Sp. gr. '877 to '90S.
According to Brande, the sp. gr. of the oil ob-
tained from the flowers only is -8960; that from
the whole plant, -9206. The lightest is esteemed
the best.— iVod. Flowers, 1^% to 2% (nearly).
The whole of the flowering herb is commonly dis-
tilled. According to Baybaud, the herb, after
flowering (Sept.), yields tne most oil.

iW. Alcohol is the substance commonly used
to adulterate this oil; but, occasionally, oil of
bergamot is used for the same purpose. If the
density is below -87, thei-e is reason to suspect
adultcntion. When pure — 1. Sulphuric scid
turns it reddish brown, and the reaction is accom-
panied by strong inspissation. 2. It fulminates
quickly and violently with iodine, and the thick
syrupy residue possesses a pungent, acid, bulsamio
odour. The oils ol' the otiier labiate plants ful-
minate much less powerfully with iodine. The
presence of alcohol weakens, but does not destroy,
the action of this test, nnless it is added in an
equal volume, when only a lively effervescence and
a disengagement of orange-coloured vapours are
prodnoM by the iodine, without fulmination. 8.
DMitaline is nearly insoluble in pure oil of lavender,
•nd exerts no marked action on it, bnt is tredj
•olable in oil of lavender adulterated with alcohol
or rectified spirit.

Obt. English oil of lavender possenes the
pnrost fragrance; and of this, the variety
known as ' Mitokdc on. ov latbksbs,' from
Uie place of its preparation, ia esteemed the
best. The foreign oil of lavender is inferior.

This last is improved by rectification. See Ou
or Sfikb.

Oil of Lem'on-graia. 8y». EsaBHCB o* i..-a.,
Ihdian OBA88 oii^ OiL OF TBKBBVA. Probably
from Andropoffon eitratum, the Indian lemon-
grass. Pale yellow ; powerfnlly fragrant. ClTBO-
MXiiLB OIL is also the product of this or of an
sllied species of Andropogon.

Oil of Lem'ona. Sj/n. Essbhob of Ii. ; Olbuk

LIMOKIB (B. P.), OlBUM LIMOMIS, O. LUCOHVIC

(Ph. L., E., and I).). From tiie yellow portion of
the rind, grated, placed in hair bagi, and exposed
to powerful pressure; also by distillation, but the
product is then less ag^reeably fragrant and sweet,
but keeps better. Nearly colourless ; odour, that
of the fruit. Sp. gr. '8752 to -8786. Expressed
oU, -8517; distilled do., '846. at 72° F. (»»).—
iVo<i. 100 lemons yield, by expression. If to 2 o.
(nearly) ; by distillation, 11 to 1^.

Pur. Commonly adulterated with oil of tur-
pentine, and occasionally with nut or poppy oil.
These may be detected in the manner already ex-
plained. Wben pure it is soluble in all propor-
tions in absolute alcohol, bnt rectified spirit only
dissolves 16% of it It also boils at 148° F..
whereas oil of turpentine boils at 812°, and mix-
tures of the two at intermediate temiieratures de-
pending on the proportions.

Oil «f Lsnum Thyme. Sjfn. Olbvk bbbpylij,
L. ; HiTiLB DB TAIN, Fr. From the fresh flower-
ing herb of TAjfmui MrpfUum, the lemon or wild
thyme of our hiUs and pastures. Very fragrant.
Used to scent soaps, Ac. Sp. gr. ■867. — I'rod.
100 lbs. yield 2| to 6) oi. of oil. When pure, it
is scarcuy affected by iodine, but solution of
chromate of potassa acts on it with energy.

Oil of Let'tBce. Sgu. Olbuk lactuoji ti-
BOB Jt, L. From Lactuta virosa, Linn., or strong-
scented wild lettuce. Closely resembles the odor-
ous matter of opium.

011 of Limee. Sgn. Olbum unrxa, L. From
the rind of the fruit of OUnu limttta, or lime, •■
OIL OF LBMOKB, which it somewhat resemblea.—
Prod. 100 limes yield 8i to 2| oi. of ml.

Oil of Lev'age. Sy. Olbuk lbtibtioi, L.
From the leaves and &uit of Levittieum <ffieinaia,
lovage. Pale yellow, aromatic, carminative. —
Prod. Fresh herb, -1% to 16% .

Oil of Xace. Sjf». Olbuk kaoisib, O. ic

BBBBKTIALB, O. K. BTILLATITIUX, L. From the

arillus of Mgrittiea qfflcinale (commercial maoe).
Nearly colourless; fragrant; lighter than water;
closely resembles oil of nntineg. Sp. gr. '946. —
iVo<i..4*%to9%.

OU of Koic Brandy. Sy. Fubbl oil of k. b.,
0. of abapb-bfibit. Obtained after the spirit
(marc brandy) has passed over during the distil-
lation of the fermented residnnm of expressed
grapes. Limpid ; odorons ; acrid ; oiTensive ; soon
turns yellow in the air; scjnble in 1000 parts of
water, and in all proportions in rectified spirit} 6
or 7 ^ps will spoil a hogshead of brandy. Ac-
cording to M. Balard, ^ia oil ia a mixtnre of
potato oil and oenanthic ether.

OU of Kar^etaM. 4m. On. of bwbkt x. ;
Oliuic kamobaxb, O. OBiSAn m. (Ph. E.), L.
From the fresh flowering herb of Ot^mmms aor.
jorana, at sweet or knotted marjoram. Pale
yellow ; odorons; tonic ; stimulant. Sp. gr. '985

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OILS

1140

(,-9W—Baamf).-Prod.. -83% to -36% . See On
ov OmioAXVH.

Oil of Kw'dow-iweet. Sgn. Olbxtm enuMM
vxiuxis, L. From the flowers or flowering tops
of ^firma tilmaria, Linn., or common meadow-
sweet. This oil is ■ native hydride of saliirvl. It
is yellow, sweet-scented, and slightly solnble in
water, which then strikes a deep violet ooloor with
ttie persalts of iron. It boils at 886° F. Sp. gr.
1'172 (see iefov).

Oil of Kea'dow-iwoot (raett'tlou). This is
prepared aa follows : — Salidn, 1 part, is dissolved
in distilled water, 10 parts, and being placed in a
glass retort, bichromate of potassa (in powder), 1
part, is added, followed by oil of vitriol, H parts,
prerionsly dilated with 4 times its weight of
water ; a gentle heat is next applied to the retort,
and after the first effervesceuce resulting from
the motaal reaction of the ingredients is over, the
heat is increased, and the mixtnre is distilled for
the oil in the nsnal manner. The product is abso-
lutely identical with the natontl oil of meadow-
sweet (see above).

Oil of Mil'ltoU. Sgu. Olium kiujifolii, L.
From the Sowers of AeiilUea millefolimm, Linn.,
or yarraw. Bine. Sp. gr. •S62.—Prod. 14 lbs.
of the dried flowers yield 8 dr. of oil.

Oils, Mixed (Sneatial). Sgn. Olsa xizta
BMntiAiJA. From the oils of bergamot and
lemons, of each, 1 oz. ; oils of lavender and
|rimento, of each, | ox. Used to soent ' sal volatile
drops,' smelling-bottlea, Ac

OQ of Kns'tard (VolatUe). 8j)». Svu-ho-

CTAKIDB 07 AU.TL ; OliBVK 8INAFIB NISRX, O.

a. I8BBHTUXB, L. From the seeds of Sinapit
tugra, Linn., or black mostard, as oil of bitter
almonda. Nearly ooloorless; intensely acrid,
pnngent, mbefacient, and vesicant; slightly
aolable in water ; boils at 289° F. It oontuns
snlphnr. Sp. gr. 1086 to 1-088 ; 1-016 at 68° F.
— iVod. Av. -6% (fully).

Okt. This oil, like that of bitter almonds, does
not pre-exist in the seed, but is the result <^ the
action of a peculiar substance, myrosin, in the pre-
sence of water upon myronate of potassiam con-
tained in the seeds of black mustard. <MI of black
mustard has been used aa a stimulant or counter-
irritant in palsy, Ac. ; and the distilled water, or a
solution of the oil in water, is said to be an ex-
cellent and cleanly remedy for the itch.

Oa of Kyirh. Sf%. Oleum. vrKRHX, O. x.
namaiuiM, L. Colourless; thin; heavier than
water ; stimulant ; smells strongly of the drag.

on of Kyr'tla (TolatUo). J^ Essnroi o»
v.; Ouant mntrx nsiirnALa, L. From the
flowers and leaves of Jfyrfor eommtuUt, 100 lbs.
of the fresh leaves yield 8^ to 6 oc.

Oil of Hamnr Orass. See On. O* Obabs
(Nauvb).

Oil of Hards'sua. S^. EasBroi of johqvtl ;
Olmvm VABOiasi, L. As oil o> JASmin.
DeHghtfnIly odorous.

on of VeroU See Oil at Okahsb

FL0WIB8.

on of VuVmog (Volatile). /Sjya. Ounric XT-
MtanoM (B. P., Ph. E.), O. X. xoaoHATJB (Ph.
D.), L. rimn the offlcinal nutmeg or kernel of
the fruit of MjfritUea fragrant. NearW colour-
less ; odoto' and flavour thatof the fruit, but more

powerful. Byagitationwith water, it is separated
mto two oils— one lighter, tbe other heavier, than
water ; the last is butyraceous. Sp. gr. -948. —
Prod., 4i% to 7% . It is reputed to make the
hair grow, and prevent baldness.

Oil of On'ioas. From the bulbs of Allium eepa,
or common onion. Contains snlphnr, and smells
strongly of the herb.

Oil of Orange. 8gn, EanvoB or o. ; Olbfm
AiTBAiixii, O. Kvmuinaa.vu, O. a. oobtiom, L.
From tbe yellow portion of tlie rind of either the
Seville or sweet orange, preferably of tbe latter ; as
oil of bergamot or lemons. Closely resembles oil
of lemons, but is more agreeably fragrant. The
expressed oil is very apt to become opaque, and
deposit a stearopten, especially in cold weather,
niuess well kept from the air. Sp. gr. -876. — Prod.
100 fraito yield 4 to 6 OS. (See isfev.)

Oil of Orange Berries. Sh/n. Olbtm au-
BAHTn SAOOX, L. From tiie small unripe
fruit of the orange-tree. Does not keep well.
(See btUm.)

Oil of Orange nowert. Sgn. Nbboli, Oil of
H., EasiHOB OF H.; Olbdic kaphx, O. kv-
KAKHi FLOBVX, AtrBAKTii OLKVif (Ph. E. and
D.), L. From the flowers of either the bitter
(Seville) or sweet orange {Citrtu vulgarit or C.
aiira»<WM),b^ distillation with water. That from
the fruit is said to be preferred, but there does not
appear any actual diiference between the two.
Very fluid; lighter than water, in which it is
slightly soluble ; it is delightfully aromatic and
fnwrant, but the odour differs slightly from that
of the flo were.— iVoti. 100 lbs. of flowers gathered
in Hay or December yield 8 to 6 oi. of oil ; 6 cwt.
of tbe fresh flowers yield 1 lb. of oil.

Par. Neroli is commonly adulterated with
alcohol or essence de petit grain, and generaUy
with both of them. The presence of the first is
easily determined (see above) ; that of the second
can only be discovered by comparing the odour
evolved during the evaporation of a drop of the
suspected oil, placed on a piece of white paper,
with a like drop of pure neroli similarly fanaated.
(See above and belofc.)

OU of Orange Loaf. Sg». Olsttit ATntAimi
FOLii, L. ; Ebsbhob db fbtit SBAnr, Fr. From
the leaves of either the bitter or sweet orange,
that from the first being preferred. Delightfully
fragrant. Extensively used to adulterate oil of
neroU, and is itself commonly sophisticated
with both alcohol and oil of orange berries. (See
oioM.)

Oil of Orlg'aanm. Sfn. Olbux obisaki, O.
O. BBSBniALB, L. From the flowering herb of
Oriffannm mlgart, or common or winter mar-
joram. Bale yellow colour; fragrant; acrid,
pungent, and rubeftcient. Sp. gr. -927 (-940 —
Baum<).— Pro<i., -6% to -76%. The dark-
coloured oil of origanum of the shops is obtained
from Tbjmut m^ore. Tbe oil of origanum
(Ph. E^ is oil of Origatmm marjorana.
See OoB OF Mauobax, Teyxb, and Lbkoh
Thtxb.

Oil of Or'iia. Bgu. Ebsbbob of yiolit;
Olbux ibisib, L. From the dried rhisomes of
Iri* Fl&rentina, or Florentine orris-root. Fra-
grant. Sold for oil and essence of violets.

00 of Vanloy. Sgn. Olbux fbtbobbuiii.

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1150

OILS

L. From the fresh herb or dried fruit (aecd) of
Aputm pttromlinum, or garden parsley. Yel-
lowish ; ainelU strongly of the plant. It consists
of two oils, separable by agitation with water, one
of which is concrete, and melts at 80° F. ; i;he
other, liquid.— iViMJ. Herb, -50% to 1% (nearly).
OilofPar'tridga-bwty. ^. Oil ov wistbb-

OBBEir, MbTHYLO-BAUOTLIO BTHBB, SAI/IOTLATB
OT OXISB OF KBTHTL; OliBVX OAXriiTHBBMi

(Ph. U. S.), L. From the leaves or the whole
plant of Oaultheria prooui^ent, a herb common
in North America, and otherwise known by the
names box-berry, cheqner-berry, partridge-
berry, mountain tea, winter-green, &c. Pale yel-
low, growing brown by exposure and age ; aro-
matic; sweet; highly pungent; when diluted,
agreeably fragrant ; mixed with a dilute solntion
01 potassa, it aolidifiesto a crystalline mass (sali-
cylate of potassinpi), from which the oil may
be ag^n separated by the addition of an acid. It
is the heaviest of all the essential oils. Sp. gr.
1-178. Boils at 418°, and, when poriaed, at
«6°F.

Oil of partridge-beny, dissolved in rectified
spirit, is is common use in the United States of
America as an antispasmodic, carminative, dinre-
Uc, emmenagogue, and stimulant ; chiefly as an
a4iQnct to mixtures, Ac. ; and also with the view
of increasing the flow of milk during lactation.
It is likewise extensively used in perfumery, and
is an object of great interest to the organic che-
mist, on account of its peculiar constitution and
reaction. It is the chief source of natural sali-
cylic acid.

Oil of Fartrldge-berry (Faeti"tioM). See Sa-

LIOTUO AOID.

Oil, Pearl. See Amyl (Acetate of), and
EgaBSOB OP Jasookbixb Piax.

Oil of Feanyxoy'al. &». Olbvk fttlsoii
(Pb. L.), O. UXSTUM F. (B. P.> Pb. E. & D.).
O. p. EsaBHTiAiiB, L. From the flowering
herb of Mtntha puUgium, or the common penny-
royal of our gardens. Pale yellow, growing red-
dish yellow by age and exposure ; antispasmodic,
carminative, and emmenagogue. Boils at 896° F.
Sp. gr. -926 to -931.— Prod., }% to 1% . (See
below.)

Oil of Fannyroyal (American). Sgfu. OLMtnt
HBDBOMX (Ph. U. S.), L. From M0deoma pule-
ffioidee, as the bat. Light yellow ; closely re-
sembles oil of pennyroyal, for which it passes in
the U. S. Sp. gr. -945 to -948.

Oil of Pepper. Sfn. Olii ov black p. ; Olbvk
PIPBBIB, O. P. XIOBI, L. From bruised black
pepper (Piper nigrum). Colourless, turning yel-
u>w ; odorous; pungent ; not so hot as the spice.
Sp. gr. -9932.— Prod., 1-25% to 1-5% . White
pepper (of commerce), 1% (Iwrely).

oil of Fep'pennint. i^». Oliuk HBHTHis
PIPBBITS (B. P., Ph. L., E., and D.), O. B88BN-
XiALB K. PIPBBITISI8, L. Viom the fresh flow-
ering herb of Mentha piperita, or garden pep-
permint. Nearly colourless, or at most a very
pale greenish yellow ; powerfully odorous ; tastes
pnngent, at the same time imputing a sensation
of coldness to the tongue and palate. Boils at
866° F. Sp. gr. -902 to •90b.— Prod. Fresh
flowering herb, -26% to -4% ; dried do., 1% to
1-26% ^lly). In a warm diy season, 6 lbs. of

the fresh flowering herb yield 1 oz. of oil ; in a
wet and unfavourable one, 11 lbs. yield barely the
same quality.

Pur. The oil of commerce nsnally contains
fully a third part of rectified spirit, and is also
frequently adulterated with the oils of losemaiy,
spearmint, and turpentine. When pure — 1. It is
soluble in its own wnght of rwtified spirit.
2. Mixed with l-4th its volume of nitric add, a
rich purple-red colour is developed. 3. Chromate
of potash, in solution, turns it of a deep reddish-
brown colour, and converts it into a soft oosgn-
Inm, which assumes a fiaky form when divided
with a glass rod, whilst the solntion of the salt
loses its yellow colour or becomes greenish yellow.
4. With iodine it forms a homogeneous msss,
without fulmination. If it explodes with iodine,
it contains turpentine. The yellowish, resinous
oil, sold under the name of ' American ' or ' crude
oil of peppermint,' consists chiefiy of oil of tur-
pentine, and on evaporation leaves a residuum of
pine resin.

Oi(. English <nl of peppermint is the best, a
fact clearly shown by its price in the market beings
so greatly above that of the imported oil. The oil
distilled at Mitcham, in Surrey (Hitcham oil of
peppermint), is the most esteemed. It has usually
a very pale greenish colour, which is often imi-
tated by steeping a leaf or two of green mint or
parsley in the oil. Old dark-oolonred oils are
commonly bleached by exposure to the light, to
the destniction of a portion of their other pro-
perties.

According to a recent and valuable report upon
those articles in the Paris Exhibition of 1878,
more particularly interesting to the pharmacist,
the chemical manufacturer, the perfumer, &c,
which lately appeared in the 'Pharmaceutical
Journal,' the above statement is open to question.
Of late years it seems that a considerable mdosiiy
has sprung up at Arzim in the D^partement dn
Nord, in France, where large quantities of labiate
plants are cultivated, and snbaieqnentiy submitted
to distillation.

An acre of land generally yields every year
from S to 4 tons of the peppermint plant ; and
from 600 parts of this, one part of essential oil is
usually obtained, which it is allied by 11. Hanart,
the distiller of the oil in question, after being
carefully bottled and kept for some years, snc-
oessf ully rivals the Englidi oil both in quality and
price.

Of late years an essential oil of peppermint
manufactured by Messrs Hotchkiss, of New
York, has lately come into considerable demand.

This, which is said to be a very pure article,
differs from the other peppermint oils in becoming
thick when first mixed with spirit of wine. After
a short time, however, the mixture clears and
becomes perfectly bright.

Oil of peppermint is stimulant, antispasmodic,
and carminative, and has always been a favourite
remedy in flatulence, nausea, vomiting, loss of
appetite, cramp of the stomach, colic, griping
pains, dhrrhosa, the early stage of cholera, Ac. —
i>a«f , 1 to 8 drops, on sugar.

OU«f FetMlenin. SeelUfHTHA,Oiu(I{iitaral),
FBTBOUmc&c.

Oil of Plmen'to. JEyn. Oil op allspiob ; Oiaoit

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OILS

1161

PiXBXTA (B. P., Ph. L., E., uid D.), L. Prom
the bmiied fruit of JSugtnia pimmtta, allspice, or
Jamaica pepper. Pale yellow, growing reddish-
brown b; age; odour, a combination of cloves and
eaaiia; teste, pungent. Sp. gr. 1-021. — Prod., 5%
to 8%.

Oi*. Oil of pimento contuns two oils limilw
to those found in clove oil. When pure, i^tric
acid turns it red, with active effervescence
and the assumption of a rusty brown colour.
It oombinee with the salifiable bases in a nearly
samilar manner to oil of cloves. It is much
oaed in perfumery, especially in hair oos-
matics.

Oil of Pim'penel. Sf». Oleuk piMFiHUJi,
L. Prom the root of SangMuorba offiaualit, or
pimpernel. Blue ; carminative.

QU, Piae-apple. This artificial essential oil
dates its commercial importance from the Oreat
Exhibition of 1861. It is essentially butyric ether,
•nd may be regarded as simply the crude form of
tiiat (ubstance. On the large scale it is prepared
by skponifying butter or crude butyric acid with
s atnnig lye of caustic potassa, and dissolving the
resulting soap in the smallest possible quantity of
hot alooliol; to the solution is added a mixture of
alcohol and oil of vitriol in excess, and the whole
is then submitted to distillation as long as the
product has an aromatic fruity odonr ; the product
is rectified from dried chloride of calcium and a
little litharge. Dissolved in rectified spirit it is
mnch used as a flavouring substance by confec-
tioners and liquoristes. See Ethbb (Bnl^c) and

ESSBXOK Ot PtHB-APPLB, Ac.

(Ml of Pota'to Spirit. See Fubil Oil.

OQ of Pumilio Viae. Sgn. Otnm pnti pu-
muo. From the acicular leaves of the Pxaut
jtmmilio. It is a nearly oolonrless, very fragrant
j^e oil, which, in the refined condition, is sold
onder the proprietary name of Pumiline. Em-
ployed as an inhalation in laryngeal catarrh and
sore throat, also as a liniment in bronchitis and
zheumatism. See PtnoLlirB.

Oil of Bavenaa'ra. iSyii. Olihu juvsiraAKX,
L. Prom the roots of Saetiuara aromatiea.
Chiefly used to adulterate oil of cloves, which it
somewhat resembles.

Oa of Bho'dlun. !%>. Ouvx BHOsn, L.
Said to be derived from the wood of a species of
Xiodorita. Very fluid and limpid j pale yellow;
soon darkens by age and exposure ; tastes bitter
and aromatic; has a modified odonr of roses.
Chiefly used as a substitute for otto of roses in
cheap perfumery, and to adnltsrate it. Oil of
sandal-wood is frequently sold for it. — I^od., 1%
to ie% . See On. OP Bobbs (below).

OU of Koss'mary. S^n. BoeKABttii olkux

(B. P.), OLBTM AlTTEOS, O. BOBIBKABIVI, O.

BOOKASMi (Ph. L., £., and D.), O. bobiskasihi
MemnULLM, L. From the flowering tops of
Jtotmarimu offieiiutlu. Oolonrless ; strongly fra-
grant, bnt scarcely agreeable unless compounded;
carminative and stimulant. Boils at 866° F. Sp.
gr. -910; recent, -897; rectified, -8887.— iVo<I.,i%
to 1% (nearly).

Pur., tfe. It is freqnently adnltsnted with oil
of turpontine. When pare it dSasolves in all pro-
portions in spirit of 'MO. By age it deposits a
oyrtslUns stearopten, and acquires a terebin-

thtnate odonr. It is chiefly used ss a stimulant in
liniments, hair oil, pomatums, &o.

Oil of Bo"s«s. Sgn. Olbuk boss, L. iV«|>.
1. From the petals of Sosa temptrmmu, Linn.,
or the musk rose, as oil of olovbb, observing to
keep the water in the worm-tub at 8B° F., and
afterwards subjecting the water in the receiver
to refrigeration. Resembles otto of roses, of
which it is merely a variety. — Prod., -^io-^ot
1%.

2. (Attab op bosbs. One op b. ; Olbum Bosis.)
From the petals of JBota damateeua, and probably
other varieties of rose. Fluciger and Hanbury
state, " The rose is cultivated by Bulgarian and
TurUsh peasants in gardens and open fields, in
which it IS planted in rows as hedges, 8 to 4 feet
high. The flowers attain perfection in April and
Ilay, and are gathered before sunrise. Those
not wanted for immediate use are spread out in
cellars, but are always used for dutiUing the
same day. The apparatus is a copper still of the
simplest description, connected with a straight
tin tube, cooled by being passed through a tnbe
fed by a stream of water. The charge for a still
is 25 to 60 lbs. of roses, from which the calyces
are not removed. The first runnings are returned
to the still ; the second portion is received in glass
flasks and kept for a day or two, by which time
most of the oil, bright and fiuid, will have risen
to the surface. From this it is skimmed off. The
produce is about -04% ."

Boses are also cultivated for the making of
attar in the South of France about Qrasse, Cannes,
and Nice; likewise in India, at Ohazipnr, Lahofe,
and Amritsar.

Prop., <fe- A light yellow fiuid or semi-solid ;
sp. gr. -87 to -89 ; odonr intense and diffusive,
most pleasant when diluted- At low temperature
it concretes, separating platy crystals of a
stearopten, the proportion of which differs with
locality and period of production. Turkish attar
fuses at from 16°— 18^ C. ; Indian, 20° C. 1000
parts of alcohol of '806 dissolve only 7 parts of
otto at 67° P., and only 88 parts at 72°. Sp. gr.
■882 at 90°, to water I'OOO at 60° f.—Prod. 100
lbs. of roses yield 2 to 8 dr.

Pur. Otto of roses is freqnentiy adulterated
with the oils of rhodinm, sandal-wood, and gera-
nium, and with camphor ; and occasionally with
spermaceti, to give the spurious compound the
usual crystalline appearance. The oil of gera-
ninm, also known as oil of Indian grass, is im-
ported into Turkey and sprinkled on the roses
before distillation. The following are reliable
tests : — 1. Pure otto has a bland, sweet taste ; if
it is bitter, it contains oil of rhodium or sandal-
wood ; if It is pungent, or ' bites ' the palate, it
contains mther oil of geranium or camphor, and
probably both; if it imparts an unctuous sensa-
tion, it contains spermaceti. 2. Exposed for some
hours to the fumes of a small quantity of iodide
under a bell-glass in the cold, pure otix> remains
white, and continues so when exposed to the air ;
an adulterated sample, on the contrary, becomes
yellow or brown, and afterwards, on exposure to
the air, continues to darken in colour, until it
becomes of a deep brown, or even perf ecUy black,
according to the quantify of foreign oil present.
A single drop may be thus tested. 8. (OuUourt.)

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1152

OILS

One or two drops o{ the suspected oil are put into
a watch-glass ; the same number of drops of con-
centrated sulphuric acid are added, and the two
fluids are mixed with a ghiis rod. All the oils
are rendered more or less brown by this proceed-
ing, but otto of roses retains the purity of its
odour ; oil of geranium acquires a strong and (Ut-
agreeable odour, which is perfectly eliar»cteristic ;
the odour of the oil of rhodium is increased,
and beoom'es somewhat unctaoos, and, in general,
it acquires an odour distinctly like that of cubebs.

Oil of BoM'winrt. ^». Oil ov bobb-boot;
Olwu bhodioxx, L. From the roots of Sho-
diola roiea. Yellowish ; odour resembles that of
oil of rhodium, for which it is often sold, as well
as the distilled water for rose-wafer. 1^ lbs. yield
about 1 dr.

OU of Bne. Sgn. Butx olbitk (B. P.). Olbuh
BUTS. The " oil distilled from the fresh herb of
Suta.graveolent " (B. P.), or common me. Pale
yellow, turning brown by age, and depositing a
brownish, resinous sediment; congeals at abont
40° P.; acrid, bitter; odour that of the plant;
ttimnlaut, antispasmodic, and emmenagogue.
Sp. gr. -909 to -911.— iVoA, i% to 1% (nearly).
According to Raybaud, the recent dried seeds
yield fully four times as much oil as the flowering
herb.

Fur. Nearly always adulterated. When pure
— 1. It forms a clear solution with rectified spirit.
2. It does not form a camphor with gaseous
hydrochloric acid. 3. Iodine dissolves in it slowly,
without any apparent reaction, beyond a darlcen-
ing and a slight increase of viscidity. 4. It is
unaffected by a solution of chromate of potassa.
5. Kitric acid very slowly changes it into a
greenish-yellow liquid balsam. 6. If it forms a
reddish-brown solution with liquor of potassa and
a still darker one with oil of vitriol, or if it Eli-
minates with iodine, it is adulterated with the oil
of some labiate plant. It is more soluble in both
rectified spirit and water than any of the oils used
to adulterate it,

OU of Saffron. Sg». Olbuk obooi, L. Prom
the pistils of Crocut taiimu (saffron). Yellow ;
heavier than water ; acrid, pungent, and narco-
tic ; decomposed by exposure to light and age,
with the formation of a white solid matter, which
is lighter than water.

Oil of Sage. Syn. Olbvx aALVix, L. Prom
the herbaceous portion of Salvia <^ieim€tlu, or
common sage.

011 of San'dal-wood. Syn. Olbitx iahta!.!,
O. B. VL^TI, L. From the wood of Sanialmm
album, or sandal-tree, and preferably from that of
Malabar. It has an odonr somewhat resembling
that of oil of rhodium, for which it is commonly
osed ; also used to adulterate otto of roses. — Prod.
9 Iba. yield 1 oz. ; 100 lbs. yield 6 oz. Given in
doses of 10 to 30 min. for gonorrhosa.

Oil of Sarsaparilla. 8yn. Olxvu baozm, L.
From the root hark, distilled along with salt-and-
water. Acrid; odonr and flavour same as the
root.

Oil of Saa'saftM. ^. Volatilb oi£ ot a. ;

OlIVK IAB8AVB18 (Ph. E.), O. LACBI B., O. B.

omonrALiB, L. From bruised sassafras chips,
the sliced root ot Stuiafnu qffleiuale, as oil of
cloves. Pale yellow; highly oaorooa; hot; pun-

gent, rubefacient, and stimulant; reputed altera-
tive, sudorific, and diuretic, and, as such, occa-
sionally given in rheumatism, cntsneons affec-
tions, ic. Sp. gr. 1-094 to 1-096.— iVoi, H% to
2% (fully).

Pur., S(e. 1. If the dennty is lower than 1*094,
it is adnlterated. %. Nitric acid acts on this oil,
at first slowly, merely turning it of an orange-
red, bat afterwards with violence, and a reddish-
brown resin is formed. 8. Mixed with abont one
half its weight of snlphorie acid, a green ooloar
is at first developed, nmich, by heat, is changed to
a blood-red. A large quantity of sulphuric acid
acts at once violently, white fumes are given off,
and mere charcoal is left. 4. With iodine it
forms a permanently clear solution, or at least
one that remains so for some time. 6. By ag^-
tion with water, it separates into two oils— one
lighter, the other heavier, than that fluid.

Oil of SaVine. 8yu. Olbvk %txsxm (B. P.),
Olbux jTmiFBBi BABIHX, L. From the fresh
top or leaves of Jutiiptiru* tabvua, or common
savine. Pale yellow ; limpid ; acrid, pungent,
and stimulant. It possesses the general pro-
perties of the plant in a highly exalted degree.
Sp. gr. -916.— iVed. Fresh herb, 1-86% to 1-5% ;
dried ditto (recent), 8i% to 8% .—Don, 8 to 6
drops ; as an anthelmintic, diaphoretic, and
emmenagogue. Its nse mnst be carefully avoided
during pregnancy or disease of the abdominal
viscera.

Pur., ^e. It is less frequently adulterated
than the other volatile oils. Its high sp. gr. and
free solubility in rectified spirit ofier the means
of detecting the presence of either oil of turpen-
tine or alcohol, the substenoes occasionally added
to it. A mixture of equal parts of oil of savine
and oil of vitriol, by distillation from milk of lime,
furnishes an oil apparently identical with oil of
tbjme (Winakler).

011 of Spear'mint. Syt. EvauaH on. or

BFEABHIHT (B. P.), OTL 07 KIirT, Oil OP CIBBBir
K.; MBHIHiB VIBIDia OLBUM (B. P.), OlSVX
UKTIBS TIBIDIS, O. K. BATIVJt, O. BaaBITTLiLI

XBHTEX 8., L. From the fresh flowering herb
of Meutka viridu, Linn., or garden or spearmint.
Pale yellow, reddened by age ; odonr and general
propOTties resemble those of oil of peppermint,
but it is less grateful. It boils at 820° P. Sp.
gr. -916 (-9394, Sra»de).^Prod., -2% to -25% .
Its common adulterant* are alcohol and oil of
turpentine.
011 of Spike (True). £^. FosnoH oil o»

LATBlrSBB; OUTTH BtlOX, O. B. TBBTnf, O.
BTXOHASIB, O. UVAirSULB B., L.; HVIIB

s'lBFio, Fr. Chiefly from Lammdula tpica and
L. rtachat, or French and Alpine lavenders. It
differs from English oil of lavender by its darker
green colour and inferior odour. From France.
Used by artists to mix their colours in, and to
make varnishes. Oil of turpentine scented with
lavender is commonly sold for it. — Prod. From X.
Viea (fredi), i% to 1*% ; X. ttaelat (dried), |%
to 1% (fully).

Oil of Spikenard. Sjfu. OjJtvx habsi, L.
The predons oil mentioned nnder this name in
Soriptore b supposed to have been derived from
Audropogon Iwaraneuta. The oommercisi aU of
geranium (see oioM) is also called by ibis iiMne.

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OILS

II68

Oa of Spristr Sran. 9fn. Olbuk aittho-
XABTRi ooosATi, L. From JiithoaantAum odo-
raiuat, or iweet-nented remal gnw. It ia
this oil that fpn» the very agreeable odour to
n«w bay.

on «f Stu-an'iM. Sfu. BASzAiroiLi Ouvk
Baduhi, O. akibi btbllati, L. From the
capralea of IUin%m auuatum, or atar-aniie. It
oontiaaea liquid at 36}° F. At 86° F. it congealB.
Thii, and its weaker reaction with iodine, distin-
guish it from the preceding oompoond. — Prod.,
2% (fuUy).

oa of SwMt feniwl. See On. op FBiniiL.

OU of Sweet Vlag. 8gu. Olbuh aoobi, O.
A. ABOMATiOA, L. From the rhizomes or roots
of Aeonu ealamut (Linn.), or sweet flag. Yellow ;
agreeably fragrant. Used to scent snofl, aromatic
vinegar, Ac. — Prod. Fresh rhizomes, f % to 1% ;
dried (recent). 1 to 1-86% .

Oil of Tan'sy. 8g». Olittx xASAoni, L.
Pram the flowering herb of TauaoetMm tmlgara
(Linn.), or tansy. Fkle greenish yellow; very
odoroas ; bitter ; aromatic. 8p. gr. '946 to '960. —
Prod, Fresh. -85% to 6% ; dried (recent), |%
to 1% (fully).

OU of nyme. ^». Olbux THTia; On. or
onaAKvif; Olbuk obisahi (of the shops).
From the flowering herb of Tigmu* vutgarit
(Ldnn.), or gwrden thyme. Nearly colourless ;
the imparted oil has a reddish colour, which it
loses by rectification; very fragrant; acrid; hot
tasted, stimulant, and rube&cient; boils at
8*4° F. 8p. gr. -867 to -876.— JVorf., 6%
to -76%.

Oi«. Tlus ia the dark-coloured '. on. o> obi-
SAKUlt' of the shops. It is frequently adul-
terated with ml of turpentine. It ia occasionally
used in toothache and in stimulating liniments;
but its chief consumption ia in perfumery, more
particularly for hair-oils, pomatums, and hair-
washes, as it is reputed to make the hair grow and
to prevent baldness.

Ul of Tobaseo (Tolat&s). From the leaves of
NieoHoMa tabaemm (Unn.), or the tobacco plant.
Concrete.

OU of TupntlM. Sg*. SpnuT o> t.,
Eanmcx ovt.. Tubps, Cakfhbhs, Caxphinb;
•ttMMvanaxsm ounrit (B. P.), SpiBrrrs tbm-
saixmM. EaaBBTiA t, Olbom rsaxBtsrsaiM,
O. r. mmoATUX, L. Tho oil of turpentine of
commerce is obti^ned by distilling strained
American turpentine along with water. The
reridanm in the still ia 'resin' or 'rosin.' The
prodnet in oil varies from 14% to 16%. The
coUegea order it to be rectified before Ming em-
ployed for medicinal pnrposes. This is effected
hy redtatilKng it along with S or 4 times its
volume of water, observing not to di^wover quite
the whole. The portion remaining in the retort
(balsam of turpentine) is viscid and resinous. A
better pUm is to well agitate it with an e<^nal
mcasmrt of solution of potassa or milk of hme
before rectifying it. This is the plan adopted for
the camphine uMd for lamps. By agitating crude
oil of turpentine with about 6% of sulphuric acid,
diluted with twice its weisht of water, and after
repose and deeantation rectifying it from 6 or 6
times ita volame of the stnmgest lime water, a
veiyponMid nearly scentless oil may beobtuued.

Dr Nimmo recommends oil of turpentine to be
purified by agitation with -Jth part of rectified
roirit, after repose to decant the spirit, and to repeat
tlie process S or 4 times. The product retMns,
however, fully ^th part of apirit in acdution, and
hence this method is objectioiiable, except for
medicinal purposes, for which, according to Dr
Qarrod, it ia better than the oil purified by recti-
fication. The sweet spirits of turpentine (spnurcs
TXBBBiKTEiNS ditloib). Vended of late years Iti
the shops, is simply the common oil which has
been agitated with, and rectified from, somewhat
dilute sulphuric acid.

Prop, Pure oil of turpentine is colourless;
limpid; very mobile; nentral to test-paper; has
an odour neither powerful nor disagreeable when
reoentiy prepared, but becoming so by exposure to
the air ; dissolves |th part of tJoohol of -830 ; is
soluble in 8^ parts of ether and in 6i parts of
rectified spirit; hot strong alcohol dissolves it
freely, but the greatw part separates in globules
as the liquid cools. CHI of vitriol chars it, and
strong nitric acid attacks it vi(d«ntly, even with
flame. It congeals at 14°, and boils at 812° F.
Sp. gr. -867 ; that of the oil of the shops variea
from -878 to -878. It possesses a very high re-
fractive power. At 72"^ it absorbs 163 times its
volume <rf hydroehloric-acid gas (if kept cool),
and in 24 hours from 26% to 47% of crystals of
terpene mono-hydroeUoride (KnrD'a Oaxfhob)
separate. These have a eamphoraoeona odour,
and, after being washed with water, and sublimed
along with some dry chalk, lime, or diarooal,
assume the form of a white, translucent, flexible,
crystalline mass, which is volatile, soluble in
alcohol, and poasessea a considerable resemblance
to camphor. A nearly similar substance ia pro-
duced by the action of oxygen gaa on oil of tur>
pentine.

By continued agitation of turpentine oil with
water and air, peroxide of hydrogen and camphine
aeid are produced. It ia in Una way 'sanitaa'
preparations are made.

Utat, ^e. Oil of turpentine is extensively used
in the manufacture of varnishes and paints.
Under the name of ' camphine ' it ia occasionally
employed for burning in lamps. For the last
purpoae it muat be newly rectified and preserved
from the air. By expoaure it rapidly absorbs
oxygen, resin is formed, ita density increases, and
it ^ves a dull fuliginous flame. In medicine, it
is employed as a diaphoretic, stimulant, vermi*
fuge, Ac. — Doit, 6 to 80 or 40 drops ; in rheu*
matism, hemicrania, tut., 1 fl. dr. every 4 hours,
in combination with bark or capsicum ; in tape-
worm, 3 fl. dr. to 1 fl. OS., either alone or com-
bined with a little syrup of orange peel, every 8
houn, until the worm ia expelled. The common
aymptoma of large doses of this oil are dizziness
and a species of temporary intoxication, and ocoa-
rionally nausea and sickness, which subside after
two or three alvine evacuations, leaving no other
effect, when the oil is pure, than a certain decree
of languor for a few hours. In tapeworm, a little
castor oil may be advantageously combined with
the second and subsequent doses. Oil of turpen-
tine imparts a violent odour to the urine. To
prevent loss by evaporation and resiniflcatik>n,
this oil should be ke^ in tin cans or ghws botties.

73

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1164

OILT EHX7LSI0H— OINTMENT

For itore vefsdt, cloaely covered tin ciBtemi are
the best. To pmeiU aeeidenti, it ii proper to
c&ution the operator of the extremely penetrating
and inflammable nature of the vaponr of this oil,
even in the cold. During the procem of its dis-
tillation, without the greatest precautions are
taken, an explosion is almost inevitable.

Oil of Vale"ria]i. Syn. Olvdk taxkbiahx
(Ph. Bor.), L. From the root of Valsriaiia offi-
eiaali* (Linn.), or wild valerian. Yellowish ;
viscid; lighter than water; smells strongly of the
plant. By exposure to the air it is partiy con-
verted into valerianic acid, and more readily so
under the influence of an alkali. In its nsosl
form it consists of valerol, a neutral oily body ;
bomeene, a volatile liquid hydrocarbon ; and vue-
lianic acid. It ia powerf oUy antispasmodic, em-
menagogne, tonic, and stimulant, and, in large
doses, narcotic. — Dote, 2 to 6 drops ; in epilepsy,
hysteria, hemicrania, hypochondriasis, low fevers,
&c.— JVorf., 1J% to 2% (nearly).

Oil of Tnr'bena. Sgm. Olevx tibbbhs, L.
From the fresh flowering herb of Verbena odorata.
—Prod., 2% to 5% . The ' oil op tebbbita ' of
the shops is imported from India, and is obtained
from A»dropogo» eitratum. See Oil or Lbhoit-
OBAsa.

Oil of Wine. Sjf». Hbaty oil op wihb,
Ethbbbal oil, Oily btrsbbal liqitob, Sul-

PHATB OV BTEBB AITD BTKBBOLB ; OlBUM MtBS-

savn (Ph. L.), Olbith tiki, Liqvob stebbiub
OLEOSU8, L. This is an artificial production
which, for convenience, maybe included nnder
this head.

Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Bectifled spirit, 2 pints,
and sulphuric acid, 86 fl. oz., are cautiously mixed
together in a glass retort, and snbmitted to dis-
tillation until a black froth appears, when the re-
tort is immediately removed from the fire (sand
heat); the lighter, supernatant liquor is next
separated from the fluid in the receiver, and ex-
posed to the air for 24 hours ; it ia then agitated
with a mixture of solution of potassa and water,
of each, 1 fl. oz., or q. s., and, when sufficiently
washed, is, lastly, separated from the aqueous
liquid from which it has subsided. The formula
of the Ph. L. 1886 is nearly similar.

2. (Ph. D.) Bectifled spirit and oil of vitriol
(commercial), of each, If pints ; as the last, em-
ploying a Liebig's condenser, and a capsule for
the exposure to the air ; the oil is then transferred
to a moistened paper filter, and washed with a
little cold water to remove any adhering acid.

8. (Ph. D. 1826.) Prom the residuum in the
retort after the process of preparing ether, dis-
tilled to one half, by a moderate heat, and the oil
treat as before.

4. From rectified spirit (sp. gr. -888), 2 parts ;
oil of vitriol, 6 parts ; mix and distil, as before;
wash the product with disialled water, and free it
from adhermg water and undeoomposed alcohol
by ezposore in the vacuum of an air-pump, between
two open capsules, the one containing fragments
of Bokd potassa, and the other concentrated sul-
phuric acid. Pore.

6. By distilling a mixtnre of ether, and oil of
vitriol, and treating the product as bdFore.
. 6. By the destructive distillstioii of dry sulpho-
vioato of calcium } the product is freed bom alco-

hol, &o., by washing it. This process yields the
largest product.

Prop., ife. An oily liquid, nearly colourless,
neutral, with an aromatic taste, and an odonr
resembling that of oil of peppermint. It is in-
eolable in water, bat freely soluble in both alcohol
and ether ; boiling water converts it into sulpho-
vinic acid, and a volatile liquid called light or
sweet oil of wine ; with an alkaline solntion, this
effect is produced with even greater facility. Sp.
gr. 1-06 {ffennel and Ph. L.) ; 1-13 {Serullat).
Boils at 640° F. " Dropped into water, it sinks,
the form of the globule b^ng preserved " (Ph. L.).
—Prod., 1-26% to 1*6^ ; 83 lbs. of rectified spirit,
and 64 Hm. of oil of vitriol, yield 17 oz. of this oil
(Heimtt).

Uiei. (Ml of wine is reputed anodyne, but is
only used in the preparation of other compounds.
See Spibit op Ethbb (Compound), Sua.

Oil of Wise (Light). Sgn. Swbbt OIL OP vmrx.
See Etebbib, Ethbbolb, and above.

Oil, Wood (of India). From the CUoroxgUm
Stcietenia (De Cand.), the tree which yields the
satin-wood of the eabinet-malcers. Another
wood oil (Qvajvv balbak) is obtained by inci-
sion from various species of Dipterocarput.
This balsam yields about 38% of a volatile oil
by distillation, which in its general properties
closely resembles oil op copaiba (ffShauyh-
neeiey).

Oil of Worm'sMd. 8gn. Olbth OHBKOPOsn
(Ph. U. S.), L. From the seeds of Clisnopoditun
amthelmintimm, or Jerusalem oak (American
wormseed). Light yellow, or greenish; power-
fully anthelmintic. Sp. gr. '908. — Dote. For
an adult, 26 to 30 drops, in sngar, honey, or
milk, night and morning, for 8 or 4 days, followed
by a good dose of castor oil, or some other suit-
able purgative.

(Ml of Worm'wood. Sg*. Olbuk ABsncTHn,
L. From the herbaceoos portion of Artemi-
tia al>n»tiium, or common wormwood; green
or brownish-green; odorous; acrid; bitter;
stomachic. Sp. gr. -9703 {SriMO»); -9720
(Pereira) ; -9725 {Sr(mde).—Prod. Fresh herb
(picked). i% to i%, dry herb (a year old), i%
(fully) ; do. (wcent), |% to 1% (fully).

Pir. That of the shops is nearly always
either adulterated or partly spoiled by age ; hence
the discrepancies in the densities given for this
oil by different authorities. A specimen of this
oil distilled by Mr Cooley from the green plant
had the sp. gr. ■9712 ; but after bei^ kept for
12 months it had increased to '9718. Nitric add
of 1*25 colonrs the pure oil first green, then blue,
and, lastly, brown. The positive character of
these reactions is in direct proportion to the
purity and freshness of the sample.

OILT EKini'BIOV. See LnroTUS (EinoUiant)t

OILT ETHS"BEAL LIQ'UOS. See On o*
Wnra {above).

OTSTVSST. Sgn. UKOirBKrux, L. Any
soft, fatty substance applied to the skin by
inunction. The term is now commonly re-
stricted to those which are employed in me-
dicine.

Ointments (ung^enta) differ from 'cerates'
diiefly in their oonsistenoe, and in wax not being
a constant or essential constituent j and thqr are

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made and used in a nearly similar manner to
that class of preparations. Their proper degree
of solidity is that of good butter, at tfae ordinary
temperatnre of the atmosphere. When the
active ingredients are pnlveralent sabstances,
nothing can be more suitable to form the body
of the ointment than good fresh lard, free from
salt; bat when they are fluid or semi-flnid, pr»'
pared suet, or a mixtore of saet and laid, wiU be
necessary to give a dne consistence to the com-
piwnd. In some instances wax is ordered foi
tiiis porpose. Another excellent 'vehicle' foi
the more active ingredients is a simple ointment,
formed by melting tctgether 1 part of pore white
wax with abont 4 parts of olive oil. The use of
the last ezclndes the possibility of the irritation
sometimes occasioned by the accession of ran-
ddity, when inferior lard is employed. In a few
cases bntter is employed to form Oie body of the
ointment.

Soft uid hard paraffins sold mider the fancy
names of vaseline, cosmoline, petroline, Ac, have
of late years largely superseded fats as ointment
bases. In certain partfcolars they have advan-
tages as they keep well, never going lancid or
bad. On the other hsnd, they are said to act
more like a varnish than an ointment to the
skin, protecting the skin in sneh a way that
remedies cannot be absorbed. Lanolin is a
valnable ointment base, made from sheep's wool,
and contains about 30% of witter, it appears to
be the meet rapidly absorbed of all the ointment
bases.

Some ointments are made from recent vege-
table sabstances by infusion or ooction, in the
manner adopted for medicated oils. See Oixa,
Mkdicated.

Ointments are best preserved by keejnng them
in salt-glazed earthen or stoneware jars, covered
with tin-foil, in a cool situation.

The accession of rancidity in ointments and
other onctnous preparations may be greatly
retarded, if not whoUy prevented, by previously
dissolving in the &t about 2% of gimi-benzoin,
in flne powder, or rather less quantity of benzoic
add by the aid of heat. This addition renders
the ointment pecnliarly soothing to irritable or
highly sensitive skins. Poplar buds act in a
simihff manner.

*a* The formala for all the more useful and
generally employed ointments are given below.
Those not indnded in the list may be prepared of
Vbe proper strength for all ordinary purposes, by
combining about 12 to 16 times the medium dose
of the particular medicinal with 1 oz. of lard or
simple ointment. For sabstances which possess
little activity, i to 1 dr. per oz., or even more,
mn be token. See Chbatb, Fat, &c

Oiotmant of Ae'etate of Lead. &fn. UirauEN-
TVM runiBi AORATis (F. B., Ph. E. and D.),
L. Prep. 1. (Vh. E.) Acetate of lead, in flne
powder, 1 oz. ; simple ointment, 20 oz. ; mix them
thorooghly (by tritoration).

2. (Ph. D.) Ointment of white wax, 1' lb. ;
melt by a gentle heat, then add, graduslly, of
acetate of lead, in very flne powder, 1 oz., and
stir the mixture until it concretes.

8. (B. P.) Aoetate of leadi in flne powdsf, IS
gr>;henioated laid, lot.; mix. . ' i ■

Obt. A useful, cooling, astringent, and desic-
cative ointment. For the formula of Ph. L., see
CxBATa.

Ointment, Ace'tic. See OniTinMT, VmaAB.

Ointment of Ac'onite. Sgn. UvavwiTVX
AOOSITI, L. Frep. 1. (Vr TurnbuU.) Alco-
holic extract of aconite, 1 part; lard, 2 ports;
carefully triturated together. In neuralgia, kc

2. (Ammoniated; UNavBirtcx aoohiii ak-
MOlllATTJic — TurnhuU.) Ammoniated extract of
aconite, 1 part; lard, 8 parts. In neuralgia,
paralysis, old rheumatic affections, tc. The use
of the above preparations of aconite requires the
greatest caution. They are intended as substi-
tutes for ouTTMXVT ov ACOHiinra, a still more
dangerous preparation.

Ointment of Aoon'ttliie. i%r«. Vsavxtmnt
Aooiomrx, L. Prtp. 1. (Dr Oarrod.) Pure aco-
nitine, I gr.; lafd, 1 dr.) mix by careful
tritniation.

2. {Dr TurnlmU.) Aconitine, 2 gr.; rectified
spirits, 6 or 7 drops ; tritarate together, then add
of lard, 1 dr., and mix well.

8. (B. P.) Aconitia (aconitine), 8 gr.; rectified
spirit, i dr. ; dissolve and add hurd, 1 oz. ; mix.

Un, S^e. As a topical benumber in neuralgic
affections, rheumatic pains, &c. Its application
generally occasions considerable tinglbig, and
sometimes redness of the part to which it is ap-
plied, followed by temporary loss of sensation in
the skin and the cessation of the pain. For slight
cases Dr Paris formerly employed only 1 gr. to
the oz. Owing to the intensely poisonous nature
of aconitine this ointment must be both prepared
and used with great caution, and must never be
applied to an abraded surface. It is seldom em-
ployed, owing to its extreme costliness. See
AOOKITIA and oiotw.

Ointment, Agne. See Oiwaast, Ahti-

CBBIODIO.

Ointment, Albinolo's. See Patbst MsDionrsB.

Oiatmwit, Alkaline. 8gn. Vsecjosrw. aIi-
KAUHUV, L. iVcp. 1. (Biett.) Carbonate of
soda, 2 ^. ; fresh-slaked lime, 1 dr. ; powdered
opium, 2 gr. ; lard, 2 oz. ; mix by trituration. In
prurigo, ringworm, and some other cutaneous
affections.

2. (Caunavi.) Carbonate of potassa, 1 dr.;
lard, 1 oz. In psoriasis, lepra, and soorbutic
eruptions.

8. (Z>«Mf^(«.) a. IVom carbonate (not ses-
quicarbonate) of soda, 10 to 16 gr. ; lard, 1 oz.
Ill lichen.

b. From carbonate of soda, 20 to 80 g;r. ; lard,
1 oz. In ichthyosis, lepra, psoriasis, and some
other scaly skin diseases.

0. From carbonate of soda, ) to 1 dr.; lard,
1 oz. In porrigo favosa, especially when occnr*
ring in adults.

4. (SoubeirtM.) Carbonate of soda, 1 to 2 dr. ;
wine of opium, 1 fl. dr. ; lard, 1 oz. In any of
the above affections when there is much pidn or
irritation.

Obt. Carbonate of potassa is thought to be
preferable to carbonate of soda when the above
affections occur in scorbntio habits. A little cam-
phor is also occasionally added.

OiAtmimt «f Aloes. See OnTirxKT vob

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OIHTMKNT

(MatBait of Akw (Ooapoud). See Onmtnr

>0B WOBU.

(MstaMBt of Al'uB. Sjfu. Cvsimnni Aur-
MXWU, L. Pfwp. 1. Almn. in very fine powder,
1 dr.; lud, li oi. In pilea.

2. To the last add (k powdered oinnm, 7 gr.
In pilei, when there U much pain. See Odit*
UMWt, BAVrn'B.

OiatHMt, Aanumi'aeal. Sfm. XTsounrnm

AMUOKIACAJJi, V. AjatOVIM, Ii. ; LiFAKOLB

d'axxohiaqvi, FOkxasi db aoHDXXT, Fr.
Frtp. 1. (P. Cod.) Soet and lard, of each, 1 ox.;
melt in a rtrong wide-monthed bottle, add of
liquor of ammonia (fp. gr. -928), 2 oi., at once doie
tM bottle, and agitate it ontil it* content*
concrete. As little heat as poarible shoold be
employed, to prevent mmeoeMarj loai of am-
monia.

2. (Oouiret.) Lard, 8 parte; met, 2 part*;
almond oil, 1 part; itrong tolntion of ammonia,
6 parts; mix as before. BabeCacient, vesicant,
and ooanter-initaot. Smeared over the skin and
covered so as to prevent evaporation, it raises a
blister in 6 or 6 minutes. Its general eCeets and
nses are similar to those of compoond liniment of
ammonia.

OUtment of CarlKmate of Ammo"nia. Sgu.
VaavsKTxm akxoklb casbohaiis, U. a. bis-
QVIOIBBOXATIS, L. Prep. From carbonate of
ammonia, 1 dr.; laid, 9 dr. An excellent appli-
cation to painf qI joints, indolent tnmonrs, scmn-
lons sores, Ac.

Ointment of Amnu'^lated Kereuxy. iSyn. Uv-
etnarrvu HTSBAB&Tfix akmoviaxi (B. P.).
Ammoniated mercnry, 1 part; simple ointment,
9 parts ; mix. See next preparation.

Ointment of Am3no"nia-c]iIaride of Xereniy.

^». WHUB rBBCITITATB OIHmXTi UH-
eUXHTirX KZDBABeTBI AXXOiraO-OBIiOBISI (Ph.
Ii.), U. H. PBBCmXATI AIBI, U. FBBOIP. A. (Ph.
E.), U. H. BUBXUBIAXIB AmtOHIATI (Ph. D.

1826), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Ammonio-
chloride of mercury, 2 dr.; lard, 8 oz. ; tritnxate
together.

2. (Ph. K) As the last, bnt employing heat.

V»ei,i^. Alterative; detergent; stimulant.
In itch, scald-head, and varions other skin dis-
eases ; in inflammation of the eyes ; as an appli-
cation to scrofalons and canceroas tomoors; to
destroy vermin on the body, &c. It " may he
safely nsed " (in small quantities) " on infants "
(A. T. Thomio»).

Ointment, An"glo-8azon. Prep. Heat olive
oil, 1 pint, and beeswax, i lb., until the mix.
tare acquires a reddish-brown colour ; then add
red lead (levigated), i lb., and continue the heat,
with constant stirring ; when the union appears
complete add of amber and burnt alum, of each,
in fine powder, i oz. ; lastly, when considerably
cooled add of powdered camphor, 8 dr. As a
dressing to foul ulcers.

Oiatmsnt, An'odyne. See Ointkknt ov Opium,
Hbmloox, Sec.

Ointment of iB'thnookall. Sy*. Pokasb
Dl AVTBBAOOKALI, Fr. Prep. (Dr PoJga.)
Anthraookali, in very fine powder, 1 part; lard,
80 parts. See Axthbacoxali.

OiatmsBt, ABtihsiptt'io. Bgn. UKeirimux
AJmHXBPBTIOTrH, L. Prep. 1. (Aliiert.) Bed

sulphide of merenry, 8 dr.; powdend camphor, 1
dr.; lard, 8 oa.

2u (CtewaOier.) 'Snbaolphate of merenry;
(Tarpeth minenl), 2 dr. ; chloride of lime, 8 dr. '
almond oil, 6 dr. ; lard, 2 oi. In herpes or tetters.

OiBtmant, AntiiM'aiaL See Onrmiri or

POTAtUO-TABTBATB O* ABTIMOBT.

OWB«BtarAiarsta. SeeABABOBA.

OiatBUBt. Aromaf ie. Sfu. BAUAJira ««>•
xACHAia Wackbbi, DBSVBarnx aboxatiovx,
L. Prep. (Ph. Anstr. 1880.) Simple ointment,
2^ lbs. ; yellow wax and <nl of lani«l, of each, 8
ox.; melt together, and, when oonuderably
cooled, add of oils ot jnniper, mint, lavender, and
rosemaiji of each, 8 dr. Anodyne, balsamie, and
stimnlant.

OiatBUBt of Aia«'%iat* tt I'loa. Sftt. Uh-
onBXTUv FBBBI ABBBBUns, L. Prep. 1. (Osr-
mieiaeL) Arseniate of iron, i dr. ; phosphate of
iron, 2 &. ; spermaceti ointment, 6 ii.

2. (Dr Perein.) Arseniate of iron, i dr.;
lard, 1) 01. In cancer.

OiBtaMBt af Aiaaaiata of Soda. %•. Uv-
euBiTT'irK BOD.B ABSBBlAXia, L. JV^. Arseuiato
of soda, 1 dr. ; lard, 2 ox. Mix.

OintauBt, Arsan'icaL l^fu. Omiunra or

WHITB ABSBBIO; UNaOBBTUX AB8BHI0AU, U.
ABBBBIOI, U. AOIDI ABBBXIOai, L. Any. 1.

Arsenions acid (levigated), 8 gr. ; lard or simple
ointment, 1 ox. In lepra, paoriaais, malignant
whitlows, &e.

2. (Hasp. F.) Levigated white arsenic, 15 to
20 gr. ; lard, 1 ox. As a dresring for cancenms

8. (Sonbeiran.) White aisenie, 1 dr.; lard
and spermaceti ointment, of each, 6 dr. In
malignant cancer. Hie above must be carefully
^pared, and nsed with great caution. See
Cbbatb.

Ointment, Astrin'gant. S^ VnavMsmnt
abtbibobvb, L. Prep. Triturate powdered
catechu, Ii dr., with bcdling water, 2 fl. dr. ; add,
gradually, of spermaceti ointment (melted), 1^
oz., and continne the trituration vntil the mass
concretes. An excellent dressing for iU-disposed
Bores and ulcers, especially dnnng hot weather.
See the several Lbas OnmiBirTB, Oixtitbbx or
Qaixs, &c

Ointment of Atro"pia. Spn. Ubstsbtux
ATBOPLS (B. P.), L. jPrsp. 1. Atropia,!) gr.;
simple sintmen^ 1 dr.; mix by careful tritora-
tion.

2. (Dr Srooiet.) Atropia, 6 gr.; lard, 3
dr.; otto of roses, 1 drop. In neuralgia, rheu-
matic pains, ie., when the affection is not deeply
seated.

8. (B. P.) Atrojna. 8 gr.; rectified spirit, i dr.;
lard, 1 oz. ; dissolve the atropia in the spirit and
mix with tiie lard.

Ointment, Bail^^s. See OnmcBirc, Itch.

Ointmentof Bal'sam of Fern. 9f»- Ubottbk-
TUK BALSAia Pbbwiabi, L. Prep. 1. Lard
or spermaceti ointment, 1 os.; balsam of Pern, 1
dr. ; melt together by the heat of boiling water,
stir for 6 or 6 minutes, allow it to settle, and poor
oft the clear portion. In chaps and abrasiona.

2. (Compound : Uhs. b. P. oonroBlxvn— Cop-
land.) Lurd, 1 ox.; white wax, i oz. ; balsam of
Peru, 1 dr.; melt as before, and when nearly

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OraTBOBNT

im

See OnnwsirT

Sfu. UvauBir-
JPrep. (Ph. L.

eold, idd of oil of lavender, 10 or 12 drop*. Aa
ihe last, and to restore the hair.

(Matment, Banyer'i. Bjfn. Covtoukd aIiUV

OnTMSHI ; UBanKKTUX AJLVUnia 0O1IP08ITUX,

U. CA.iomLAii08, U. Baityibi, L. tnp. From
burnt alnm and calomel, of each, 1^ oi. ; carbonate
of lead, or litharge (levigated), 2 oi. ; Venice tur-
pentine, i lb. ; Urd, 2 lbs. ; carefully tritaiated
together. In milk-scald, porrigo, ic.

Ointmnt of Bark. See Onnxurx ov Cur-

CHOHA.

Oliitaeiit, Baill'iiMiL l^n. Babilicon, Tkxiow

B.; UveUXHTUM BABILIOCX, U. B. TLAYXnt, L.
I>np. (Ph. L. 1746.) Olive oil, 16 0. oz. j jellow
wax, yellow resin, and Burgundy pitch, of each,
1 lb. ; melt, remove the vessel from the Are, and
aiUr in of common turpentine, S oi. This form is
■till occanonally employed in some shops, but is
gaierally superseded by the resin cerate and
resin ointment of the Fharmacoposias. A nearly
nmilar preparation, under the name of ' basUicon
ointmenV u contdned in the Ph. Bor. 1847 (see
Mow).

(KntmAat, BailHonn (Blaek)
or Pitch.

Ointment, BailMeoB (Oreen).

TITK BABIUOim TIXIDB, L.

1746.) Prepared verdigris, 1 ox.; yellow basi-
Ucon, 8 ox. ; olive oil, 8 S. os. Detergent. Used
to keep down fungous growtbi, to dress syphilitic
nlcers. Ice. See Cskatb and OamtMKT ov Vib-
siaEiB.

Ointawnt, Bateman's. Bee Oivixbiit, Itoh.

(MntBtnt of Bay-leave*. See OnmiaT,
LitrBBii.

(Mntaant of BeUadon'nft. £ty*. XJxaaziinvu
BSLLASomix, L. iVep. 1. (Ph. L.) Extract
of belladonna (deadly nightshade), 1 v.; lard, 1
OS. ; mix by trituration.

2. (Sombtiran.) Fresh belladonna leaves
(bmised), 1 part} laid, 2 parts ; simmer together
until the leaves become cnsp, and, after digestion
for a short time longer, dn^ witji pressure.

8. (B. P.) Alcoholic extract of belladonna, 1
part i robbed with benioated lard, 9 parts.

Viiet, Sfo. As a local anodyne, in painful and
indolent tumours, nervous iiritatioos, &c. Also as
an apfdication to the neck of the uterus in cases of

4. (Compound: UHflUBiivini BiLLASovKiB oox-
PoaiTlTH, L.) a. (W. Cooleg.) Compound iodine
idntment, 7 dr.; extract of belladonna, 1 dr.
Fo>rerfully disentient, A most excellent applica-
tion to aU glandular tumours and indnrations,
buboes, Ste., which it is desirable to disperse
instead of mature, more especially where there is
mneh pain. It is particularly suitable to cases
oceorring on shipboard; and when its application
(at least twice a day) is accompanied with the in-
ternal use of the mixture of iodine and gold (see
AwnMoaorauyvB Mixtubb), this treatment has
seldom failed, even when the patients were dieted
eUefly on salt food.

i. (J7«ir8jriw.) Kxtract of belladonna and lard,
of each, 8 dr.; powdered opium, i dr. As an ex-
ternal anodyne and bennmber, more especially in
neuralgia, painful caneeronstniiKran,&c. Asmall
piece is to lie appUed to the port, and the friction
eontinned for 6 or 8 minutes. The above prepara-

tions are useless unless the extract employed is
recent and of good quality.

Olntaunt of Benxoin. (Ph. U. S.) Prep. Tine
tnre of benzoin, 2 oz. ; lard, 16 oz. ; melt the lard
over a water-bath and add the tincture, stirring
constantly, and when the spirit has evaporated, re-
move from the water-bath, and stir whilst cooling.

Ointment of Bismuth. Sg». Ussueittvx bib-
KUTHi, L. Prep. 1. Nitrate of bismuth (' white
bismuth '), 1 dr. ; simple ointment, 1 ox.

2. (FuUer.) Nitrate of bismuth, 1 dr.; sper-
maceti ointment, 19 dr. In itch and some chronic
cntaneons diseases.

Ointment, Blisfsring. See Oniixxiri ot Cait-

IHABISB8 and VBSICAiriB.

Ointawnt, Blue. This is the vulgar name in
England of mercurial ointment. On the Con-
tinent an ointment made of smalts and Goulaid
water is commonly so called.

Ointment of Bo"rax. Syn. UN&UBiTTra bo-
BACiB, L. Prep. From borax (in very fine pow>
der), 1 dr. ; simple ointment or lard, 7 dr. In
excoriations, chaps, Ac

Ointment of Boric Add. (B. P.) i^«. Uk-
acBHTXTX AciDl BOBici, h. Prtp. Boric acid in
powder, 1 part ; soft paraffin, 4 parts ; hard paraf-
fin, 2 parts. Helt, mix, and stir till cold. This
ointment was devised by Sir J. Lister. It is a
mild antiseptic. Used for dressing ulcers and
bums.

Ointmeat of Bromide of Potai'sinm. Sjfn, Uh-

aVBNXUX POTABBII BBOKISI, U. POTABBiB ETDBO>
BBOKATIS, L. Prep. {Magendie.) Bromide of
potassium, i dr. ; lard, 1 ox. Resolvent ; in bron>
chooele, scrofula, &c.

Ointment of Bro'mine. Sj/n. UHauBHnrx
BBOKim, U. B. ooupogirra, L. Prep. (3fa-
gendie.) Bromide of potasdnm, 20 gr. ; bromine,
6 to 12 drops; lard, 1 oz. As the last, but more
active.

QintmaBt, Brown, fijirti. Fsbvohpoobkait'i
vBiBirD} UBauBBTTni vvaovK, U. htsbax-
G-TBI v., L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Nitric oxide of
mercury (levigated), | dr. ; resin ointment, 1 ox.
In ophthalmia (eantionsly), after the inflamma-
tory stage is over; as an application to sore
legs, 4c.

Ointmeat of Cad'miiun. Bjfn. Vveummnt
OAsxn, U. 0. tmxmra, L. Prep. (Saduu.)
Sulphate of cadmium, 1 to 2 gr. ; pure lard, 1
dr. ; careMly triturated togetlwr. m specks on
the cornea.

Ointment of Gadmiiim, Iodide of. (B.Ph.) ag:
UveVBHTUX OADKn lODIsi. Prep. Mix tho-
roughly iodide of cadmium in fine powder, 62 gr.,
with simple ointment, 1 ox.

Ointment of Caffeine. S^n. VnavMSTtntoti'
rsTsx, h. Prep. Citrate of caffeine^ 8 gr. ; lard,
10 oz. Mix.

Ointment of Cal'amine. (B. P.) Syn. Un>
aiTBBTVX OAXAimrx, L. Prep. Prepared cala-
mine, 1 part; benioated lard, 6 parts. This is
known as Turner's cerate.

Ointment of Cal'omel. i^n. UirBTrsKTCK HT>
sBAsaxBi nmoHiABiDi (B. P.), UsavBinnrK

OAIiOJCBLAiroB, U. HTSBASaTBI OHIOBISI, L.

i¥«p. 1. From calomel, 80 gr. ; benzoated lard,
1 oz,

06e. " Were I required to name a local agent

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pre-eminently naefal in skin diieuea generally, I
ahould fix on thii. It ii well deeerring a place in
the FharmaoopcBia " (Pernra). Dr Underwood
niee elder-Sower ointment at the Tehicle.

2. (Compound: UHOTmrtmi OAiomiiAiros
coKFOBiTim— Df A. T. Thornton.) Calomel, 1
dr.; tar ointment, 4 dr.; ipermaceti ointment,

1 01.

Ointment of Cam'phor. iS^s. TTvovximrx
OAicpHOBiB, L. Prep. 1. Camphor, 1 to 2 dr. ;
lard, 1 oz. ; dissolve by a gentle beat and stir
nntil the mass is nearly cold. Stimalant and ano-
dyne; in prnrigo, psoriasis, &c.
' 2. (Compound.) From powdered opimn, ) dr. ;
powdered camphor, 1| dr. ; lard, 1^ oz. ; mix by
tritnration. As an anodyne friction in rhenmattc
pains, swelled joints, colic, &c.

Ointment of Cantluur'ldes. 8gn, Vvavnimm
OAirnuisisu (B. P., Ph. L., D., and V. S.), U.
LTTTX, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Cantharides (in
very fine powder), 3 oz. ; distilled water, 12 fl. ox. ;
mix, boil to one half ; to the struned liquid add
of resin cerate, 1 lb., and evaporate to a proper
consistence.

2. (Ph.D.) Liniment of Spanish flies, 8 fl-oz.;
white wax, 8 oz. ; spermaceti, 1 oz. ; melt together
with a gentle heat, and stir until it oonoretes.

8. (Ph. EJ a. (UFSVBVTini nrwBVi out-
THiJUDn— Ph. E.) Powdered cantharides, 1 oz.
boiling water, i pmt; infuse one night (12 hours),
strain with expression, add of lard, 2 ox., and boil
vntil the water is expelled ; then add beeswax and
resin, of each, 1 oz., and when these are liquefied,
Temove the vessel from the fire, and further add
of Venice turpentine, 2 oz.

i. (UirauaKTUIf FirLylBIB OAVTHABIDIg —

Fh. E.) Besin ointment, 7 oz. ; melt, add of
cantharides (in fine powder), 1 ok, and stir until
the whole is nearly cold.

4. (B. P.) Cantharides, in fine powder, 1
part ; olive oil, 6 parts ; yellow wax, 1 part ; digest
the cantharides in the oil for 12 hours, and for i
hour at 212° ; strain, add the melted wax, and
stir till cold.

■ Ob*. The above preparations are frequently
called ' blister ointment ' or ' epispastic ointment.'
They are used to keep blisters open after they
have been produced by stronger compounds.
The first three oamponnds are regarded as milder
than the last (8, h), which oontKbis the flies in
substance. The P. Cod. contains an ointment
(VR9. BPtSPASTicuM RiATVic) wUch Is weaker
than the above, prepared by digesting the bruised
flies in lard, for 8 hours, over a warm bath;
about l-6th part of wax is next added to the
strained fat, which is then coloured with tur-
meric, and scented with oil of lemon. See C>-
BATB, PoHiUDB, VigioAMTS, and beUno.

Ointment of Cantharides, Extract of. (M. Cap.)
^n. UiraraBTTTX ovh bxtbaoto oxsTBtsi-
OI8. Prep. Alcoholic extract of cantharides,
8 gr.; oil of rosea, 1 dr.; beef marrow, 2 oz. ; oil
of lemon, 40 minima, To promote the growth of
tiMhair.

(Mfttment of Quttharidet wltli Ktresry. Sfyn.

VjtOVXSmi OAHTKAXISM OUlt HTSBABSTBO.

iVQ>. hui, 66 parts; Spanish flies, 29 parts;
strong mercorial mntment, 6 parts. Mix. Used
in Nprmand^ to indolent tnpionn.

Ointment of Caathar'ldine. %». TTKSunr-
TUK OABTHABIDIKX, L. Prep. (8o%beiran.)
Cantharidine, 1 gr.; white wax, 1 dr.; lard, 7
dr. ; mix tboroaghly. See abate.

(Mntmnt of Capiieiun. 8f». UiraimiTUM
OAPBICI, L. Prep. {2>r Turnball.) Tincture
of capsicum (pure), q. s. ; gently evaporate it
tintil it begins to gelatinise, then mix the extract
with twice its weight of lard. As a powerful
stimulant and rubefacient. When very freely
used, it vesicates.

Ointment of Carbolic Add. (B. P.) Sjfn.
VvaxTKirrcH aoidi oabbolioi, L. Prep. Car-
bolic acid, 1 part; soft paraffin, 18 parts; hard
paraffin, 9 parts. Melt and mix.

Ointment of Car^nato of Am]no"nia. See
OnrTKiirT, Akxohiaoai,.

Ointment of Carbonate of Lead. Sj/n. Whitb-
lbas onmcBKT; UirauBKTUii plttmbi cab-
B0RAII8 (P. B., Ph. B. and D.), U. obbttbrx, h.
Prep. 1. (Ph. B.) Carbonate of lead, 1 o*.;
simple ointment, 6 oz. ; mix thoroughly.

2. (Ph. D.) Carbonate of lead, 8 oz.; oint-
ment of white wax, 1 lb. ; mix with heat.

8. (B. P.) Carbonate of lead, in fine powder,
1 part ; simple ointment, 7 parts. Mix.

4. UvsuBKTUx PLinrai oakfhobatux (E.,
1744). Add to the last 2 scruples of camphrar
g^nnd with a Uttle oiL

Cms, 4^. Cooling, denooative. Useful to
promote the healing of excoriated parte and
slight ulcerations. Tlie camphorated white oint-
ment of old phamuuy (Uira. Ai.BVif caxpeo-
BATUX — Ph. L., 1744) was made by adding 40 gr.
of camphor to the first of the above.

Ointment of Oat'eehn. Syn. Vnavmrxm
OATBOHU, L. Prep. From alum, 1 oz.; ca-
techu, 8 oz. (both in very fine powder) ; added
to olive oil, i {dnt, and yellow resin, 4 oz., pre-
viously melted together. Used to dress ulcers
in hot climates, where the ordinary fat ointmento
are objectionable; also in this country during hot
weather. See Onmoarr, Astbivsbbt.

Ointm«Bt of Chalk. S^n. UirairBirTrx
obbix, L. Prep. Rrepared chalk, 1 oz. ; lard,
4 oz. Mix.

Ointment of Chamomile, (if. Saai*,) A/*,
Vvovxaunc AiriBBinDiB, L. Prep. Freshlv
powdered chamomile flowers, olive oil, and lar^
in eqnal quantities. For the cure of itch.

Ointment of Char'ooaL Sj/n. Vvovyhtvk
OABBOBIB, L. Prep. 1. Resin ointment, 10
dr. ; recently burnt charcoal (levigated), 8 dr.
As a dressing to foul ulcers, especially those of
the legs.

2. (Caepar.) Lime-tree charcoal and dried
carbonate of soda, of each, 2 dr. ; rose ointment,
1 OS., or q. s. In scald-head.

8. (AaoHW.) Animal charcoal (recent), 1
part ; mallow ointment, 2 parte. As a friction in

flandnlar enlargemente and induxations, as a
ressing to fetid ulcers, Ac.
Ointment of Chanlmoogra. %*. Uvoubxtttx
STirooABDlx. Chanlmoogra oil, 1 part; petro-
leum cerate, 8 parte. Used in leprosy, lupus, and
eczema.

Ointment of Chsny LaareL i^/n. Uiravnr-
TUX LAVBO-OEBABi, L. Drep. (AMtistiraM.)
Essential oil' of cherry lanrd, 1. dr. ; lard, 1 os.

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To alleriaie the p^ in cancer, nenrall^ and
otber local affectiomi.

(Matmant, CUllilKin. Sj/n. UsoTmncuic as
pnnovis, L. JfVarp. 1. From made mustard
(very thick), 2 parti; almond oil and glycerin,
of each, 1 part; triturated together. To be
applied night and morning.

8. (Cotttr»am.) Acetate of lead, camphor, and
cherry-laurel water, of each, 1 dr. ; tar, 1^ dr. ;
Lud, 1 ox.

3. (Divrgie.) Creasote and (foulard's ex-
tract, of tacb, 12 drops ; extract of opium, H
gr. ; lard, 1 oi. Twice or thrice daily.

4. {&iaeoaUmi.) Sugar of lead, 2 dr.; cherry-
laurel water (diatUled), 2 fl. dr. ; lard, 1 oi.

6. (Ziantnu.) Balsam of Peru, 1 dr. ; hydro-
chloric acid, 2 dr. ; spermaceti ointment, ii oz.

Ob*. For Swediaor's, Vance's, and Wahler*!
ointments, see article CEiliBLAiir.

Ointment of Chloral Hydrata. (DowokU.)
' Sf». UHa-uiinnrK ohlosalib htsbas. Prep.
Chloral hydrate, 2 parts; lard, 20 parts.
Stimulant ; stronger if required as a rubefa-
cient.

Ointment of Ch]o"Tlda of QU'einm. S^ Cs-
orsmnc ouiOii ohloridi, U. axuna mnti-
ATiat, Lt. Prep, (AradfUo.) Chloride of calcium

idly), X dr.; strong vinegar, 40 gr. ; foxglove
recent, in &ie powder), 2 dr.; Iwd, 1 oi. In
bronehooele, scrofulous tumours, &c.

Qiiitm«Bt of CUorldo of Lead. Sj/it. Dir-
eciimric TLuxBi oblobidi, L. Prejp. (2Wo«.)
Chloride of lead, 1 part ; simple cerate, 8 parts ;
carefully triturated together. In painful can-
cerous ulcerations and neuralgic tumours. See
Lbad (Chloride).

Ointment of CaOorlde of Uas. See Onnourx
o> Hypooklobitk ov Lixa.

Ointment of Chloride of Kereniy. %». See
OniTiciim of Caioul and Cobbobiti Svbli-

KATE.

Ointment of CUo"riiw. Sgn. UvoumTtrif
CHLOBoni, L. Prep. {AvffMttim.) Chlorine water,
1 part ; lard, 8 parti ; well tritnrated together.
In itch, lepra, ringworm, foetid ulcers, ke.

Otntmeat of CUorl'odide of Kerenry. 8y».
Uvenaramc HZDBAseYBi oelobiooidi, L.
Prep, (If. Saeamier.) Cfaloriodide (iodo-chloride)
of mercury, 8 gr. ; lard, 6 dr. Recommended as
a powerful diacntient or resolvent. SeeOnmuiri
o» loDo-oBioBisa ov Msaimmz.

Ointmant of Cbii/'iotorm, 8y%. TJvwjsvtcu
QHLOBOiOBXi, L. Prep, {M, Loini.y Chloroform,
1 dr. i rimple ointment, 1 oz. In neuralgia and
rheumatic pains, ice. It must be kept in a stop-
pered, wide-monthed phial.
. Ointnant of ChxyMiohin. (B. P.) Sjf. Us-
en]iTin(0HSY8ASOBl]ra,L. ChrysarDbin,lpartj
benioated laid, 24 parts. Helt, and stir whilst
hot, so as to promote solution.

Ointment of Cincho'na. Sgn. Ouitkbht oi
>ABK; VvavKrnm aaonosa, L. Prep.
{Biett.) Bed cinchona bark (in very fine powder)
and almond oil, of each, 1 part ; beef marrow
(prepared), 8 parts. In the variety of scald-head
termed porrigo decalvani. A little oil of mace or
tar is a nsefnl addition.

Ointment, Clt'rina. See OimnXT op Nl-

TBAia OV MSBOUBX,.

Ointment of Cobalt, Qzido of. (Amst. Ph.)

m. Ukousntvic oxisi ooBAiffl. Prep. Sim*
pie cerate, 16 oz. ; liquid anbaeetate of lead, 4 oi. ;
powdered smalt, 4 oz.

Ointment of Cocaine. Sj/n, UvavBinrux oo>
CAiHjg. Cocune hydrochlorate, 1 part ; lanoline,
80 parts. Used in neuralgia, shingles, urticaria,
eczema, and pruritus.

Ointment of Coc'eolvs lu'dico*. Sf*. . Uh.
GUiHTUM cooOTM (Ph. E.), L. Prep, (Ph. E.)
Kernels of CoeetUue uuUetu, 1 part ; beat them to
a smooth paste in a mortar, first alone, and next
with a little hud ; then further add of Urd, q. s.,
so that it may be equal to 6 times the weight of
the kernels. Used to destroy pedicnli, and in
scald-head, &c.

Oiatmant of Cod-Uver OIL agn. UHemimrK

OLBI KOBBHirx, U. O. nOOBIB A8ILLI, L. iVm.
Cod-liver oU (paleand recent), 7 parts ; white wax
and spermaceti, of each, 1 port; melted together.
In ophthalmia and opacity of the cornea, either
alone or combined with a little citrine ointment ;
aa a friction or dressing for scrofulous indura-
tions and sores ; in rheumatism, stifF joints, and
in several skin diseases. It often succeeds in
porrigo or scald-head when all other remedies have
failed. Scented with oil of nutmeg and balsam
of Peru, it forms an excellent pomade for
strengthening and restoring the hair.

Ointment of Col'oeynth. 83%. UHaunrrcK
ooLOOTNTHiDlg, L. Prep. {CHrettiem,) Colo-
oy nth pulp (in very fine powder), 1 part; lard,
8 parts. Used in frictions on the abdomen as a
hydmgogue purgative, in mania, dropsy, Ac.

Ointment of CorrosiTe Sublimate, ^a. Onx.

KBNT OF PSBOEXOBIDB OP HBBOITXT; UK-
aVliVTUM ETSBABSTBI PBBCHLOBISI, L. iVw.

1. From corrosive sublimate, 2 to 6 gr. ; rub it to
powder in a glass or wedgwood-ware mortari
add of rectified 8pirit,6or 7drops,or q.s. ; again
triturate; lastly add, gradually, of spermaceti
ointment (reduced to a cream-like state by heat),
1 oz., and continue the trituration until the whole
concretes. Used as a stimulant, detergent, and
diseutient application in various local affections ;
in lepra, pomgo, acne, &c, and as a dressing to
sypUlitic and some other ulcers.

2. (Ph. Chirur.) Corrosive sublimate, 10 gr. ;
yelk of 1 egg ; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing.

8. (PomAnB DB CiBiLLO, P. Cod.) Corrosive
sublimate, 1 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. Caustic ; must not
be confounded with the preceding.

Ointment, Cosmetlo. Sj/n. Hvevvimis oo8-
Hxnorric, L,; Fokkasb db IlA ntrvsasB, Fr.
Prep. (Quinoeg.) Spermaceti, 8 dr. (better, 4i
dr.) ; oil of almonds, 2 oz. ; melt together, and,
when cooled a littie, stir in of nitrate of bismuth
(•white bismuth'), 1 dr.; and, lastly, of oil of
rhodium, 6 drops. In itch and some other cuta-
neous eruptions, but chiefly as a pomade for the
hair. Its frequent. nse is said to turn the latter
black.

Ointuaiit of Cre'aaote. Bf». UxaviiimK
CBBASOXI (B. P., Ph. L., E., D. A U. 8.). L. Prep.
1. (Ph. L.) Creasote, i fl. dr. j bad, 1 os. ; tri-
turate together.

2. (Ph. E.) Lard, 8 oz.; melt it by a gentie
-heat ; add of creasote, 1 dr., and stir the mixture
until it is nearly cold.

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OIimfENT

■ 8. (Ph. D.) Creasote, 1 fl. dr. ; ointment of
wMte wax, 7 dr. ; a« the Isit.

4. (B. P.) Creaaote, 1 part; nmple (dntment, 8
parts. Kix.

Vte», 1(0. In aeveral akin diieaaei, espedally
ringworm ; a« a friction in tic-donlonrenx ; a
dressing for scald* and bumsj an application to
chilblains, &c.

Oiptmant of Cro'ton Oil. Sya. UiraTTiKTUii
OBOTOHIB, Ifc trtp. 1. Croton oil, 16 to 30 drops ;
lard (softened by heat), 1 oz. ; mix well. This is
the usual and most useful strength to prepare
the ointment. Bnbefaoient and counter-irritant ;
in rheumatism and various other diseases. When
rubbed repeatedly on the skin it produces redness
and a pustular eruption. It also often affects the
bowels by absorption. The only advantage it
possesses over otiier preparations of the cUws is
the rapidity of its action.

2. (BtmtAOrKHT FOMASI — Cavmfoii.) White
wax, 1 part; lard, 6 parts; melt together, and,
when quite cold, mince it small, add A croton oil,
2 parts, and mix by trituration. Stronger than
the last.

Oiatmaat of dtenmber. Sgn. Mvavssrjm
OTOmCBBIB, L. Cucnmber juice, 1200 parts;
lard, 1000 parts; veal suet, 600 parts ; balsam of
tolu, dissolved in spirit of wine, 2 parts ; rose-
water, 10 parts. Used as a cooling ointment like
cold cream.

dtttment of Cy'anlde of Ker'cnry. 8fn. Uh-

eUEHTTrU ETDSABSTKI OTAITISI, L. trtf, 1.

(Catmavt^ Cyanide of mercury, 8 gr. ; lard,

1 OS.; carMullv triturated together.

2. (P«r«tra.) Cyanide of mercury, 10 to 12
gr. ; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing for scrofulous and
syphilitic ulcers, &c. ; as an applicasion in pso-
riasis, moist tetters, and some otiier skin diseases,
&o. Biett orders the addition of a few drop* of
essence of lemon.

Ointment of Cyanide of Potaa'sinm. 8g». Uk-
auiwTVK FoiABsn cyAHiDi, L. Trap. (Com-
mavt.) Cyanide of potassiam, 12 gr.; oil of
almonds, 2 dr. ; tritors^ add of cold cream (dry),

2 OS., and mix by careful tritoration. ▲* an
anodyne in neuralgia, rhematism, swelled joints,
&c. ; also as a friction over the spine in hysteria,
and over the epigastrium in gastrodynia,'£c. The
greatest possible care must be used in the employ-
ment of this compound.

Ointment of Sel'pMnine. S^ Vvovmstuk
SKLF RiVLS, L. Prep. {Dr l^itmbull.) Del-
phinine or delphinia, 10 to 80 gr. ; olive oil, 1 dr. ;
lard, 1 OS.; mix as the last. Used as a friction
in rhenmatism, and the other case* in which vera-
trine is employed.

Ointmnit, DepU'atory. Sgn. UNornrrvx sa-
PIlAXOBiuii, L. See Difiuto&t (Catmave't).

Ointment, Sealc'eative. Syn. Dbydtg onir-
XSNT; UirauENTtru OBgiooATiTinf, U. axBic-
OANB, L. See the Oihtiibiitb ot CUiAXnn,
Lbad, Znro, &c

Ointment, Detar'geat. Sgn. Vyavxsnnt. sb-

TBBSBHB, L. The OIBTKBirrB of KIISATB OP
HBBCTBT, KITBIO OZIDB 0* XXBOTTBT, TAB, TBB-

nsBiB, &c., when not too strong, come under this
head.

Ointment, Sigei'tlTe. Sj/n. UHGUBimni si-
&BBTITU1I, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Venice tur-

pentine; 2 ox.; yolks ot 2 eggs; mix, and add cf
oil of St John's-wort, 1 oz.

2. (DiaBBni AJtixi, P. Cod.) As the last,
with an equal weight of liquid s^rax.

8. (DiOBBTIF KBBCDUBL, P. Cod.) A* No. 1,

with an equal weight of merenrial ointment.

4. (Vva. D. viaiSB, Dr Kirkland.) Beeswax,
gum elemi, and yellow resin, of each, 1 oz. ; green
oil, 6 oz. ; melt them together, and, when con-
siderably cooled, add of oil of turpentine, 2 dr.

Ointment, Edinburgh. Two compounds are
known under this name. 1. (Bnowir.) From
black basilicon, 6 parts; miUc of sulphur, 2
parts; sal-ammoniac, 1 part.

2. (Wbiib.) From white hellebore, S os.;
sal-ammoniac, 2 os. ; lard, 1 lb. Both are used
in itch.

Ointment of Iggi. ^*. Uksuzktux oto-
BVK, L. Prep. 1. Tolk of 1 egg; honey and
fresh linseed oil, of each, 1 os. ; balsam of Pem,_
i dr. ; mix well.

i. {Soubeiran.) Beeswax, 4 dr.; oil of almonds,
\\ oz. ; yolk of 1 egg. As an emollient and
soothing dressing to excoriations, irritable ulcers,
&c.

Ointment, Egyp'tian. Prep, (Giordaao.)
Burnt alum, 1 ^axt ; verdigris, 10 parts ; strong
vinegar, 14 parts; puriBed honey (thick), S8
part*; mix l^ heat and agitation. As a deter-
gent application to foul ulcers. It is a modifica-
tion of the ' VKacmTUM MattviMsw. ' of old
pharmacy.

Ointment of Udor Flowan. ^n. Whitb

BLDBB OnrTHBHT ; UHaCBlTTinf BAMBUOI BIO-

BC1C, U. BAXBUOi (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
L.) Elder flowers and lanl, of each, 1 lb.; boil
them together until the flowers become crisp,
then stndn, with pressure, through a linen cloth.
The same precautions must be observed a* are
necessary in the preparation of the medicated mis
by infusion. Emolhent ; less white and odoron*
than the following.

2. (Wholeeale.) Take of lard (hard, whiter
and sweet), 26 lb*. ; prepared mutton suet, 6 ib*. ;
melt them in a well-tinned copper or earthen
vessel, add of elder-flower water, 3 galls. ; agitate
briskly for about i an hour, and set it aside ; the
next day gentiy pour off the water, remelt the oint-
ment, and add of benzoic acid, 6 dr. ; otto of roses,
20 drops ; oil of bergamot and oil of rosemary, of
each, 1 dr. ; again agitate well, let it settle for 10
minutes, and tiien pour off the clear portion into
pots for sale. Very agreeable, and keep* well.

Obi. The last formula is the one now generally
adopted by the large wholesale houses.

Ointment of Elder Iieaf. Sg». Eldbb onrr-

KBKT, QBBBH B. O. ; UXOUBHTVK TIBIDK, U.
8AXBT70I TIBIDB, U. BAXBVOI (Ph. D. 1826), L.

Prep. 1. (Ph. D. 1826.) Fresh elder leave*
(bruised), 8 lbs.; suet, 4 lbs. ; lard, 2 lb*. ; boil
together as above.

2. (Wholesale.) Qood fresh lard, 1 owt. ; fieah
elder leaves, 66 lbs.; boil till crisp, strain off the
oil, put it over a slow ilre, add hard prepared
mutton suet, 14 lbs., and gently stir it until it
acquire* a bright green colrar.

Oit. The above ointment is reputed to be
emollient and cooling, and has always been a great
favourite with the common people. Both wder-

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flower and elder-leaf ointment are, however, an-
neoeaaiy prepamtioni, "They are vestigei of
tberednndant piactiee of former timet" {A. T.
Tkotueni). The above formuls are those now al-
XDOatexdnBively employed in trade. The ointment
■honld be allowed to cool very alowly; and after
its temperature baa fallen a little, and it begins
to thicken, it should not be stirred, in order that
it may 'grain' well, as a granular appearance
is mnch admired. It is a common practice to
add powdered verdigris to deepen the colour, but
then the ointment does not keep well. This
dugerona frand may be detected in the manner
noticed under Cshati, Satikb.

Ointment of Elecampane. Sfn. UireVKHTUK
nnrug. Prep, Fresh elecampane root (boiled
till soft and pulped), 1| oz. ; lard, 1 oz. Mix.

Ointment of El'emL &(■». Bauak o> AsciBVit;
Vvaxrawm. budii (B. P., Ph. L. h D.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) £lemi, 8 oa. ; suet, 6 ox. j melt
them together, remove the vessel from the fire,
and stir in of common turpentine, 2i oi. j olive
oil, i fl. 01. J lastly, strun the whole through a
linen doth.

8. (Ph. D.) Besin of elemi, 4 oi. ; ointment of
white wax, 1 lb. j melt them together, strain
tbroDgh flannel, and stir the mixture constantly
until it concretes.

8. (B. P.) Elemi, 1; simple ointment, 4; melt
andatnin.

Ueu, ire. Stimulant and digestive. It is fre-
qu«ntly employed to keep open issues and setons.
Mid as a dressing for old and ill-conditioned sores.
Hie 'TOO. BLiKi cmx MRVaiVM ' of St Gorge's
Hospital is made by adding 1 dr. of finely pow-
dered verdigris to every 6 oz. of the ointment.

Ointment, Xaeharoflc. Sgn. Uhoubvtux
MCBARCmovu, L. Frep. (Sir B. Brodie.) Cor-
roaive sublimate, Idr.; nitric oxide of mercury,
■nlphato of copper, and verdigris, of each 8 dr. (il
in Tocj fine powder) ; lard, q. s. See OnrmavT,
and CxiUTX, ABSBnoui.

Ointment of Eacalyptna. (B. P.) %•. Ux-
eiijUTUJf BroALTPTi. Oil of eucalyptus, 1 part j
hard and soft paraffin, of each, 1 part. Melt the
pataffina, add the oil, and stir till cold.

Otntaeut of Xnpkorbiwn. (^Drlfeligan.) Sfn.
VsBVMBTUu BirPHOBsn. iV«i>. Powdered eu-
phorbiam, 26 to 30 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. ; mix. To
keep up a discharge from issues.

<Hntment, Eye. 1. (2)e*iauU.) Nitric oxide of
mercury, carbonate of nnc, acetate of lead, and
dried alum, of each, 1 dr. ; corrosive sublimate,
10 gr.; rose ointment, 1 oz. In chronic oph-
tlialmia, profuse discharges, &c.; generally
dilated.

2. (Dtipiij/treu.) Bedoxideof mercury, 10 gr.;
•olphate of zinc, 20 gr. ; lard, 2 oz. for chronic
inflammation of the eyelids, chronic ulcers, Ac.

8. (Bigtnt.) Acetate of lead and red precipi-
tate, of each, 1 dr. ; camphor, 6 gr. ; washed fresh
batter, 2i ox. As the last, and in chronic ulcera-

4. (Singleton's SOU>Bir oiHTHBHT.) According
to Dr Paris, this compound consists of lard medi-
cated with oipiment (native yellow sulphuret of
arsenie). Theora appears, however, to be some
mistake in this, as that sold us under the name
had nearly the same composition as the onmancT

0¥ iriiBio oxisB OT KBB017BT of the Pluuitta-
copoeia. It did not contain even a trace of either
arsenic or sulphur. The action of this nostrum,
and the reputation which it has acquired, fully
justify this conclusion.

6, {Smtllame.) From verdigris (levigated),
i dr. i olive oil, 1 fl. dr. ; triturate together ; add
of yellow basilicon, 1 oz., and agun triturate until
it begins to concrete. A popular nostrum, some-
times useful in chronic inflammation and ulcera-
tions of the eyelids, &c., espedally in those of a
scrofulous character.

6. (Spielmatm.) Acetate of lead, 20 gr. ; sper-
maceti cerate, 6 dr. ; compound tincture of ben-
zoin, 40 gr. Cooling, desiccative. In inflamed
eyelids, excoriations, Sec.

7. {8t Tvt.) Fresh butter (washed), 1 oz. ;
white wax, 1 dr. ; camphor, 15 gr. ; melt by a
gentle heat, and, when cooled a little, add of red
precipitate (levigated), i dr. ; oxide of zinc, 20
gr. In chronic inflammation of the coats of the
eye or of the eyelids, specks on the cornea, &c

8. (Thom*o».) Levigated oxide of zinc, Idr. {
lard, 9 dr. ; wine of opium, 20 drops. In chronic
ophthalmia depending on want of tone in the
vessels and integuments of the eye.

9. [Ware.) Wine of opium, 1 fl. dr.; simple
ointment, 8 dr. In ophthalmia, after the inflam-
matory symptoms have subsided, and the vessels
remain red and turgid.

06*. The ingredients entering into the com-
position of all the above ointments must be reduced
to the state of impalpable powder before mixing
them J and the incorporation should be made by
long trituration in a wedgwood-ware mortar, or,
preferably to those that contain substances that
are very gritty, bylevigation on a porphyry slab
with a muUer. The most serious consequences,
even blindness, have resulted from the neglect of
these precautions. They should all be employed
in exceedingly small quantities at a time, and they
should be very carefully applied by means of a
camel-hair pencil or a feather ; and, in general,
not until acute inflammation has subsided. The
stronger ones, in most cases, require dilation with
an equal weight to twice their weight of lard or
simple ointment, and should only be used of their
fall strength under proper medical advice. Va-
rious other formula for ophthixkio oibtxbht8
will be found under the names of their leading
ingredients.

Ointment of Fig'wort. See OnrncBirT o>

SCBOFHTXASU.

Ointment of Voz'glove. Sj/». Vsavxirruu
siaiiAUB, L. Prtp. 1. From fresh foxglove as
ointment of hemlock (Ph. L.). As an application
to chronic ulcen, glandular swellings, ic.

2. (Sademaeher.) Extract of foxglove, 2 dr. ;
lard, 1 oz. In croup; spread on lint, and applied
as a plaster to the throat.

Ointment of Tuligokall. See F<7LiaoEAU,

Ointment of Galls, Sjm. UHauBimnc oauus
(B, P,. Ph. D,), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D.) GaU-
nuts Qn very fine powder), 1 dr.; ointment of
white wax, 7 dr. ; rub them together until a uni-
form mixture is obtained.

2. (B. P.) Galls, in very fine powder, 80 gr. ;
benzoated lard, 1 oz. Mix, An excellent appli-
cation to pilee, either alone or mixed with an equal

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onrruEiirT

qoMiti^ of line dniment ; alao highly nief ul in
ringworm of the scalp.

Ointment of Omilt with Camphor. Ssf. Ux-
euiHTCK salilB omc oixphosa. Prtp. Oalli,
2 dr. ; camphor, i dr. ; lard, 1 oz. Mix them.

Ointment of Salli with Korphla. Syn. XJs-
OUENTini SALLJB BT KOBPHIJB (Dr Parit). Mor-
phia, 2 gr. ; olive oil Hiot), 2 fl. dr. j triturate ;
add of zinc ointment (Ph. L.), 1 oz. ; powdered
galls, 1 dr. ; mix thoronghly. In piles. The
quantity of galla shonld be doubled.

Ointment of Galls and Oplnm. UvouBimrv
OASLS ouu OFio (B. P.), CxauEirrnii ^aulm

OPIATtrX, U. dAIiLS COMPOIITXnC (Ph. L.), IT.

SAILS n OFii (Ph. E.). Pr»p. 1. (Ph. L.)
Qall-nuts (very finely powdered), 6 dr.; pow-
dered opinm, H dr. ; lard, 6 oz. ; rub them
together,

2. (Ph. E.) (tells, 2 dr. ; opiam, 1 dr. ; lard,
1 oz. ; as the last. *

8. (B. P.) Ointment of galls, 1 oz. j opium
(in powder), 82 gr. Mix.

Utaf, Sfe. A most valuable astringent and
anodyne in blind piles, slight cases of prolapsns
sni, Ac. Some practitioners add 1 dr. of cam-
phor. The ointment of the Ph. E. is much the
strongest.

Ointment of Garlic. £fy». Vhowktuk allh,
L. Pr«p. 1. Fresh garlic (bruised), 2 parts;
lard, 8 parts ; simmer together for f an hour, and
then strun with expression. Bnbbed on the ab-
domen in chronic diarrhoea and colic, and over
the chest and spine in hooping-cough.

2. {Btatlty.) Fresh garUo and lard, eqnal
parts ; beaten together. Applied to the feet in
hooping-cough.

Ointment, Oiaeominl'i. See OiHmirr, Chil-
BiiAnr.

Ointment of Olyoerln. ^n. UxevraruK
oiiTOEBiKi. Prtp. Glycerin, 4 fl. oz.; dl of
idmonds, 8 fl. oz. ; wax and spermaceti, of
esch, i oz.

Ointment of Glycerin of Bnbacetate of Lead.

(B. P.) Sgn. UvaVBHTUlC aLTOKBDri PLWBI

nTBAOBTATig, L. Olycerin of subacetate of
lead, 1 part ; soft paraffin, 4 parts ; hard paraffin,
li parts. Melt, mix, and stir till cold.

Ointment of Gold. ^/n. XlvawsTOU attbi,
L.; PoMKASB d'ob, Fr. Prep. 1. (Ltgrand.)
Gold (in powder), 12 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. As a
dressing for syphUitic nlcers, and as a friction
in glandnlar indnrations, Ac. ; also endermically,

2. (Magtndit.) Amalgun of gold, 1 dr. ; lard,
1 oz. For endermic use chiefly. When the sur-
face becomes dry, the ointment of terchloride of
gold is to be substituted as a dressing. In rheu-
matic pains, neuralgia, Ac

Ointment Gold'en. See Onmnirr, Etb;
Cinuin O., ko.

(Hntment, Gondref s. See Oihtkbht, Auvo-

VUOA£.

Ointment, Govlard't. ^it. Uhoubhtuh Gou-

I.ABI>I, U. UTHASaTBI AOBTATIB, L. Prtp.

(Ph. Chimr.) Goulard's extract, 1 dr.; sim^e
'ointment, 2 oz. See Cbbatb (Lead).

Ointment, Green. See OnrrxBHT, Eldbb.

Ointment of Hamamelii. ^. Vswrnrrmt
'EAILAKBLIDI8, L. (B. P.) Liquid extract of hama-
melis, 1 part ; simple witment, 9 parts. Mix wdl.

Um. Astringent and sedative in piles.
Ointment of Hel'lebore. %■. OumDRrr o*

WHITB HBI.LBBOBB; UNSUBBTUX TBBJlTBI, L.

Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) White hellebora (in
very fine powder), 2 oz.; lard, 8 oz. ; oil of
lemons, 20 drops. In itch, lepra, ringworm, Ac. ;
and to destroy insects iu the hur of children. It
should be used with caution, and, preferably,
diluted with an eqnal weight of lard.

2. (Compound: UHOmiKTlTii tbbatbi oox-
P0BIT17X.) a. (Sager.) White hellebore, 1 oz. ;
sal-ammoniac, | oz.; lard, 8 oz. Used as the
last

b. See SviiFHint OunxBirt (Compoond),
Ph. L.

Ointment of Hemloeli. Sy». UtrauBirruK cokh
(B. P.), L. Prep, 1. Jnice of hemloclc, 2 oa.;
hydroos wool fat, { oz. ; boric acid (in fine pow-
der), 10 gr.; evaporate the juice to 2 dr. at •
temperature not exceeding 60° C. ; then mix all
well together.

2. (Ph. L.) Fresh hemlock leaves and lard, of
each, 1 lb. ; boil them together (very gently) until
the leaves become crisp, then strain through linen,
with pressure. See Oiu (Medicated).

8. Extract of hemlock, 1 dr. ; lard, 9 dr. ; tri-
tnrate together.

Ueet, 6^e. As a local anodyne in neuralgic and
rheumatic pains, glandnlar enlargements, painful
piles, &c i and as a dreuing to painful and irri-
table ulcers, cancerous sores, to.

Ointment of Hen'bane. Sgn. CKecBNTUx
BTOSCTAMi, L. Prep. 1. Fresh henbane leaves,
1 lb. ; lard, 2 lbs. ; boil until nearly crisp.

2. (Taddei.) Extract of henbane, 1 dr. ; lard,

1 oz. Anodyne; in painful piles, sores, Ac, as
the last.

OintmMit, Eolloway's. See Paxbst Mkdi-

0IHI8.

Ointment of Hops. Sy*. Cvoubittcic litfuxi,
L. Prep. {Svediaur.) Hops (commercial), 8 oz.;
lard, 10 oz. ; as extract of hemlock. Ph. L. In
painful piles and cancerous sores.

Ointment of Hydri'odate of Ammo"ttia. £Sy».
Vsaxrannnt Axuosijs btsbiodatib, L. Pnp.
From hydriodate of ammonia (iodide of ammo-
nium), i dr. ; simple ointment, 1 os. Used chiefly
as an application to scrofulous tomonrs and ulcers
in irritable subjects.

Ointment of Eydroehlo"rle Add. Sya. V»-
avKSTUX Aoisi HTDBOCELOBKX, L. Prep. [Dr
Corrigan.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 dr.; simple
ointment, 1 oz. As a dressing for scald-hmd,
after the scalM have been removed by emollient
liniments or poultices.

Ointmentof EypochIo"rlteofIiime. Sg*. Omr-

XEST OF OHLOBISB OF UKX ; UH&UBNIUK OAL-
OXB HYFOOHIiOBITIg, U. 0. OHLOBUTATX, L. Prep.

1. From chlorinated lime (chloride of lime), 1
dr. ; lard, 1 oz. ; carefully triturated together. In
scrofulous swellings,' goitre, chilblains, indolent
glandular tumours, &c

2. Chlorinated lime, 1 dr. ; powdered foxglove,

2 dr. ; simple ointment, 2 oz. As an application
to fetid and malignant ulcers, &c.

Ointment of Eypochlo"rite of Bnl'phar. Sign.

UireUBIlTUII BT7I.PHUBIB HYFOOELOBITIB, L.

Prep. {Dr Copland.) Hypochlorite of snlphnr,
1 dr.; simple ointmiBnt, 1-os. It is generally

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1168

Mantad with oil of klmondi. Uud in paoriuii
iBTeterata, and some other ikin dinaaei.

Ointment of I'odide of Ar'ianio. Syn. TJir-
svnmnc iLSSssioi losm, L. Prep, (Siett.)
■Iodide of arsenic, 2 to 8 gr. ; lard, 1 ox. ; oarefnlly
triturated to(^ther. In lepra, paoriasis, Ac. ; and
in corroding tnhercnlar diuates. It shonld be
naed with cantion, and not more than i dr. applied
at once.

(Mntment of Ibdlda of Ba"Tliua. Syu. Uk-
AUJiiiTuif BABn lODisi, L. Fnp. {Magndie.)
Iodide of bariam, 8 to 4 gr. ; lard, 1 oi. Ai a
Aiction to gcrafaloo* swellings and indnrations.
The osnal proportions are now 6 gr. to the oz.

Ointment of Iodide of Iron. {Pierq%i».) 8y*.
XJssawKTOu nsBi iodisi, L. Prtp. Iodide of
iron, 1 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. Mix them.

OlntaMBt of Iodide of I«ad. 8yn. UiraTrKr-
■rmc nvvsi lomoi (B. P., Fh. L. and D.), L.
JVep. 1. (Ph. L.) Iodide of lead, 1 oz.; lard,8
oa. ; mb them tc^ether.

2. ^Fh. D.) Iodide of lead (in fine powder), 1
dr. ; ointment of white wax, 7 dr.

3. (B. P.) Iodide of lead (in fine powder), 62
gr. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. Mix. An excellent
•pplieatioo to scrofaloas tnmonrs and swelled
glands, espemallj when accompanied with pain.

Ointment of Green Iodide of Ker'^nry. Pr»p. 1.

(OnmCBITT 01 STTBIODIDI OF UBBOiniT, O. OP
PBOnODIDB OF U.* ; UKaUBHTUK HTOBABSYSI

XODISI — Ph. L.) White wax, 2 oz. ; lard, 6 oz. ;
melt them together, add of iodide (green iodide)
of mercury, 1 oz., and rub them well together.

2. {Iffagendie.) Green iodide of mercury, 28
gr. ; lard, 1-^ oz.

Ditet, See. In tnbercnlar skin diseases, as a
friction in scrofulous swellings and indolent
gfrannlar tnmonrs, and as a drassing for ill-con-
ditioned nloers, especially those of a scrofulous
character.

OfartmeBt of lad Iodide of Xorenzy. 9g*. O.

OF BDnOBISB OF X.* ; DiranBirlTni ETDBABeVBI
IODISI BUBBI (B. p.), UvaUBKTUX HYDBABSTBI
BnnOBIDI*, v. H. IODISI BTTBBI (Ph. D.), L.

trtp. 1. (Ph. D.) Red iodide of mercnry 1,
dr. ; ointment of white wax, 7 dr. ; mix by care-
ful trituration.

2. (fioainroa.) Bed iodide of mercury, 20 gr. ;
lard, lioi.

• 8..(B. P.^ Bed iocBde of mercoiy (in veiy
fine powder), 16 gr. { simple ointment, 1 oi.
Juz.

IJtt*, t(c. Similar to those of the preceding,
hnt it is much more stimulant, and is regarded aa
better adapted for obstinate syphilitic sores.
Ijaorgely diluted with lard or ahno^ oil, it is ap-
plied to the eyes in like cases.

Mntmant of Iodide of Potas'siam. Sy%. Vs-
CirDTirx FOTAsan iodidi (B. P., Ph. L. and D.),
!<. Pnp, 1. (Ph. L.) Iodide of potassium, 2
dr., diasolred in boiling distilled water, 2 il. dr.]
lard (softened by heat), 2 oz. ; triturate together
nntil united.

2. (Fb. D.) Iodide of potasdnm, 1 dr. ; distilled
water, i fl. dr. ; Mntment of white wax, 7 dr. ; as
before.

8. (Magandie.) Iodide of potasdnm, 1 dr.|
laid. 18 dr.

4. (£« 0ro».) Iodide, 1^ dr. ; lard, 1 oz.

6. (B. P.) Iodide of potassinm, 64 gr. ; car-
bonate of potash, 4 gr. ; distilled water, 1 dr. ;
benzoated lard, 1 oz. ; dissolve the carbonate and
the iodide in the water, and mix tboronghly with
the lard.

V*et, S;e. As a friction in scrofula, bioncho-
oele, glandular enlargements, indurations, &c. ;
as a dressing to scrofulous ulcers, as an applica-
tion in scrofulous ophthalmia, and in most of the
other applications in which the employment of
iodine is indicated. The last formula has been
snccessfnlly employed by H. Le Gros in itch.

Obi. The sl3«ngth of this ointment as pre-
scribed by different physicians varies greatly, the
proportions of the iodide ranging from ^ to ^ of
the whole, to adapt it to particular cases. When
other ingredients are added, the iodide must be
used in a perfectly drv state, and in fine powder,
instead of being dissolved in water. This is par-
ticularly necessary when it is to be mixed with
mercurial ointment.

Ointment of Iodide of Bolphwr. 8^ Uir-
ouBimjii BiTiiPHrBiB iodidi (B. P.), L. JVep.
Iodide of sulphur, 6 parts; hard paraffin, 18
parts ; soft paraffin, 66 parts. Powder the iodide,
and mix with the melted paraffins.

ITmi, ir. As a local stimulant and alterative
in the chronic forms of lepra, lupus, porrigo,
peoriaris, itch, Ac. ; also a remedy for acne punc-
tata. A few drops of oil of cloves or natm^ are
commonly added.

Ointment of Iodide of Use. Aw- Cncivbk-
TUX znroi iodidi, L. Prep. 1. From iodide of
zinc, 18 gr. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. In scrofu-
lous excoriations, and in the chronic ophthalmia
of scrofulous subjects, arising from a relaxed
state of the tissues and vessels.

2. {fir Dre.) Iodide of cine, 1 dr.; lard, 1
oz. As a friction to glandular tnmonrs and in-
durations, and as a dressing to flabby and obsti-
nate scrofulous ulcers.

OiBtmeat of I'odlne. ^jnt. UyemDmrx
lODi (B. P.), Uire-UBHCUX iodibh (Ph. U. S.),
L. Prtp. 1. (B. P.) Iodine, 82 gr. ; iodide of
potassium, 82 gr. j glycerin, 1 dr. ; rub together
and add prepaid Iwd, 2 oz. See OnrrJtBKX o>
lODiKB (Compound) .

2. (Ph. U. S.) Iodine, 20 gr.; rectified spirit,
20 dropa ; rub uiem together, tiien add of lud, 1
oz.

Ointment of Iodine (Componnd). %a. Onri-
mnrr of iodvbbtfbd iodidb of FOTigBnrx;

nHSraBTirx FOTA88II IODIDI IODVXBT0X, U.

lODnrn oompohtti'x (Ph. L. and D.), U. lo-
Dorn (Ph. S.), L. a. (Ph. L.) Prtp. Iodide of
potassium ^n ytsry fine powder), 1 dr. ; lard, 8
oz. ; mix, then add of iodine, \ ia. ; dissolved in
rectified spirit, 1 flv dr., and mix all together.
See OramBBT of Iodikb (B. P.).

h. (Ph. E.) Iodine, 1 dr. ; iodide of potassiuni,
2 dr. ; rub them together, then gradually add oC
lard, 4 M.

o. (Fh. D.) Pure iodine, \ dr. ; iodide of
potassinm, 1 dr. ; rub them well together in a
glass or porcelain mortar, then gradnallj^ add of
mntment of white wax, 14} dr., and continue the
trituration until a uniform ointment is obtained.

Vm*, &e. The compound ointment is an ex- '
eellent motion in goitre, and in enlarged or

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OINTMENT

indnnted gkndi or tnmoan, more especially
those of a icrofiiloiu character; in the quantity
of I to 1 dr., night and morning. It may be
•dTantageooily combined with e^bract of bella-
donna in the incipient bubo of lerofuloni sub-
ject*, and in the early stagres of caocerj and,
with an et^oal weight of mereorial ointment, as a
friction in oases of enlarged Urer and spleen, and
ovarian dropsy. The simple ointment of the Fh.
V. S. is generally regarded as weaker and less
efficacious than the comj^oond.
Ointment of Iodo-ohl»"iide of Knenry. £jy«.

UVSVIXTVM BTDBASeYBI lODO-BIOELOUSI*,

L. Pr«p. From iodo-ehloride of mercniy, 16
gr. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. Disoutientj pro-
bably one of the most powerfU known in syphilitic
cases complicated with scrofula. See OnrricaBT
or Celosiodidb of Miboviit.

Ointment of Iodoform. Syt. UvauanvK
lODOVOBXl (B. P.), L. iVm. Iodoform, 1
part ; benxoated lard, 9 parts. Mix.

(Hntment, lodo-hydnr gyrate of Fotatia. %».

VvaVMSTVH POTAS&B lODO-HTDBABO-TBATIB, L.

Prtp, I. (Lamoiht.) lodo-hydrorgyrate of po-
tassa, 20 gr.; lard, 1 oz.

2. {Puohe.) Bed iodide of mercury and iodide
of potassium, of each, 8 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. As a
powerful stimulant ^sentient j in tumours, in-
flammatory sore throat, &c.

Ointment, lodo-naioofie. Sj/n. VvavKxrVM.
lODO-NABOOTiomi, L. Prap. {Puni*.) Iodine,
20 gr. ; iodide of potassium, 2 cbr. ; oil ot tobacco
(by infusion), li dr. ; lard, 8 dr. To relax rigid
muscles.

Ointment, Is'cae. ^n. UirauBirTUX asfoh-
TlotriiOB, L. Pr*p, iCh>ldi)ig-Sird.) Oint-
ment of cantharide* (Ph. L.), li oz. j tartar
«gMtic Qn impalpable powder), 8 gr. j spermaceti
ointment, 2 oz. As a stimulating application to
issues, to promote the discharge. See Elxxi
OranaNT, Cbbatb, Pi^astbb, Ac.

Ointment, Itch. <Sys. UvauBHivx Avn-
noBlouK, L. Several excellent formnle for
itch ointments will be found under the names of
their leading ingredients. The following are
additional ones, including some nostrums :

1. (JSattqr.) From alum, nitre, and sulphate
of zinc, of esdi, in very fine powder, H oz. ; ver-
milion, i oz. J mix, add gradually of sweet oil, i
pint J triturate together until perfectly mixed,
then further add of Isrd (softened b^ heat), 1 lb.,
with oils of aniseed, lavender, and ongannm, q. §.
to perfume.

2. (Bataman.) Carbonate of potassa, i Oz.;
rose-water, 1 fl. oz. ; red sulphnret of mercury, 1
dr. ; oil of bergamot, i fl. dr. ; sublimed suMinr
and hog's lard, of each, 11 oz. ; mix them (Bate-
man, ' Cutaneous Diseases '). The nostrum vended
under the name is made as follows : — Carbonate of
potash, 1 OS.; vermilion, S dr.; sulphur, 1 lb.; lard,
l^lbs.; rose-water, 8 fl.oz.; oil of bergamot, 11 dr.

S. (French Hosp.) Chloride of lime, 1 dr.;
rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr.; sweet oil, | fl. oz. ; com-
uuM salt and sulphur, of each, 1 oz. ; soft soap, 2
OS. ; oil of lemon, 80 drop*. Cheap, eflectual, and
inoffensive.

4. {Dt la Sarpe.) Sulphur, 2 oz. ; powdered
white hellebore, i oz. ; sulphate of iae, i oz. ;
soft soap, 4 oz. ; liud, 8 oz.

6. [Jaekio».) From palm oil, flowers of sul-
phur, and white hellebon, of each, 1 part; lard,
2 parts.

6. (Ifugnt.) From white-lead, 2 ox.; orris
root, 1 oz. ; corrosive sublimate, in very fine pow-
der, I oz. ; palm oil, 4 oz. ; lard, 1^ lbs.

7. (Ph. E. 1744.) Elecampane root and sharp,
pointed dock (B»mtx ootrfw, Linn.), of each,
bruised, 3 oz. ; water, 1 quart; vinegar, } pint;
boil to one half, add of water-cress, 10 oz. ; lard,
4 lbs. ; boil to dryness, and stnun with expression ;
to the strained liqnid add of beeswax and oil of
bays, of each, 4 os., and stir the mixture nntil
nearly cold.

8. (Uva. A. ooKP.-Ph. E. 1744.) To each
lb. of the last add of strong mercurial ointment,
2oz.

9. (RoberUon.) Soft soap, 1 oz.; rum, 1 tabla<
spoonful i chloride of lime (dry and good), i oz. ;
mix, and add of lard, 2 oz.

10. (SiBtdiaar.) Stavesaore (in powder), 1 oa. ;
lard, 8 oz. ; digest with heat for 8 hours, and
then *train. The formula of the Ph. Bran*, is
nearly similar. Very useful in itch ; also to de-
stroy pediculi.

11. (Tkonuon.) Chloride of lime and com*
mon salt, of each, in fine powder, 1 dr.; soft
soap, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr. ; mix, add
of lard, 1 OS.; and laitly, of strong vinegar, 9
fl. dr. Very cleanly and effective; but should
not be made in qnantitv, as it does not keep weU.

12. (Vcigt.) Chlonde of lime (diy), 2 dr.;
bnmt alum, 8 dr. ; lard, 9 dr. To be mixed with
an equal quantity of soft soap at the time of
fusing it.

Obt. The products of the preceding formula)
are used by well rubbing them into the part
affiscted, night and morning, as long as necessary,
the number of applications required depending
greatly on the manner in which this is done.

Wntment of I'vy. Sg». UNamuiTux hbsbkb,
L. Pnp. From the leaves of common ivy, 1^
infusion, as ointment of henbane. Used aa an
application to soft corns, in itidi, and as a dress-
ing to indolent ulcers and issues.

OintiMBt Of Jatiopha (PKzuo-iniT). The
milky juice of the English physic-nnt (Jatropia
eureat) mixed with half its weight at lard. In
piles.

Ointment of Jnniper. Sj/n. UvevBHTUX jmi-
FBBi, L. JPrap. Juniper leaves, 1 part; resin
ointment, 6 parts ; boil gently and strain.

Ointment of Ja"aip«r-tar. 4^". UxauBimnc

OIiBZ FTBOLieVI rUVIPBBI, U. OASIVVlf, L. tirtf.
(JSra*. WiUoik) Lurd and auetv of each, 6
part* ; beeswax, 4 parts ; liquefy by heat, and add
of pyroligneons oil of jnniper (' hnile de oade '),
16 parts; with a few ^ps of any fragrant essen-
tial oil, to conceal the smell. In ringworm, and
as a stimulant ointment in some other skin dis-
eases.

Ointment of Kaolin. Sj/n. VvavMxrvu xao-
LIMI. lV«p. Vaseline, 1 part ; paiafSn, 1 part ;
melt, and Md kaolin (in powder), 1 part. Used
as a protective to allay irritation of the skin;
also as a pill ezcipient for permanganate of
potassium.

Ointment, Klrkland's. See Lbas Ovmtm
(Compound).

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1166

Ofartaunt of IaMmiud. (Quiaey.) Sy*. Un-
s-UKHTUM cimnBOUic. Prtf. Labdanam, 6 dr. ;
liear'a grease, 2 ox.; powdered soathemwood, 8
dr. ; oil of mace, 1 dr. ; balsam of Pern, 2 dr.

Ointmeat of I^rd. S^*. UveiTBirTUX asifib,
L. iVcp. (Ph. L.1788.) Prepared lard, 2 lbs. ;
melt, add of roee-water, 8 fl. oz. ; beat the two
well together, theu set the venel aside, and when
the whole is cold, separate the concealed fat. A
ample emollient. See Oihtkbitt, Eldsb.

OintB«at of Lan'reL S<f%. Laubihb oiht-
Mnrr; Usevnnmx lAxmnmr, U. iaubi kobixis,
IiL inp. 1. (Ph. Lnsit.) Saet (softened by
best), 8 oa. ; laurel oil (expressed oU of bay), 1
lb. ; <b1 of tnrpentine, I4 os. This is the ' nervine
halwam ' and ' nervine ointment ' of the shops in
the Peninanls, and in some other parts of Sonthem
Bmnpe. The Ph. Bat. 1805 added i oz. of recti-
fied oil of amber.

2. (P. Cod.) Fresh bay leaves and berries
(bmised), of each, 1 lb. ; lard, 2 lbs. ; as hemlock
oiiitanent (Ph. L.). Highly esteemed on the
Continent as a stimulating friction, in bruises,
sfaeaias, stiff joints, &c., and in deafness.

8. (1>ade.) FK>m fresh bay leaves, S lbs.;
bay berries, 1 lb. ; neaf s-f oot oil, S pints ; boil as
last ; to the strained oil add of lard snet, 9 lbs. ;
tme oil of bay, ^ lb., and allow it to cool very
slowly, in order that it may 'grain' welL Sold
for laurel ointment and common oil of bay.

OiBtnent of LavendeT. (^aams.) By*. Olbuii
■LLytxwLM, L. iV«p. Lard, 2i lbs. ; lavender
flowers, 10 lbs. ; white wax, 8 os. Melt the lard,
digest with 2 lbs. of the flowers for 2 hours, and
strain ; repeat this with fresh flowers till all are
used ; melt the ointment and leave it at rest to
cool ; separate the moisture and dregs, and melt
the ointment with the wax.

OUtaent of Lead. Sg%. UKevxirTUM PLtTHBl,
U.LiTHABaTBl(P. Cod.),L. iVep. 1. Litharge,
3 oz.; distilled vinegar, 4 01.; olive oil, 9 oz. ;
mix with heat, and stir nntil they combine.
Camphor, morphia, and opium are common addi-
tions to lead ointment when an anodyne efTect is
desirable.

2. (Compoand:NBiiTBAi.onrc]fXHT, Hiaeors'

a, KlXELAVS'S 0.; UMeXTBHTirX HKUTBAUI, U.

purxBi coMPoaiTVX — Ph. L.) Lead plaster, 2
Ihe. ; oBve oil, 18 fl. ox. j mix by a gentle heat, voA.
add of prepared chalk, 6 oz. ; lastly, add of dilute
acetic aeidC 6 fl. os., and stir well until the mass
has cooled. As a dressing in indolent nlcers,
« bat its ntiUly is doubtful " (Dr Oarrod).

O61. It WW be observed that the College has
already modified the old formula of this ointment.
The vinegar is now. the last ingredient added to
the mass. " Oradnally add the chalk, separately
mixed with the vinegar, the effervescence being
finished, and stir," Ac. (Ph. L. 1886). See AoB-

TATB OV LBAS, CABBOHATB Of L., CH£0RIDI OP

L., loonn or L. ; Etb, QoviMua'a, Lb Mobt's,
and otiier oiimfiBTS oontaimng lead.

(Matmmt, le Korf *. iVsp. Carbonate of lead,
coRosive sublimate, litharge, and Venice tur-
pentine, of each, 1 ox. ; alnm, i os. ; laid, i lb. ;
vermilion, q. s. to colour.

Ointarat of Xassi Sjr*. Vsavxjmni xa-
OIDU. L. Brep, Vtommaee (beaten to a paste)
and palm oil, of each, 1 lb. ; purified beef marrow.

3 lbs.; gently melted together and strained.
Emollient and stimnlant; chiefly nsed as a
pomade for the hair. Sold for ' common cnl of
mace.'

Ointment of Kanh-mallow. .%». Unoubvtox
ALTHJLS, DiALTHjUB, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1746.)
Oil of mucilages, 2 lbs. ; beeswax, i lb. ; yellow
retin, 8 oz.; melt them together, then add of
Venice turpentine, i oz., and stir the mixture
until it concretes.

2. (Wholesala) From palm oil, i lb. ; yellow
resin, li lbs. ; beeswax, H lbs. ; pale linseed <dl,
9 lbs. (say 1 gsU.) ; melt together and stir until
it is nearly cold.

27t««, ife. Emollient and stimnlant; seldom
used in regular practice, but in great repute
amongst the common people. Linseed oil is now
almost universally substituted for the oil of
mndlages.

(Mntmeat of Hasterwort. Sfn. PoiotAsa

ABTI-OAXOiBBrBI DB MtUVg; UNeVBirTTTK
ncPBBATOBLC, L. JPnp. (Saatltg.) Powdered
masterwort {Imptratotia oitruthitim), H oz.;
tincture of masterwort, 1 oz. ; lard, 2 os.

(Mntmeat of Katioo (Mr Tmng). 8g». Uk-
auBunrif xatioo, L. iVep. Powdered matico,
8 dr. ; opium, 8 gr. ; lard, 1 oz.

(MntmMit, Kayer's. IVep. To olive oil, 2i
lb*., add white turpentine, i lb. ; beeswax and an-
salted butter, of each, 4 oz. ; melt them together
and heat to nearly the boiling-point. Then add,
gradually, red-lead, 1 lb., and stir oonstantiy
until the mixture becomes black or brown; then
remove £rom the fire, and when it has become
somewhat cool, add to it a mixture of honey, 12
oz., and powdered camphor, i lb. Lard may be
used inst«ul of butter.

Ointment, Kercn"rlaL S!f». Stbohs xxb-
cuBiA£ onrciiBBT, Blub o., KBAPOLiTAir o.;
UireuBBnrH htdraboybi (B. P., Ph. L., E., and

D.), U. H. VOBTITB, C. CSBVXBITX, L. iVq>.
1. (B. p.) Ifercnry, 16 parts; prepared lard, 16
parts; prepared snet, 1 part ; rub together until
metallic globules cease to be visible. See also
OnrTMBiTT, Mbboitbial (Compound).

2. (Ph. L. and E.) Mercury, 1 lb.; lard. Hi
oz. 3 snet, i oz. ; rub the mereuiy with the snet
and a little of the lard until globules are no longer
visible ; then add the remaining lard, and triturate
altogetiier.

8, (Ph. D.) Pure mercnry and lard, of each, 1
lb.; as before.

Pur., 4*0. The ' stronger mercurial ointment '
of the shops is nsnally made with a less quantity
of mercury than that ordered by the Colleges, and
the colour is bionght op with ftiely ground blue-
black or wood charcoaL This fraud may be de-
tected by its inferior sp. gr., and by a portion
being left undissolved when a little of the oint-
ment is treated first with ether or oil of turpen-
tine, to remove the fat, and then with dilute
nitric acid, to remove the mercury. When made
according to the instructions of the Ph., its sp.
gr. U not less than 1-781 at 60° F. It "is not
well prepared so long as metallic globules may be
seen in it with a magnifier of 4 powers " (Ph. E.).
When rabbied on a viee» of bright copper or gold,
it should immediate give it a coating of metallic
mercury and a silveiy appearance.

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The Vng. hvd. fort, of the wholenls home* U
generally made of mercaiy, 12 lb«., loet, 1) Ihs.,
and lard, 16i lbs. It thni contains only \ in-
stead of I its weight of mercury. That of the
same houses labelled ' Ut^. hyd. partet aquaUt '
is prepared with mercoiy, 12 lbs. } raeti 1) Ibl. ;
lard, 13i lbs.

Utei. Tbis ointment is chiefly used to intro-
duce mercary into the system when the stomach
is too irritable to bear it; in syphilis, hepatic
affections, hydrocephalus, &e. For this purpose
i to 1 dr. is commonly rubbed into the inside of
one of the thighs until every particle of the oint-
ment disappears. This operation is repeated night
and marning until the desired effect is produced,
and should be, if possible, performed by the patient
himself. During its administration the patient
should avoid exposure to cold, and the use of fer-
mented or acidulous liquors, and his diet should
consist chiefly of toast, broth, gruel, milk-and-
water, and other inoffensive matters. This oint-
ment has been employed to prevent the ' pitting '
in smallpox ; and, duuted with S or 4 times its
weight of lard, in several skin diseases, as a dress-
for ulcers, to destroy pediculi, &c. Camphor is
often added to this ointment to increase its
activity. With the addition of a little extract
of belladonna, or hydrochlorate of ammonia, it
forms an excellent anodyne and resolvent friction
in painful syphilitic tumours and glandular en-
largements.

Obt. The preparation of mercurial ointment
according to the common plan is a process of
much labour and difficulty, and usually occupies
several days. The instructions in the Phar-
macopoeias are very meagre and unsatisfiuitorv,
and, so far as details go, are seldom precisely
carried out. Employers grumble, and operatives
become impatient, when they And the most as-
siduous trituration apparently fails to hasten the
extinction of the globules. To facilitate matters
Tarious tricks are resorted to, and various con*
traband additions are often clandestinely made.
Among the articles referred to, snlphur and
turpentine are those which have been longest
known, and, perhaps, most frequently employed
for the purpose ; but the first spoils the colour,
and the other the consistence, of the ointment ;
whilst both impart to it more or less of their
peculiar and respective odours. On the Con-
tinent oil of eggs was formerly very generally
used for the purpose, and is even now occasionally
■0 employed. Nearly half a century ago Mr W.
Cooley clearly showed that the difficcdty might
be latisfaotonly overcome by simply triturating
tite quicksilver with | to i of its weight of old
mercurial ointment before adding the lard ; and
that the effective power of this substance was in
direct proportion to its age, or the length of time
it had been exposed to the air. His plan was to
employ the ' bottom ' and ' scraping ' of the store
pots for the purpose. At a later period (1814-
15) Mr Higginbottom, of Northampton, repeated
this recommendation, and at length the plan has
been imported into the Fharmacoposia Borussica.
About 20 years since, " we reopened an investi-
gation of the subject, which extended over several
months, during whieh we satisfied ourselves of
the accuracy ai the assertion of M. Rottx, that

the mercury in mercurial ointment exists entirely,
or nearly so, in the metallic state, and not in the
form of oxide, oa was generally assumed. We
succeeded in preparing an excellent sample of
mercurial ointment by agitating washed suet and
quicksilver together in vaeuo. The quantity of
oxide present at any time in this cdntment is
variable and accidental, and is largest in that
which has been long prepared ; but in no case ia
it sufficient to materially discolour the fat after
the metallic mercury is separated from it. We
were led to conclude that the property alluded to,
possessed by old ointment, depends solely on the
peculiar degree of consistence or visadity of the
fat present in it, and on the loss of much of the
thoroughly greasy ' anti-attritive ' character
possessed by the latter in a recent state. In
practically working vat this idea we obtained
pure fats (icaqnetic adbfb ; bbvux fujifaxa-
tith), which, without any addition, were capable
of reducmg in a few mintues 8, 16, 82, and even
48 times their weight of mercury. We also
found that the formula of the Fharmacopoeia
might be adopted, and that a perfect ointment
might be readily obtained by skilful management
in from half an hour to an hour, even without
these resources. All that was necessary was to
employ a very gentle degree of heat by rather
penorming the operation in a warm apartment
or by allowing the mortar to remain filled with
warm water for a short time before using it. Suet
or lard, reduced either by gentle warmth or by the
addition of a little almond oil to the consistence
of a thick cream, so that it will hang to the pestle
without running from it, will readily extinguish
7 or 8 times its weight of running mercury by
simple trituration. The exact temperature must,
however, be hit upon, or the operation fails.
This fact was afterwards noticed in the 'Ann.
de Chim.' and some other journals" {jt. J,
Cooley).

Professor Remington recommends the follow-
ing as a rapid and convenient mode of pre-
paring the ointment : — Mercury, 60 parts ; lard,
25 ; suet, 26 ; mercurial ointment, 10 ; oomp.
tincture benxoin, 4. Mix the mercury with the
tincture in a mortar, add the mercurial ointment,
and stir till the globules of mercun cease to be
visible, then add the suet and lard, previously
mixed and melted ,- stir till uniform.

M. Fomonti has proposed a method of pre-
paring strong mercurial ointment, which, modified
to suit the English operator, is as followa:—
Fresh lard, 8 parts j solution of nitre (see b»Um),
1 part i mix by trituration ; add of mercury, 9i
parts, and again triturate. The globules dia-
appear after a few turns of the pestle, but re-
appear in a few minutes, and then again
disappear to return no more. When this
happens, the trituration is to be continued for a
few minutes longer, when lard, 24 parts, is to be
rubbed in, and the ointment at once put into
pots. It is said that the glohnlea are so com-
pletely extinguished as to escape detection, even
when the ointment is examined by a microscope
of low power. The So LVilov :— Nitre, 100 gr. ;
water, 1 fl. oi. ; dissolve. This quantity U raiB-
cient for a kilogramme of mercuir.

M. Lahens strongly reoommends for the i«pid

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preparation of mercnrial ointment the application
of oil of almonds in the following proportions : —
Mercury, 1000 parts ; oil of almonds, 20 parts ;
laxd, 980 parts. The mercury is first triturated
with the oil for about fifteen minutes, after
wMch its globules are said to be no longer dis-
cernible by the naked eye; 200 parts of the
melted lard are now added, and the trituration
oontanned to the complete extinction of the metal,
which is generally accomplished within an hour.
The (untment is then mixed with the remainder
of the lard. See Oihtmbht of Oxisb or
Mebcubt.
Ointment, Kereorial (Milder). Mildbb blub

OIHTIHST, TbOOPBB'B O., UKOTIOK ; VveVKS'
rex HYSSABeTKI KITIITB, V. CSBVIiBVK

xiTlua, L. Prep. 1. Stronger mercurial oint-
ment, 1 lb. ; lard, 2 lbs.

Dote, <fe. In the itch and several other
cutanoons diseases, as a dressing to syphilitic
ulcers, to destroy pediculi on the Irady, &c. Each
drachm contains 10 gr. of mercury. That of the
shops generally oonbuns considerably less.

2. (With soap: UweuBirTux HTDRisaTBi
urovACKxnt; Satoh m bboubul). o. (Draper.)
Mercnrial ointment (softened by a gentle heat),
1 OE. ; hydrate of potassa, 1 ii.; dissolved in
water, i fi. ox. ; triturate them together until the
mass solidifies.

■ h. (Swadiamr.) Milder mercurial ointment, 8
parts; soft soap, 2 parts; camphor, 1 part. In
periostitis, engorgements of the testicles, soft
corns, Ac. See OnmfXHT or Nixbatb ov Mbb-
citbt, &e.

OintmMit, Xeieiilal (Compoimd) (B. P.). Mer-
curial (rintaient, 6 parte ; yellow wax, 8 ; olive oil,
3; camphor, 1). Melt the wax and oil, and when
the mixture is nearly cold add the camphor in
powder and the mercnrial ointment, and mix.

Ointment, Kerenrial, with Hydioclilorato of
Ammonia (Vuptyiren). Sj/n. Uvavmrruu et-

DKUtOTRI cm iMUOVIM mTBIAXX, L. iVvp.

Stronger mercurial ointment, 8 oc; hydrochlo-
rate of ammonia, 1 dr.
. Oiatmmt, Xereorial, with Soda. (F. H.) Sgn.

UVSOBHTUK HTDXASOTBI OVM SODA, L. ; SATOV

mBOlTBlKL, Fr. lV»p. Mercnrial ointment, 8i
cs. ; solution of soda, 8 oz. ; triturate until they
combine.
Ointment of KarciiTy, Oleate ot (U. C. Hosp.)

Spt. LnrXKXVTUK BTOBAneTBI OLBATU, Un-
SUBBTUK HTSBABSTBI OLBAUB, L. (10% .)

Brtp. Yellow peroxide of mercury, 1 dr. ; puro
oleic acid, 10 dr. To the oleic acid kept agitated
in a mortar sprinkle in the peroxide gradually,
and tritotato ftrequently daring 24 hours, until
the peroxide is dissolved, and a gelatinous solu-
tion is formed, 20% a* above, nsing double the
quantity of yellow oxide. To be applied with a
brosh, or spread lightly over the part with the
finger. In persistent inflammation of the jointe,
m^essor Marshall adds to 1 dr. of the above
preparation 1 gr. of morphia — the pure alkaloid
—not one of its salts, which are insoluble in oleic
add.

In the preparation of ointment of oleate of
mercniy it is of the utmost importance that the
mercoric oxide should be thtnonghly dry, and
farther that it shoold he sifted in nnjiU portions

at a time upon the surface of the oleic acid, each
fresh portion being well incorporated beforo an-
other is added. Solution should be lawmoted by
frequent stirring at ordinary temperatures, since
experience has shown that all heating is positively
iiyarious (C. lliee).

OiJitmait of Maie'reon. 8fn. Ubgiibstum
MBZBBBi, L. Prep. 1. (Hamb. Cod.) Alcoholic
extract of meiereon, 2 dr. ; dissolve in rectified
spirit, q. s. ; add it to white wax, 1 os. ; lard, 8 ox.,
and mix by a gentle heat.

2. (P. Cod.) Meiereon (dried root-bark), 4 oz.;
moisten it with rectified spirit, bruise it well, and
digest it for 12 hours, at the heat of boiling water,
in lard, 14i oz. ; then strain with pressure, and
allow it to cool slowly ; lastly, separate it from
the dregs, romelt it, and add ot white wax, 1| os.
Used as a stimulating application to bUstered
surfaces and indolent ulcers.

3. (P. Cod.) Ethereal extract of mezereon,
176 gr.; Uud, 9oz.; white wax, 1 oz.; rectified
spirit, 1 oz. ; dissolve the extract in the alcohol,
add the lard and wax, heat moderately, stir until
the spirit is driven off, strain and stir till cold.

Ointment of Xonesia. Syt. UxfinBimTX
MOHIBIS, L. Prep. Oil of almonds, 4 parte ;
white wax, 2 parte ; extract of monesia, 1 part ;
water, 1 part.

Ointment of Xutard. S^. UH&UBirTrx
aiHAFiB, L. Prep. 1. Flour of musterd, t oz. ;
water, 1 fl. oz. ; mix, and add of resin cerate, 2
oz. ; oil of turpentine, i oz. Rubefacient and
stimulant. As a fricthm in rheumatism, Ac.

a. (Jhmifc.) Flour of mustard, 8 oc; oil of
almonds, | fl. oz. j lemon joice, q. s. In sunburn,
freckles, Ac

Ointment of Vaph'thalin. Sya. TTHSUBimnc
VAPHTHAzprx, L. Prep. (J^siery.) Naph-
thalin, i dr.; lard, 7i dr. In dry totters, lepra,
psoriasis, &c

Ointment, Varoirtlo and Balsamic (Q. Ph.).

Sjin. UKSUBHTUM XAB0OTICO-BAI.BAXICm[ HBLIi-

HVBSi. Prep. Acetate of lead, 10 dr. j extract
of hemlock, 80 dr. ; wax ointment, 83 oz.; balsam
of Peru, 80 dr. ; wine of opium, 6 dr.
Ointment, Neapolitan. See OraxxBUT, Mbb-

OVBIAL.

Ointmoit, Hervlne. S^». Balbaxvii hbb-
TDTUM, UKevBMinx N., L. ; Baumb kbbtal, Fr.
Prep. (P. Cod.) Expressed oil of mace and ox
marrow, ot each, 4 oz. ; melt by a gentle heat,
and add, of oil of rosemary, 2 dr. ; oU of cloves,
1 dr. ; camphor, 1 dr. ; balsam of tolu, 2 dr. j (the
last two dissolved in) rectified spirit, 4 dr. In
rheumatism, &c. A somewhat similar pnpar»>
tion was included in the Ph. E. 1744.

Ointment, Hen'tral. See Oivaavr ov Lbad
(Compound).

Oiutmeat of Vi'tnte of Xereuy. Sfn. Citbihb
OINTIIBIIT, Ybllow o., Mbscubiax BALBAX; Uh-
ODBKTUV HrOBABeXSI NITBATIB (B. P., Ph. h.

k D.), U. H. v., or U. oimnruic (Ph. E.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mercury, S oz. ; nitric add
(sp. gr. 1'42), 4 fi. oz. ; dissolve, and mix the solu-
tion, whilst still hot, with laid, 1 lb., and olive
oil, 8 fl. ot., melted together. (For the milder
ointment see below.)

2. (Vh. E.) Mercury, 4 oz. ; nitric acid (sp.
gr. I'SOO), 8 fl. 01. 6 fl.'dr. j dissolve by a gentie

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heat, add the liquid to lard, 16 oz. ; olive oil, 32
fl. ox. ; melted together and whil«t the whole are
•till hot, and mix them thoroughly. "If the
mixture does not froth up, increaae the heat a
little until this takes place. Keep the ointment
in earthenware vessels, or glass vessels, secluded
from the air." This admirable formula is a
modification of that originally introduced into
pharmacy by the late Dr Duncan, of Edinburgh.
(For the milder ointment see below.)

8, (Ph. D.) Mercury, 1 oz. ; nitric acid
(1-500), 1 fl. 01. ; (diluted with) water, ) fl. oz. ;
dissolve by a gentle head, and add the liquid to
lard, 4 oz. ; olive oil, 8 fl. oz. ; melted together,
and still hot ; next " let the temperature of the
mixture be raised so as to cause effervescence, and
then, withdrawing the heat, stir the mixture
with a porcelain spoon until it concretes on cool-
ing."

4. (P. Cod.) Mercury, 8 parts; nitric acid
(1*821), 6 parts; lard and oil, of each, 24 parts;
as above.

5. (Ph. U. S.) Morcnry, 1 oz. ; nitric acid
(1-42), 14 fl. oz.; lard, 8 oz. ; fresh neafs-foot
oil, 9 fl. oz. ; mix the mereorial solution with Uie
melted fat and oil at 200° F.

6. (B.P.) Mercury, 4 parts; nitriaacid,12; pre-
pared lard, 16 ; olive oil, 32 ; dissolve the mercury
in the nitric acid with the aid of a gentle heat ;
melt the lard in the oil by a steam or water bath
in a porcelain vessel capsble of holding six times
the quantity, and while the mixture is about
212° F. add the solution ofmercnTy, also hot, and
mix them together thoroughly. If the mixture
does not froth up, increase the heat till this
occnrs. (The heat required for this is from 170°
to 180° P.)

Utet, Jj^e. Detergent and stimulant. In ring-
worm, herpes, itch, porrigo, psoriasis, and some
other chronic skin diseases; in various chronic
•ftections of the eyes, especially chronic inflam-
mation and ulceration of the eyelids, ' blear eye,'
Ac. It " ma^ be almost regurded as speciflc in
psorophthalmu, in the purulent ophthalmia of
infants producing eetropium (eversion of the
eyelids), and in ulcerations of the tarsi (edges of
the eyelids)" (J.. T. Thornton). As a dressing
to old ulcers, more especially those of a syphilitic
character, it is superior to all the other ointments
contuning mercury; in sore legs, assisted by the
internal use of the pill of soap with opium (fil
B&POHIB OVM ono), it often acts like a charm
when all other modes of treatment have failed.
For most of these purposes it should be diluted
with from twice to seven times its weight of
some simple fatty matter. One of the principal
reasons why this ointment is in less general use
than its merits deserve is the very inferior
quality of that vended in the shops under the
name, arising from almost every druggist pre-
paring some mess of his own, instead of adhering
to the College formuln.

Ob*. Ointment of nitrate of mercury, faith-
fully prepared according to the instructions in
the Fharmaoopceia, possesses a rich golden -yellow
colour, and a battery consistence, and keeps well.
Unfortunately, clumsy and careless operators,
who regard the Phannaoopfleia as a foolish book,
which it is quite unnecessary to look into, often

fail in their attempts to produce an article of
good quality. The difficulty is immediately sur-
mounted by employing pure ingredients, in the
proportions ordered, and mixing them at the
proper temperature. The acid should be of the
full strength, or, if somewhat weaker than that
directed, an equivalent quantity should be em-
ployed. A slight excess of acid is not ii^nrioua,
rather the contrary; but a deficiency of acid, in
all cases, more or less damages the quality of tlie
product. If, ou stirring the mercurial solution
with the melted lard and oil, the mixture does
not froth up, the heat should be increased a little^
as, unless a violent frothing and reaction take
place, the ointment will not tnm out of good
quality, and will rapidly harden and lose its
colour. The most favourable temperature for the
union of the ingredients is from 186° to 200°
£., and in no case should it exceed 212° ;
whilst below 180° F. the reactions are feeble
and imperfect.

Stonewaro or glass vessels must alone be em-
ployed in the preparation of this ointment, and
the stirrers or spatulas should be either of glaaa
or white deal. The best plan is to keep the
whole exclusively for the purpose, and when out
of nse to preserve them from dust and dirt. (See
b»lote.)

Ointment of Hi'trate of KercuTy (Milder).
S^. Miu>BB oiTBiai oivTiuirT; nvauBX-

TVU HTDKABSTBI HITBATII ICmTB (Ph. L.), V.

H. s. M., or U. oiTitnmi k. (Ph. E.), L. Ftep,
1. (Ph. L.) Ointment of nitrate of mercury,
1 oz. ; lard, 7 oz. ; rttb them together. " This
ointment is to be used recently prepared."

2. (Ph. E.) As the stronger ointment. Ph.
S., but nsing a triple proportion of oil and lard.

ZTscf, (f-c. SeetheBTBOiraBBOniTi»>T(aioee).

Ointment of Vi'trato of Xarcniy (IXluted).

(B. P.) 8gn, UBaVBKTVK HXSBABOTBI

iriTRATis siKVTVK, L. iV«p. Nitrate of
mercury ointment, Ipart; soft parsi&n,2 parte;
mix.
Ointment of Vl'trate of Btt'T«r. Sjfn. Ux-

SUBKTtrK ABOBBTI iriTBAVEl, L. iVsp. 1.

( JIf. Jobert.) Nitrate of silver, 2, 4, or 8 parts ;
liard, 20 parts. These ointments are respectivdy
numbered 1, 2, and 8, and are used in white
swelling.

2. {llaedonald.) mtnte of sUTer, 1 part;
lard, 7 to 8 parts. To smear bougies, in gonor-
rhoea, Ac.

8. (MaeienMit.) Nitrate of silver, 6 gr. ;
lard, 1 oz. In purulent and chronic ophthalmia,
ulcers on the cornea, &c

4. {yelpeaH.) Nitrate of silver, 1 gr. ; lard,
Idr. In acute opbtiialmia, Ac The above com-
pounds require to be used with cautiao.

Ointment of Si'tric Add. ft^m. OxraiiiiBiD
tAtf; UHauxyrux oxtsbhatthc, U. aoisi

NITBIOI, L. ; POMM ADB D' ALTON, Ft. Pnp. (Ph.

D. 1826.) Olive oil, 1 lb. ; lard, 4 oz. ; melt them
together, add, gradually, of nitric acid (sp. gr.
1*600), 6| fl. dr., and stir the mixture constanUy
with a glass rod until it concretes.

U$M, i^e. In itch, porrigo, and some other
chronic skin diseases; and as a dressing for
syphilitic and herpetic ulcers, old sores, Ac. It
is frequently employed as a substitute for the

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OINTMENT

1169

ointment of nitrato of mercury, wh ich it some
what reiembles in appearance j bat it ii lew aotire
and oiefnl.

Ointment of Si'trio Oz'ide of Ker'cnTy. 8g».
Onnuvx ov bbs oxtoa of icbbodbt (B. P.),
Bid fkboifitatb onrrMEirT ; VvavEtrruu hy-

jaiBaTBX HITKICO-OXTDI (Ph. L.)i U. H. OXTDI

(Ph. B.), U. H. O. BVBBI (B. p.. Ph. D.), L.
Pnp. 1. (Ph. L.) White wax, 8 oi.; Iwd, 6
ox.; mix by heat, add of nitric oxide of mer-
coiy, in very fine powder, 1 oz., and nib tiiem
together.

2. (Ph. £.) Nitric oxide of mercniy, 1 ot.;
laid, 8 01. ; mix by tritoration.

8. (Ph. D.) Red oxide of mercary (nitric
oxide), 1 dr. ; ointment of white wax, 7 dr. ; at
thalaat.

4. (B. P.) Red oxide of meronry, in very fine

riwdar, 62 gr. ; hard paraffin, i ot. ; aoft panffin,
OS.

Viua, i[a. An excellent itimnlant appUcation
to indolent and fool loreB, nloen, &c.'; and, when
diluted, ai an eye ointment in chronic inflamma-
tion and ulceration of the eyes and eyelidi, and
especially in paorophthalmia; also in apecki on
the cornea, and the other affectioni noticed nnder
Oumcnn oi Nitbatb op Msbottbt. It forma
the baaia of nnmeront qnack medicinei. See alio

OUTJUIT OP OZIDI OP HbSOVBT (htloto).

OintmtBt, OlMtaf rlo. Sgn. Cvovbvtuk ob-

nBXUOUIf, L.; POMIUDB OBSTBTBIOALI, Ft.

Fnp. 1. {Ckamitim:) Extract of belladonna,
1 dr. ; water, 8 dr. ; lard, 1 os. To promote the
dilatation of the os uteri.

2. (FOMXASE FOUB LB TOUOHBB.) Trom yel-
low wax and spermaoeti, of each, 1 oi. ; olive oil,
16 in.: melt them together, strain, add of toln-
tion of caustic soda, 1 fl. oz., and stir until the
wbolo is nearly cold.

Mstaunt of Olaata of Copper. <Sy». Uiroinnr-
tttU CVPRi OLBATia, L. Oleate of copper, 1 part ;
lanolin or soft paraffin, 4 parts. Valuable in riug-
vorm ; destroys warts and removes frecUes.

(Mntmant of Oleate of Hoc (B. P.). ^ Vn-
sinurrvK mroi olbati, L. Oleate of sine, 1
part; soft paraffin, 1 part. Melt and mix.

Oiataient of Oleo-Tadn of Oapslenm. Sgn. Uir-
SUJMTUK OLBO-BBsmx 0AF8IOI. (Unofficial for-
mulary.) Take of oleo-resin of capsicum, 1 oz. ;
yellow wax, \ oz.; benzoated lard, 4 oz. Melt
the wax and lard at a low temperature, add the
oleo-resin, mix thoroughly, and, if necessary,
strain through muslin. Stir until cold.

OIntnMBt of Cpinm. By*. UNsmtirnnc opia-
TOX, U. our (Ph. L), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Powdered opinm, 20 gr.; lard, I oz. ; mix by
trituration. As a simple anodyne friction or
dressing.

2. (Aagiuti».) Opium, 2 dr.; ox-gall, 2 ox.;
digest 2 days, strain, and add of melted lard, 2
OE. ; inl of bergamot, 10 drops.

8. (Srtra.) Opinm, 1 dr. ; gastric juice of a
calf, i oz.; digest 24 hours, and add of melted
lard, 1 oz.

OlmtaMnt of Oxid« of Lead. See OiHimnrr,
Lbi9.

Oiatmnt of Oxide of Kan"g«]iese. Sgn. Vn-
eoBHxxni lUHSABBin oxrsi, V. x. bivoxtsi,
h. Prep. 1. Black oxide of manganese (levi-

TOL. II.

gated), 1 dr. ; lard, 1 oz.; mix by patient tritura-
tion. As a friction in scrofulous swellings and
indurations; and in itch, scald-head, chil-
blains, &c.

2. {W. CooUjf.) Binoxide of manganese, 1 dr. ;
sulphur, 2 dr. ; lard, 0 dr. ; ci^eput oil, 16 drops.
As the last; also as a friction in rheumatism,
swelled joints, &c, and in pOrrigo and some other
skin diseases.

OintmeBt of Oxide of Xer'enTy. Under this
name the two ointments noticed below are often
confounded, owing to the different opinions held
respecting the atomic weight of mercary.

i. QiBtment of Grey Oxide of Ker'eniy. 8y»,
OnmmiT op suboxidb op hbbovbt, O. of

PBOIOZIDa OP X.f; UNaVBHTUX HTSBABaXBI
OXTSI, U. H. SrBOXTDI, U. H. O. OnrBRBI, L.

Prvp. 1. (Ph. E. 1817.) Orey oxide of mer-
cury, 1 oz. ; lard, 8 oz. ; triturate togpether. For-
merly proposed as a aubstitnte for mercorial
ointment, but in practice it has been found use-
less as a friction, owing to the unctuous matter
only being absorbed, whilst the oxide is left on
the surface. This objection does not apply to
the following preparations.

2. (i)o)ioe<M.) Orey oxide of mercury, 20 gr.;
lard, 1 oz. ; mix, and expose them to the tempera-
ture of 8^ F. for 8 hours, eonstantiy stirring.
Orey coloured. It may also be made from the
nitric or red oxide in the same way, by keeping
the ointment heated to aboat 8(Xy for some
hoars. Cleaner and stronger than Ung. hgd.
fort. (Ph. L.}.

8. (2y«o».) Black oxide of mercury (prepared
by decomposing precipitated calomel with Uquors
of potassa and ammonia), 2 oz.; lard, 1 lb. ; tri-
turate together. Inferior in activity to the last.
It closely resembles in appearance a Bne sample
of mercurial ointment.

ii. Ointment of Bad Oxide of Xarcuy. 8gn.

UHOUBNTVX HTSBABaTBI BUrOZTSlt, U. K.

OXTDI BUBBI, L. Prtp. (CscenoM.) Red oxide
of mercury, 80 gr.; camphor, 6 gr- > J«rd. 1 o«.
Closely resembles ointment of nitric oxide of mer-
cury, over which it, perhaps, possesses some ad-
vantage from the oxide being in a more minutely
divided state.

Ointment of Oxide of BU'ver. 8gn. Uksd-bk-
Tux ABOBSTI oxYDi, L. Prep. (Serre.) Oxide
of silver, 16 to 20 gr. ; lard, 1 oi. As a dressing
for acrofulons and syphilitic sores, Ac

Ointment of Oxide of Zine. Bfn. Ziko onrr-
XBNT, Nihil albuk ourrxBHTf ; Uhoubntux
zntoi (B. P., Ph. L., E., ft D.), U. oxTDi znroi,
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oxide of zinc, 1 oz.;
lard, 6 oz. ; mix them together.

2. (Ph. E.) Oxide of zinc, 1 oz. ; simple lini-
ment (Ph. E.), 6 ox.

8. (Ph. D.) Ointment of white wax, 12 oz. ;
melt it by a gentle heat, add of oxide of zinc, 2
oz., and stir constantly until the mixture con-
cretes.

4. (B. P.) Oxide of zinc, in verr fine powder,
1 part; benzoated lard, 6i pivts; mix.

Utet, i^. Astringent, desiccative, and stimu-
lant ; in excoriations, bums, various skin diseases
attended by profase discharges, in chronic inflam-
mation of the eyes depending on relaxation of the
vessels, in sore nipples, indolent sores, ringworm

74

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1170

onrrMENT

of the scalp, &c. It ii an excelleut and very
oaeful preparatiou. See OnmtBRT of Tvrt
(below).

Ointment, Pagenitecher'i. Prtp. Yellow oxide
of mercnry, 30 g^r. J vaaeline, 1 os. Uied for in-
flamed eyeUds. Often ordered one fonrth the
above strength.

Ointment of Fep'per. Sgit. Uhovbntuii
FIPBKIB KIOBI, L. Prap. 1. Black pepper
(braised), 1 oz. ; lard, 2 oz. ; suet, 1 oz. ; digest
together in a covered vessel, bv the heat of a
water- bath, for 6 hoars, then strain with pressure,
add of expressed oil of mace, 8 dr., and stir until
the mixture concretes. In piles, itch, as a friction
in rheumatism, Ac.

a. (Ph. D. 1826.) Black pepper (in fine pow-
der), 4 oz. i lard, 1 lb. ; mix. In scald-head, &c.

Ointment of Petrolenm. S^n. UNauavnrii
FBIBOLBI, L. H-tp. Yellow wax, 1 part ; vaseline,
13 parts.
. Ointment of VhaupkofU Add. Sgn. Un-

eUBNTTTK AOISI PH08FB0BI0I, L. Pnp. (8ou-

beirmt.) Phosphoric acid, 1 dr.; lard (softened
by heat), 1 oz. j triturate carefully together. As
a frictlun in caries, osseous tumours, &c.
Ointment of Fhoa'phonu. Sgn. VvavusTVu

PHOSFHOtU, U. PHOSPHOBATUK, L. J^ep. (P.

.Cod.) Phosphorus, 1 dr. ; lard, 6 oz. 3 dr. ; melt
together (in a wide-mouthed bottle) by the heat
of a water-bath, remove the vessel from the heat,
and shake it briskly until the ointment concretes.
As a friction in gout, chronic rheumatism, and
several skin diseases.

Ointment of Picratos'in. Sj/n. UNaviHTUK
IlOBH/mxisM, h. Prep. (JSjer.) Picrotoxin,
10 gr, ; lard, 1 oz. In ringworm of the scalp, and
to destroy pedicuU. It should be used with care.

Oiatmuit for Files. Sg». UirauENTUii h^icob-

BH0n>AUi,U.Aim-KSKOBBB0II>AI.B, L. Prep. 1.

Burnt alum and oxide of zinc, of each, i dr. ;
lard. 7 dr.

2. (JSorto.) Acetate of lead, 16 gr. ; freahly
burnt cork, i oz. ; washed fresh batter, 2 oz. ; tri-
turate well together.

3. ( TT. Cooieg.) Morphia, 8 gr. ; melted sper-
maceti ointment, 1 oz. ; triturate together until
solution is complete, then add of galls (in impal-
pable powder), 1} dr. ; essential oil of almonds
(genuine crude), 12 to 16 drops, and stir until
the mass concretes. In painful piles, prolapsus,
&c. It is not only very effective, but does not
soil the linen so much as most other ointments.

4. (2V Oedding.) Carbonate of lead, 4 dr.;
sulphate of morphia, 16 gr. ; stramoninm oint-
ment, 1 01. ; olive oil, q. s. When there is much
pain and inflammation.

6. (Str B. SaVord.) Ointment of nitrate of
mercury and oil of almonds, equal parts, triturated
together.

6. {MaztM.) JNitrate of morphia, 16 gr. ;
citrine ointment, 1 dr. ; fresh butter, 1 oz. As the
last.

7. (VoUm.) Extract of elder leaves, \ dr.;
bnmt alum, 16 gr.; poplar ointment, 1 oz. For
other f ormnlie, see the respective names of their
leading ingredients.

. 8. (Wart.) Camphor, 1 dr. ; simple ointment,
1 oz. J dissolve by heat, add of powdered galls, 2
dr. ; mix well, further add of tincture of opium.

2 fl. dr., and stir until the whole is cold. In
flabby mucous and painful piles.

9. (Zanxn.) Spermaceti ointment, 1 oz. ; pow-
dered galls, 1 dr. ; powdered opium, 18 gr. ; solu-
tion of diacetate of lead, 1 fl. dr. When there is
both pain and inflammation.

10. (From 'New Remedies.') Yellow wax, 8
parts ; resin, 4 parts ; lard, 12 parts : oil of sassa-
fras, 2 parts. Melt the wax, resin, and lard,
remove from the Are, add the oil of sassafras,
and stir until the mass is solid. Thisissaid tobe
a most excellent application for painful or itching
piles.

Ointment of Fitdi. Sgn. Black basiuook,

OlBTHBNT OP BLACK PITCH ; VvaVKSTZTt FI0I8

(B. P., Ph. L.), U. pioM Miesje, L. Prqf, 1.
(Ph. L.) Black pitch, resin, and beeswax, of each,
11 oz. ; olive oil, 1 pint ; melt together, strain
through a linen doth, and stir until the mass con-
cretes.

2. (B. P.) Tar, 5 parts; yellow wax, 2 parts;
melt together, and stir till cold.

U»e», (fo. Stimulant and detergent ; very vse-
f ul in indolent ulcerations, scald-head, and variona
foul eruptions. In itch and psoriasis, and other
scaly skin diseases, a little sulphur is commonly
added to it.

Ointment of Flafinnm. Sg*. UBavBHTUK
PLATun, L. Prep. (Safer.) Bichloride of pla-
tinum, 16 gr. ; extract of belladonna, i dr. ; lard,
1 oz. As a dressing for painful indolent ulcers.

Ointment of Flnmhago. Sgn. OisrtLssi at
enAPHiiB ; UKauBimrK obaphitib, U. plvhba-
G-iiriB, L. Prep. From pure plumbago ('black-
lead'), li dr.; lard, 1 oz. Asadresnngtonloera,
and in certain skin diseases.

Ointment, Flnnkefs. Prep. (Original for-
mula.) Crowsfoot, 1 handful; dog's-fennel, 8
sprigs ; pound well, add of flowers of sulphur and
white arsenic, of each, 3 thimblefuls ; beat them
well together, form the mass into boluses, and
dry them in the sun. For use, powder them ; and
mix the powder with yolk of egg, spread a little
on a small piece of pig's bladder (size of half a
crown), and apply it to the sore, where it moat
remain until it falls off by itself. Poisonous ; in
cancer, with great caution.

Ointment, Foma'tnm. See Oibtiukt, Labj>.

Ointment of Foplar Bnds. Sgn. UirauBXTtrx
POPULBUK, L. Prep. 1. lYesh poplar buda
(bruised), 1 part; lard, 4 parts; boil until crisp,
audstrviu. It never gets rancid. Emollient and
stimulant.

2. (Compound —P. Cod.) Poplar buds, 12 oz. ;
fresh leaves of belladonna, common nightshade
(Solanwm nigrum), henbane, and poppies, of each,
8 oz. ; lard, 4^ lbs. ; as the last. EmoUient, stimu-
lant, and anodyne.

Ointment of Fotai'sio-tar'trate of An'timony.
Sg». AniixoiriAL oisinBiri, Tabtab bxbtio

0. ; UNaUBITTDU AHIDfOBII TASIABATI (B. P.),

UNavBNiirx Axiiuoirai potasbio-iabtatsib

(Ph. L.), U. A. TABTABIZATI (Ph. D.), U. AHTI-
KOHIALB (Ph. E.), C. TABIABI BMBTICI, L. Prep.

1. (Ph. L. and £.) Potassio tartrate of antimony
(rubbed to a very flne powder), 1 oz.; lard, 4 os. ;
mix by trituration.

2. (Ph. D.) Tartar emetic (in very flne pow-
der), 1 dr.; ointment of white wax, 7 dr.

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OINTMENT

1171

S. (B. P.) Tartnited antimony (in fine pow-
der), 1 part; rimple ointment, 4 piurta; mix.

iFttt, ife. Ooonter - irritant ; in phthisis,
chronic rhenmatism, certain liver affections, and
other deep-seated pain* and diseases. A pcnrtion
about the sixe of a nnt is rubbed on the skin night
and morning, nntil a crop of postnles is produced.
The part shonld be well rubbed with a coarse
towel, so as to be reddened, before applying the
ointment. The product of the Dublin formula is
«f onlj half the strength of those of the other
Qrilegea.

Obt. Before adding the tartar emetic to the
]aid it shonld be reduced to the state of an im-
palpaUe powder. The precipitated salt is the
beat for dis purpose. As the pustules formed by
Una mntment permanently mark the skin, it
shoald only be applied to those parts of the per-
son which are corered by the drees.

Ointment, Por'gatiTe. SeeOtsncBSTO* Colo-
cnrTH, WoBK O., &e.

Ointment of Qninina'. Sf. OiroiniHTVK
QimruB, U. QunriB aiTLPHATn, L. Prtp. 1.
Sulphate of quinine, 1 dr. ; lard, 8 dr. In the
agues of cfail^n.

i. {BetaUg tu. AKtonxui.) Sulphnte of quinine,
1 dr. ; alcohol (rectified spirit), 2 dr. ; sulphuric
acid, 10 drops ; dissolve, and mix it with lard,
\ ox. In midignaut intormittents ; 8 to 4 dr. at
a time, rubbed into the groin or axilla.

Ointment of Bed Oxide of Ker'cnTy. (B. P.)
Sfn. Vmowtreuu stskabstu oxidi bvbbi,
L. Bed oxide of mercury in powder, 1 parti
hard paraffin, 1) parts ; soft paraffin, 6^ parts.
Melt, mix, and ttir till cold.

QiatBant of Ked Bnl'phwret of Mer'eiiiy.
4w. UveraimrK eyi>bab»yiu BiBrLPHXTEETi,
IT. H. BVLvmntsn bitbbi, L. Prep. 1.
(AUbert,') Bed sulpburet of mercury, 1 dr. ; cam-
phor, 20 gr. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. In herpes,
applied twice a day.

2. (Collier.) Bisnlphuret of mercury, li dr. ;
sal-ammoniac, i dr.; lard, 1 oz. ; rose-water,
1 fl. dr. In several skin diseases, to diminish the
itdiing, destnra pedicoli, &c.

S. {Sadiue.) As the last, with 1 os. more
Urd.

Ointment «f Bes'in. Syn. Ybllow BASizjooir;
UvavEHTVX Bianrx (Ph. D.), U. BBBiiroBTnc
(Ph. B.), L. Frep. 1. (Ph. D.) Yellow wax,
I lb. ; yellow resin, in coarse powder, i lb. ; pre-
pared lard, 1 lb. ; melt them together by a gentle
heat, strun the mixture, whilst hot, tlm>ngh
flannel, and stir it constantly until it concretes.

8. (Ph. E.) Beeswax, 2 oz.; resin, 6 os.;
lard, 80s.

Mt. A useful stimulant dressing to foul and
indolent ulcers. For the corresponding piepara-
tion of the Ph. L., see Cbb&tb, Bbbis.

Ointment, Besol'vent. See OnrmBVT, Dis-

OmBHT.

Ointment of Bhatany. (TVowfeov.) Sgn.
UHavBimm sntmsiM, L. Frep. Extract of
rhatany, H dr. ; cacao butter, 6 dr. Mix.

Ointment, Bing'woTm. UirovsirTVK oobtba-
TiHBAX, L. Frep. 1. Carbonate of soda, 1 part ;
fresh-slaked lime, 4 parts ; lard, 120 parts.

2. Ointment of nitrate of mercury, 1 dr. ; tar
ointment and lard, of each, i 01.

3. (_Senke.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 fl. dr.;
juniper-tar ointment, i oz. ; marsh-mallow do.,
1 oz.

4. (Pereira.) Tar, 8 dr.; lard, \\ oz. ; melt
them together, and stir in of acetic acid (Ph. L.),
2fl.dr.

5. {Tkompion.) Carbonate of soda and sul-
pburet of potassium, of each. 1 dr. ; creasote, k
dr. ; Uud, 1^ oz.

Obt. The hair must be cut off close, and the
part washed clean before each application. For
other forms see above.

Ointment of Bote. Sgn. Boss PoxifAsi,

BO8B UP-BALTB; UvaUBNTUV BO&B, U. BOSA-

TVU, L. iViip. 1. (P. Cod.) Washed lard
(melted) and roses (centif .), of each, S lbs. ; mix,
and in 2 days remelt the mass, and press out the
Cat; to this last add of fresh roses, 2 lbs., and re-
peat the process; lastly, oolonr it with alkanet
root if required red.

2. (Uire. AQVB bo&b— Ph. U. 8.) This is
spermaceti ointment melted and beaten up with
about two thirds of its weight of rose-water nntil
they congeal. Both the alxiTe are simple emol-
lients. The last is an officinal ' cold cream.'

Ointment of Boiamaiy (Compound). (Ph.
Q.) Sgn. UHSUBirTVX BoaiCABiin comosi-
TVK, L. Frep. Lard, 16 oz. ; suet, 8 oz. ; yellow
wax, 2oi.; oilof mare, Soz.; liquefy in avapour-
bath, and when nearly cold, add oil of rose-
mary and oil of juniper, of each, 1 oz. by
weight.

Ointment of Bne. (Span. Hosp.) 8g». Uh-
aVBiTFiril BITTA, h. Prep. Fresh rue, 2 oz.j
wormwood, 2 oz. ; nitre, 2 oz. ; lard, 16 o«.; boil
till the moisture is expelled.

Ointment, Bust's. Prep. Calcined al^im, H
dr.; camphor, i dr.; powdered opium, 20 gr. ;
balsam of Peru, 1 dr. ; lead ointment, 6 dr.;
tritunte together. In chilblains, frostbites,
frosted limbs, &c.

Ointment of Babadlllino. Sfn. UvetTKimrK
BABAsnxiKA, L. Prep. (Z>r IkmbuU.) Sa-
badiUine, 16to 20 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. Intended as a
substitute for mntment of veratrine.

Ointment of Salisylic Add. (B. P.) 8y».
Uhoubittvx aoidi BALiorLioi, h. Salicylic
aeid, 1 part; soft paraffin, 18 parts; hard paraf-
fin, 9 parts. Melt and mix.

Ointment of Bav'ine. Sgn. Vsavamnt
BABijrs (B. P., Ph. L. and D.), Cbbatw
tXBiUM, L. Frep. 1. (Ph L.) White wax, 8
oz. ; benzoated laid, 1 lb. ; melt them together,
mix in of fresh savine (bruised), i lb., and press
through a linen cloth.

2. (Ph. D.) Savine tops, dried and in fine
powder, 1 dr.; ointment of white wax, 7 dr. ;
mix by trituration. For the formula of the Ph.
E., the uses, &c., see CiBAn.

Ointment of 8erophiila"ria. <Sfjr». Uhovbv-
TTTV BOBOFHiTLABLa, L. Frep. (Ph. D. 1826.)
Oreen leaves of knotted-iooted figwort and lard,
of each, 2 lbs.; prepared suet, 1 lb.; boil till
crisp and strain with pressure. In ringworm,
' burnt holes ' (pempkigiie gmgrenoeae of chil-
dren), impetigo, and some other cutaneous dis-
eases; also as an application to piles, painful
swdlings, &c. In the second it is said to be
almost specific

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1172

OINTMENT

OintnMnt, Simple. Sg». Oimtmbkt of whitb

WAX, 8IKFL8 SBSSBINO ; CvaTHIirTTTlI BIKFLSZ

(B. p.. Ph. E.), U. CBB« ALBS (Ph. D.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Olive oil, 6i fl. 01.5 white
wax, 2 OS. i melted together, and stirred whilst
cooling-

2. (Ph. D.) Prepared lard, 4 lbs. ; white wax,
1 lb. ; as the last.

8. (B. P.) White wax, 2 parts; benzoated
lard, 8 parts ; almond oil, 3 parts ; melt together,
and stir till it becomes solid.

Oi«. The above are mild emollients, useful in
healthy ulcers, excoriations, tte.; bat chiefly as
forming the basis for other <nntments. The cor-
responmng preparation at the Ph. L. is sper-
maceti ointment. See btlow; also OiNiMiirT,
Labd, &c.

Ointment, Singleton's. See OisTinnrTB, Etb-

Ointment, Sniallpoz. Sfn. UKauBKiiw bo
TBonoVM, L. Prtp. 1. Kercnrial ointment,
li ox. ; beeswax and black pitch, of each, i oz. ;
expressed oil of mace, 2 dr. ; mixed together by a
very gentle heat.

2. (Briqmt.) Mercniial ointment, 4 parts;
powdered starch, 1 part.

8. (Tourriire.) Iodide of potassium (dry and
in fine powder), 1 part ; expressed oil of mace, 2
parts ; black resin, 4 parts ; mercurial ointment,
8 parts. Used to prevent the ' pitting of the
pustnles.' See Svallfox.

Ointment, BmeUome's. See OnrTUBKTB, Etb.

Ointment of Soap. 1. See Cbratb.

2. (Camphorated : UHSUBirTUic BAPOVIB ClK-
PHOBAiux — Hamb. Cod.) White soap (scraped),
1 lb. ; water, i lb. ; dissolve by heat ; sdd of olive
oil, 5 ox. ; and when the mixture has partly
cooled, further add of camphor, 1 01., previously
dissolved by heat in olive oil, 1 ox. ; lastly, stir
until the mass concretes. As an anodyne and
stimulating friction in various local affections, as
chaps, chilblains, rheumatism, &c

Ointment of Bo'dio-ohlo"rlde of Oold- Bfu.
VvaVKSTOK acbi bodio-ohlobu)!, L.; Pox-

XASB DB XTTBIATB d'OB BT SB BOUDB, Fr. Pnp.

(Uagendia.) Sodio-chloride of gold, 10 gr.;
lard, 4 dr. In scrofulous and syphilitic swell-
ings, indurations, nloers, Ac.
Ointment of Spermaee'ti. Sgn. Exoixnirc

DBBBSmO, SlXPLB OIHTHBKT, WhITB O. ; UK-

avamu obtaobi (B. P., Ph. L. and D.), U.
8FBBKATIB CBTi, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Sper-
maceti, 6 ox. ; white wax, 14 dr. ; olive oil, 1 pint,
or q. s. ; melt them togetiier by a gentle heat, and
stir the mixture until oold.

2, (Ph. D.) White wax, i lb. ; spermaceti, 1
lb. ; prepared lard, 8 lbs. ; as the last.

8. (B. P.^ Spermaceti, 5 parts; white wax, 8
parts J almond oil, 20 parts, or a snflciency ; stir
constantly until it cools.

Vn; 4*0. As an emollient and healing appli-
cation or dressing to abrasions, excoriations, blis-
tered surfaces, healthy ulcers, chilblains, chaps,
&c. In trade the DiibUn formula, with double
the amount of lard, is commonly employed.
See OiKTXEKT, Labd, Sixtlb O., to.

Ointment of Squills. Sj/n. Uhsvbktux
aaiLLM, L, Prep. 1. (Brera.) Squills (in
very fine powder), 1 dr. ; mercurial ointment, 2 dr.

2. {Snfeland.) Squills, 1 ox. ; liquor of potas-

sa, 2 fl. ox. ; reduce to a mucilage by boiling,
then add of lard, 2 ox., or q. s. As a resolvent
friction to indolent tumours and indurations.

Otntment of Stavea'acre. Syn. Uhoubbttx
BTAFHISAOBLS, L. Prep. 1. {Svediaur.) Pow-
dered stavesacre, 1 ox. ; lard, 8 01. ; melt to-
gether, digest 8 or 4 hours, and strain. A very
cleanly remedy for itch, and to destroy pediculi
on the person. A similar ointment is much nsed
by farriers.

2. (B. P.) Stavesacre seed, 1 part ; benzoated
lard, 2 parts. Crush the seeds and macerate
them in the melted lard, over a water-bath for
two hours. Strain and cool. Less powerful
parasiticide, useful in itch and to kill lice.

Ointment of Btorax. ^. Uxamarux btt-
BACIS, L. Prep. Stnuned storax, 1 part ; lano-
lin or lard, 8 parts. Melt together and stir till
cold. A good remedy for scaUes.

Ointment of StnuBO"niiun. jtpr*. VvavW'
TUX BTBAXosii, L. Prep- 1- Fresh thorn-
apple leaves, 1 part ; laid, 4 parts j as <rfntment
M nemlock.

2. {Pereira.) Powdered learas, 1 oz.; lard, 4
ox. ; mix by trituration.

8. (Ph. U. S.) Extract of stramonium, 1 dr. t
lard, 1 01. ; as the hMt.

V*e», 4*0. To dress irritable nioers, and at an
application to painful piles.

Ointment of Stryeh'nlne. Syn. VvavwHtuu
STBTomns, L. Prep. 1. (_Bouehardat.)
Strychnine, 16 gr. ; lard, 1 oc. ; carefully tritu-
rated together.

2. (JTendt.) Nitrate of strychnine. 6 dr.;
lard, 1 oz. ; as last. Both are nsed as a friction
in paralysed parts, Sus. From the extremely
poisonous character of strychnine it should be
used with caution.

Ointment of Bubao'etate of Cop'p«r. See Onrr-
XKIT OP Ybbdigbis.

Ointment of Snbchloride of Xereuy. See Onrr-

XBKT OV CaU>XBL.

Ointment of Bubsnl'phate of Kerenryt. Sj^n.

UNOVSKTITX BTDBAsaYBI BT7Bflni.FHATn, L.

Ptep. 1. (AUbert.) Turpeth mineral, i dr.;
lard, 1 oz.

2. {Biett.) Turpeth mineral, 1 dr. ; sulphur,
2 dr. ; lard, 2 oz. ; oil of lemons, 16 drops. In
herpes, porrigo, and the scaly diseases.

Ointment of Sulphate of I'ron. 8y». UireiTBir-
TTX FBBBi ■uifHATlB, L. Prep. (Te^mw.)
Sulphate of iron, H dr. ; simple ointment^ 1 oi.
In erysipelas.

Ointment of Snlphate of Zino. 1^. Uv-
avBKTirx ziNCi BULPHATIB, L. Prep. (Searpa.)
Sulphate of zinc (in very fine powder), 1 dr.;
lard, 1 ox, In some chronic skin diseases at-
tended with a lax state of the tissues, and as a
dressing to scrofulous tumours after they have
suppurated and the abscess has been discharged.

Ointment of Sulphur. St/u. UiranBTtrx
BVLPHmtiB (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prtp, 1.
(Ph. L.) Sulphur, i lb.; lard, 1 lb. In the
Ph. L. 1836 oil of bergamot, 40 drops, were added.
See 5, Compound.

2. (Ph. E.) Sulphur, 1 oz.i lard, 4 ox.

8. (Ph. D.) Sulphur, 1 lb. ; lard, 4 lbs.

4. (B. P.) Sublimed sulphur, 1 part; ben-
zoated lard, 4; mix.

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OINTMENT

1178

Uim, 4'e. In itch, icald-head, Ac., in the flr«t
tit which it ia ipeciBo. It should be well rnbbed
in erery night nntil the diseaie is enred ; " hot
not more than one fourth part of the body ihould
be covered with it at a time " (A. T. TAmmton).

6. (Gomponnd : Itch oiktxint ; Unovintcic
■ITLPHusia ooKfoaiTim — Ph. L.) a. (Ph. L.)
Nitrate of potaisa (powdered), 40 gt. ; white hel-
lebore (powdered), 10 dr. ; sulphur and soft soap,
of each, 4 oz. ; lard, 1 lb. ; rob them together.

b. (P. Cod.) Alum and sal-ammoniac, of each,
i OS. ; mlphar, 8 oz. ; lard, 16 os.

Uiet, tfe. In itch, as the simple ointment (1,
8, and 3). They are more efficacious, but, owing
to the presence of white hellebore, the Ph. L.
preparation is apt to cause irritation in persons
with delicate skins. See OnrriovT, Itoh.

QiBtaent of Bolphnnited Fotaih. 8<fm. Uk-
aunraim k>ta8ui evuivxrajaM (B. P.), L. frtp.
1. Sulphurated potash, 80 gr. ; triturate, and add
hard paraffin, \ oz. ; soft paraffin, i oz. ; mix.

2. SoIphuTS^ potash, 6 parts; hard paraffin,
18 parte ; soft paraffin, 56 parts. This ointment
should be freshly made.

(Mntmant of Bnlphuret of Xerenxr. See Qnrr-

IIBVT OV RKD SlTLPEITBaT OV HKBOTrBY.

Ointmeat of Snlphnret of Fotaa'ilum. Snlphuret
of potaasimn, 2^ dr. j lard and soft soap, of each,
1 oz. ; olive oil, i oz. In several chronic skin
diseases, as itch, psoriasis, ringworm, lepra, ec-
zema, &c.

Ointmmt of Snlphniet ofBo'diom. iS^a. Uv-
ovjDmnc aoDii bulp HrrBiTi, L. JVap. {8mt-
dtoitr.) Snlphuret of sodium, 8 dr. ; lard, \\ oz.
In itch, for which it is very cleanly and effective.
The laat two ointments are most powerful when
leeently prepared.

OliitmeiitofSiilphuTieAc'id. Sgn. UNSTmruM
Aon>i 8Tri:.PHUSioi, L. Bmp. 1. ijir 2>i(«ea».)
Solphnric add, 1 dr. ; lard, 2 oz.

2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Snlphnric add, 1 dr. ; lard,
1 oz.; mix.

Vttt, S[e. Bladt, fcvtid; in itdi. It is now
seldom used. With oil of turpentine it has been
nsed as a atimulating liniment in rheumatism.
An dntment made of 1} dr. of dilute sulphuric
•dd to 1 CI. of lard is a good application in
prango.

OiatBMBt, Snlta'aa. Spermaceti and white
wat, of each, ^ oz. ; oil of almonds and butter of
cacao, of each, \ lb. ; melt together, add of balsam
of Pern, 1 dr., stir constantly for a few minutes,
and after it has settled pour off the clear portion ;
to tiiia add of orange-flower water, 2 fl. dr., and
stir the mixture ocmstantly until it concretes. A
very agreeable species of cold cream.

(Mstment of Tan'nata of Lead. Bii%. UN»imr-
nw PLintBl TAmr^Tis, L. Prep. 1. Tannate
of lead, 1( dr. ; powdered camphor, 20 gr. ; sper-
maceti dntment, 7 dr. In inilamed piles, &c.

2. (Samdeli*^ Decoction of oak bark, 6 fl. oz. ;
•olotioit «f diaoetate of lead, li oz. ; mix, collect,
and drain the predpitate, and mix it, whilst still
Boist, with lard, 1 oz. ; camphor, 10 gr. In bed-
sores.

Qjatnent of Tkn'nin. 8$%, UirevanruK tah-
nn, U. A0I9I zAHnoi, L. iVsp. (Jitaioni.)
Tamiiii, a dr.; water, 2 fl. dr.; triturate them
together, then add of lard, \\ oi. Astringent

and hamostatic. In piles, prolapsus, Ac. It is
a very cleanly and effective application.

Ointment of Tar. %*. Uvsttbittuk ficis
Li<)i7iDx (Ph. L., £., k D.), L. Pr»f. 1. (l>h.
L.) Tar and suet, of each, 1 lb.; melt them
together, and press the mixture through a linen
doth.

2. (Ph. B.) Tar, 6 oz. ; beeswax, 2 oz. ; mdt
together, and itir the mixture briskly nntil it
concretes.

8. (Ph. D.) Tsr, \ pint; yellow wax, 4 oz.
as the last.

Vni, l(c. As a detergent application in ring-
worm, scald-head, scabby eruptions, foal nlcers,
Ac. It should be, in general, at first diluted with
half of its weight of lard or oil. See also OiHT-
XBITT ov PrroH.

Ointment of Tartar Smet'ic. See Oimtmemt

OB POTABBIO-TABTBATB 0> AllTIHOKr.

Otaitment of Tobac'eo. 8y». UiravBKTUx
TABAOi, L. Pr»f. 1. (CUfpndaU.) Extract
of tobacco, 1 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. As a Motion in
neuralgia.

2. (Ph. n. S.) Fresh tobacco leaves, 1 oz. ;
lard, 12 ox.; as ointment of hemlock. As an
anodyne application in irritable uloers, ringworm,
prurigo, and some other skin diseases.

Ointment, Tripharm'lc. Sg*. OncixBKT o*

THRBB THIKOB; UiraDBimTIC TBIPHABJCAOUX,

L. Prtp. From lead plaster, 4 oz. ; olive oil,
2 fl. oz. ; distilled vinegar, 1 fl. oz. ; melt together,
and stir nntil they combine, and a proper con-
sistence is obtained. Cooling and dericcatire ;
formerly greatly esteemed as a dressing.
Ointment, Trooper's. See Oihikbbt, Mbb-

OVBIAX. -

Ointment of Turpentine. 8gn. Ukoubittux
TBBXBDlTHlirJt (B. P.), L. Prtp. 1. (Guy's
Hosp.) Camphor, 1 dr. ; oil of turpentine, 1 to
2 fl. dr. ; dissolve, and add of resin of cerate,
1 oz. As a stimulant and anodyne friction in
nephritic and rheumatic pains, engorgements,
Ac.

2. (Ph. Austr.) Turpentine, 2 lbs. ; simple
ointment^ 1 lb.; mix by a gentle heat. As a
stimulant dressing.

8. (B. P.) Turpentine, 1 oz. ; resin, 64 gr. ;
yellow wax, \ oz. ; prepared lard, \ oz. Melt,
and stir till cold,

Otntment «f Tafty. Bifm- UHSiTBKTTnc znroi

OXYDI IMPCBI, IT. TI7TLB, L. iV«p. EVom

prepared tutty, 1 part ; simple ointment, 6 parts ;
mix by trituration. Formerly in great repute in
ophtbilmic practice, more particnbirly in inflam-
mation, &c., of the eydids. See OnmoxT op
OziDB OB Znio.

OlBtasBt of y«r»'trUe. 8s*. UKeuBxrcx
TBBATBnrji (B. P.), L. ; PomtAsi db tbbatbirb,
Fr. Prtp. 1. (Jfa^etuiM.) Veratrine, 4 gr. ;
lard, 1 ox. ; mixed by careful trituration.

2. (iV«tra.) Veratrine, 80 gr. ; lard, 1 oi.

3. (ZWaiiiU.) Veratrine, 10 to 20 gr. ; olive
oil, 1 dr. ; -triturate, and add of spermaceti oint-
ment, 1 oz.

4. (B. P.) Veratrine, 8 gr. ; hard paraffin, \
oz. ; soft paraffin, | oz. ; olive dl, 1 dr. Rub the
veratrine smooth with the dl, mdt the remaining
ingredients, and mix.

4a. Veratrine, 1 part ; hard paraffin, 14 parts ;

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OINTMENTS— OLEATKS

(oft piurafBn, 41 parts ; olive oil, 7 parts ; rob the
veratriue and the oil to a smooth condition, then
mix with the melted paraffins.

Uttt, tfc. As a friction in neuralgia, neuralgic
rheumatism, gont, dropsy, &c. A piece sbont the
size of a hazel nut is to he rubbed for 10 or 16
minntes over the seat of pain twice a day. It
must not be applied where the skin is nnsoond,
nor to a large sarf see at a time, and the greatest
caution must be used, on account of the extremely
poisonous character of veratrine.

Ointment of Vn'dlgTis. Syn. Owtmiuit op

BUBACBTATB 0> OOVPSB ; UlieUBKTUM JEBVeiSIB
(Ph. £.), U. OUPBI 8UBACETATIB (Ph. D.), L.

Frtp. 1. (Ph. E.) Besinous ointment, 15 os. ;
melt by a gentle heat, sprinkle into it of verdigris
(in very fine powder), 1 oz., and stir the mixture
briskly until it concretes.

2. (Ph. D.) Prepared snbacetate of copper,
i dr. j ointment of white wux, 71 dr. j mix by tri-
turation.

V$ei, i[a. Detergent and eacharotic; as an
occasional dressing to foul and flabby ulcers, to
keep down fungous flesh, and, diluted with oil or
lard, in scrofulous ulceration and inflammation
of the eyeUds.

Ointment of Tia'agu. S^. Aoxno omv

XaVT ; UKeVKNTTTX AOITI, U. ACEDI ACITIOI,

L. JPrep. 1. (Dr Chtttort.) Olive oil, 1 lb. ; white
wax, 4oz. i melt them together by a ^ntle heat,
add of strong vinegar, 2 fl. oz., and stir until the
mixture concretes. As a cooling astringent dress-
ing, and as an application in chronic ophthalmia.

i. {W. CooUg.) Acetate of morphine, 6 gr. ;
acetic acid (Ph. L.) and water, of each, 1^ fl. dr. j
dissolve, add the solution to simple ointment
(melted), 1) oz., and stir the mixture briskly
until nearly cold. In chronic ophthalmia, pain-
ful inflamed piles, &c. ; also to remove freckles,
and to allay itdung and irritation in several skin

OistBWBt of Walant Iwtm {Ntgrier). Sgn.
UVSVINTUK JVSIiAVSIB. iV«p. Extract of
walnot leaves, 3 dr. ; lard, 4 dr.; oil of bergamot,
1 drop. Mix.

Ointment, White. Both sPiBMAoaTi onrruKT
and onrtuMST op oabbokati op liad were
formerly so called, but the name is now obsolete.

The OAJCPHOBATSO WHIXB OIKTKEHT of the

Ph. L. of 1746 (vHa. auktm OAioraoxATTw) was
spermaceti ointanent to which a little camphor
had been added.
OlBtm«Bt of WUto Freelpltate. Sy». Onrr-

mHT OV AXXONIATBD MSBOUXT ; UhSUKH-
TUK HTOBAB&TBI AJOCOSIATI (B. P.), L. iVsp.

Ammoniated mercury, 1 part ; simple ointment,
0 parts. Mix. See Onmaar op Amoino-

OHIiOBISB 0> MXBOUBT.

OlntBMBt of WUte ITaz. See Onnaarr,

SllCPLB.

Ointment of Witeh Hu«L 89»- UveimmrM
EAMAXXuoia. Prtp. Liquid extract of hama-
jnelis, 1 part ; benzoated lai^, 9 parts. Astringent
for piles.

Obitmant of VoUkbane. See OamixsT o»

AOODITB.

Ointment of Wood Boot. 1^. UNevnTux
IiTLiaiNiB, L. iV«p. Wood soot and lard, of
each, equal parts. Mix.

Ointmentof Wood Boot (Compound). Sgn. Uir-
avsHCVK pvLiams cokpobititic, L. Prep.
Acetic extract of wood soot, 4 dr.; dried salt, 10
dr. ; lard, 14 oz. For ringworm.

Ointment flnr Worms. Sj/n- Vnavtatrmt

AITTHSXIflBTIODU, U. TIBKIPnSVM, L. Prtp.

1. (Sotrkaavt.) Aloes and oz-gall, of each, 1 part ;
marsh-mallow ointment, 8 parts.

2. (Fr. Hosp.) Aloes and oil of tansy, of each,
1 part ; dried ox-gall, 2 parts (both in flne pow-
der) ; lard, 8 parts.

8. (Ph. Bat) Aloes, 1 dr.; dried ox-gall and
petroleum, of each, li dr. ; lard, H oz,

4. (Sonbeirm.) Powdered aloes, 2 dr.; lard, 1 01.

Utei, ife. The above are purgative and venui.
fuge, applied as frictions to the abdomen. They
are chiefly employed for children and delicate
females. See Oivhebki, CoLOcrVTH.

Ointment of Yellow Wax. %». UHaTTBxrvK
OBSx PLAr.B, L. Prtp. (Ph. D. 1826.) Bees-
wax, 1 lb. ; lard, 4 lbs. ; melt them together. A
mild emollient dressing. Some parties regard it
as more ' healing ' than the oikxkxht op whiti

WAX.

Ointment of Bine See Onmmft op Oxisb
opZnrc.

WntmMit of line Cynnide {Ommimr). Sifu. U»-
emKTVK znrci OTAinsi, L. Prep. Cyanide of
zinc, IS gr. ; lard, 6 dr.; butter of cacao, 6 dr. ;
mix.

OnrTKXVTS (Vlower of). Sgn. FuM OK-
srBHTOBUX, L. Prep. From resin, fhos, wax,
and suet, of each, } lb. ; olibanum and Venioe tor.
pentine, of each, 2i oz. ; myrrh, 1 oz. ; wine, \
pint ; boil them together, and, lastly, add of cam-
phor, 2 dr. Suppurative ; warming.

OLIATKB. Sg*. Olbata, L. These are chemi-
cal compounds of oleic acid with a base. Of
recent years they have come much into use as
local applications, as rubbed into the skin they
are readilv absorbed. Two methods of making
them are followed :

1. A metsllio oxide or a pure alkaloid is dis-
solved in proper quantity in pure oltic acid, using
heat in most cases.

2. A soluble salt of a metal, such as sulphate of
zinc, is mixed with a solution of olive-oil soap,
washing the precipiteto well with water, and dry-
ing, 'niis is the better of the two processes.

Oleato of Aoonitine. Prtp. Pure aconitine,
10 gr. ; oldo add, 1 oz. ; dissolve.

Uttt. Local anodyne to relieve the p^ of
neuralgia and rheumatism.

Olaato of Atropine. Prep. Puieaiiopine,8gr.j
oleic acid, 1 oz. ; dissolve.

Vef. Local anodyne, also to dilate the pupil.

Oleato of Blamnth. Prep. Nitrate of bismuth
^n crystals), \ oz. ; dissolve in glycerin. 4 oz. ;
add slowly solution of oleato of sodium with eon-
stant stirring until it cesses to precipitate. De-
cant, wash with water, and dry.

VtM. Sedative, astringent ; awlied to pustular
eruptions and hyperemia of tjie skin.

OlMto of Coppar. Prep. Sulphate of copper,
1 part; water, 40 parts; dissolve. Add slowly a
solution of oleate of sodium until a raedpitazte
ceases to form, stirring constantly. Decant the
water, and wash the semi-fluid oleato several
times with hot water.

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OLEFUNT QAS— OLEIC ACID

iin

Vm*. Antiseptic and antipwrasitio agent. Use-
fal in ringwonn.

Oleata of Lead. Same proceas as for oiaatb
ov OOPPBB, nsing acetate of lead in place of sul-
phate of copper.

Oleata of Kercniy. 8g». Olbatuic htdbab-
e-YBi (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. Yellow oxide of mer-
cmry, 1 part; oleic acid, 9 parts. Mix well, and
stir till dissolved.

2. Yellow oxide of mercury, 160 gr. ; nitric
add, 130 gr. ; water, 2 ox. j dissolve, and dilnte to
40 oi. with water. To this add a weak solntion
of pore soft soap, antil a precipitate ceases to
form. Wash the precipitate with warm water
and dry.

Uau. Oleate of mercnry was first introduced
t^ Professor Marshall, and is used of 8 strengths,
S% > 10% , 20% oxide of mercury. Strongly re-
omnmended as an application for chronic inflam-
mation in the joints, or rubbed into the axilla
for syphilis. Applied to the head it destroys
pedicuU.

(Uaate of Xerenzy and XorpUae. Pnp. Pure
morphine, 1 gr. ; oleate of mereniy (6% ), 1 dr. ;
mix and dissolve.

Oleata of Zinc. 8yn. Olsatitk znrci (B. P.),
L. Prep. 1. Oxide of sine, 1 part; oleic acid,
9 parts; mix well, and dissolve by the aid of
heat.

2. Same process as for oliatb of oopfbh, using
■olphate of zinc for sulphate of copper. The pro-
duct should be a hard mass, and is usually sold in
tiie form of powder.

V$tt. In form of ointment or dusting powder,
as an astringent in ecxema ulcerations and bums.
See OlrBio Aois.

OXXTIAHI 0A8. CfH^. 8gn. EiHnnrB,

HlATT OASBOHHTTBD EYSBOeSN, HiATT OAB-
BVXKTXD H., ElATX, EtHBHI ; QaZ HT7ILBVX, Fr.

A sobstanoe discovered by some assoeiated Dutch
chemists in 1796. This gas occurs as an im-
portant constituent amongst the products of the
action of heat npon coal and oUier substances
rich in carbon.

The name ol^flant gat is derived from its pro-
perty of nniting with halogens to form oily
liqmda, a fact wUch is applied to the estimation
of the proportion of this gas present in coal gas,
npon which part of the illuminating value of the
Ii&ter depends.

Prtp. 1. One measure of alcohol (rectified
qririt) is gradnaUv added to two measures of
oU of vitii^ and &e mixture is heated in a re-
tort until it blackens, and sulphurous acid begins
to be evolved; the product is then passed first
throngh a wash-bottle contaimng a solution
of canstic potash, or milk of lime, and next
through a Wonlff's bottle containing concen-
trated sulphuric acid, the Ust being furnished
witik a tube dipping into the water of a pneu-
matie trough : here the gas is collected in tall
gIaH«linaers.

2. Tm vapour of boiling alcohol is passed into
a tDixtnre of oil of vitriol diluted with rather less
than one half its weight of water, and so heated
as to be in a state of tranquil ebullition (820° —
880° F.) ; the gaseous product is chiefly
okfiaot gas and the vapour of water, from which
it may be separated as above. No sulphurous

acid is formed, nor does the acid blacken as in the
last process.

Prop., ^0. Colourless ; neutral ; possessing a
peculiar ethereal odour; nearly insoluble in water;
alcohol, ether, and the volatile and fixed oils
absorb a portion of it; bums with a brilliant
white flame ; at a full red heat or under the action
of a strong electric spark it sailers decomposi-
tion, with deposit of carbon and liberation of
light carbnretted hydrogen gas ; mixed with tbree
times its volume of oxygenit explodes with extreme
violence when ignited; it detonates powerfully
when brought in contact with strongly oionisea
oxygen ; mixed with twice its volume Ot chlorine
and inflamed, hydrochloric acid is formed, and
the carbon of the gas is precipitated in the form
of dense black soot; if the mixture (best in
equal volumes), instead of being kindled, be left
standing over water, it soon condenses into a
heavy oily liquid (chloride of olefiant gas,
Dutch liquid). Liquefies to a colourless liquid
at 108° C. Sp.gr. 0-978; 100 cubic inches weigh
30-67 gr.

Olaflant Gas, Bromide of. C^^Br^ Sgn,
Bboxisi op ■THTi.Bira. From bromine and
olefiant gas as Dutch liquid (q. v.). A colourless
liquid, with an ethereal odour, boiling at 266°, and
BOlidi^ng at 0° F. Sp. gr. 8- 16.

Oleflaat das, Chlo"ride of. C^,(\. Syt.
Dutch liqutd, ETsmirB siohloridb. This
substance, referred to above, may be easily pre-
pared in any quantity by the following process :-— '
Chlorine and olefiant gas (the latter a little in
excess) are conveyed by separate tubes (passing
through the same cork) mto a glass globe, having
a narrow funnel-shaped neck at its lower part,
dipping into a small bottle destined to receive the
product of their mutual reaction: the newly
formed liquid trickles down the sides of the globe
into the receiver, and when a sufficient quantity
is collected, it is purified by agitating it first with
water, and then with sulphuric acid, and, lastly,
submitting it to distillation.

Prop., I[e. Colourless; sweet-tasted; agree-
ably fragrant, the odour approaching that of oil
of chloroform; slightly soluble in water, freely
so in alcohol and euier; it sinks in water; boils
at 180° F. ; bums with a smoky greenish flame ;
is unaftected by oil of vitriol, but decomposed by
solution of caustic potash. It combines wiu
chlorine, forming new compounds. See CELOBtDB*
ov Cabbon.

OLXIC ACID. C„Hn.CO,H. 8g%. OLanrB,
EiiAlo Aoro. One of the fatty acids discovered
by Chevrenl, and produced by saponifying oils,
and then separating the base from the resulting
soap by means of a dilnte acid. It occurs as
trioleine in most liquid and solid fats. It now
forms an important secondary product in the
manufacture of stearic acid and stearin candles,
in which its presence would be injurious by lower-
ing the melting-point. Perfectly pore oleic acid
may be obtained as follows :

1. By saponifying triolein, as just noticed.

2. Pore almond, lard, or olive-oil soap is deoom-
posed by a dilute acid, and the resulting oily add
is digested in a water-bath with half its weight of
litharge (in very fine powder) for some hours,
constuitly stirring ; the mixture is then agitated

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1176

OLEIC ACID

with twice tta Tolnme of ether in • cIom veMel,
and in 24 honn the clear ethereal eolntion is
decanted, and deoompoeed with dilate hydro-
chloric acid ; the oleic acid leparates, and the ether
mixed with it ii expelled by evaporation. To
render it colonrleu, the acid ii again uponifled
with canstio loda, and the toap thna obtained i«
repeatedly diuolved in a solution of soda, and as
often separated by adding common salt ; this soap
is, lastly, decomposed by dilate hydrochloric acid
as before.

8. (H. N. Fraaer's method.) Oil of cotton
seeds, deprived of most of its stearin by chilling
and pieuare, is first saponified with potash,
using a slight excess of the base. The soap is
then treated with tartaric acid, or any other acid
which will make a solable salt with potash, antil
the base is completely nentralised : the residae is
washed ontil a mass is left about the consistence
and colour of cerate, free from any of the salt ;
this is heated for several hoars with nearly its
weight of lithaige, and three or fonr times its
bulk of water ; the resniting compound is shaken
up while yet warm irith ether, and allowed to
stand until all thq soluble matter separates. This
removes the stearate, and leaves a nearly pure
oleste of lead.

The clear liqaor is decanted and briskly
shaken with dilute moriatio acid for a few
minatea to precipitate all the chloride of lead,
the lighter liquid washed to remove traces of
moriatio acid, and filtered ; the filtrate is finally
heated slowly in a water-bath, and the ether dis-
tilled until the residae ceases to have an ethereal
odour. The product is aboat 60% of the balk of
theoiL

Crude oleio acid may be purified as follows : —
1. Expose it repeatedly to a temperature of about
46° v., and as often express the liquid portion.
With this mix an equal bulk of solution of sul-
phurous acid, place the mixture in the light, and
shake it frequently until no more colour is dis-
charged. After separation the oleio add is to
be washed repeatedly with cold distilled water,
and pat into bottles, which should be kept flUed
up and in a cool place.

2. Heat with Utharge over boiling water for
several hours; extract the oleate with ether;
shake the solution with muriatic acid, which pre-
dpitates the lead as chloride, the oleic acid re-
maining dissolved in the ether, which forms the
upper layer; distil off the ether; dissolve the
remaining oleic aoid in ammonia, and then preci-
pitate witii chloride of barium ; recrystallise the
barium oleate from an alcoholic solution of it, and
Anally decompose and separate by adding tartaric
aoid.

Prop^ 4*. A colourless oilv add, which on
cooling solidifies to brilliant, coloorless, tasteless
needles, melting at 14° C, insoluble in water,
soluble in alcohol, ether, and oil : with the bases
it forms salts called oleates. The best kind of
oleic acid is known as ' pale cloth oiL'

It is used in greasing the wool in the process
of spinning ; olive oil used to be employed, but
oldc aoid is much more readily removed by alka-
lies, and, therefore, more suitable.

The following are the most important oom-
pounds of oleic acid

Ammonmm Oleate. Employed as a mordant
for aniline dyes on cotton.

Barium Oleate. A crystalline powder in-
soluble in water, and slightly kolnble in boiling
water.

Lead Oleate. A light, white powder, melting
at 80° C. to a yellow oil, and cooling to a brittle
translucent mass ; it forms the chief part of lead
plaster.

Potateium Oleate. A transparent jelly, which
can be decomposed by water into caustic potash,
and the insoluble add salt. The soft soap made by
saponi^ng whale and seal oils with potash chiefiy
consists of this substance.

Sodium Oleate. A constituent of hard soap;
it can be crystallised from absolnte alcohol. J.
Lightfoot introduced the use oftlus salt in calico
printing as a 'piepare' for cloth for steam
colonrs, the effect being to hdghten and brighten
the tints.

By fosing oldc add with caustic potash it b
resolved into acetic and palmitic acids. This first
is taken advantage of in the utilisation of the
large quantities obtained in the mannfacture of
candles.

Impuritiee, Tetle, Sfe. Pure oldc add has no
acid reaction ; if it reddens litmus, products of
oxidation are present.

Mineral and rosin oils are sometimes used to
adulterate oleic add, and their presence greaUy
interferes with the adaptability of the latter for
greasing wool. Such admixture reduces the power
of being readily saponified, for which oldc add is
chiefly valued.

To detect such hydrocarbons they may be dis-
solved out from the dry soap (the sample having
been saponified), mechanically divided by admix-
ture with sand, by the use of suitable solvents, such
as ether, ehloioform, carbon disulphide, benxene,
or petroleum spirit iJL. S. Allen). This method
requires very careful manipulation, for tiie details
of which the reader should oonsult Allen's ' Com-
mercial Organic Analysis,' voL ii, pp. 166, 166.

Determination of Oleic Aoid in lueobAU
Fattg Aeid. 1. Heat with finely powdered
Utharge ; dissolve out the oleate of lead formed by
digesting with warm ether repeatedly and Alter-
ing; decompose the filtrate with muriatic aoid ;
decant the solution containing the liberated oleic
acid; evaporate^ and then weigh the rendue in a
capsule.

2. (Mater's method — 'Analyst,' ii, 73.) Saponify
about 1*6 grms. of the fatty matter with alcoholio
potash, and dilate wdl with boiling water. Treat
the solution with acetic add till slightiy add, and
then carefully neutralise it with tretk potash.
Predpitate with slight excess of lead acetate and
stir until the soap settles. Decant the superna-
tant liquid ; wash the soap once with a large
quantity of water, and decant again. The process
so far has yidded lead oleate, lead palmitate, and
lead stearate ; the Ant of these salts is solable in
ether, while the other two are insoluble.

The soap is now transferred to a Aask (capadty
=> 100 CO.), the basin which contuned it being
well rinsed with pom ether and the washings
placed in the flask along with the soap. The Bask
u then Ailed up with pure ether,corked, and shaken
at intervals tor several hours, after which it is

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OLEIN— OLKITB

IIW

aUowedtosnlnide. The contenta of tbefluk are
now filtered, and the precipitate washed with ether
until the washings cease to blacken with am-
moninm sulphide. The flitrate and washing* now
contain the lead oleate only. This solnlaon is now
transferred to a tabe (capacity — 250 c.c.) gradu-
ated from the bottom upwards, and furnished with
a well-gpround stopper and a stopcock which is
placed at SO c.c. from the bottom. About 20 c.c.
of dilute hydrochloric acid (1 part acid, 2 parts
water) are then added, the stopper replaced, the
tnbe well shaken, and then set to subaide. Lead
chloride will form and settle, and a clear solution
of oleic acid will rise to the top. A definite
volume of the solution is then drawn off through
the stopcock into a tared platinum dish, the ether
evaporated, and after being dried at 100^ C. the
olttc acid is weighed and calculated on the whole
bulk.

This method yields the most accurate results of
any that have been hitherto proposed.

O'LBnr. CiHiCCuH^O,),. <^H. TuoLinr,
Elaut; Huilb ABaoLUi, Fr. It is the principal
component of olive and almond oils; it occurs
also in most of the fixed oils and fata. By saponi-
fication it yields oleic acid, but it is less easily
deeomposed by alkalies than palmitin or stearin.
It is one of the three glycerides of oleic acid
obUned by Berthelot (' Ann. Chim. Phys.' [8],
zli, 218) J the other two, monolein and diolein,
are tSlj liquids, which, on cooling, solidify to a
erystalUne mass; these are not important com-
merciaUy.

iVq>. 1. OUve oil or almond oil is digested for
S4 hoars with a quantity of caustic soda lye,
only lufficientto saponify one half of the oil, and
the nndecomposed oily portion (olein) is then
separated from the alkaline solution and newly
farmed stearin soap.

2. The saponified mixture of (A\ and alkali (see
Ko. 1) is digested with proof spirit until all the
soap is dissolved out, and the olein separates and
flo^ on the surface; the latter, after repose, is
decanted.

3. Almond or oUve oil is agitated in a stout
bottio with 7 or 8 times ita weight of strong
•leohol (sp. gr. 0*798) at nearly the boiling-poinC
notil the whole is dissolved; the solation is next
allowed to cool, after which the clear upper
•ttatnm ii decanted from the stearin which has
been deposited, and, after filtration, the spirit is
removed by distillation at a gentle heat ; by ex-
posure at a very low temperature it deposits any
remaining stearin, and then becomes pure.

4. Olebi can be made artificially by heating
pore glycerin with oleic acid in a closed vessel.

6. (Eierwyck's method.) From cold-pressed
olive oil, by allowing it to stand 24 hours over a
•olution of caustic soda with frequent agitation.
The soap produced is removed witli dilute alcohol,
■ad the olein is then deoolourised by animal
duureoal.

IVop., i(e. The products of methods 2 and 8
have only a very slight yellow colour, but may be
rendered quite lim^d and colonrteas by digestion
for 24 hours with a little pnre, freshly burnt
animal charcoal, and subsequent filtration. In
this state the olein is devoid of taste and smell, is
perfectly neotral to test-paper, does nob in the

slightest degree affect metallic bodies immersed
in it, and does not thicken by exposure to the
greatest cold. Olein is used by watchmakers for
thrir fine work. Some years ago the product of
the last formula was sold by a certain metropoli-
tan house as ' watchmakers' oil,' at Is. 6d. a
drachm. Commercial olein is gpenerally lard oil.
The refined oleic acid of the stearin works also
commonly passes ui|4er the same name. Olein
burns well in lamps ; but oleic acid does not do
so unless when well refined, and unless the wick
tube is so formed as to remain cool. See Lass
Oil and Olsio Aoid.

OLEITIS. Sgn. Rionrox-strif honatb o> boda.
Chemically this snbstanoe is essentially ricinol-
sulphonate of soda. The following descriptive
outline of the method of its production is fnrnished
by Mr Kilmer : — " It is prepared from castor oil
by treating with anlphuric acid at a low tempera-
tui-e, when a compound of sulphuric and ricinoleic
acid is formed. The free sulphuric acid being
removed by washing, and any unchanged oil by
ether, the resulting sulphoricinoleic acid is then
neutralised by sodium hydrate, the finished pro-
duct bang a jelly-like liquid, with a litUe odour,
acrid taste, solnbte in water, alcohol, chloroform,
and essential oils." Hr W. A. H. Naylor says,
" This description is chRracterised by brevity
and vagueness, while the latter part of it is un-
fortunately so worded as to invite, if not literally
to compel, the deduction of an erroneous inference.
In the absence of particular knowledge of the
action of sulphuric acid upon certain oils, one
would conclude that the product of the reaction
between the castor oil and the acid — sulphoricin-
oleic add — was not sensibly soluble in water or
in ether, while as a matter of fact the reverse is
the case.

" My present object is simply to supply a work-
ing formula for the soda compound, one that I
have used and can recommend. Take 1 lb. of
castor oil, and add to it grsdually, with continu-
ous stirring, 2 ox. by weight of sulphuric acid
(B. P.). This part of the process will occupy
several hours, and should be timed so as to be
finished towards the end of the working day. In
the morning introduce in the same manner 1 os.
by weight of the acid, or a sufficiency. The point
of finality is reached when the product remuns
clear, or, as is generally the case, is only faintly
opalescent when dilnted with abont 40 times its
volume of distilled water.

"The temperature of the mixed oil and acid
may be allowed to reach 110° F., and may, with-
out detriment, even rise to ISV F. When chemi>
cal combination is complete, the product is at
once intimately mixed with 1^ times its weight of
distilled water, and allowed to stand until separa-
tion into two distinct portions baa ensued. The
supernatant and oily layer is then removed and
neutralised with a 10% aqueous solntiou of caustic
soda. This soda compound is shaken up with 6
times ita volume of proof spirit and set aside,
when any free oil will rise to the surface. The
lower and spirituous portion is evaporated on a
water-bath to a thick jelly, the liquid being kept
faintly alkaline by the addition of soda solution if
necessary.

" The reanlting product usually contains a small

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1178

OLEOKETEB— OLEO-SACCHABITM

^roportipn of inlphats of soda, bnt the qaantity
b iniafficient to rank aa a seriooi objection in
view of the nsea to which oleite is likely to be
applied. If > howerer, in any case it is deemed
necessary to eliminate traces of alkaline sniphaie,
the ricinul-sulphonate of soda must be treated
with alcohol, in which the latter is soluble
and the former practically in-
solnble. .

"The free acid (ricinol-sal-
phonic acid) may be readily ob-
tained by decomposing the soda
compound with hydrochlorio
acid."
. OLEOXITSB. Sfn. EliIo-

MKTBB, ESXOliaTBB, OlIoBAl-

ixcn. A delicate areometer or
hydrometer, so weighted and
giadoated as to adapt itself to
the densities of the leading fixed
oils. As the differences of the
speci6c gravities of these sub-
stances are inconsiderable, to
render it more susceptible the
bnlb of the instrument is pro-
portionately large, and the tabe
or stem very narrow. The scale
of the oleometer in general ose
(Qobby's) is divided into 60 de-
grees, and it floats at 0° or zero
in pure poppy oil, at 88° or
88'6 in pure almond oil, and at
60° in pure olive oil. The stand-
ard temperature of the instruments made in this
coontn is now 60° ; those made on the Continent,
64*6° P. Th» oil must therefore be brought to
this normal temperature, before testing it, by
plunging the glass cylinder containing it into
either hot or cold water, as the case may be ; or
a correction of the observed density must be
made. The last is done by deducting 2 from the
indication of the instrument for each degree of
ti>e thermometer above the normal temperature
of the inttniment, and adding 2 for every degree
-below it. Thus : suppose the temperature of the
oil at the time of the experiment is 60°F ., and
the oleometer indicates 61°; tlien —

60^ Actual temperatnre.

M'6 Normal temperatnre.

6*6 Difference.
Indication of the oleometer . . 61-0
The difference 6-6x2=! . . . 11-0

Beat density 600

Suppose the temperatnre observed at the time
of the erperiment is 62°, and the oleometer indi-
eates 46° ; then —

64-6° Normal temperatnre.

62-0 Actual temperatnre.

2-6 Difference.
Indication of the oleometer . . 46*0
Tike difference 2-6 X 8 1:° ... 6-0

Beal den^ty ..... 60-0
The oil is, therefore^ premmed to be pure. Ex-
cellent results at high temperatures have been
obtiUned by nsing a hydrostatic balance made by

O. Westphal, of Celli, Hanover. The bnlb, or
plummet, suspended from the balance, is im-
mersed in the test-tnbe (li in. x 6 in.) con-
taining the melted fat or oil. The desired tem>
perature is obtained by placing the test-tnbe in a
paraffln-bath. The latter is heated by an outer
water-bath, and, when it arrives at a constant

temperatnre (206°— 208° F.), the weights on the
arm of the 1»lftnce are exactly adjusted, and the
sp. gr. of the oil under examination may then be
read off.

The diagram is taken from the 'Chemical Neirs,*
voL xxxviii, p. 267.

A represents the Westphal balance with bnlb
immersed in the test-tube, containing the £at
whose gravity it is desired to obtun. b is a ver-
tical section of the bath, the outer casing of which
is filled with water ; the outlet and inlet for water
is marked 0.

The only precaution needfbl is to see that the
plunger of the balance does not rest either on the
bottom or the side of the test-tube.

The apparatus is described in detail in the
< Chemical News,' voL xxxiv, p. 264. See Htsbo-
XBTIB, OtLS (Fixed), and SpBorno Qsatitt.

OliSO-FHOBPHOBIC ACID. An acid com-
ponnd found by Frftny in the brain and nervous
matter. The sodinm salt occurs in almost all
parts of the animal body, its quantity increasing
with the age of the animal and differing in amount
in Afferent species (Valenciennes and Fr£my,
'Ann. Ch. H»ys.' [8], 1, 172).

OLSO-BXS'nrS. The natural compounds of
resin and essential oil forming the vegetable bal-
sams and turpentines. Copaiba, Canada balsam,
and Venice turpentine are examples. Certain ex-
tracts prepared with ether, as the fluid extracts of
cnbebs and pepper in the Ph. U. 8., may be re-
garded as oleo-resins. See ExnuoT.

OLEO-SACCEASUX. £y». Ei.sobaooba-
Ttuu. Sugar aiomatiaed or medicated by being
rubbed np with an essential oil. The oleo-sacchara
of aniseed, caraway, cinnamon, peppermint.

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OLIBANUM— ONION

1179

pennyroyiil, and the other like ettenUal oils are
made by nibbing 16 to 20 drop* of the reapective
(db with white ingar, 1 ox. The Ph. Oroica, 1897,
preecribeB 1 part of oil to 20 parts of sugar. The
Fh. Auatr. 1836 and Ph. Bor. order the same pro-
portions, or 3 drops of oil to the dr., and 24 drops
to the oc, of powdered sogar. When intended
tor making extemporaneous distilled waters, 1 dr.
of magnesia is a common addition. The oleo>
saechara of citrons, lemons, oranges, &c., are made
from the peels, as follows: — After cleaning off
any speoks in the outer rind of the fmit, rob a
large piece of loaf sugar on it until the yellow
rind is completely removed. Those parts of the
•Pgar which are impregnated with the essence
are, from time to time, to be cut sway with a
knbFe, and pat into an earthen pot. The whole
beinjf thus taken off, the sugared essence (oleo-
saccharum) is to be closely pressed down in the
pot, tied over with bladder, and preserved in a
cool place for use.

FsAXKiHomaa. This gum-resin is of uncertain
origin, bat ascribed to several varieties of Bot-
weSia, notably B. saera and B. Carteri, natives
of Asia and Africa. Olibannm occurs in the
form of fragments, which are sometimes pale
yellow, and at others of a reddish colour j these
fragments have a splinteiy fracture, a mealy sur-
face, a fainUy balsamic odour, and a bitter taste.
•< It consists of about 4% or 6% of a volatile oil.
S6% of a resinous acid, 30% to 36% of gum, and
6% of baaaorin " {Payen). Incense, of which oli-
bannm forms one of the ingredients, owes much
of its pleasant balsamic odour when burning to
its presence. It is also used in fharmaey.

OLIVX. ^». Ouu, OuvA, L. The OUa
europaa, Linn., a native of the south of
Korope. The unripe fmit is preserved in brine
(fitunsa. puTBs, Fkbhoh outis); the ripe
fmit f nmishes olive oil ; the bark is bitter, astrin-
gent, and febrifuge, and has been used as a substi-
tnte for cinchona bark; it yields a gum-like
■nbstanoe (outb 9Vh), which was formerly re-
ported Tulnerary, and contains olivine. The olive
tree baa in all ages been held in peculiar estima-
tion. It is remarkable for yielding a fixed oil from
the pericarp instead of from the seed.

QUVDnS. 8gn. Chbtsoliti. A crystallised
doable silicate of magnesia and iron, found in
basaltic and volcanic rocks, and very frequently
in masses of meteoric iron. It is sometimes yellow
in colour, but mostly green.

QUvina {Dr Landartr). Syn. OuYiirA. Prap.
TmA olive leaves with addnl^cd water, concen-
tiatSk precipitate with ammonia, re-dissolve the
washed precipitate in a dilated acid, purify
with anfanal charcoal, Alter, and le-precipitato
with ammonia.

OLLIVIKK'S BlSCOnS. See PiTnrr Kidi-
oun.

CXBBn. A native name for Kola nuts.
They are also known as ' gnra.'

OX'SLKT. ^n. OuMhmm, Fr. A variety
of pancake or fritter made of eggs and other
ingiedienta. Omelets may contain bacon, ham,
herbs, flsh, sheU-flsh, cold meat, cold game, fmit.

cook.

lytbing else at hand at the pleasure of the
' Spirit omelets ' are made by pouring a

little brandy, mm, or whisky over them on serving
them up, and setting it on fire for a moment just
before placing the cUsh on the table. " Where is
the man or woman cook but says they know how
to make an omelette, and that to perfection P But
this is rarely the case. It is related of Sarah, the
Duchess of Marlborough, that no one could cook
a ' f raise,' as it was then called, for tfae great duke
but herself. The great point is, if in an iron pan,
it should be very clean and free from damp, which
sometimes comes out of tlie iron when placed on
the Are. The best plan is to put it on the fire
with a little fat, and let it get quite hot, or until
the fat bums ; remove it, uid wipe it clean with
a dry cloth, and then yon will be able to make the
omelette to perfection " {Sojftr).

The following formula for a plun omelet is by
the above culinary authority : — " Break four eggs
into a basin, add i teaspoonful of salt, and i do.
of pepper, and beat them up well with a fork ;
put into tiie frying-pan H ox. of batter, lard, or
oil, place it on the flie, and, when hot, pour in the
eggs, and keep on mixing them quickly with a
spoon nntil they are delicately set ; then let them
slip to the edge of the pan, laying hold by the
handle, and raising it slantways, which will give
an elongated form to the omelette; torn in the
edges, let it rest a moment to set, turn it over on
to a (Ush, and serve." " It ought to be of a rich
yellow colour, done to a nicety, and as light and
delicate as possible." " 8 table-spoonf nls of milk
and 1 ox. of the cmm of bread, out into thin slices,
may be added."

MiziD and VASor omsiaib are made by
simply dropping the ingredients, out into dice
or fragments, into &e above. Akchott,
OTSIBB, and bhxikf oxilbis are generally
prepared by placing a few spoonfuls of the
respective sauces in the centre of each when
nearly dressed.

OBAsm. An alkaloid obtained from the roots
of the onabuoplant, closely related to the Cariua
Sohimperi. Tlie poisoned arrows of the Somalis,
East Africa, owe their deadly character te being
steeped in the juice of the onabaio |dant.

0H8UIST (da la Hire). A stimolant and
digestive ointment, very popular in French phar-
macy.

Prtp. (P. Cod.) Black pitch, I part; butter,
lard, litharge, suet, and yellow wax, 4 parts ; olive
oil, 8 parte.

OIlOB. 8gn. ClPA,L. The bulb of .^Umm
oepa. The onion is diuretic, expectorant, mbe-
faraent, and stimulant. The juice, made into a
syrup with sugar (btbupub oifs), has been given
in chronic catarrh, diarrhoea, croup, dropsy, and
ealculus. Boasted and split open, onions have
been applied as poultices to suppurating tnmoara,
and applied to the pubes to relieve suppression of
urine in children. As an article of diet for
those undergoing severe bodily labour onions are
by no means to be despised. They also possess
antiscorbutic properties.

Onions, to Chop. " Few persons know how to
chop onions properly. In the first place all the
dry skin must be removed, then a thin slice otf
the top and bottom, or they will be bitter, then
cat them into thin slices, dividing the onion, and
cat crossways to form dice. If a very slight

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1180

ONYX— OPHTHALMIA

fl*TOnr i* required and the onion ia rtrong, like in
the north of England — ^for itmnat be remembered
that the farther north yoa go the stronger the
flavour of the root, and if French receipt boolu
are exactly copied, it it no wander complaints are
made of the preponderance of the flavour of the
onion ; in which case, when chopped, pnt them
in the comer of a napkin or cloth, waah them in
water, squeeze them dry, then put them back on
the hoard, and chop finer, or sometimes only
rubbing the pan or the meat with the onion ia
quite snfflcient" (Sogtr).

O'VTZ. A sub-species of quartx often wrooght
into small ornamental articles. Among jeweller*
any stone exhibiting layers of two or more colours,
■trongly contrasted, is called an ' onyx.' A re-
gularly and richly banded agate of this class is
mnch prized for cameos. The iardo»ga of the
ancients is a variety of onyx. It is so called
from tard, or tarda, a rich dark red variety of
carnelian, stripes of which in the stone alternate
with white stripes. See Obkb.

O'OLITX. A variety of limestone composed of
a number of collections of small round particles,
bound together by a calcareous cement. The
resemblance the mass is supposed to bear to the
roe of a flah has caused oolite to be called rot-
ttom. When the grains are of larger dimensions
it is called ^«<u(oiia. The little spherical bodies of
which the stone is composed are mostly formed
of concentric layers of carbonate of lime ar-
ranged round a grain of sand, a fragment of shell,
or some other nucleus.

The building stones of Caen, Portland, and
Bath are all oolitic limestones. When first
quarried they are mostly soft, a circumstance
which admits of their being easily sawn and
carved. They harden by exposure to the ^.

In geology the term 'oolite' has a wider
dgniflcation, and is applied to an important divi-
sion of the middle secondary rocks of England,
underlying the chalk formation, and rich in in-
teresting fossil remains.

0TA£. a mineral allied to agate and chal-
cedony, but distingaished by its peculiar resinous
lustre. The variety most admired as a gem is
the precious or noble opal, which is remarkable
for iU beautiful play of colours. The finest opals
come from Hungary, and although usually very
small, will, if of good quality, realise as much as
£6 each. Their value increases in a much greater
ratio than their increase in size. Th^ are also
found in Saxony and in North America. The
largest known specimen of an opal is that in the
Imperial Cabinet at Vieuna, the dimenrions of
which are five inches by two and a half. Oira-
lol, CaehoUmg, Hgalite, and Mmilite are varie-
ties of opid. See QlKS and PiSTM.

OPHTHAL'XIA. 83%. Ofhthalxitib, L.
Inflammation of the eye. The term is generally
applied in the present day to the various forms
of inflammation of the conjunctiva or cornea;
inflammation of other parts of the eye bring dis-
tinguished by special names, e. g. retinitis, sclero-
titis iritis, Ac.

Conjunctivitis is perhaps the most common
form of ophthalmia. There are three or four
varieties of the disease, wliioh, in their earlier
stages, closely resemble one another. There is

heat, redness, swelling, and pain in the part, and
a discharge which is often profuse, and which may
at first be mucous, becoming afterwards muco-
purulent or truly purulent in character. Some-
times the exudation is of such a character as to
raise the conjunctiva from the sclerotic, and form
a swollen ridge around the cornea. The redness
is variable, and the pain is not severe except in
those cases in which the subconjunctival swelling
is very dense. As a rule the transparency of the
comes is not affected, and vision is not inter-
fered with.

In mild cases conjunctivitis u an unimportant
disorder, but certain secondary results may en-
sue which are of serious consequence. The in-
flammation in its acute stage may cause partial
or even complete destruction of the cornea, re-
sulting in impairment of vision or even blindness.
When the disease is chronic there is often great
enlargement of the papillss of the mucous mem-
brane lining the lids, and these act as hard points,
irritating the cornea, and causing very great
distress.

The chief varieties of conjunctivitis are--(l)

InfantiU, (2) SimpU or Catarrhal, (S) Co*-
tagioHM, and (4) V^hlheritio.

1. Infkntlls Cogjunotivitls. Sgu. Ophtbal-
uiL KBORATOsuv, L. This disease is probably due
in most cases to inoculation in the act of mrth
with some of the secretions of the vagina. It
shows itself about the third day after birth, and
rapidly takes on the puralent form. There is
great swelling of the lids, and a thick discharge
which often glues them together. If neglected,
blindness may result from damage to the cornea,
but if properly treated it is not difficult of cnre.

Treatment. The discharge must be carefully
and frequently washed away, and an astringent
lotion applied to the surface (Dr Bradenell
Carter recommends a solution of t gr. of nitrate
of silver in 1 01. of distilled water) every four
hours, or less frequently when improvement
begins. Some simple ointment should be applied
to the edges of the lids to prevent their sticking
together. The food of the child should be care-
fully regulated, and " cod-liver oil combined in
an emulsion with two-minim doses of liquor
cinchona " may be given it the child be very
feeble.

2. Simple or Catanlial Co^JnitctiTltia. This is
usually due to cold or to chemical or mechanical
irritation. The discharge is usually mucous, and
does not tend to become purulent.

Treatment. Foreign bodies should flrat be
carefully removed, and any chemical or other
irritating material washed away by the free use
of tepid wfter. In many cases rest is all that is
required to complete the cure. If there be no
foreign body the 2-grain solution of nitrate of
silver may be used with the best results. The
eye should be protected from cold, dust, and
bright light.

8, CoBtagliNU Conlusetivltla. Sgn. VvaxTLxm
OFHTKiUOl, In this form of the disease the dis-
charge rapidly becomes purulent. It is especially
common where there is over-crowding and genenu
insanitary conditions of life. The conjunctiva is
beset with granular semi-transparent bodies
known as ' sago grains,' which are cdlectioiu of

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Ijmph-corpascIeB. In the more severe formi
tliere u great iwellmg of the Ud( and lifting of
the ocnlar conjanctiTa, prodacing the chaiac-
teriitic elevation round the cornea, which ha« a
great tendency to slongh.

Traatnunt. Dr Carter recommendi in the
wont case* that the eyelids should he everted and
" carefully touched with a stick composed of 1
part of nitrate of silver fused with 4 parts of
nitrate of potash. The caustic should he neutral-
ised hy a drop or two of solution of common
salt, applied by means of a cameVs-hair pencil,
before tiie lid is suffered to return into contact
with the cornea; and the cauterisation must be
done carefully and with a light hand, so that the
resulting eschar may include only the epithelium ;
for if the basement membrane be destroyed, there
will be danger of subsequent adhesions between
the eyelids and the eyeball. The cauterisation
should be repeated about every 8 hours, or as
soon •• the eschar falls ; and in the intervals, if
the patient he awake, the conjunctiva should be
genUy ayringed every hour with a weak alum
lotion at a ccmifortahle temperature."

The psitient's health and strength must be sus-
tained by a good diet and the use of tonic medi-
cines. It may be necessary to give anodynes to
allay the pain. Contagions ophthalmia is a very
serioos disorder, and if it breaks out in schools,
barracks, or other places in which a number of
persons are collected together, every possible
means sboold be taken, by isolating the patients,
extreme cleanliness, good food, Ac, to prevent
the spread of the disease. It is exceedingly com-
mon in tlie poorer qnarten of the large towns in
SooQiern and Eastern cODntries,and seems to be in-
sepstably connected with dirt and over-crowding.

4. SipllilMrltic CoqJluetlTitia. This is a tare
disease in England, bnt has from time to time
prevailed extensively in Berlin. The snhjects of
it are chi^y feeble and ill-fed children, and the
cases are r^arded by the German physicians as
hopdeaa nnless treated in their earliest stages.

Ophthalmia, Stnaons or BonrfUons. This form
of ophthalmia is generally met within children of
seiwnlons habit of from four to ten or eleven
years of age. Its most distinctive characteristie
IS the inability of the sufferer to hear the light,
the effect of which is that the eyes are kept spas-
BodiesUy partially closed. If the eyes are
examined, a slight fulness of the vessels, usually
stopping at the edge of, the cornea, is observable;
and abrat the line dividing the cornea and sclero-
tic coat small opaque pimples or pnstnles are
visible. This variety of ophthalmia, bring the
outcome of a constitutions taint, is frequently
very ohatinate, and yields with di^cnlty to
mecucal treatment, besides being very likdy to
reappear. It is not nnfreqnentiy accompanied
wiUi a troublesome cutaneous affection known as
Onuta laetea, which occurs on the cheeks, and
arises from the irritation caused by the flow down
the cheeks of the aerid lachrymal secretion. The
nsnal treatment consists in improving the general
health and attength of the patient by means of
toiucs, sndi as quinine, qunine and iron, ood-
Hv«r «^ or ^mp of iodide of iron. The diet
shovld ha nutritions and easy of digestion, and
there shoidd ho no stint of fresh air.

0"FIATEB. Sgn. Opiata, L. Preparations
containing opium or active principles of opium.
The word is often applied in a general sense to
anodynes and soporifics. In French pharmacy the
name is commmly used synonymously with con-
fections, as in the following preparations :

AKXiDTgBHTBBlo OpiATi— Qaorta. Purified
opium, 4 gr.; ipecacnanha, i dr.; tormentiUa,
1 dr. ; syrup of whortieberriea and conserve of red
roses, ox each, 6 dr. — Vott. A teaspoonfnl every
hour.

' AsTiHTBrBUCAL OpiATi — TrouueoM and
Seveil. Powdered iudigo, 1 ox. ; white hon^,
8 oz. — Dote, 1 table-spoonful d^ly, gradually
increased until the whole is taken in a day. In
hysteria, epilepsy, and nervous aSiBctions of an
epileptic character.

Balbamio Opiatb— 2Vo««ssaa and HtvU.
Oleo-resin (balsam) of eopUba, 1 oi. ; cubebs (in
powder), 8 oi. ; potassio-tartiate of iron, 2^ dr. ;
syrup of quince, q. s. In gleet. — Dote, 3 boluses
the sire of a nnt, thrice daily.

Chasooal Opiatb — Itatier. 'Willow charcoal
(recent), 1 ox. ; prepared chalk, 1 dr. ; powdered
white sugar, 2 ox. ; rose-water, q. s. to form an
electuary. In diarrh<A and incipient cholera, in
dysentery with fetid stools, and in gastrslgia,
fiatnlence, Ac By substituting calcined mag-
nesia for chalk it becomes an excellent remedy for
habitual constipation.

CtmiB Opiati — Dtgeams. Powdered cubebs,
4 dr. ; powdered camphor, 1 dr. ; mix, and divide
it into 18 powders. — Dott. One, 8 or 4 times
daily, in gleet, painful and scalding micturition,
Ac

0"PI1)X. ajr». Opn7if(B.P.,Ph.L.,E.,aDd
D.), L. The juice inspissated by spontaneous
evaporation, obtained by incinon from the unripe
capsules of the Papanar lommtfarum, grown in
Asia Minor.

Hitt. The mQky juice of the poppy has bern
known from remote times. Theophrastns, who
lived in the third century B. o., was acqaaintad
with the substance. Ahont the year 77 A. d. Dio-
scorides speaks of the juice of the poppy capsules
as being more active than an extract of the entire
plant; he also alludes to the adulteration of the
drug with the juices of Qlcmemm and Laataea.
Celsus, in the first century, speaks of the drug as
Laerima paptmerii. The Arabs, who call the
drug .4/V*% tnmsmitted its use to the natives of
tiie Bast. It is believed that the nepenthe of
Homer was opinra, for he speaks of it as "a pun-
assuaging drink, a grief -allaying remedy, causing
obliviousness of all e^L"

The first mention of opium in connection with
India is during the'fif teenth century, when Pyras,
in a letter to Mannel, King of Portugal, says, " It
fetches a good price, that the kings and lords eat
of it, and even the common people." During the
eariy and middle ages opium was preparMl in
many forms, especially in the form of cooFections,
the chief of these being Mithridates' elixir and
theriaca.

For. 1. EeypTlAV; in ronndish flattened
lumps ; inferior to Turkish opium. 2. EvausH ;
often equal to the best Smyrna. 8. Fbbmoh ; re-
sembles the last. 4. Obbx av ; similar to Englidi
opium. 6. IvsiAir: — a. BbvabM; In krge

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OPIUM

bells; — b. ILllwa; in roondisli flattoned cakes,
of 9 or 10 oz. in woght each ; — c. Patsa. ; in bolls
or square cakes ; inferior to Tarkey opinm. 6.
Lbtakt ; same as Smyrna opiom. 7. Pbbsiak ;
in rolls or sticks, 6x4 inch j inferior ; resembles
hepatic aloes in appearance. 8. Smtbha ; in irre-
galar, rounded, flattened pieces, varying in weight
from 2 or 3 lbs. to only as many oz. It forms
the best variety of Turkey opinm, and is particu-
larly rich in morphia. It is the only one adapted
for the mannfacture of the salts of morphia, as it
contains on the average from 7% to 9% of that
alkaloid, and usnally yields about 12% to 12-6%
of Inrdrochlorate of morphia, which is more than
can be obtained from any other variety of opium.
Of five kinds of Smyrna opinm examined by Merit,
the worst were found to yield 8% to 4% of mor-
phia, and the best from 1»% to 18-6% . 9. Tub-
KBY ; of which two varieties are known in oom-
meroe, viz. Constantinople opinm and Levant or
Smyrna opinm, noticed above. Constantinople
opium is generally in small, flattened, roundish
cakes, 2 to 2i inches in diameter, and covered
with poppy leaves. It it more mucilaginous and
leas estwrned than Smyrna opium, from which it
may be ^stinguished by the last being always
covered with the reddish capsules of a species of
■Jlmmex,

The following acconnt of the method of opium
collection adopted in Asia Minor is extracted
from a paper in the ' Pharmaceutical Journal,' con-
tributed by Messrs Maltass and Wilkin (first
series, voL ziv). About the end of May the plants
arrive at maturity, and the flowers expand. A few
days after the petals have &llen the eapsnle is
ready for indsion.

This operation is performed in the afternoon of
the day, and in the following manner : — A trans-
verse mdrion is made with a knife in the lower
part of the capsnle, the incision being carried
round ontil it arrives nearly at the part where it
commenced ; sometimes it is continued spirsUy to
halfway down its starting-point. The greatest
nicety is required to avoid cutting too deep, and
penetrating the interior coating of the capsule, as
this would canse the exuding milky juice to flow
into the inside.

The following morning those engaged in col-
lecting the opium lay a large poppy leaf on the
palm of the left hand, and having a knife in the
right band, they scrape the opium which has
exnded from the incision in each capsule, and then
transfer it from the knife to the leaf, until a mass
of sufficient size has been formed, when a second
poppy leaf is placed over the top of the mass. If
the dew has been heavy during the night the
yield is greater, but the opium is dark in colour ;
if, on tne contrary, there has been no dew, the
yield is less, bnt the opium is of a lighter colour.
A high wind is prqudicial, as the dust raised
from the pulverised soil adheres to the exudation,
and cannot be separated. The poppy capsules
aie cut bnt onoe, bnt as each plant will from one
stem produce several branches, and each branch
produce a flower, it is usual to pass over the field
a second or a third time, to cut such capsules as
were not ready at the first cutting. After the
opium is collected it is dried in the shade.
The proceeds arising from the sale of the opinm

crop in Btitiah India form a considerable item in
the rwveimes of onr Eastern Empire ; hence the
poppy as the soareeof this valnable export, almost
the whole of which goes to China, is very exten-
dvely cultivated in India.

The cultivation of opium in India appears to
have existed as a monopoly so far bade as the
sixteenth century, for it is mentioned in the Ain>i-
Akbari that the produce of this monopoly at that
time amounted to 1000 chests. Under the
British Government the cultivation of the poppy
was at first in the bands of contractors, who held
the monopoly on payment of a fixed snm ; bnt in
1797 the Benares Opinm Agency was established
under a covenanted officer, and, with some
changes in administrative details, the system of
control and executive management is the same
now as eighty years ago.

The Ohazipore Opium Agency is, however,
under the Botud of Revenue of Lower Bengal
after a certain fashion, but there is reason to
believe that the entire department will be brought
directly under the Qovemment of India.

The present opinm agent (Mr H. Rivett
Camac) at Benares has done much to raise the
pay and position of the department under him,
and has systematised the details of cnliivation,
collection, and mannfacturs in an admirable
manner. The poppy is cultivated under a system
of advances, which are made to selected repre-
sentatives of the cultivators known as Immbariari,
who make over the whole of their produce to the
State. The rate of advance is from 4 to 8 rupees
per bigha (f of an acre), according to the known
productive capabilities of the village. These
advances are made in September, and help the
cultivator to pay his autumn instalment of rent
and prepare his land for rearing the somewhat
delicate opium poppy. During the cold weather
strict supervision is exercised over the cnltivataon,
and a large amount of information is collected by
the officers of the department, who are also
authorised to make advances for the constraction
of wells on very reasonable terms. In February
tbe poppy u in flower, and then commences the
collection of the petals, which are utilised as
flower leaves (known as eJtmpaltt), in whicli the
balls of opinm exported to China are encased.

In March the drug is extracted by a rude
method of incision, and collected in earthen
vessels; and in April it is taken into central
stations to be (^aded, weighed, paid for, and
packed for despatch to the agency. The poppy-
seed is also collected, and forms an article of
commerce, whilst in the neighbourhood of Ghazi-
pore even the stalks are taken to the factory, and
used as ' trash ' for packing the chests of opium
for China.

When the opium has been tested at Ghasipore,
tbe cultivator's accounts are finally settled up at
the rate of 6r. per seer (2 lbs.) for opinm of 70^
consistence. The elaborate processes by which
the opium is finally prepared for the Chinese
market are not of sufficient interest to call for
detuled notice. The extent of the present opera-
tions of the factory may be conceived when we
compare the 1,200 mannds produced in 1796 with
the 61,000 maunds which is now the average
amount treated annually, whilst in 1877 uo-less

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OPIUM

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than 14,000 maonda were muiafactared at the
Gbazipore Agency. Beaides the export opium,
exdae, or abtan, opium ia prepared for local
oonaumption. This ooiudatB of pure opium dried
in the aun to the oonsiatency of 90°, and divided
into eakea of nominally a seer each.

Opium produced in Northern India ia known as
the Bengal opium, while the produce of Central
India ia known in commerce as the Ualwa opium ;
the latter is of an inferior quality. Oood opium
contains about 4 per cent, of morphia and 8 per
cent, of narcotine. Opium is generally used as
an intoxicant in the form of pills, or smoked in a
prepared form, known as the madai and cha»dm.
Enropeana {generally have an aversion to opium
eaters, aa it is said to stupefy the persons using it.
It is, however, asserted by many authorities tiiat
exceaa in opium ia leaa injurious than excess in
■pirituooa drink, and that the moderate use of
opium after the age of forty prevents waste of
tusae, prolongs l^e, and makea the system less
liatde to the influences of malarial and other pen-
aona which vitiate the atmosphere of tropical
conntriea. Opium is chiefly ezprarted to China,
and yields an annmil revenue of over lOi millions
sterling, or more thui a seventh part of the
revenue of India.

The following figures give the gross revenue
derived from opium in India in the two presiden-
4iiea, with the changes in the last ten years, in
millions of pouni^ omitting the last three
figures:

B«ngtl. Bombay.

Avenue.

Chuge*.

BaT«nn&*

1871 .

.£6644 .

.£2012 .

.£2401

1872 .

. 6898 .

. 1692 .

. 2866

1878 .

. 6069 .

. 1809 .

. 2616

1874 .

. 6688 .

. 1998 .

. 2742

1876 .

. 6608 .

. 2888 .

. 2964

1876 .

. 6982 .

. 2216 .

. 2660

1877 .

. 6174 .

. 2840 .

. 2948

1878 .

. 6488 .

. S667 .

. 2760

1879 .

. 7006 .

. 1696 .

. 2398

1880 .

. 7042 .

. 2066 .

. 8141

a The charges in this Presidency range from
£2000 to £3000 per annum.

The following shows the quantity and value of
the exports of opinm from India :

OisBtitr. Talae.

1866-77 . .cwt. 180,778 .£12,404,748
1877-78 . . „ 126,789 . 12,874^886
1878-79 . . „ 126,766 . 12,998,978
1879-80 . . „ 144,688 . 14,828,814
1880-81 . . „ 127,484 . 16,660,147
1881-82 . . „ 123,918 . 12,482,142
1882-88 . . „ 126,789 . 11,481,876
We may add to the foregoing the statistics of
oar imports and re-exports of opium for a series
of years, which appear to be largely on the in-
crease, for whilst the average annuiQ receipts of
opium in the laateight yearsuavebeeu 548,419 lbs.,
the aoBoal imports in the preceding nine yeaia
were only 800^9 lbs.

iMporU. lixports.

1866 . . lU. 198,228 . . lbs. 124,164

1867 . . » 278,622 . . „ 148,619

1808 . . „ 822.809 . . „ 128,966

1809 . . ,. 219,496 . . „ 107,279

ImporU. Kxports.

1870 . . lbs. 871,666 . . lbs. 160,414

1871 . . „ 691,466 . . „ 807.899

1872 . . „ 366,211 . . „ 808,278
1878 . . „ 400,469 . . „ 260,677
1874 . . „ 614,872 . . „ 806,874
1876 . . „ 686,291 . . „ 298,686

1876 . . „ 400,808 . . „ 287,700

1877 . . „ 607,862 . . „ 251,267

1878 . . „ 668,840 . . „ 814,880

1879 . . „ 672,411 . . „ 282.838

1880 . . „ 400.874 . . ., 196.610

1881 . , „ 798.146 . . ., 401.888

1882 . . „ 478.624 . . .. 191,816
The chief imports are 'from Turkey, the quan-
tity of Turkish opium received in 1888 being
869,660 lbs., and from Persia 64.448 lbs. In
some years a little comes in from Bombay and
China. The exports of opium are prindpally made
to the United States, Hollai^ Pern, British
Qttiana, md the West India Islands, and a little is
sent to Hong-Kong, there being a considerable
demand in Queensland and some other of the
Australian colonies for the Chinese (' Chonist and
Druggist').

The yield of morphia from East Indian opinm
is usually very small, a cirenmstance which Messrs
Flfickiger and Hanbury conceived to be partly
due to the dimato and partly to the defective
method of cultivation.

He believed that the period, three or four
weeks, during which the juice was allowed to
remain in the wet state was much too long,
and exercised a destructivs influence on its oon-
sUtuents.

Since 1879 Bnlgana has given attention to the
cultivation of the opinm poppy, which u diiefly
carried on in the districts of Euestendil, Ix>wt-
soha, and Hatitx. The opium from Euestendil is
in hemispherical cakes wnghing from 120 to 800
grms. The opium is formwl into balls, laid
upon grape-vine leaves, and covered with the same
leaves, so as to leave the sides free. The cakes
have an exceptionally strong opium odour, ex-
ternally brown, intenially lighter, very dry, and
show upon the surrace a number of small tear*.
Calculated for dry opium, 100 parts yielded — ash.
2-63; morphine. 20-78; principles soluble in
water, 47-64; insoluble in water, 81-78. Its
morphine value is thus shown to lie very high.

Opinm from Kngland, France, and Qermany is
occasionally met with, but never in considerable
quantity. The cultivation of the opinm poppy,
however, in these three countries is chiel^f car-
ried on for the sake of the capsules, which are
largely employed in medicine; and the oil ex-
tracted from the seed, which is highly valued and
extensively employed by artists.

Pur. The opium of commerce is not unfire-
qaently adulterated with extract of poppies,
extract of lettoce, lactucarinm, mucilage of gum
tiagacanth, dried leaves, starch, water, clay,
sand, gravel, and other substances, in order to in-
crease ito wdght. This fraud ia readily detected
by_ inspection, by chemical analysis, and the
microscope; and indirectly, with the greatest
certainty, by a simple assay of the sample of its
moridiia (morphiometry). This mav be effected
by one or other of the following methods :

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1. {Oouerhe.) Opium, 4 parts, and quicklime,
1 TNui, made into a milk with water, q. ■., are
boiled together, and the solution filtered whilst
hot ; the filtrate is then saturated with dilute
hydrochloric acid and the morphia precipitated
by the addition of ammonia, any excess of the
latter heing expelled by heat ; the precipitate is
then collected, dried, and weighed. If 100 gr.
have been operated on, the given weight will re-
present (nearly) the percentage richness of the
sample in morphia.

2. {OuiUirrmond.) 100 gr. of opium are tri-
turated for some time in a mortar along with 4
times its weight of rectified spirit, and the tinc-
ture strained through linen, with expression, into
a wide-mouthed bottle ; the marc is triturated a
second time with about 8 times its weight of
alcohol, and the tincture strained into the bottle
as before ; to the mixed tincture is added a fi.
dr. of liquor of ammonia, and the whole is
agitated for a short time. In about 12 hours the
morphia spontaneously separates, accompanied
with some narcotina and meconato of ammonium ;
the morphia covering the intorior of the vessel
with large, coloured, and gritty crystals, feeling
like sand, and the narcotina crystaUising in very
light, small, whito and pearly needles. These
crystals are washed with water, either through a
paper filter or linen, to free them from the
meconate of ammonia which they contain ; after
which the narcotina is separated from the
morphia by decantation in water, which removes
the narcotina, which is the lighter of the two.
According to M. Mialhe, however, the morphia is
more effectually removed by washing the crystals
with 1 to li fl. dr. of ether, by triturating the
two together, when the morphia is left in an
insoluble state, and may then be dried and
weighed.

' S. (B.Pharm., 1886.) Take of powdered opium,
dried at 212° P. (100° C.), 240 gr. j lime (freshly
slaked), 60 gr. ; chloride of ammonium, 40 gr. ;
rectified spirit, ether, and distilled water, of each,
a snffidency.

Triturate together the opium, Ume, and 400
gnun-measures of distilled water in a mortar
until a uniform mixture results; then add 1000
grain-measures of distilled water and stir occa-
sionally during half an hour (meconates and
sulphates precipitated as lime salts, morphine held
in solution of ' lime-water '). Filter the mixture
throngh a plaited filter about 8 inches in diameter
into a wide-mouthed bottle or stoppered fiask
(having the capacity of about 6 fiuid ounces, and
marked at exactly 1040 grain-measures) until
the filtrate reaches this mark. To the filtered
liquid (representing 100 gr. of opium) add 110
grain-measures of rectified spirit and 500 gmin-
measnres of ether, and shake the mixture (resins
and fat dissolved out) ; then add the chloride of
ammonium, shake well and frequently during
half an hour, and set it aside for 12 hours
(2AmCl-f Ca2H0 =■ CaCI, + 2AmH0 ; morphine
ciTstalHses out). Counterbalance two small
filters ; place one within the other in a small
funnel, and decant the ethereal layer as completely
as practioable upon the inner filter. Add 200
grain-measures ot ether to the contents of the
bottle and rotate itj again decant the ethereal

layer upon the filter, and afterwards wash the
Utter with 100 grun-meaanres of ether added
slowly and in portions. Now let the filter dry in
the air, and pour upon it the liquid in the bottle
in portions, m such a way as to transfer the
greater portion of the crystals to the filter.
When the fiuid has pasted through the filter,
wash the bottle and transfer the remaining crys-
tals to the filter, with several small portions of
distilled water, using not much more than 200
gnun-measures in M, and distributing the por-
tions evenly upon the filter. Allow the filter to
drain, and dry it, first by pressing between sheets
of bibulous paper, and afterwards at a tempera-
ture between 181° and 140° F. (66° and 60° C),
and, finally, at 194° to 212° F. (96° to 100° C).
Weigh the crystals in the inner filter, counter-
balancing by the outer filter. The crystals should
weigh 10 gr., or not less than 9i and not more
than lOi gr., oorrespon^ng to abont 10% of
morphine in the dry powdered omom.

4. (Soci^ de Pharmade of Paris.) Mix 16
grms. of the sample to be tested with 9 grms.
calcium hydrate and 150 c.c. water, rub them well
together and shake for abont half an hour. The
mass is then thrown upon a filter, and 100 c.c
of the filtrate accurately measoied and placed
in a stoppered bottle. To this 20 c.c. of ether
are added with constant shaking, then 6 grms. of
ammonium chloride are dissolved in the solution,
the whole agiteted and allowed to remain at rest
for two hours. After that period the ether may
be drawn off and replaced by a second quantity of
fresh ether, after which removal the precipitate
of morphine which forms in the fluid may be
collected on a tared filter, washed veir carefully
with distilled water, dried, and weighed. The
weight of dry precipitate mnlldplied by 10 shows
the percentage of morphine in the sample.

6. G. Loot, in the 'Apotheker Zmtnng,' recom-
mends the following method: — Five grms. of
the finely ground opium are carefuly rubbed with
water, and diluted to TO cc. At the end of one
or two hours, during which the mixture is shaken
frequently, GO'S c.c, corresponding to four
grms. of opium, are filtered off; 0-2 grm. of
oxalic acid is added, and at the end of half an hour
6-2 c.c. of potash (1 : 2) are added, the mixture
well shaken, and 16'6 c.c. of it filtered throngh a
dry filter into an Erlenmeyer fiask of 30 c.c. capa-
city, this quantity corresponding with one
grm. of opium. live grms. of ether, free
from alcohol, are then added, and the mixture
shaken briskly for ten minutes in the closed flask.
The excess of the ether is volatilised by blowing
a current of air into the flask, after which the
separated morphine is collected upon a filter, and
washed with water saturated with ether. The
morphine on the dried filter may be transferred
back to the portion remaining in the fiask, and the
weight of the whole obtained by drying until the
weight of the fiask and ita contente remain oo|^-
stant. In the case of tincture of opium 60 c.c.
are used for each experiment ; and in case it is
opium extract that is required to be analysed,
2*6 grms. are a suitable qnaotify to take. The
whole of the operations in the two latter eases
are carried ont exaoU v as described above.

6. {Prollimi.) This is a very simple process.

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1186

•nd ii laid to give very exact reault*. It ii u
foUowi : — The opiam is ezhaiuted with 9 or 10
times its weight of spirit of 84 per cent, strength.
Of the resolting tinctare, 100 parts are well
shaken with 6 parts of ether and 2 parts of solu-
tion of ammonia in a stoppered bottle, and then
allowed to stand from 12 to 24 hour*. The
liquids separate slowly, and T«tain, partly in the
eUier, partly in the alcoholic liquid, the colooring
master, narootine, and other crystalliaable con-
stituents of opium ; while the morphia separates
in crystals between the two layers, and finally
sinks to the bottom. The fluid portion is de-
canted, the crystals are washed with dilated
alcohol, dried, and weighed.

7- (TeteAemaehar, 'Chemical News,' xxzt,
47.) In employing the following method
the use of alcohol to extract the morphia is
avoided, and meconic acid is separated at an early
stagei, which prevents the formation of a basic
meoonate on precipitation of the morphia. Two
special reagents are required for this process : the
one prepared by mixing 1 part of ammonia, sp. gr.
0-880, with 20 parts of methylated alcohol, and
digesting in this mixture a large excess of mor-
phine ; this, when filtered, is termed " morpUated
tpirit /" the other, morphiattd uater, is water
saturated with excess of morphine, and contains
0O4 per cent, of this alkaloid. 1000 gr. of opium
are macerated for 12 to 24 hours in about 4000
gr. of cold distilled water, together with 800
gr, of lead acetate, stirring the mixture from time
to time. This separates the meconic acid as lead
meoonate, whilst the morphia is dissolved in the
acetic acid set free.

After this maceration the opium may be
readily ground in a mortar to a paste, and so
much more cold distilled water added, raising the
pestle and mortar with successive portions of it,
as to fill with the mixture a measure =20,260
gr. of distilled water; experience has shown
that the space occupied by the insoluble matters
measures from 200 to 300 gr., so that the limit of
possible error, by averaging and allowing 860 gr.
for the insoluble portion, amounts to 0*06% in
opium containing 10% of morplua. The mixture
is to be filtered, and 16,000 measured gr. — TeO
gr. of opium, of the clear solution are to be
evaporated to an extract on a water-bath, and
this extract to be drenched with 3090 gr. of boil-
ing alcohol or methylated spirit, and the whole
digested with frequent stirring for about 10
minutes.

This separates the gum, &c., of the opium
which is insoluble in alcohol, and so far frees the
solution of morphia from impurity.

At this stage of the process it is well to get rid
of the excess of lead salts, and to accomplish this
sulphoiic acid is preferable to sulphuretted hydro-
gen. So much diluted sulphuric add as may be
equal to 80 gr. of oil of vitriol will almost always
be snfficient for this purpose, any excess of acid
being converted into sulphate of ammonia by the
subsequent addition of so much solution of
ammonia as shall be equivalent to the 80 gr. of oil
of vitriol, thus forming a salt but slightiy soluble
in the alcoholic solution. This mixture may now
be transferred toa beaker and allowed to settle
for 12 hours, after which it is to be filtered, and

TOL. II.

the filter and insoluble residue thoroughly washed
with alcohol or methylated spirits. This alcoholic
filtrate is then distilled, or evaporated on a
water-bath, to about 1000 gr. ; and mixed, while
still hot, with 400 gr. of solution of ammonia,
sp. gr. 0*880, stirring rapidly and continnously
for at least 20 minutes, whilst the beaker or
evaporating dish should be cooled as rapidly
as possible by immersion in an external vessel
filled with cold water. The rapid and continu-
ous stirring is most important, as the precipita<
tion of the whole of the morphia injlne powder
is thereby effected, instead of the granular or
mammillated condition so frequently met with,and
it thus permits of the easy and thorough separa-
tion of all the narcotine which may be mixed
with the morphine. When the cooling of the
mixture and precipitation of the morphia is thus
attained, transfer it quickly and completely to a
filter of sufficient capacity to hold the whole, and
when the liquid portion has passed through, wash
the remainder of the precipitated morphia adher-
ing to the dish or beaker on to the filter, using
for this purpose the morphiated spirit already de-
scribed, and continuing the washing of the
precipitate until it is completely freed from the
mother-liquor. To do this effisctually requires
some littie care; thus the morphia on the filter
must be kept in a spongy condition and never
allowed to cohere, which is easily effected by
pouring the morphiated spirit round the edges
of the filter, so as not to (Usturb the precipitate,
which must not be permitted to drain or solidify
until this washing is completed.

The precipitate is now to be washed from off the
filter-paper with the morphiated water previously
described, and digested therein for a few minutes,
which removes some more colouring matter, to-
gether with any salts soluble in water, but in-
soluble in alcohol, which may have adhered to the
precipitated morphia ; then once more collect the
precipitate on a filter, washing it with morphiated
spirit, after this once with ether, and finally thrice
or more with benzine; this completely frees it
from narcotina, which is very soluble in benzine ;
morphia, on the contrary, being insoluble in this
liquid. It now remains to drain and dry at a low
temperature, say 100° F., the resulting pure and
white morphia, the weight of which will indicate
the amount of this alkaloid present in 760 gr. of
the opium under examination.

Teitt. These depend chiefly on the chemical
and physical characters of morphia and meconic
acid, the tests for which have been already noticed.
In operating upon the contents of the stomach, or
upon solid organs, in cases of suspected poisoning,
the best method of proceeding is that already de-
scribed under Alkaloid.

Another method is to boil the substances in
water slightly acidulated with acetic acid, next to
evaporate the solution to the consistence of a thick
syrup, and then to treat it twice with boiling
rectified spirit ; the tincture thus obtained is to
be filtered when cold, and again evaporated to the
consistence of a syrup ; it is now re-dissolved in
distilled water, the filtrate treated with solution
of Bubaoetate of lead, and the precipitate of me-
oonate of lead separated by filtration and care-
fully preserved. A current of sulphuretted hy-

76

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1186

OPIUM

drogen is then passed throagh tbe lolation to

Ccipitate excess of lead, and after again fllter-
„ it the liquid is evaporated, at first in a water-
Wtb, and afterwards nnder the receiTer of an ur-
pnmp. The shapeless mass of crystals thus ob-
tain^ present all the characters of morphine, if
the substance examined contained opinm. In the
meantime the precipitate of meconate of lead is
to be boiled with water acidolated with sniphnric
acid, and the insoluble sulphate of lead separated
by filtration ; the filtered liquid, by evaporation,
furnishes meconic acid, either under the form of
crystals or an amorphous powder, the solution
of which precipitates ferric salts of a deep blood-
red colour.

The following are additional teste to those al-
ready noticed :

1. From the peculiar odour of opium, often
perceptible when the drug has been taken only in
very small quantities.

8. A solution containing crude opium is turned
of a deep red colour, or if coloured, it is turned of
a reddish brown, and is darkened by tincture of
ferric chloride.

8. (Hare.) A portion of the suspected liquid
is poured into a beaker glass, and a few drops of
solution of acetate of lead are added to it ; the
whole is stirred frequently for 10 or 12 hours, and
then allowed to settle, after which the supernatant
liquid is decanted ; 20 or 80 drops each of dilute
sniphnric acid and solution of ferric sulphate are
next poured on the precipitate (meconate of lead),
when a deep and beautiful red colour will be de-
veloped if the original liquid contained opinm.

4. (JDr Rieget.) The suspected substance is
mixed with some potassa, and is then agitated
with ether ; a strip of white unsized paper is next
several times moistened ^th the solution, and
when dry it is re-moistened with hydrochloric acid,
and exposed to the steam of hot water. Tbe paper
assumes a red colour, more or less deep, if opium
is present.

U*e», Ifo. Opinm is one of the most valuable
substances employed in medicine. Ite general
uses are to lessen pain ; produce sleep ; to lessen
irritation in various organs. In small doses it
acte as a powerful and diffusible stimulant; in
somewhat larger ones it is niircotic, and in exces-
sive doses it proves an active narcotic poison. It
is also anodyne, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, sopo-
rific, and sedative, its peculiar action being greatly
modified by the dose and tbe condition of the
patient. Its action as a stimulant is followed by
sedative effects, which are, in general, much more
marked than could be expected from the degree
of previous excitement it induces. It is employed
to fulfil a variety of indications — to procure sleep,
to lull pain, allay irritation, check morbid dis-
charges, alleviate cough and spasm, &c. It also,
when judiciously administered, renders the body
less susceptible of external impressions, as those
of cold, contagion, &c. ; but it is injurious when
tbe pulse is high, the heat of the body above the
natural standard, and the skin dry, or when there
is a disposition to local inflammation or congestion.
In peritonitis it is valuable both taken internally
and applied externally. When applied externally,
in the form of frictions, liniments, ointments, &c.,
it is absorbed, and produces similar effects to

those produced by swallowing it, bnt in this way
it requires to be used in larger quantities. — Vote.
As a stimulant, i gr., every 2 or 8 hours ; as an
anodyne and antispasmodic, i to 1 gr.; as a
soporific, I to S gr, ; in violent spasms, neuralgia,
acute rheumatism, &c,, 2 to 4 gr., increased in
delirium tremens, hydrophobia, mania, tetanus,
&c., to several times that quantity, according to
drcnmstances.

The use of opium as a stimulant and intoxicant
is common among the nations of the East. The
Turks chew it, and the Chinese smoke a watery
extract of it, under tbe name of ' chundoo,' the
preparation of which from the crude article con-
stitutes a special business. Messrs Flfickiger and
Hanbury, in their ' Fharmacographia,' published
in 1874, say this particular business is not con-
fined to the Celestials, since, in 1870, a British
firm at Amoy opened an establishment for pre-
paring chundoo for the consumption of theChinese
in California and Australia.

The qualities most valned by the Chinese in
opium are its fulness and peculiarity of aroma,
and its degree of solubility. The amount of mor-
phine it contains is a secondary consideration.

The practice of opium-smoking yearly increases
in China. It appears to be openly followed, and
no odium attaches to it, provided it is not carried
so far as to intoxicate or incapacitate tbe smoker.

In the larger cities and towns adjacent to Amoy
the proportion of opium-smokers, according to
Mr Hughes, Commissioner of Customs at Amoy,
is estimated at from 15% to 20% of the adult
population.

In the country districte 6% to 10% of the popu-
lation are believed to be opium-smokers.

In many of the western States of America the
practice has become so notoriously common that
in 1872 the Legislature of Kentucky passed a
bill by which any person who, through the exces-
sive use of opium, is incapacitated from managing
himself or his affairs, may, upon tbe affidavit of
two citizens, bo confined in an asylum, and sub-
jected to the same restraint as lunatics or habitual
drunkards (Bb/the).

Mr J. Calvert, of San Francisco, gives the fol-
lowing account of how the Chinese prepare smok-
ing opinm : — The essential apparatus employed
consists of two charcoal fire-clay furnaces, aboat
16 in. high and of about the same width, open on
three sides ; several brass pans, a brass ladle, and
several tin ones ; a large spoon for skimming j a
gridiron, two pairs of pincers for lifting the pans,
some fibre brushes, buckets, basket strainers,
muslin for straining, heavy sticks to be used as
pestles, several spatulas about a foot lon^ and 8
in. wide made of oak or ash, and a steel-Uaded
scraper. Using Turkey opium, the balls are first
steeped in water to soften the surface, from which
the leaves and grit are then removed by the hands.
The opium is then gently heated in water, being
constantly kneaded with the wooden pestle until
it is homogeneous, when it is uniformly spread
over the inner surface of the brass pan, and the
heat continued until the opium is so solid that
the pan can be turned up. The direct heat of a
small fire is now applied to the opinm until it is
hard. The drying process is not yet complete,
however, for the opium is now scraped off the

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iwr

pan, and in thin layers dried upon the gridiron
nntU it is eriap and eniaty. The dried opium is
tarn iteeped in warm water overnight, the in-
f mion (trained off in the morning, and the residue
again treated with warm water. These infusions
are nsed for the extract, subsequent washings
being employed for the extraction of the next
batch, lliere seems to be no precise mie as to
the quantity of water for making the infusion,
the emsts are merely covered. The Infusion is
then mixed with some egg albumen, and a part of
it is placed in the largest of the brass pans over
the naked charcoal fire, and is heated, skimmed,
and boiled constantly ; fresh portions of warm in-
fusion containing albumen are added from time to
time as the bulk diminishes. When all the in-
fusion has been added, and the evaporation has
proceeded as far as is considered to be necessary,
the pan is removed from the fire, and the extract
cnnstantly stirred by means of a wooden spatula
in a current of air produced by fanning until
oool and uniformly mixed. The yield of extract
varies, 18 lbs. of the first quality Turkey opium
generally giving about 10 lbs. of this extract. Mr
Calvert states — contrary to the common belief — ■
that there is no appreciable difference in the yield
of morphine when opium has gone through this
barbarous process. Whatever changes may take
place among the other proximate constituents is
not known, but the natural morphine salts, pro-
tected by extractive, sre not decomposed, or only
to a very small extent, by such a heat as is neces-
sary for the desired alteration of the valueless or
inert matters contuned in opium.

Of late years opinm-eating and landanimi-
taking have, unfortunately, been greatly on the
increase in this country, and the emplc^ment of
this drug as a soporific for infants and young
children has become so general amongst the poor
and £ssipated as to call for the interference of the
Legislature.

According to Dr Chevers the practices of opinm-
eating and opium -smoking are very common among
the natives of India. The same anthority also
states that in that country a large number of
female infants are purposely poisoned by it, by
introducing the drag into the child's month, and
in various other ways.

The first effect of opium as a stimulant is to ex-
cite the mental powers and to elevate those
faculties proper to man ; but its habitual use im-
pain the digestive organs, induces constipation,
and gradually lessens the energy of both the mind
and body. In excessive quantities it destroys the
memory, induces fatuity and a state of wretched-
ness and misery, which after a few years is mostly
eat short by a premature death. In this respect
the effects of ihe excessive use of opium closely
lesemUe those of fermented liquors.

Opium is somewhat uncert^n in its action;
some persons being able, sometimes from idiosyn-
enty, but more f reqnently from previous indul-
gence in it, to take a much larger dose than others.
The smallest quantity which is said to have
proved &tal with an aidnlt is 4 gr. of the crude
opium. In contrast with this may be quoted the
statement of Dr Garrod, of a young man who
not only swallowed 60 gr. of Smyrna opium
night and morning, but very frequently, in

addition to tiiis, 1 to 1) oi. of laudaniim during
the day.

Dr Chapman also cites the case of a patient to
whom a wine-glass of laudanum had to he admin-
istered several times in 24 hours.

Pom. — S^fmptomt. Headache ; drowsiness ;
stupor; frightful reveries; vertigo; contracted
pupil (generally) ; scanty urine ; pruritus or dry
itching of the skin, often accompanied by a papa-
lar eruption ; thirst ; dryness of month and
throat ; weak and low pulse ; vomiting ; res]nn-
tion generally natural. Sometimes the drowsi-
ness or sleep is calm and peaceful. — Ant., ^.
Vomiting must be induced as soon as possible, Dy
means of a strong emetic and tickling the fauces.
If this does not succeed the stomach-pump should
be applied. The emetic may consist of a i dr. of
sulphate of zinc dissolved in i pint of warm
water, of which one third should be taken at
once^ and the remainder at the rate of a wine-
glassful every S or 10 minutes, until vomiting
commences. When there is much drowsiness or
stupor, 1 or 2 fl. dr. of tincture of capsicum will be
found il useful addition ; or one of the formulas
for emetic draughts may be taken instead. In-
fusion of galls, cinchona, or oak-bark should
be freely administered before the emetic, and
water soured with vinegar and lemon juice
after the stomach has been well cleared out.
To rouse the system, spirit-and-water or strong
coffee or pure caffeine may be given. To keep
the sufferer awake, rough friction should be
applied to the skin, an upright posture pre-
served, and walking exercise enforced if neces-
sary. When this is ineffectual, cold water may
be dashed over the chest, head, and spine, or
mild shocks of electricity may be had recourse to.
To allow the sufferer to sleep is to abandon him to
destruction. Bleeding may be subeequeutiy
necessary in plethoric habits, or in threatened
congestion. The costiveness that accompanies
convalescence may be best met by aromatic
aperients, and the general tone of the habit re-
stored by stimolating tonics and the shower-bath.
The smiUlest fatal dose of opium in the case of an
adult within our recollection was 4t gr. Children
are much more susceptible of the action of opium
than of other medicines, and hence the dose of it
for them must be diminished considerably below
that indicated by the common method of calcula-
tion depending on the age. See Dobbb, &e.

According to Mulder, 100 parts of ordinary
Smyrna opium contain —

Morphine

. 10-842

Codein .

•678

Narcotine

. 6-808

Narceine

. 0-662

Meconine

•804

Meconic acid .

6-164

Resin .

. 8-682

Gummy matter

. 26-242

Mucus .

. 19-086

Fatty matter .

. 2-166

Caontchonc .

. 6-012

Water .

9-846

Matter undetermined and

loss . 2118

100-

The sp. gr. ot Smyrna opium is 1-836.

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OPIUM

Concluding SMnarh*. ■ Opnan is a very com-
plicated snbstance, and oontuni a number of
alkaloids and other proximate vegetable prin-
ciples, besides a certain portion of saline matter.
The snbstanoes already detected in it are
caoatchonc, codein, fatty matter, lignin, me-
conic, acetic, snlpburic acids, meconia, mor-
phia, narceia, narcotia, odoroos matter, opiania,
papaveria, paeodo- morphia (f), porphyroxin.

resin, saline matter, &c. It is donbtfal, how-
ever, whether some of these substances are not
generated from other principles existing in
opiam daring the process adopted to obbdn
them.

The following chart, showing the natond
alkaloids of opinm and a few of their artificial de-
rivatives, is taken from the ' Pharmacographia ' of
Messrs Fliickiger and Hanbnry :

SiscoTwed by
WaUer, 1844 . .

COTABKIKI ....

Formed by oxidising narcotine, soluble in water.

C.
12

H.
13

V.

0.
8

He«ae.l871 . . .

1. Hydroeotamine
Crystallisable, alkaline, volatile at 100°.

12

16

3

Matthiesen&Wright.
1869

. ApoxoBPHnrs ....
From morphine by hydrochloric acid, oolonrless, amor-
phous, turning g^reen by exposnre to air, emetic.

17

17

2

Wright, 1871. . .

DSBOZTKORFEINB

17

19

2

SertOmer, 1816 . .

S. Morphine ....

17

19

S

PeUelier k Thibou-
m«ry, 1836

3. Pseudo-morphine
Crystallises with H,0, does not nnite even with acetic acid.

17

19

4

Matthiesen & Bom-
side, 1871

ApooosBiini ....
From codeine by chloride of zinc; amorphous, emetic.

18

19

2

Wright, 1871. . .

. DasozTCODiiSB ....

18

21

2

Bobiqnet, 1882 . .

4. Codeine ....
Crystallisable, alkaline, soluble in water.

18

21

8

BIatthieaen& Foster,

1868
Thiboomfiry, 1886 .

. NoBVABOornrB ....

6. Ihebaine ....
Crystallisable, alkaline, isomeric with buxine.

19
19

17
21

Hea8e,1870 . . .

. TBEBSimfB ....

19

21

Hesse, 1870 . . .

. Tebbaboikb ....
From thebune or thebenine by hydrochloric acid.

19

21

Hesse, 1871 . , .

.... 6. Protopine ....
Crystallisable, alkaline.

20

19

,

Matthiesen & Foster,

1868
Hesse, 1871 . . .

. MBTHTLKOBNABnOTHni .

. DBVTBBOPnrB ....

Not yet isolated.

20
20

19
21

Hesse, 1870 . . .

7. lAndaalne ....
An alkaloid which, as well as its salts, forms large crys-
tals; turns orange by hydrochloric acid.

20

26

Hesse, 1870 . . .

8. Oodamine ....
Crystallisable, alkaline, can be sublimed; becomes green
by nitric acid.

20

26

Merck, 1848 . . .

. 9. F»p»TetlBe .
phnric add predidtated by water.

21

21

He«ae,1866 . . .

. 10. Shceadine ....
Crystallisable, not distinctly alkaline, can be sublimed ;
occurs also in Fi^avtr rhaeat.

21

21

6

Hesse, 1866 . . .

. BEaiOBBTKB ....
FromrhoBBdine; crystallisable, alkaline.

21

21

6

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OPODELDOC— OPOPOKTAX

1189

DifcOTorod by
AnDstrong, 1871 . .

. DlMSTBTUrOBNASCOnSB .

C.
21

H.

21

V.

0.

7

Hesee,1870 . . .

. 11. Xeconidiiie ....
Amorphooa, alkaline, melts at 68°, not staUe, the lalta
also easiljr altered.

21

28

4

T. & H. Smitb, 1864

. 18. CiTptopine ....
Crystalliaable, alkaline, salts tend to gelatinise, hydro-
chloiate crystallises in tufts.

21

28

6

Hease. 1871 . . .

Crystallisable, alkaline.

21

27

4

Deroane,1803 . .

14. Bareotine ....
Crystallisable, not alkaline, salts not stable.

22

23

7

Heme, 1870 . . .

. 16. Lanthopine ....
Microacoinc crystals, not alkaline, sparingly soluble in
hot or cold spirit of wine, ether, or benzol.

28

26

4

Pelletier, 1832 . .

18. Karceine ....
Crystallisable (as a hydrate), readily soluble in boiling
water, or in alkalies, levogyre.

23

29

9

*«* The following preparations, once fkmons,
are nciw nearly obsolete in this country. Those
that are made with cold water or by fermentation
are supposed to be milder than crude opium, and
in this respect to be similar to ' BLXOZ dbop.'

Opinm, Homberg's. Opium exhausted by re-
peated coction in 10 or 12 times its weight of
water, and the mixed liquors evaporated to one
third, and kept boiling for two or three days,
adding water from time to time, and then stram-
ing and evaporating to a pilular consistence.
Bivui't FVBIIIBD OFIVK IB similar.

Opinm, laimeelotte's. Prep. Opium, 1 lb. ;
qpinoe juice, 1 gall. ; pure potassa, 1 os. ; sugar,
4 ox.; ferment for some time, evaporate to a
symp, digest in roctifted spirit, filter and eva-
porate the tincture.

Opium, let'tnee. Lactocarimn.

(^inm, Sewmao's. Infusion of opium,
strained, mixed with a little sugar, and fer-
mented for some months in a warm place; and,
lastly, strained and evaporated to an eztnkct, or
preserved in the liquid form.

Opium, Powell's. Opium exhausted by coc-
tion with water, the residuum treated with
spirit of wine, and the mixed tinctnre and decoc-
tion evaponted to an extract.

Opinm, Fa"rifled. Syit. Ofivk rtmaiok-
TXTX, L. The pnrifled opium of the old pharmacy
is now represented by the aqueous extract of the
Pharmacopoaias. (See Extbaot.) Formerly, picked
ralnm, beaten to a pilnlar consistence, wiUi the
addition of a little water or proof spirit, was
called ' son PirBiyiBD oriux ' (opiTm fubifioa-
TVK mollb) ; and picked opium, dried in a water-
bath until brittle enough for powdering, was

called 'BABD PUBITIBD OFIUK' (O. P. SUBTTH).

CosHsm'a and Jossb's pubipibd opiuk are
nmilar to the extract of Ph. L.

Oplnia, Qureaiaii's. Vinegar of opinm eva-
ponUed to an extract.

Opinm, Straisad. Sf». EzTKAonm thb-
BaioDx, Onvu ooLAxvit, Opiuh pvBinoATVx,

L. Opium dissolved or softened in an equal
weight of water, passed through canvas, and
evaporated to the consistence of an extract. It is
now superseded by the aqueous extract.

Opinm, Tor'refled. S}/n. Roastbd ophtk ;
Opittk tobbbpaotuic, li. Opinm dried, cut
into thin slices, and roasted on an iron plate, at
a low heat, as long as it emite vapours, care being
taken not to bum it.

0F0SEL1)0C. 1. See LnriXBHT op Soap.

2. (Stbbb'8 oposbisoo.) This, which diflfers
from common opodeldoc chiefly in containing more
soap, is prepared as f olIo?rB :

a. White Castile soap (cut very small), 2 lbs. ;
camphor, 5 oz.; oil of rosemary, 1 oz.; oil of
origanum, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 gall. ; mix,
and digest in stoong bottle (closely corked), by
the heat of a water-bath, nntil solution is com-
plete ; when the liquid has considerably cooled,
add of liquor of ammonia, 11 oz., and imme-
diately put it into wide-mouthed bottles (Steer's),
cork them close, and tie them over with bladder.
Very fine, solid, and transparent when cold.

i. Soap, 4 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz. ; oil of rose-
mary and origanum, of each, 1 dr. ; rectified
spirit, 1 pint ; liquor of ammonia, 1^ fl. oz. Mix.

0. (Phil. Coll. of Pharm.) White soap, 28 oz. ;
camphor, 8 oz. ; rectified spirit, 6} pints ; dissolve,
snfTer the impurities to subside, add of liquor of
ammonia, 4 fl. oz. ; oils of rosemary and horse-
mint, of each, 1 fl. oz.j and pour it into phials,
as before.

OPOPOVAX. A resinons substance obtMned
from the roote of the Opopoitaae eiinnium. It
occurs in lumps of a reddish-yellow or brown
colour, and has a waxy fracture. It has a
powerful odonr, which somewhat resembles garlic,
and a bitter taste.

Opoponax is only partially soluble In alcohol.
According to Payen it consists of a little volatile
oil, a resin that melU at 100° C, gum, inorganic
and organic salts, and mechanical admixtures. It
is used in French pharmacy, and was held in

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1190

OBANOE— OBCEIN

great esteem bjr Hippocrates, Theopfarastas, and
Dioscorides, all of whom emjdoyed it therapeutic-
ally.

OBAHOE. Sgn. AiTBAirrnnt, L. The com-
mon BWBBT OBAXOB is the froit of (Xtrtu auran-
MiMi. The SbtiuiB or BiTTBROBAxaB is produced
by Citrut vulgari* or bigaradia.

Oranges are probably about the most wholesome
and useful of all the subacid fruits. Their juice
diflen from th«t of lemons chiefly in containing
less citric acid and more sugar. In their gener^
properties the two are nearly similar.

Oranges are imported into England from many
countries ; the best come from Denia, on the east
coast of Spain. Malta oranges are almost the
latest in the market, arriving in spring. Orange-
growing in Florida has become a profitable busi-
ness on a large scale. The fruit from the Canary
Islands commands, perhaps, the best price. The
small Tangerine orange has suffered in quality in
recent years from the efforts of the cultivators to
increase the yield of the tree.

FiLOTinoua oaAiraB ma* is made by dis-
solving citric acid, 1 oz., and carbonate of potaasa,
1 dr., in water, 1 quart, and digesting the solution
on the peel of half an orange untU sn£Sciently
flavoured ; Narbonne honey or white sugar is then
added to impart the necessary sweetness. Instead
of orange peel, 6 or 6 drops of oil of orange
peel, with i fl. oz. of tincture of orange peel
mwrbeused.

Obamob fbbl (oobtbx AUKurm) is an agree-
able stomachic, bitter tonic, especially useful as
an adjunct to more active medicines. That or-
dered to be used in medicine is the exterior (yellow)
rind of the Citnu higaradia, or bitter orange,
dried in the months of February, March, and April.
See CAXsTnre, InvnoN, Inra Pbas, Oiu
(Volatile), &c.

OBAVOXADX'. ^n. OsiiroB bhbhbbt. Prtp.
1. Juice of 4 oranges, thin peel of 1 orange,
lump sugar, 4 at. ; boiling water, 8 pints.

2. Juice and peel of 1 large orange, citric
acid, 15 gr. ; sugar, 8 ox. ; boiling water, 1
quart.

Orangeade, Xffervesdng or ASrated. Prtp. 1.
Mix 1 lb. of syrup of orange peel, a gallon of
water, and 1 oc. of citric acid, and charge it
strongly with carbonic acid gas with a machme.

2. Syrup of orange juice, t A. oz. ; afirated
water, \ pint.

3. Simple syrup, i fl. oz. ; tincture of orange
peel, \ dr. ; citric acid, 1 scruple ; fill the bottle
with aerated water.

4. Put into a soda-water bottle 4 oz. to 1 oz. of
syrup of orange peel, 30 gr. of bicarbonate of
potash, 8 oz. of water, and, lastly, 40 gr. of citric
acid, in crystals, and cork immediately.

6. Put into each bottle 8 or 8 dr. of sugar, 2
drops of oil of orange pool, 80 gr. of bicar^nate
of potash, or 26 gr. of bicarbonate of soda water
to flu the bottle, and 40 gr. of citric acid, as
before.

OKAVOS CHBOKE. Prep. 1. From a soln-
tion of chromate of potash and diacetate of lead,
as chrome yellow.

2. From chrome yellow or chromate of lead, by
acting on it with a weak alkaline lye until suffi-
ciently darkened. Used as a pigment.

OBAVCKE STE8. These are produced from
mixtures of red and yellow dyes in various pro-
portions ; or by passing the cloth, previously dyed
yellow, through a weak red batii. 1. A very good
fugitive orange may be given with annotta, by
passing the goods through a solution made with
equal parts of annotta and pearlash; or, still
better, through a bath made of 1 part of annotim,
dissolved in a lye of 1 part each of lime and
pearlash and 2 parts of soda. The shade may be
reddened by passing the dyed goods through water
acidulated with vinegar, lemon juice, or citric acid,
or through a solution of alum. The goods are
sometimes passed through a weak alum mordant
before immersion in the dye-bath.

2. (ForCoTTOV.) For 40 lbs. 2i lbs. annotta,
24 lbs. of bark, 8 quarts of chloride of tin. Bcnl
the annotta, put off the boil, enter and rinse antil
it has a good body. Then wring out, wash well,
wring again, and shake ont. Next, in a dean
boiler, boil the bark in a bag for a quarter of aa
honr, add the chloride of tin, and enter, rinse till
the required shade is got.

8. (For Sirs.) For 10 yards. Annotta, 1| oc. ;
bark, 1^ oz. ; chloride of tin, 1| oz. Give a good
body of annotta at 212° F. ; wash in one water,
then top with the bark and chloride of tin.

4. (For Wool.) For 60 Iba. Boil 10 lb*. «f
bark|and li lbs. of cochineal ; add 2 lbs. of tartar,
2i quarts of yellow sjurits. Enter at 200° F. ;
boil 80 minntes. See AinroTTA, DTBnre, Ac.

The following list includes the more recent
orange dyes.

Orange-alaarin (for wool). Mordant with from
S% to 8% ofstannooschloride to the same quantity
of cream of tartar. Dye witii 10% of alizarin
(20%).

Orangt-a-naphthol. ^n. TsOFJtOLOr 000
No. 1, OitursB No. 1 {Poirriar). Dyes a red-
dish-orange sha^.

Orangt-P-napktkol. 8yn. TBOPJtoLtK 000
No. 2, Obanob No. 2 (Bat/, Poirriar), OsAveB
BXTBA (£. CattUa 4" Co.), &c Dyes a bright
reddish-orange shade.

Oranffe-dim«Ujila»iUii«. i^f». HxLiAHTHnr,
OoLD OBAKaa, Obahob in, Ac. Will dye
cotton, wool, aad silk ; it is not fast to washing
on cotton.

Orcaiff0-d^kanglomiiie orangt. Syn. Tbo-
PXOLIN 00, OuAvaM IT, Obaxob N., Ac The
presence of free acid induces a deeper tint

OrtMgt-patatittt (Bat/). The ammonium salt
of tetra-nitro-y-diphenoL It dyes wool and silk
in a bath acidolated with sulphuric or acetic add
(Bmmm«l).

ORASeX BED. Syn. Saitoiz. From white-
lead, by calcination, in a nearly similar manner to
that by which red-lead is prepared from the
protoxide. Brighter than red-lead. Used wholly
as a pigment.

Oa'ABOEBT. The gallery, building, or endo-
sure in a garden in which orange trees are pre-
served or cnltivated.'to shield them from the effects
of the external winter, or to assist their growth
by artificial heat.

OB'CBDT. CjH-NOs- <^ Lichbx LiXB. A
brownish-red powder, obtained by dissolring orcin
in ammonia, exposing the solution to the air, and
then precipitating with dilute acetic acid. It is

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ORCHARD— ORES

1191

an4/Ve(^orMW.

ijfpomeeia.
timeforia.

■parinKly wdnble in water, but dUaoWea freely in
alooho^ in solationi of ammonia and the fixed
alkalies with the production of a rich porple or
Tiolet oolonr j such nolntioni are reddened by acids.
It oonatitDtei the leading tinctorial ingredient in
AJUmiL, cvDBEAB, and IiUMUB. (See btloto.)
OyCHABD. See CroBB.
OK'CHIL. See Abohil.

OrduUa Weed*. The speciea of BAeeella, nsed
in the maantactnre of orchil, archil, or cudbear.
They are, according to Pereiia —
Angola orchella, BoeetUaJ^te^ormii.
If adagaKar „ „ „

Maoritina „ „ „

Canary „ „ tinetoria.

CapedeVerdeM
Madeira „
Iduia u

(large and
ronnd)
Iiinia „

(■mall and
flat)
CapeofCkMd

Hope „

Barfaaiy „
'Conicanand
Sardinian „ / " "

OK'Cnr. C^HgO,. Sgn. Oboixoc, Dihtsbo-
VlLwn. The general product of the decompo-
aition of the acids obtained from the tinctorial
lichens under the influence of heat or the alkaline
«arths.

JVtp. 1. The powdered lichen is treated with
boiling alcohol, the tincture whilst hot, and again
«fter it has become cold; the alcohol is then re-
moved by distillation, and the remainder evapo-
rated to the consistence of syrup ; this is redis-
■olved in water, the solution again filtered and
evaporated to a syrup ; it is then set aside some
da^ in a oool place, and the crystals of orcin
which form are collected, and dried by preasniein
lubnlooa paper. Impure.

2, Leanoric or orsellinic acid (impure will do)
it btnled in banrta water, and the excess of baryta
is precipitated by carbonic acid ; the filtered liquid
is then evaporated to a small bulk, and set aside
to crystallise, as before. Lime and water may be
used instead of baryta.

8. By the action of fused potash or aloes.
4. Artificially from toluene by converting it
into ortbochlorotolnene-sulphuric acid, fusing this
with excess of potash.

Fri^., I(v. Large, square, prismatic crystals ;
colonrless; sweet j very soluble in ether, water,
and alcohol ; melt to a syrupy liquid, and then
distil unchanged. Alkalies decompose it ; when
exposed to the air it gradually leddens. (See
above.)

OSXIOE. A variety of brass, in appearance
▼•IT mnch like gold. The following, according
to MH. Ueaiier and Valient, its inventors, is the
composition of this alloy :— Copper, 100 parts;
zinc, 17 parts ; magnesia, 6 parts ; sal-ammoniac,
8*6 parts; quicklime, 1*8 parts; tartar of com-
merce, 9 parts. The copper being first melted,
the other ingredients are added by small portions
at a time, the whole being kept in fusion for about
tialf an hour, and well skimmed. The oreide has

a fine grain, is malleable, is capable of being
brilliantly polished, and has its lustre lestorad by
the use of acidulated water.

It is nsed for the cases of cheap watches and
for ornamental castings. It resembles gold in
colour, and forms a good basis for electro-plating
with gold. Sometimes tin is substituted for
the (inc.

OB'EIiLUr. A yellow colouring matter con-
tained together with bixin in annotta. It is
soluble in water and in alcohol, slightly soluble in
ether, and dyes alumed goods yellow. Also the
name sometimes given to purified annotta. The
commercial annotta is dissolved in an alkaline
solution, either caustic or carbonated, and then
precipitated by an add. See Akitoita.

0BX8. The mineral bodies from which metals
may be obtained. The processes adopted for this

purpose constitute OFIBATITB KBTALLUBOrj

those by which their value is determined, xursBU

A88ATIVO.

A very small proportion only of the metals
are met with in nature in the free or element
tary condition, by far the greater number found
bong united frith some non-metallic element or
elements, in definite atomic proportions, and a*
such forming true chemical compounds, in which,
in almost every instance, the physical and chemi*
cal properties of the metal are obliterated. In
these bodies, which, when they are used as
sources of the metals commonly employed by man,
are called obbs, the metal is mosUy combined
with oxygen or sulphur, sometimes with carbonic
acid, and less frequently with chlorine and other
negative elements. Thus we have the native
combinations of iron and oxygen constituting the
minerals known as red hematite iron ore (Fe/)t),
brown hematite (2Fe,Og.8H]0), and magnetic iron
ore (Fe]0|,8FeO), of tin and oxygen in tinstone
(SnOj), and of copper and oxygen known as red
copper ore (CujO). Of the principal ores into
which sulphur enters as a chemical ingredient,
we may mention native sulphide of antimony
(SbjS,) ; the two native sulphides of arsenic^
realgar (AsjSj) and orpiment (Ai<,S^ ; galena, or
native sulphide of lead (PbS), blende, or native
sulphide of zinc (ZnS), and cinnabar, or native
sulphide of mercury (HgS). Besides the above
there are also certain double native sulphides,
such as the double sulphide of iron and copper,
known as Peacock ore, and having the composi-
tion FcjSgjSCujS; iron and copper pyrites
(Fe^CujS) ; and red silver ore (Sb^,3AgS).

In the state of carbonate, ores occur — as mala-
chite, native carbonate of copper, CuCO^Cu(HO)t;
as calamine, or native carbonate of zinc (ZnCOj) ;
and as spatbose iron ore, or native carbonate of
iron (FeCO,). Horn silver or horn lead, the
former having the composition AgCl, and the
latter PbCOj+PbCl], are illustrations of ores
containing chlorine.

The process of obtuning the metal from the
ore of course varies with the nature and character
of the latter. Before, however, this operation
can be undertaken, the ore itself is subjected to
certain mechanical operations, in order to remove
the gangue or the adhering earthy, rocky, stony,
and other matters with which it is always more
or less mixed up. The amount of attention

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1192

OBES

which ii given to this preparatory treatment of
the ores greatly depends upon their valae ; those,
for instance, of copper and lead, as commanding
a higher market price than those of zinc and iron,
being submitted to commensurate treatment.
This process of freeing the ores from the gangne,
which is termed dressing, is generally conducted
M follows, usually near the pit entrance of the
mine whence the ores have been extracted.

If the material brought up to the pit's mouth is
a lead or copper ore, it mostly contains a number
of lumps, which are considered safficiently pure
for the smelting even, and these are set aside
without being dressed. QenersUy, however, the
ore is first broken by hammers into pieces about
as large as a walnut, and the best pieces are then
selected for smelting.

The remaining or inferior portions are then
crashed under the large and horisontal cylinders
of a grinding mill, to which they are supplied by
hoppers. After being ground the ore is separated
by being made to pass through coarse sieves, the
coarser portions being set aside for the stampers,
whilst the finer ones are subjected to the opera-
tion of jigging. This consists in a workman
separating the contents of the sieve under water
I^ imparting to them such a movement that the
bits of ore (particularly if they are of a friable
nature like galena) become broken, and thxis pass
through the meshes of the sieve to the bottom of
the water ; whilst the less friable and specifically
lighter matter, mostly consisting of gangue, re-
mains behind on the sieve. This residue being
mixed with the coarser portions resulting from
the first siftings, and which have not been sub-
jected to the jigging process, is transferred to the
stamping mill, whilst those portions of ore found
at the bottom of the well are reserved For smelt-
ing. If the ore be one containing tin, it does not
undergo the above processes, hut passes at once
to the stamping apparatus.

This stamping apparatus may consist of five or
six largo wooden beams, each weighing l-8th of
a ton. Each beam is covered at the bottom with
iron, and is made to rise and fall in succession by
means of projections from a horizontal axle,
caased to revolve dther by water or steam power.
Behind the stampers is an inclined board, upon
which are placed the residue and coarser portions
of the ore already described, and when the
stampers are in motion the ore slides down the
inclined plane under them, and thus gets crushed.
When it is thought the ore has been sufficiently
crushed, it is, by means of a current of water run-
ning through the mill, carried away through a
grating in front of the mill into a channel in
which there are two pits, with the result that the
more valuable and heavier portion of the ore be-
comes deposited in the first pit, whilst the inferior
portion is carried on, and faUs into the second one.

The crushed ore has, however, to undergo other
operations before it is considered sufficiently pure
for the furnace. That part (the purer portion,
called the crop by the Cornish miner) which has
been deposited in the first pit, after removal there-
from, is subjected to a series of further washings,
the diflerent apparatus by which these are effected
being known in Cornish language as a buddle
and a kieve.

" The crop is first subjected to washing in the
boddle; this is a wooden trough about 8 feet
long, 3 wide, and 2 deep, fixed in the ground with
one end somewhat elevated. At the upper end a
small stream of water enters, and is reduced to a
uniform thin sheet by means of a distributing
board, on which a number of small pieces of wood
are fastened to break the stream. The ore to be
washed is placed in small quantities at a time on
a board just below the distributing board, and
somewhat more inclined than the body of the
buddle, and as the ore is spread oat into a thin
layer the water carries it forward.

" The richer portions subside near the head of
the trough, and the light ores are carried farther
down, ' The heads ' are then tossed into the
kieve, a covered wooden tub, which is filled with
water, and ore added by a workman, who keeps
the contents of the kieve in continual agitation
by turning an agitator, the handle of which pro-
jects through the lid of the tub. When the vessel
is nearly full the agitation is stopped ; the kieve
is struck sharply anon the side several times, and
its contents are allowed to subside ; the upper
half of the sediment is again passed through the
buddle. Various modifications of the washing
process are resorted to, but they are all the same
in principle" (Ifiller).

The water which has been used in washing the
ore on the buddle, as well as that in the kieve,
contains in addition to the dibrii of the gangue
more or less of small pieces of the ore itself.
Hence this water is not allowed to escape, but
conveyed into a narrow channel cut at the end of
the buddle, where it deposits the solid minerals.
These being then removed undergo a second wash-
ing on an inclined stage, a process which is
followed in Cornwall, and by which any remain-
ing mineral is recovered.

The above is the method of dressing the ores of
lead and tin, and, with some modifications, those
of copper.

Some metals, as, for example, certain iron and
zinc ores, previous to being dressed, require a
preliminary exposure for some time to the atmo-
sphere. This operation, which is called ' weather-
ing,' has the effect of aiding the subsequent
removal by water of certain materials of a clayey,
slaty, or marly nature, which sometimes adhere
very tenaciously to the ores in question.

Again, in some cases weathering is had recourse
to for obtaining a metallic compound in a soluble
form. It is by this means that iron pyrites, if
exposed to the air, after a time becomes converted
into a sulphate of the metal.

Large quantities of commercial sulphate of
iron or green vitriol are manufactured from this
natural sulphate after it has been dissolved by
the rain, and then crystallised. Sometimes the
ores after dressing, and previous to roasting or
smelting, are subjected to a process of calcination
without excess of air, with the object of depriving
them of water, carbonic acid, and bituminous
matters, and also of rendering the ore softer and
in a favourable condition to be acted upon by the
subsequent metallurgic operations.

The ores, having been by these various pro-
cesses sufficiently need from extraneous matters,
are next, according to their composition, either

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ORES

119»

rabmitted to the operation of routing or smelt-
ing, and in many cases to both.

Soattinff. This operation is mostly carried ont
in a rererbeiatoiy furnace. The resnlt of the pro-
cess upon the ores containing snlphnr, which are
those chiefly subjected to it, varies with the
natore of the ore. Thus when the sulphides of
antimony, arsenic, or zinc are roasted, the snlphnr
escapes as snlphnrons anhydride with the forma-
tion of the volatile oxides of arsenic, antimony, or
zinc, which sublime, and are afterwards collected
and pnrifled.

With cinnabar or native sulphide of mercoiy
ralphnrous anhydride is evolved along with the
vapoora of metallic mercnry, these being at the
nine time condensed by cooling.

When copper pyrites (the donble sulphide of
•nlldiide of copper and iron) is placed in the
reverberatory furnace, the copper and iron be-
come converted into oxides.

When galena or lead sulphide is exposed to the
roasting process, lead oxide and sulphate, with the
cqpions escape of sulphurous acid, are at first
formed. The oxide and snlphate become eventn-
ally decomposed, leaving behind metallic lead,
with a small portion of a subsulphide of the
metal. In most cases, however, the effect of
routing on an ore is to convert it into an oxide.

Clay ironstone, which is that from which the
greater part of the iron is manufactured in Great
Britain, and that Icnown u the blade band of the
Scotch coal-fields, are impure carbonates of iron,
and these when routed yield ferric oxide. The
roasting in the case of these minerals is some-
times effected in kilns, but more frequently id the
open air ; in the latter case by the firing of
stacks composed of alternate layers of the ore and
of small coal. Calamine or native carbonate of
zinc is converted into oxide sometimes by being
roasted in kilns, but more frequently in a rever-
beratory furnace.

SmgUinff. Except in those cases in which the
ore is directly reduced from the state of a sulphide
to that of a metal, it is, u hu been shown, con-
verted into an oxide. - If, therefore, it be re-
qniredto procure the metal per te, some method
most be adopted for the removal of the oxygen
from its oxide.

This process, which is called smelting, and is
applied to most metallic oxides, whether of natural
or artificial origin, conrists in heating the oxide
with a substance which hu a stronger attraction
for oxygen than the metal hu. Such bodies are
eoal, roke^ and charcoal, which, when raised to
very high temperatures in contact with certain
metallic oxides, rob them of their oxygen, and
thns reduce them to the state of metals, carbonic
oxide or carbonic anhydride being at the same
time formed and carried off. A mechanical
impediment, however, to the redncing action of
the fuel npon the ore exists in the rocky, earthy,
and other impurities mostly present in large
quantities, even after the dressing ; these envelop
uie mineral, and afford it a protective covering.
To remove them it is not only necessary that
some substance should be added which has the
power of combining with them, but one which is
capable of forming a compound whicli shall be-
come fusible by the heat of the furnace, so that

the molten metal as it sinks through it by reason
of its greater specific gravity, and falls to the
bottom of the furnace, shall be protected in doing
so from contact with the air. Many substances,
varying with the nature of the gangue accom-
panying them, are thus employed as fluxes, such
u limestone, fluor spar, gypsum, heavy spar, &c.,
and they act by combining with the silicioua
compounds contained in the gangue attached to
the ore, and forming n fusible silicate known as
slag, which is from time to time run off by an
aperture at the side of the furnace. Considerable
knowledge and experience are required in the
selection of suitable fluxes.

The Smelting-fumaces in which the deoxida-
tion of iron is accomplished are of considerable
size. The following description of one, together-
with the engraving, are from Professor Bloxam's
able work, ' Chemistry, Inorganic and Organic*

" Great care is necessary in first lighting the
blut-fnmace, lest the new masonry should be
cracked by too sudden a rise of temperature; and
when once lighted, the furnace is kept in constant
work for years, until in want of repur.

"When the fire bu been lighted the furnace
is filled up with coke, and as soon u this bu
bomt down to some distance below the chimney,
a layer of the mixture of calcined ore with the
requisite quantity of limestone is thrown upon
it ; over this there is placed another layer of coke,
then a second layer of the mixture of ore and
flax, and so on in alternate layers, until the fur-
nace hu been filled up; when the layers sink
down fresh quantities of fuel, ore, and flux are-
added, so that the furnace is kept constantly full.

" As the air passes from the tny&re-pipes into
the bottom of the furnace, it parts with its oxy-
gen to the carbon of the fuel, which it converts
into carbonic acid ; the latter passing the red-hot
fuel u it ascends in the furnace is converted into
carbonic oxide by combining with an additional-
quantity of carbon. It is this carbonic oxido
which reduces the calcined ore to the metallic-
state when it comes in contact with it at a red
heat in the upper part of the furnace, for car-
bonic oxide removes the oxygen at a high tem-
perature from the oxides of iron, and becomes
carbonic acid, the iron being left in the metallic
state.

" But the iron so reduced remains disseminated
through the mass of ore until it has passed down'
to a part of the furnace which is more strongly
heated, where the iron enters into combination
with a small proportion of carbon to form cast
iroa, which fuses or runs down into the crucible
or carity for its reception at the bottom of the
furnace.

"At the same time the clay contained in the
ore is acted npon by the lime of the flux, producing
a double silicate of alumina and lime, which also
falls in the liquid state into the crucible, where
it forms a layer of slag above the heavier metal.
This slag, which hu five or six times the bulk
of the iron, is allowed to accumulate in the cru-
cible and to run over its edge down the incline
upon which the blast-furnace is built ; but when
a sufficient quantity of cast iron is collected at the
bottom of the crucible, it is run out throngh a
hole provided for the purpose, either into channels

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1194

OSES

made in a bed of sand, or into iron monlds
where it is cast into roagh semi-cylindrical
masses, called pigs, cast iron being spoken of as
pig-iron.

" Tlie temperature of the fomaee is, of eomM,

highest in the immediate neighbonrliood of the

tnydres. The redaction of the iron to the metallic

I state appears to commence at abont two thirds of

the way down the f nmace, the volatile matters of
the ore, fael, and flax being driven off before this
point is reached.

" Some idea may be formed of the immense
scale upon which the smelting of iron ores is
carried out, when it is stated that each furnace
oonsnmes in the coarse of 24 hours abont 50 tons
of coal, 80 tons of ore, 6 tons of limestone, and
100 tons of air.

" The cast iron is ran off from the crucible once
or twice in 12 hours, in quantities of 6 or 6 tons
at a time. The average yield of calcined clay-
iron stono is 35% of iron.

"The gases escaping from the chimney of
the blast-furnace are highly inflammable, for
they contain, beside the nitrogen of the air
blown into the furnace, a considerable quantity
of carbonic oxide and some hydrogen, to-
gether with the carbonic acid formed by the
action of the carbonic oxide npon the ore.
Since the carbonic oxide and hydrogen confer
considerable heating power npon these gases,
they are employed in some iron • works for
heating steam boilers, or for calcining the
ore, or for raising the tempeiature of the
blast.

" The composition of the gas issuing from a hot
blast-furnace (fed with uncoked coal) may be
jndged of from the following table :

" Oat fro*

\ BUut fwr%aa».

Nitrogen .

. 66-36 ToU.

Carbonic oxide

. 26-»7 „

Hydrogen .

. 6-73 „

Carbonic acid

. • 7-77 «

Marsh gas .

. . 8-76 „

Olefiant gas

• . o« „

lOOHK) „
"The carbonic oxide, of oonne, render* thesa
gases highly poisonous, and fatal accidents occa-
sionally happen from this cause. Although the
bnlk of the nitrogen present in the air escuies
unchanged from the furnace, it is not inajKobahle
that a portion of it contributes to the fonnatiaii
of the cyanide of potassium which is prodnecd
in the lower part of the furnace, the potaasinm
being furnished by the ashes of the f oeL" Sea
Metallubot.

Autgf. Three general methods are adopted for
this purpose :

1. (HioHAinOAi^) This oonnsts in palverising
the ore by any convenient method, and expertly
washing a given weight of it (say 1000 gr.) in a
wooden bowl or capsule with water, so as to re-
move the earthy gangnes from the denser and
valuable metallic matter in such a way that none
of the latter may be lost. This is the oonumn
plan adopted with aoriferons sands, the ocea of

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OBGAiriC BASES

1196

tin after they have paoed the itamping-mUl,
gmlena, gprey antiiDony, &c., and may either be
employed as an independent procen or merely as
pgrepaiatory to more exact investigations. When
galena is thos tested, the prodnct is a nearly pare
snlphide of lead, of which every giun is equivalent
to 08666 of metallic lead, the rest being snlphur.
The results with grey antimony ore are still more
direct.

2. (Humo.) Assays in the ' hnmid way ' are
tme chemical analyses, and are described under
the head ' Stlm.' attached to most of the more
'important minerals noticed in this work. This
plan offers greater facilities and gives more ac-
curate results than either of the other methods.

8. (Dbt.) Of the methods of assay in the ' dry
way ' the following are the most accurate, gene-
rally useful, and easily applied :

a. (Dr Abiek*.) The mineral is reduced to
powder, and mixed with five or six times its weight
of carbonate of barium, also in powder ; this mix-
ture is ftised at a white heat in a platinum crucible,
and the resulting slag, after being powdered, is
exhausted with hydrochloric acid. Tliis process
answers well with both stony and metallic
minerals, the most refractory of which give way
under this treatment.

i. (Jiiebig.) Into a crucible containing oom-
mereial cgnnide of potassium, a weighed quan-
tity of abe ore, in the state of fine powder, is
sprinkled, when the metallic oxides and sulphides
which it contains are almost immediately reduced
to the metallic state, and may be separated from
the scoria by lixiviation with water. With the
oxides and sulphides of antimony and tin this
reduction occurs at a dull red beat; with the
compounds of copper it occurs with the disen-
gagement of light and heat ; but an ore of iron
requires to be mixed with a little carbonate of
potassium or of sodium before throwing it into
the fused cyanide, and to be then submitted to a
full red heat for a sbort time, before it is reduced
to the re^ulus state. In this case any manganese
present in the ore of iron is left under the form
of protoxide. A mixture of about equal parts of
dry carbonate of sodium and cj^fuiide of potassium
answers better for the crucible than the cyanide
alone.

e. By cnpellation, a method applicable to the
assay of gold, silver, lead, te. In assaying gold,
for example, a small piece of metal is wrapped
in tissue-paper together with 8 times its weight
of pure silver : it is then added to 12 times
its weight of pure lesd fused in a crucible or
ci^l made of bone-ash (see Mffr.), and placed

inamoffle. When the lead, capper (if any), &c.,
are oudised, the f nsed oxide of lead dissolves that
of copper, and both are absorbed by the cupel.
After a time the button of metal ceases to diminish
in size ; it is then allowed to cool, hammered into
a flat disc, annealed by heating it to redness, rolled
into a tUn plate, and then between the finger and
thumb twUted into a eomttU. This is now
boiled with nitrie add (sp. gr. I'lS), to extract

the silver ; the gold which ranuuns is washed with
distilled water and boiled with nitric acid (sp. gr.
1'88) to extract the last traces of silver, aftar
which it is again washed, heated to redness in a
small cmcible, and finally weighed. See Aliotb,
MBTAU.UBOT, &c; also 'Percy's Metallurgy'
and ' Mitchell's Manual of Practical Assaying?

0B0AB1C BA'SEB. These interesting bodies
may be divided into two classes ; the first com-
prising those which occur ready formed in nature
(.uxAiAisa), and the second those produced by
artificial processes in the laboratory (ABTiriCLU

AI.EALOIDB, ABTiriCIAIi OBOAKIO BABBS). They

all contain the element bitboobh. The natural
bases have already been described under Alka-
loid. Until recently none of them have been
produced by artificial means. The bases of en-
tirely artificial origin are mostly volatile, and
their constitution is, as a rule, simpler than that
of the native liases. Of the vast number which
have been formed the following are, perhaps, the
most interesting : — ETHTLAmKB, xbthtlaxikb,

AHTLAXIVB, ABILIBB, BAPHTHTLAXIBB, OEIBO-

LiNi, and FICOLIKB. These and other bodies
of the class are noticed under their respective
heads.

By Berzelins the natural organic bases (owing
to the invariable presence in them of hydrogen
and nitrogen) were regarded as compound am-
monias, or combinations of ammonia with a
variety of neutral principles.

He conceived that the greater part of these
neutral bodies were incapable of isolation, and
further that the closest union existed between
them and the ammonia. Thus it was his opinion
that quinine, Cs)H,]NO],SHO (halving the modem
formula), was a comxnund of the group C]^,0,
with oxide of ammonium and water of crystalli-
sation, thus: (CbH,0,H4N0),H0. He believed
that the organic base owed its basicity to the
ammonia. Bcrzclius's opinion carried weight at
the time, from the circumstance that cerUdn
neutral substances when directly combined with
ammonia were capable of forming a nnmber of
artificial bases very similar in qualities and also
in composition to the natural ones, or those ob-
tained from living plants. Thus a base may be
artificially obtained from the union of oil of bitter
almonds with ammonia.

Liebig, who was one of the first chemists to
dispute the correctness of Berzelius's hypothesis,
by showing that the natural organic bases never
gave any indication of the presence in them of
ready-formed ammonia, replaced it by the sug-
gestiim that they might be bodies into the compo-
sition of which amidogen (H.N) entered, and that
these, instead of being compounds of ammonia
and an organic group, might be derivativeifrom
ammooia, or ammonia in which an atom of
hydrogen had been displaced by an equivalent
organic radical.

The labours of subsequent chemists, notably
those of Messrs Wurtz and Hofmann, have deve-
loped Liebig's theory, and have proved the analogy
in structural arrangement between ammonia and
the greater number of organic bases ; whilst they
have further shown that not only one, but all
three of the hydrogen atoms in Hmmmia may be
sufaatituted by certain compound radicals.

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1196

ORGANIC SUBSTANCES

OBOAH'TC STTBSTAVCES. We hava reserved
a notice of the method of estimating the quantity
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, in
organic compounds, until now, in order to present
them to the reader in a more useful and connected
form. The operation essentially consists, in
respect of the first three, in cansing the complete
combnstion of a known quantity of the snhstance
under examination, in such a manner that the
carbonic acid and. wnter thus produced shall be
collected, and their quantity determined. From
these the proportions of their elements are easily
calculated. The estimation of the quantity of
nitrogen (as is also the case with chlorine, phos-
phorus, sulphur, &c.) requires a separate operation.
The two great classes of organic bodies (azotised
and non-azotised) are readily distinguished from
each other by heating a small portion with some
solid hydrate of potassium in a test-tube. If
nitrogen is present, it is converted into ammonia,
which may be recognised by its characteristic
odour and its alkaline reaction.

1. Sttimalion of the CABBOir, HY-
SSOOBN, and oXYaxv. a. The me-
thod of Professor Liebig, now almost
exclusively adopted for this purpose,
is as follows: — The substance under
examination, reduced to powder, is
rendered as dry as possible, either by
the heat of n water-bath or by ex-
posure over concentrated sulphnric
acid ts vacuo ; S or 6 gr. of it are then weighed in
a narrow open test-tube, 2 or 3 inches long, and to
ensure accuracy this tube and any little adhering
matter is again weighed after its contents have
been removed — the difference between the two
weights being regarded as the true quantity of the
substance employed in the experiment. A 'com-
bustion-tube,' of hard white Bohemian glass (0*4
to O'S inch diam., 14 to 18 inches long), is next
taken, and about 2-3rds filled with black oxide of
copper, prepared by the ignition of the nitrate, and
which has been recently re-heated to expel mois-
ture. Nearly the whole of this oxide, whilst still
warm, is then gradually poured from the tube and
triturated With the orgsnic sample in a dry and
warm mortar, after which the mixture is trans-
ferred to the combustion-tube, and the mortar
being rinsed out with a little fresh oxide, which
is then added to the rest, the tube is, lastly,
nearly filled with some warm oxide fresh from
the crucible. The contents of the tube are next
arranged in a proper position by a gentle tapping,
so as to leave a small passage for the evolved gases
from the one end of the tube to the other. (See
tngr.)

tube ' filled with fragments of fused chloride of
calcium, and carefully weighed.

This tnbe is, in its tnm,
connected with a series of
small glass hnlbs (' Liebig's
potash bulbs ') containing so-
lution of pure potash of sp. gr.
1*27. also carefully weighed.
The junction with the first is
made by means of a perfo-
rated cork ; that with the
second by means of a small
tube of india-rubber tied with silk, the whole
being made quite air-tight. The apparatus is
then tested by sucking a few bubbles through
the liquid with dry lips, when, if the level of the
solution of potash in the two legs continues un-
equal for some minutes, the joints are regarded
Rs perfect. The whole arrangement being com-
plete (seeeit^r.), burning charcoal is now placed
in the f nmace around the front part of the com-
bn8tion-tuI>e, and when this has become red-hot

\.

The ' combustion-tube ' with its ' charge ' is
next placed in a ' furnace ' or ' chauffer ' of thin
sheet iron lined with fireclay (see figure helow).

Its open end is then connected with a ' drying-

the screen is slowly moved back, and more hom-
ing charcoal is added, until the furthest extremity
of the tube has been exposed to its action. (Oas
burned in furnaces specially contrived for the
purpose is now usually employed instead of char-
coal.) The heat is so regulated that the gas
enters the potash apparatus in bubbles easily
counted, without any violence, and it is kept up
as long as gas is given off. As soon as the ap-
paratus is complete, and the slightest retrograde
action of the potash is observed, the charcoal is
removed from the combustion-tube or the gas is
turned off, and the extreme point oF this last is
broken off. A little ur is then sucked through
the apparatus in order to seize on any remaining
carbonic acid gas and moisture. The potash ap-
paratus and the chloride of calcium tube are
lastly detached, and again accurately weighed.
The increase in the weight of the first gives the
weight of the carbonic add formed during the
combustion ; that of the second the weight of
the water.

The numbers equivalent to any given number
of grains, found as above, are converted into the
proportions per cent, by simply dividing them by
the weight of the organic substance which has
been employed in the experiment, and moving the
decimal point of the result two figures to the.
right.

h. In applying the preceding method to vola-
tile liquids, it is necessary to enclose them in a
small bulb with a narrow neck, instead of mixing
them directly with the protoxide of copper. The
bulb with ite contents is introduced into the com-
bustion-tube, and after some 6 or 8 inches of the
protoxide is heated to redness, heat is applied
near where the bulb is situated, so that the liquid
which it contains may be slowly volatilised and

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ORGANIC SUBSTANCES

1197

ftused through the heated maw in the rtate of
vsponr, being thns completely burned. For
further information consult Fresenini's ' Chemical
Analysis.'

8. An improved and more complex apparatus
18 thus described in the last edition of Blozam's
' Chemistry : '

"The substance to be analysed having been
carefully dried and weighed (about O'S grm.) is
placed in a small boat-shaped tray of porcelain or
platinum, which is introduced into one end of a
glass tube about 30 inches long, of which about
Zi inches are filled with small fragments of care-
fully dried cupric oxide. The end of the tube

where the boat is placed is connected with an
apparatus for transmitting air or oxygen, which
baa been purified from CO, by passing through
potash, and from H,0 by calcium chloride. To
the other end of the tube is attached, by a per-
forated cork, a weighed tube (b) filled with small
fragments of calcium chloride to absorb H,0, and
to this is joined by a caoutchouc tube a bulb appa-
ratus (o), oontuning strong potash to absorb CO^
and a small guard-tube (b) with calcium chloride
to prevent loaa of water from the potash. The
potash bulbs and guard-tube are accurately
weighed. The combustion-tube is supported in a
charcoal or gas furnace, and that portion which
oontains the cnpric oxide is heated to redness.
The end containing the boat is then gradually
heated, so that the organic substance is slowly
vaporised or decomposed. The vapour or the pro-
ducts of decomposition in passing over the red-
hot cnpric oxide will acquire the oxygen necessary
to oonrert the C into COj, and the H into H,0,
which are absorbed in the potash bulbs and cal-
cium chloride tube. At the end of the process.which
commonly occupies about an hour, a slow stream
of pure air or oxygen is passed through, whilst
the entire tube is red-hot, in order to bum any
charcoal which may remain in the boat, and to
carry forward all the CO, and H,0 into the
absorption apparatus. The weight of the CO, is
given by the increase in weight of the potash
bolba, and that of H,0 by that of the calcinm
-chloride."

The following calculation will serve to illos-
trate the manner in which the result is obtained
in an analysis of sugar. The figures are those of
a real experiment :

-Qoantity of sugar taken . . . 0-2375 grm.
Weight of potash bnlbs after ex-
periment 89-0565 „

Ditto ditto before experiment . 88'6910 „

Carbon dioxide = 0-3655 „
Weight of calcium chloride tnbe

after experiment .... 11-8025 „

Ditto ditto before experiment . 11*1660 „

Water

0-1876

0-3655 grm. CO, = 00997 grm. C.

0-1875 „ H,0 = 00153 „ H.
Hence in 100 gnus, sugar —

Carbon 4198

Hydrogen 6-48

Oxygen by difference . 51-59

100-00
8. Stiimation of Iht nitbookn. a. Several
methods are employed for this purpose, but the
only one of general application, and adapted to
the non-scientific operator, is that of Varrentrap
and Will, described under Quano. To ensure
correct results the caustic soda must be pure,
and the lime of good quality and well burnt. The
last, having beem properly slaked with a little
water, holduig the former in solution, the mixture
is thoroughly dried in an iron vessel, and then
heated to f uU redness in an earthen crucible. The
ignited mass is rubbed to powder in a warm dry
mortar, and either used at once or carefully pre-
served from the air. The best quantity of the
organic substance to operate on is, in this case,
about 10 g^., which must be dried and accurately
weighed with the usual precautions. Bodies very
rich in either nitrogen or hydrogen are best mixed
with about an equal weight of pure sugar before
triturating them with the soda-lime. The nitrogen
is weighed under the form of double chloride of
platinum and ammonium, dried at 212° F. This
salt contains 6-272% of nitrogen.

b. P^ligot has modified the preceding plan by
conducting the gaseous matter extricated during
the operation into a three-bulb tnbe charged with
a standard solution of sulphuric acid. This he
subsequently pours into a beaker glass, and after
tingeing it with a single drop of tincture of litmus,
he teste it with either a standard aqueous solution
of soda or one of lime in sweetened water, after
the common method of alkalimetry. The differ-
ence between the saturating power of the acid in
ite normal condition and after its exposure in the
condenser indicates the amount of ammonia
formed (see OuANo). Each grain of ammonia
oontains 0-82868 gr. of nitrogen.

0. (Sjeldahl't method.) This consists in
oxidising the substance with potassium perman-

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1198

OBQYIA ANTIQUA— OESELIjIC ACID

gaoate and sulpbnric acid, by which ammonium
■alphite ia produced. Boiling with an alkali
liberates the ammonia, which is then absorbed by
hydrochloric acid, and determined with standard
allcali or with platinio chloride.

Sfiimation of tike Sulpknr and PkoipAonu.
These are converted into Bulphnric and phosphoric
acids respectively by the action of strong oxidis-
ing agents, such as chloric and nitric acids,
bromine, &c. The acids are then determined by
the asoeJ methods.

Concluding Semark*. The saccesaful applica-
tion of the above processes reqnires considerable
care and some aptitnde in manipulating, as well
as the employment of a very delicate balance for
determining the weights. A greater error in the
weighings than the ^^ gr. cannot be tolerated
when exact results are desired. The method of
Varrentrap and Will for the determination of
nitrogen answers admirably for all organic com-
pounds containing it, except those in which it
exists ander the form of hyponitrous, nitrous, and
nitric acids ; for which, however, it is not re-
quired. When extreme accuracy is aimed at, the
atmospheric air in the apparatus, and that ab-
sorbed during the preliminary operations by the
substances employed, must be expelled before the
application of heat to the combustion-tube. See
Watxb, Asaltbib ov.

OBOTIA AITTianA, Hubnor. (From the Otreek
word to extend, as the moths extend their feet when
sitting—' British Moths,' Vetttijood.) Thb Cok-
KON Vapoubbb Mora. This moth is termed
■ Vaponrer ' for the reason that the male is con-
tinually darting about, always on the wing, flying
hither and thither evidently in search of the
female, which, like the female of the winter moth,
Cheimatobia irumala, is withont wings, and is
insignificant in appearance.

Although somewhat indiscriminate in its selec-
tion of food, and attacking many kinds of trees, it
appears to have a predilection for the RoBACiUi
and for the fruit trees of this order, especially
apple, pear, and plum trees, and it occasionuly does
much harm to these by eating their leaves. For-
tunately it is not very often that serious injury ia
caused by it. It is well, however, to give a short
sketch of its habits and history-
It is known in America. Harris speaks of it,
and Lintner also alludes to it. In Germany it is
injurious to fruit trees and other trees. lUaumur
describes it at length, and gives admirable illustra-
tions of it in all stages. He remarks that its
caterpillars live on the loaves of plum trees
(' Histoire des Insectes,' par M. de B^aumur,
tome i, p. 821).

Life Mittory. According to Westwood's classi-
fication tlie Orgyia antiqua belongs to the seventh
familj of the Lbfidoptsba, the Aretiida.

As has been mentioned above, the female moth
is wingless. It is of a dark ash colour, and is not
easily detected npon the trunks and branches of
trees which it inhabits. It comes from the pupa
state between July and September, and after
having paired it lays many eggs upon the web
within which the pupal stage was passed.

The male is a rather pretty insect, whose body
la seven lines in length, with a wing expanse of
fourteen or fifteen lines, and with antennn much

fringed or pectinated. In colour it is tawny or
chestnut, and has a white spot, by which it may
readily be identified, towards the end of each
fore- wing.

From this plain mother and vaponring aire
a most brilliant caterpillar is procreated, wUoh is
hatched from the egg in the spring, and imme-
diately proceeds to feed upon tlia foliage near
to it.

It ia twelve lines in length, the ground colour
is dark with red spots upon it, and there are four
long yellowish tufts upon its body at intervals,
and two dark-coloured tufts at its head and tul.
Bjanmnr calls these tufts grandee aigrettei de
pUtmee.

Prevention. After an attack upon fruit tree*
search should be made for the eggs npon the weha
placed upon the stem and branchea, and these
should be brushed off with stiff bmsbes. Hie
females also may be found upon the stems between
July and late in September, and may be eaaily
kiUed.

Semediet. Nothing but washing, or syringing,
can be suggested as remedial in this case, if
practicable.

Birds are very fond of the eggs of this moth.
They also eat numbers of the females, which are
an easy prey ('Beports on Insects Injurious to
Crops,' by Charles Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

Oa-HOLU'. [Ft.] This name is given to gold-
colonred brass or bronze, so finished off as to have
the appearance of gold, or of being gilt ; but it is
often applied in a more general sense. The French
more particularly excel in working in or-moln,
and the products of this branch of their industry
hold an important position in the art manufitc-
tures of France.

To give or-molu its richest appearance, "it is
not unfreqnently brightened up after ' dipping '
(that is, cleaning in acid) by means of a scratoi-
brush (a brush made of very fine brass wire), the
action of which helps to produce a very brilliant
gold-like surface. It is protected from tarnish
by the application of lacquer " ( Vre).

XJre says or-moIu contains mora copper and less
zinc than ordinary brass, and that although, in
many of its applications, the' colour is heightened
by means of a gold lacquer, in some cases the
true colour of the alloy is best preserved after it
has been properly developed by means of dilute
sulphuric acid.

OB'FIHEITT. Native yellow sulphide of arsenic.
The finest samples used by artists (golden orpi-
ment) come from Persia. See AbsbhiC (T^
sulphuret).

OB'aiB. Sgn. Obbib boot, Fi,OBXimsi b. j
Badix ibidis, L. The dried rhizome of Irit
Jlorentvta, pallida, and germanica. Sialogogne,
irritant, snbacrid, and errhine. Chiefly employed
to impart a violet- like odour to oils, tooth powder,
anufls, spirits, &c. ; and when cut into peoa to keep
open issues.

OBSE'BE'W. Dutch leaf-gold.

OBSEL'LIC ACID. Two compounds pass under
this name — a-OBaELi.ic acid and /S-gbsbixIO
ACID. They closely resemble each other, and are
obtained in a similar manner ; the fint from the
South American variety of Soeeella tinetoria, the
last from that grown at the Cape.

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OfiSBLLIMIC ACID— 08IEB

1199

OBSILLDTIC ACID. A componnd formed
along with picro-erythrin by boilin? erythric acid
for lome time with water. It is uao formed by
boiling a-oraellie acid with water. In both caaee.
if the ebullition b too long continned, the new
add is wholly or in part conrerted into orcin.

Prop., fe. Cryitalliaable j bitter ; nlnbie in
water J its aqneoni solution, by exposue to the
air, aaanmes a beantif ol purple coloor.

OKTEOCLASI. E^ PoTAgannc msPAS.
This material, which is a double silicate of potas-
sium and aluminium, enters into the composition
of many rocks, and is a common ingre^ent in
granite. It has the following composition: —
Silica, 6i-B parts ; alumina, 18-4 parts ; and potad,
10*8 parts. Fart of the potassiam is frequently
replaced by small quantities of calcium, magne-
sium, and sodium.

Orthodaae is used for glasing the finest va-
rieties of porcelain, a Tery intrase heat being
necesnury to effect its fusion in the porcelain
furnace. By the Chinese potters it is called
f»4mm-Ue. " The name ' orthoclase ' is generally
restricted to the snbtranalucent varieties, there
being many snbvarieties (founded on variations
of lustre, colour, and other differences), of which
the following are some of the principal, viz.
admlaria, a transparent or translucent felspar,
met with in granitic rocks (frequently in large
crystals); moonrlone; miuione i murehuomt*,
ttythrit«i glassy felspar or lanaditie, a transparent
vwiety found in volcanic rocks, containing 4% of
aoda m upwards " ( Ure).

OHTHOPSDIA. In luryety, the straightening,
correcting, or curing deformities of children. See

OSCIHIS VASTATOS, Curtis. Thb Fbit Flt.
This is a small fly, of the family Oicinidet, as
defined by Westwood, which works in a somewhat
nnUlar manner to the Cephut pygmcnu. Curtis
gives it the designation vtutator because of its
serious injories, and he considered it a far worse
enemy to cereal crops than the Cepbns or the
Ckloropt taftioput. He says that the ten or twelve
stalks of com he opened were iilled only with
powder at the base, every portion of the young
ear being consumed*; the destruction was com-
plete.

The larrte of this fly burrow within the stems
of cereal plants, and live upon their parenchyma
or internal tissues, and utterly prevent the deve-
lopment of the ears.

Serious injuries are often occasioned by this
insect in America, Frsnce, Germany, and Sweden.

Specimens of wheat plants were sent me from
Worcestershire in 1883 in the first week in June,
in which it was seen that the inner leaves or
Uades were yellow or light brown, and were mani-
festly dying. The farmer who sent these re-
ported tiiat many of the plants in the field from
which these were taken were similarly affected.
Upon searching a tiny yellowish maggot was dis-
covered at the lower part of the stem. The
blades were yellow or brownish at the tips, and
could be easily pulled away from the stem. It
was clear that in a short time the whole of the
stem would have been rendered unfruitful and
useless. Other affected plants were sent later on,
in which the larva of the Oscinis had completely

destroyed the nascent ear, and had left nothing
within the stems but a little dust.

1^6 Mistory. The perfect fly is greenish
black, with a somewhat shiny appearance. It
comes first at the beginning of May, and deposits
eggs upon the under side of the leaves. When
the larvn are hatched they make their way
speedily into the hearts of the stems. They are
whitish maggots. As the pupa have been found
in wheat stems in the middle of June, it is sup-
posed that there are two broods during the year,
and that the second brood agiun attack the wheat
plants or grasses.

Prevention. As it is believed that the pupcs
hibernate in the stems of wheat plants and grasses,
it is important that all stubble, weeds, and rub-
bish should be burnt or ploughed in deeply under
the soil (' Reports on Insects Injurious to Crops,'
by Charles Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

OBUB. The osier, which is a species of willow
{SaUx), and is largely used in the construction of
baskets and other wicker work, is extensively cul-
tivated at Nottingham and on the level lands of
Cambridgeslure and Huntingdonshire, as well as
on the banks of the Thames, Severn, and other
rivers. The small islands in these rivers, when
planted with osiers, are known as osier holtb.
But large as is the supply of shoots afforded by
the English osier beds, it is insufficient for home
consumption ; hence great quantities of osier rods
are imported into t£as country from Holland,
Belgium, and France. There are a great variety
of osiers, and it is found that those which have
been the most highly cultivated yield the toughest
and finest wood, and are best adapted for the
superior kinds of basket work. The branches of
the wilder and less domesticated kind are more
liable to break, and are used for making hoops
and coarse baskets. This last variety, which is
known as the COXKON obub (Salix viminalit),
grows on the alluvial grounds of Britain, and in
other European countries; it is often planted on
the banks of rivers to prevent their being washed

liie following are the principal varieties of
osier indigenous to this country, and which yield
the most valuable wood : — 1. Taa vaa babut
08IBB (SaUse Forbgana). 2. Thb obbbb-
LBAVBD OBi^, Or OBKABD {StUui rubra). 8.
Thb Sfakibk bod (Salix triandra). 4. Thb

eOLDBK OBIBB, Or GOLDBK WIIiLOW {SoUx
vitellina).

The osier requires plenty of water, and hence
it thrives best in those localities and low grounds
which are washed by a river. The soil best
adapted for it is a rich but not clayey one. In
planting an osier bed an important condition is
that the trees should be placed aufficientiy closely
together, since it is found that with too much
space the shoots do not develop into those long
and slender branches which are so much sought
after. The shoots are cut once a year, at any time
between the fall of the leaf and the rising of the
sap in spring. After being cut they are divided
into those destined for brown, and those for white
baskets. In the latter case the rods have to be
peeled, but as this operation cannot be performed
at once, and the removal of the bark would be
difficult were they allowed to dry, the shoots are

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OSMAZOME— OSMIUH

placed upright and anstained in that position in
wide shallonr trenches in about four inches of
water, where they are kept until they begin to
bud and blossom in the spring, which they do as
if they were attached to the parent plant. The
peeling is easily done by passing them through an
ingtroment known as a irealk. If the spring has
been a cold one, they have, previous to peeling,
to be Uid for some time under a layer of litter.

When they have been peeled they are stacked,
preparatory to being sold. With the rods in-
tended for brown baskets, no peeling is of course
necessary. They are therefore carefully stacked
in some place protected from the rain, and dili-
gently watched to see that no heat is set up in
them, as is sometimes the case with freshly
stacked hay, and which, if not stacked, would
cause the rods to rot and render them useless.

In England, besides the native produce, 6000
tons of osiers are annually imported, valued at
about £40,000. Of late years the Australian
colonists have turned their attention to the cul-
tivation of the osier, in the hopes of supplying
the demand for it in Gr«at Britain.

OS'KAZOKE. The substance on which the
peculiar odour and flavour of boiled meat and
broth are supposed to depend. Nothing ia really
known of its true nature.

Prtp. From lean meat, minced and digested
in cold water, with occasional pressure ; the fil-
tered infusion is gently evaporated nearly to dry-
ness, and then treated with alcohol ; the alcoholic
tinctxire is, lastly, evaporated. The product has
a brownish-yellow colour, is soluble in water, and
its aqueous solution may be precipitated by an
infusion of galls and the mineral astringent salts.

OS'KrUH. Os. A rare metal found associated
with the ores of platinum by M. Tennant, in
1803.

These ores contain an alloy of rhodium, oamium,
ruthenium, and iridium, together with platinum
and palladium. When they are treated with
aqua regia, the insoluble residue which reoudna
chiefly consists of the alloy. This alloy is also
found associated with native gold, and being very
heavy it accumulates at the bottom of the cru-
cible dnring the|melting operations. To separate
the osmium from the other metals, Fremy takes
advantage of its easy oxidability, and of the vola-
tility of its tetrozide.

In the first part of this process (which ia a
great improvement upon the methods previously
followed) the above residue or alloy is heated to
redness in a platinum or porcelain tube. In that
part of the tube which projects from the furnace
some fragments of porcelain are placed, and the
tube is connected with a series of glass flasks. In
which the tetrozide of osmium is condensed as it
distils over, any tetroxide that may have escaped
condensaUon bang retained by a solution of
caustic potash, placed in the last flask of the
series. This last flask is connected with an
aspirator, by means of which a current of ur is
dnwn through the apparatus.

Before being allowed to enter the heated tube
the air is dried by passing it through tubes filled
with pumice-stone moistened with snlphuric acid.
During the operation the osmium and ruthenium
become oxidised, the tetroxide of osmium con-

denses in needles in the flasks, and mechatiically
carries forward the oxide of ruthenium, which is
deposited upon the pieces of porcelain. The va-
pours of tetroxide of osmium are very dangerous
to the eyes.

Prep. 1. By treating the volatile tetroxide of
osmium obtained by Fremy's method, as above de-
scribed, with hydrochloric acid and metallic mer-
cury in a closed vessel at 140^ C. The mercurous
oxide, which is first formed at the expense of the
oxygen contained in the tetroxide of osmium, is de-
composed by the hydrochloric acid, and calomel is
produced, together with metallic osmium. The
water and excess of acid are removed by evapora-
tion to dryness, and on heating the residue in a
small porcelain retort the excess of mercury and
calomel is drawn off, pure osmium, being left be-
hind in the form of a fine powder.

2. Deville and Debray procure it in the metaUic
form by passing the tetroxide of osmium in a cur-
rent of nitrogen, over carbon which has been ob-
tained from the vapour of benzine by passing it
through a porcelain tube at a high temperature.

Prop. Crystalline in cubes or obtuse rhombo-
hedra, of a bluish-white colour with violet lustre,
and harder than glass. The spedfic gravity of
osmium in the pulverulent form is about 10 ; but
after having been heated to the fusing-point of
rhodium in the oxyhydrogen jet, it acquires a
density of 21-4, and in the crystalline state it has
a sp. gr. of 22*477. Osmium has not yet been
fused.

There are five known oxides of osmium :

1. Oamiiui Fnrtoilde. OsO. The anhydrous
protoxide is of a greyish-black colour. It is in-
soluble in acids ; is obtained from the correspond-
ing sulphite ig^ted with sodium carbonat« in a
current of CO,. Its bluish -black hydrate, which
dissolves in hydrochloric acid, forms a solution of
osmium dichloride of a deep indigo-blue colour.
The solution absorbs oxygen readily, and becomes
converted into the tetrachloride (OsCl^).

2. Osmium Sesquiozide. OsgO,. Black pow-
der, insoluble in acids, obtained by heating its
salts with carbonate of soda in a current of CO,. Of
its salts, the osmic chloride of potassium and
ammonium have been most accurately examined.

3. Osmium Dioxide. OsO,. This is dark-
coloured, but has a coppery lustre ; it is obtained
from its salts like the foregoing oxides.

4. Osmium Tetrozide. St/n. Osmc acid,
Obxic abhysbisb. OsO,. This oxide may be
obtuned by operating, according to Fremy's pro-
cess, on the ores of platinum, as already described.
It is also formed when metallic osmium is heated
with potassic nitrate, or roasted in air. It era-
talliaes in colourless, transparont, flexible needlM,
which fuse easily, and dissolve readily in water.
Its aqueous solution, however, does not redden
litmus. Tetroxide of osmium is converted into
vapour at about 100° C. The fumes are excessively
irritating and dangerous, and have an odour some-
what like that of chlorine. As an antidote to the
etteots of osmic acid Clans recommends the
cautious inhalation of sulphuretted hydrogen.
This oxide unites with alkalies, but not with acids.
It is given off as tetroxide when the alkaline
solution which contains it is boiled. If applied to
the skin this oxide becomes partially reduced.

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OSTEOCOLLA— OTIORYNCHUS PIC1PE8

1201

canain^ a piunful ernption, and imparting a per-
manent black coloor to the skin, doe to the de-
poiition of metallic oemium. With tincture of galla
its Rolntiona give a distinctive bine precipitate.

There are four chlorides of osmium, the best
known of which are the dichloride and the tetra-
chloride, which are formed by direct combination.

1. dsminm SleUorlde. OsCl, Si/n. Oavioua

DICELOBISB, OSMIUK PBOTOOHLOBIBS. This is

green, and sublimes in green needles, which give
a blue eolation with water. It may be obtained
by heating metallic osmium in a current of dry
chlorine gas. It forms double salts, which are cdF
a green colour.

2. Ouninm Tetrachloride. OsCl^. 8gn. Obxio

TtfrBAOHIOBISB, OSlIIinf BIOHLOBIDB. This

may be procured in the same manner as the dichlo-
ride, u^g, however, an excess of chlorine. It
ocean ai a red, crystalline, fusible, deliquescent
powder, Vkich yields a yellow solution with
water. It is more volatile than the dichloride.

OSTEOCOIi'LA. A rough sort of glue or gelatin
obtained from bones by digestion in dilute hydro-
chloric acid, to remove their earthy matter, and
afterwards acting on the residuum with water at
a high temperature, until it is wholly dissolved.
- OTAIi'OIA. Pain in the ear. See EiBAOHB.

OTHTL. In chemutiy, a radical having the
formula C^,0, assumed by Professor Williunson
to exist in acetic acid.

OTIOSTnCHnS FICIPSS, Curtis. Tkb Ba8F-
BBBBT WbxtUi. Thh is one of a genus of
weevils which prey upon cultivated crops, npon
fruit trees, fruit bushes, com, turnips, and other
planta. Curtis calls this the pitchy-legged
weevil and the night-feeding weevil, and speaks
of its injury to many plants, and especially to
nupberry canes. This has been, unfortunately,
the experience of many fruit-growers in parts of
Kent, Worcester, Bedfordshire, and Gloncester-
■hire, and other places, who have made loud
complaintB of much damage to this fruit. In
aome instances even the bark, or thin tissue-like
oater rind or cntiele of the cane has been eaten
sway in patches, so that an escape of sap was
occanoned, wlule the leaves were pierced or
bitten through in many holes. But the main and
preferred subjects of the attack of this weevil
are the fruit blossoms and the embryonic fruit-
bods.

Raspberry culture is important and increasing
in many districts, aa it is profitable and not
materially affected by foreign competition, and
cnltivators of this fruit were therafore rather
alarmed at the onslaughts of this unknown foe.
A foe unknown because the weevil feeds only at
night, and remains concealed in the earth during
the day. By watching the canes closely in the
late eventide it was discovered that troops of
' little brown bugs ' came forth from under the
clods and stones around the canes, and swarmed
np to these to feed npon the juices of their tender
leaves and buds, just at a period when they are
very full of sap and succulence and when pnnc-
tnres and suctiona by numeroua snouts are calcu-
lated to do infinite mischief.

In a large raspberry plantation in Kent, npon
a light ' stone-shattery ' soil, serious harm ac-
emed to young raspbwiy canes in their sMond
TOik n.

year. Again, near Evesham, npon rather heavy
land, though friable and in good cnltivation,
considerable damage was done to canes in their
fourth season. Ae no invaders were ever seen,
the evil was put down to flea beetles, to some
species of the genus Saltiea, by the labourers
who knew that hop plants and turnip plants are
constantly and seriously ravaged by these insects
in a somewhat similar manner. Closer observa-
tion showed that the injury was different, and
after a while the Otiorj/nehtu pieipeg was seen
by the light of a lantern in the very act of feed-
ing upon the buds.

On the 24th May, 1886, at the time this was
written, a lamentation concerning the action of
this weevil upon raspberry canes has come ui
from a large fruit producer in Kent, whose land
is a clay loam of medium texture upon the
London clay beds overlying the chalk. Thia
oorreapondent stated that they were more common
in some fields than in others, and that if they
were present in one season they nearly always
came again in greater numbers the next.

Grave complaints of harm occasioned to rasp-
berry canes have been made from time to time
by growers in Cornwall, whose soil, or that npon
which fruit is produced, appears to be favourable
to the spread of the weevil.

This weevil also attacks blackberry canes in a
similar manner. Blackberries are grown to some
extent for market, and their culture is increaa-
ing, as they make admirable jam, alone or mixed
with apples. A large prolific species has been
introduced from the United States, where they
are largely cultivated.

Near Ightham, in Kent, where cobnuts of the
finest quality are grown, considerable injury was
caused to the nut trees by insects biting tiie
small twigs or spurs upon which the bunches of
nuts are formed. Some of these were captured
and found to be the raspberry weevil, Otiorj/nchm
pieift*.

At Hunton, also in Kent, where fruit trees of
all kinds flourish exceedingly, it was reported
that 'little bugs' were biting the red currant
fruit-bearing spurs and those of the filbert trees,
thus doing senous damage. These little bugs
were OUotyucM.

It is also not unfrequently found upon apple
blossoms and leaves, whose juice it exhausts in
the same manner as those of the raspberry and
blackberry canes.

XAfe Rittory. The raspberry weevil belongs
to the extensive family of Curculionida, and to
the genus Otiorgnch**, comprising a number of
species.

It is a very small insect, hardly three lines —
the fourth of an inch — in length, having a short
rostrum or snout, somewhat dilated, or spatnlate
— spoon-like — at the extremify, with lobes of an
ear-like shape at both ends of the snout, and the
under lip a little projecting. In colour it is
light brown, and is on this account difficult to
distinguish in a clayey soil. Upon its back there
are spots and lines of a dark colour, and the ends
of iia six feet are black, from which its name of
pioipe* is derived. Like all the species of the
genus it is without wings, though it has elytia m
wing-eases.

76

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OTIOEYNCHUS SULCATUS

A great p&rt of its existence is passed in the
ground. It spends the day there daring the
period of its weevil form, and only comes forth
at Digfat to search for food. When it is dis-
covered in its subterranean retreat it remains
perfectly motionless, with legs folded up, coun-
terfeiting death, nfter the crafty manner of
many of the CttrcuUonida.

Towards the end of the summer, when food
grows scarce, the weevil lays eggs in the ground.
From these in a short time whitish grubs are
produced, legless, rather elongated, having brown
heads. They feed for some time upon the roots
of the planto whose leaves and buds their weevil
progenitors have destroyed, and put on the pupal
form upon the advent of spring, appearing as
perfect weevils about the beginning of May.

^rtveniion. After an attack upon raspberry
and blackberry canes, hot or quick lime, or lime
ashes, or pure soot, should be put thickly round
the canes in the autumn and dug in. Another
good dressing of caustic substance may be given
again in March, and well hoed in with prong-
hoes directly the soil is dry enough. The clods
should be well knocked about and pulverised.
All stones, rubbish, and weeds should be re-
moved.

Semedie*. It has been found to be of some
service to send labourers out at night having
tarred boards which they hold on either side of
the rows of canes, while the canes are shaken
violently, in order to dislodge the weevils and
precipitate them into the tar. They stick fast in
this, and many are killed thus, just as in the hop
plantations the jumpers, Muacanthiu intermpttu,
are trapped and slain. But these beetles are
very wide aw»ke, and fall to the ground on the
slightest suspicion of danger and the first glim-
mer of a liglit. It is better, therefore, not to take
lanterns in these expeditions.

Knowing that these enemies are but a little
way under the ground during the day, it is easy
to make raids upon them while they are napping.
This may be done by chopping round the plants
with prong-hoes put in deeply and smartly, and
by applying at the same time mixtures of a
caustic character or of a pungent odour. Fine
earth, or dry ashes, or sawdust, or sand, satu-
rated with a solution of carbolic acid in the pro-
portion of about a pint to a bushel of either of
the above media, might be used with great ad-
vantage.

Or a pint and a half of paraffin oil to a bushel
of either of these would be equally efficacious in
routing the weevils by making their headquar-
ters unbearable.

Water containing three quarters of a pint of
carbolic acid or a pint and a half of paraffin oil to
ten gallons of water would have the same result.
This might be put round the plants with garden
engines, care being taken to direct the hose
steadily and not too near the plants.

It need hardly be said that this operation
would require great accuracy in making the mix-
ture as well as in applying it.

Curtis speaks of natural enemies of this weevil
in the shape of insects known commonly as sand
wasps, of the order Hyhenoptbba, the family
OriUironida, and genus Cercerit. These are

like the common wasp, Veipa vulgarit, in colour,
but have longer though narrower bodies, and a
larger wing expanse. They make nests in sand-
banks, gravel-pits, and other places, and carry
home enormous quantities of weevils, especially
those of the OtioiyneAu* pieipet, Otiorgneku*
mleat^it, and the BaUniint* nucum, for their
young to feed upon (' Reports on Insects In-
jurious to Crops,'' by Chas. Whitehead, Esq.,
F.Z.S.).

OTIOBYirCHUS SULCATUS, Fabricina (from
two Qreek words signifying ear-snouted). Th(
Stbavtbesbt Wbevil. Strawberry plants often
suffer considerably from this insect in its perfect
state, as well as from its grubs or larvie ; though
it by no means limits its attention to these plants,
but also injures vines, raspberry and bla^betxy
canes, and various plants and flowers.

The operations of this weevil, like thooe of
many other insects, are very frequently nnsus-
pected, and its effects are attributed to other
causes. All who have strawberry plants obviously
failing from root affection or attack should closely
examine their roots; while if the mnnera are
bitten through or the young blossoms nipped in
the bud careful watch should be set to discover
the origin of the evil. In the former case investi-
gation will in all probability show that grabs are
working hard among the roots, g^wing tbem
with their horny jaws, and living on their succu-
lent parts ; while in the latter case a patient and
discreet look-out will prove that weevils fastten
upon the plants in the stilly night.

There is no doubt that this weevil preys upon
raspberry and blackberry plants in the same
manner as its congener of the pitchy legs, which
is described under O. picipet, but not to the
same extent, as it evidently prefers strawberry
plants if it can get them.

This weevil, as well as the OliofyueimM pieipat,
is known and dreaded in France and Germany as
destructive to vines, strawberry, raspberry, and
blackberry plants, to root crops, and to cultivated
flowers. It is not known in America — at least
Harris, Fitch, Lintner, Saunders, and other ento-
mologists do not mention it.

Ltfe Hittory. The strawberry weevil is of the
family Cwreuliomda and the genus Otiorifnekiu.
It is wingless, and rather longer than the rasp-
berry weevil, or a little more than four lines, the
third of an inch long. In colour it is dark, nearly
black, and its six legs are clear-coloured and long.
Its rostrum is short and stout, with a deep wide
furrow, from which it derives its affix auleaUu,
furrowed or grooved. Egg^s are laid in the earth
in the summer, from which grubs are speedily
hatched. These are white, or of a dightly
creamy-white hue, hiury, legless, and a little
larger than the gmbsofOtiorynciiuptetpss. They
feed upon the roots of various plants, their trans-
formation taking place in the first spring days,
BO that the weevils are fully grown and ready to
seize upon the early leaves and buds directly they
appear.

PreentHo*. A practice prevails of putting
short straw or farmyard or stable manure be-
tween and under strawberry plants. This shonM
not be done, as weevils of all kinds are nndoiabt-
edly encouraged, and capital shelter is tfasa

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OTIOBYNCHUS TENEBRICOSUS— OX

ISOS

dSorded them. Qood cultivation is most essen-
tia], both by digging and hoeing in spring and
aatnmn, to disturb them, and to prevent them
from egg-laying near fruit plants. Caustic sub-
stances should also be put on, and other applica-
tions, as suggested under O. picipm, to make
tbdr homes obnoxious to them.

When these weerils attack raspberry and black-
berry canes the same measures of prevention
should he adopted as recommended in respect of
the raspberry weevil.

Smnedut. Having discovered that the afFec-
tion of the strawberry plants is due to weevils, the
soil all round the plants should be forked deeply,
and at the same time as delicately as possible, so
as not to interfere with the blossom and the form-
ing tmit. The earlier the weevils are detected
the easier it will be to rout them by cultivation,
by forking close round the plants, and by digging
or horse-hoeing between the rows, and it may be
by patting lime on if the attack be very bad.
Strong-smelling remedies, such as paraffin-satu-
rated earth or sawdust, would obviously be out of
the question in the case of strawberry plants
(' Beports on Insects Injurious to Crops,' by Chas.
Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

OnOBTHCHUS TEHEBBIC0STT8. Teb Bsd-
LieosD Oabdin WibviIi. This is another
tgoaea of the same genus of weevils, whose habits
are exactly similar to thoso of the weevil which
have already been described. It feeds upon many
of the same plants, and the same modes of pre-
cantion and the same remedies should be adopted
to check it. Strawberry plants are frequently
much infested by it, whose leaves it pierces in
innnmemblc holes. It also bites the runners and
blossom-bearing joints.

It is about the same size as the Otiorynchtu
tuleatuM, shiny black in colour, with reddish legs.
Stephens says that it is slightly variable in colour,
bwng sometimes of a reddish black, 'rnfo-piceous.'
This is probably the result of immaturity, Ste-
phens adds (' Illustrations of British Entomology
—Mandtbulata; by J. F. Stephens).

Moles are extremely fond of the grubs of this
insect. It was observed that these animals were
making ' heaves ' in a strawberry-field, as it ap-
peared, from mere wantonness. Some of the
strawberry plants were dying, and the blossoms,
just changing into fruit, were withering upon
many. Upon searching it was discovered that
at the roots and in the roots of the plants there
were many grubs of this weevil, as well as many
of the perf^ insects, in the first week of June
(' Beponts on Insects Injurious to Crops,' by Chas.
Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

OTTO OP B0SE8. See Oils (Volatile).

OTALBTJ'HXV. White of egg ; to distinguish
it from seralbumen, or the albumen of the serum
ot the blood.

(rVEB'S. A very ingenious and useful improve-
ment in the apparatus for baking was intrt^uced
some years ago by Mr Sclater, of Carlisle. It
connsts in causing the articles to be baked to
traveiM a heated earthenware tube. This tube
forms the oven. It is of considerable length,
and the biscnits or other articles are slowly
traversed through it, from end to end, at such a
rate as will allow of the baking being completed

daring the passage. The biscidts are carried on
trays, set on travelling chains ; or the trays are
made into an endless web or chun. The oven is
thus entirely self-acting, and the articles demand
no attention whatever from the attendants, whilst
the system combines superior economy with the
best results. A ' pyrometer,' or heat indicator, ig
attached externally, so that the attendant can
regulate the heat with great facility. The object
of these improvements is to reduce the cost of
baking, and to improve the appearance of the
baked articles. The apparatus is applicable as
well to the baking of articles of clay or earthen-
ware as to bread or biscuits.

Of the ovens now in common use by the bakers,
that known as the ' hot- water oven ' is perhaps
tbe best ; not merely in reference to economy, but
also with reference to its superior cleanliness, and
the ease with which the articles operated on may
be turned out of that delicate yellowish-browu
tint for which the broad of the Viennese and
Parisian bakers is so celebrated. See BaxtsS,
Bbs.ii>, Ac

OWHEB. For the purposes of the Public Health
Act this term is thus defined : — " ' Owner ' means
the person for the time being receiving the rack-
rent of the lands or premises in connection with
which the word is used, whether on his own
acconnt, or as agent or trustee for any other person,
or who would so receive the same if such lauds or
premises were let at a rack-rent."

OZ. Tbe Sot launu, Linn., one ot the BvKl-
NAHTIA. In its more limited sense the word is
restricted to the emasculated animal. The flesh,
milk, skin, horns, hones, and blood of this animal
are all serviceable to man. Qoldbeater'g skin is
prepared from the peritoneal membrane of its
cfficum. Its blood, fat, horns, and excrement
were among the simples of the Ph. L., 1618. Seo
Bbev, Gall, Milk, and below.

Oz-gall. 8gn. Ox-BiLB; Fbl BOTimrM, F.
B0TI8, F. TAVBI, L. Crude ox-gall is noticed under
Oall. Befined ox-gall (Fel bovinum pvr^atum)
is prepared as under :

1. Fresh ox-gall is allowed to repose for 12 or
15 hours, after which the clear portion is decanted,
and evaporated to the consistence of a thick syrup
by the heat of a water-bath ; it is then spread
thinly on a dish, and exposed in a warm situation
near the fire, or to a current of dry Mr, until
nearly diy; it is, lastly, put into wide-mouthed
botUes or pots, and carefully tied over with
bladder. In this state it will keep for years in a
cool situation. For use a little is dissolved in water.

2. Fresh gall, 1 pint; boil, skim, add powdered
alum, 1 OZ. ; boil again till the alum is dissolved,
and when sufficiently cool pour it into a bottle,
and loosely cork it down. In a similar manner
boil and skim another pint of gall, add to it 1 oz.
of common salt, and again boil, cool, and bottle it,
as above. In three months decant the clear from
both bottles, and mix them in equal quantities;
the clear portion must then be separated from the
coagulum by subsidence or filtration.

Vkes, (fo- Both the above are employed by
artists to fix chalk and pencil drawings before
tinting them, and to remove the greasiness from
ivory, tracing-paper, Ac. The first is also used in
medicine.

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OXALATE— OXALIC ACID

OX'ALATE. 8j/n. Ozalab, L. A salt of oxalic
acid. The soluble oxalates are easily formed hy
directly neutralising a solution of oxalic acid wiw '
a metallic hydrate, carbonate, or oxide j and the
insoluble oxalates by double decomposition. See
OxALio Acid and the respective bases.

OXALIC ACID. HgCjOf. Syn. Acisinc OXA-
LICITII, L. ' Essential salt of lemons.' This
substuice was discovered by Bergman in 1776.
It occurs both in the mineral and organic king-
doms, and is produced artiScially by the action of
nitric acid on sugar, starch, woody fibre, Ac. It
abounds in wood-sorrel and other plants, in which
it exists in combination with potassium or
calcium. With few exceptions all starchy and
saccharine substances yield oxalic acid when
treated with nitric acid at a somewhat elevated
temperature or by fusion with caustic alkalies.

Prep. 1. From sugar :

a. Kitric acid (sp. gr, 1'42), 6 parts, cUluted
with wafaar, 10 parts, is poured on sugar, 1 part,
and the mixture is digested at a gentle heat as
long ns gaseous products are evolved ; the liquid
is then concentrated by evaporation until it
deposits crystals on cooling ; the crystals, after
being drained and freed from supertfuons mois-
ture, are redissolved in the smallest possible
quantity of boiling water, and the solution is set
aside to crystallise. The residuary ' mother-
water ' is treated with a little fresh nitric acid
(say 1} parts) at a gentle heat, after which it is
evaporated, as before, for a second crop of
crystals. This process is repeated until the solu-
tion is exhausted. The brownish-coloured crystals
thus obtained are allowed to effloresce by exposure
to diy air, and are then redissolved and recrystal-
lised. By repeating this treatment they yield pure
colourless oxalic acid at the third crystallisation.

b. {SohUtinger.) Sugar (dried at 267° F.),
4 parts, and nitric acid (sp. gr. 1*38), 33 parts,
are digested together, as before ; and as soon as
the evolution of gas ceases the liquid is boiled
down to one sixth of its original volume, and set
■side to crystallise. The whole process may be
completed in about 2 hours, and in one vpssel, and
yields of beautifully crystallised oxalic acid, at
the first crystallisation, a quantity equal to 56%
to 60% of the weight of the sugar employed.

o. ( Ure.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1'4), 4 parts, and
sugar, 1 part, are' digested together over a water-
bath, and as soon as gas ceases to be evolved the
vessel is removed from the bath, and set aside to
cool and crystallise. The use of a little sulphuric
acid along with the nitric acid contributes to in-
crease the prodnct.

2. From POTATO- or DaZTBnr-BVeAB. {Nyren.)
From the washed pulp of potatoes, boiled for
some hours with water in a leaden vessel, with
about 2% of oil of vitriol, until the f ecula of the
pulp is converted into aacchaiine matter, shown
by the liquid being no longer turned blue by
iodine ; the whole is then filtered through horse-
hair bags or strainers, and the filtrate is evapo-
rated until its density is such that a gallon of it
weighs 14 to 14} lbs. ; in this state it is converted
into oxalic a<ud by treatment with nitric acid
in the way already described. A similar process
was patented gome years ago by Messrs Davy,
Hacmurdo, and Co.

8. From bawsvbt :

(Bobertt, Dais, l[ Co.'t patent.) This process
is the one now usually employed for the manu*
&ctoTe of oxalic acid on the large scale. It is
based on Gay-Lussac's discovery that wood and
similar substances are converted into o'^alic acid
by fusion with caustic alkali. The practical de-
tails of the process are thus given by Dr Hurray
Thomson, of Edinburgh : — (1) Hydrate of sodium
and hydrate of potassium, mixed in the propor-
tion of 2 equivalents of the former to 1 equiva-
lent of the latter, are dissolved, and the solution
evaporated until of specific gravity 185 ; sawdust
is now stirred in until a thick paste results. (2)
This paste is then heated on iron plates, during
which it is constantly stirred ; water is first given
off ; the mass then swells ; infiammable gases, hy-
drogen, and carburetted hydrogen are evolved,
along with a peculiar aromatic odour. When the
temperature has been maintained at 400^ for one
or two hours this stage of the process is complete.
The mass has now a dark colour, and contains
only 1% to 4% of oxalic acid, and about 0*6%
of formic acid. The bulk, therefore, of the mass
at this stage consists of a substance whose nature
is not yet known, but which is intermediate
between the cellulose of the sawdust and oxalic
acid, (S) The next stage consists in a simple
extension of the last, in which the mass is heated
till quite dry, care being taken that no charring
takes place. It now contains the maximum quan-
tity of oxalic acid, 28% to 30% . (4) This oxalic
acid now exists as oxalate of potassium and sodium
in the grey powder resulting from stage 3. This
powder is now washed on a filter with solution of
carbonate of sodium, which seems to have the sin-
gular and unexpected power of decomposing the
oxalate of potassium, and converting it into oxalate
of sodium. At all events, it is quite true that all
traces of potash are washed out with the solution
of carbonate of sodium. The only explanation
that occurs to account for this unusual decompo-
sition is that oxalate of sodium is a more insoluble
salt than oxalate of potassium, and therefore may
bo formed by preference. (5) This oxalate of
sodium is now decomposed by boiling milk of lime.
Oxalate of calcium falls as a precipitate, and soda
remains in solution. The soda is boiled down,
and Hgain made use of with fresh sawdust. This
recovery of alkali is also practised with the potas-
sium salt which filters through in the last stage.
(6) The oxalate of calcium is now decomposed in
leaden vessels with sulphuric acid. Sulphate of
calcium is precipitated, and oxalic acid forms in
solution, which is now evaporated ; the acid sepa-
rates in crystals, which now need only to be re-
crystallised to make them quite pure, and fit the
acid for all the purposes for which it is employed.
By this process 2 lbs. of sawdust are made to yield
1 lb. of oxalic acid.

Prop., ^e. Colourless, transparent, prismatic
crystals, possessing a powerful, sour taste and
acid reaction ; these effloresce in warm dry air,
with loss of 28% (2 eq.) of water, and then team
a white powder, which may be sublimed in part
without decomposition ; the crystals are soluble in
9 parts of cold water, in their own weight or less
of boiling water, and in about 4 parts of alcohol ;
with the acids it forms salts called oxalates.

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OXALURU

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^ Tut*. 1. Solation of chloride of barinm occa-
dons a white precipitate in neutral Bolationa of
oxalic acid (oxaUtoa), which ii aoluhle in both
nitric and hydrochloric acid. 2. Solation of
nitrate of silver, under like circumatances, gives
a white precipitate, which is soluble in nitric
add and in ammonia, and which, when heated to
redness, yields pure silver. 3. Lime-water and
solutions of all the soluble salts of calcium pro-
duce white precipitates, even in highly dilute so-
lutions of oxalic acid or of the oxalates, which are
freely soluble in both nitric and hydrochloric
add, but are nearly insoluble in either acetic or
oxalic add, and are converted into carbonate of
calcium upon ignition. 4. Oxalic acid (or an
oxalate), when heated, in the dry state, with oil
of vitriol in excess, is converted into carbonic an-
hydride and carbonic oxide; the former produces
m white precipitate with lime-water, and the latter,
when Iciudled, burns with a faint blue flame. Of
the above tests solution of sulphate of calcium
(mde No. 8) is the most delicate and characteristic.
6. It is distinguished from Epsom salt by its acid
rekction, its solubility in recti6ed spirit, its com-
plete dissipation by heat, and by emitting a slight
enckling noise during its solution in water. See
ILkQvaaiA. (Sulphate).

U*e$, Poi*^ i^e. Oxalic acid is chiefly used in
the arts of dyeing, calico printing, and bleaching ;
to remove ink-spots and ironmonlds from linen,
and to clean boot-tops and brass. It is extremely
pinsononi. The treatment, in cases of its having
been swallowed, is to promote vomiting, and to
administer chalk, whiting, or magnesia, mixed up
with water, in considerable quantities. The use
of the alkalies or their carbonates must be avoided,
•■ the compounds which these form with oxalic
add are nearly as poisonons as the acid itself.
The remuning treatment is noticed under Acids.
In poisoning by oxalic acid the nervous system is
•Imost always affected, and the patients expe-
rieDce numbness, formication of the extremities,
and sometimes convulsions, so that the symptoms
•omewhat approach those produced by strychnia,
from which it is distinguished by its corrosive
action on the tissues, and its efFect upon the heart
and drcnlatory system.

Concluding Remarkt. The mannfactore of
oxalic acid is an important one, and the pro-
cess of Roberts, Dale, and Co. has so cheapened
the price that more than half the amount of
oxalic add used all over the world is now made
from sawdust. In manufacturing the acid from
•agar, on the large scale, the first part of the
pcoeen is either conducted in salt-glazed stone-
ware pipkins of the capacity of 3 to 5 quarts each
(which are about two thii^s fllled and set in a
water-hath), or in wooden troughs lined with lead,
and heated by means of a coil of steam-pipe. On
the naall scale, a glass retort or capsule is com-
monly employed.' The most appropriate temper*-
tare appears to be about 125 F., and the best
evidence of the satbfactory progress of the decom-
pontion is the free but not violent evolution of
gas, without the appearance of dense red fumes,
or, at all events, any marked quantity of them.
When these are disengaged with violence and
rapidity, a greater quantity of the newly formed
•ad aaffera decomposition, and flies off in a gaseous

form. The sp. gr. of the nitric acid commonly
used on the largw scale ranges from 1-22 to 1-27,
equivalent quantities being taken. The evapora-
tion is preferably conducted by the heat of ateam.
The evolved nitrous vapours are usually allowed
to escape, but this loss may be in part avoided by
conveying them into a chamber filled with cold
damp air, and containing a little water, when they
will absorb oxygen, and be recondenaed into
fuming nitric acid. Various modifications of
this plan have been patented. That of Messrs
McDoug^ll and Kawaon, which is one of the
simplest and best, consists in passing the mixed
nitrous fumes through a series of vessels contein-
ing water, and connected together by tubes, so
that the fumes which collect at the top of one
vessel are conveyed to nearly tlie bottom of the
next one, and then, bubbling up through the water,
mix with air, a supply of which is provided for
the purpose. The nitrous fumes are thus brought
alternately into contact with air and water, and
by the time they reach the lasc vessel are recon-
verted into nitric acid. Another plan ia to paas
the mixed nitrous vapours through a vessel stuffed
with some porous substance such as pumice-stone
or pounded glass, conjointly with a supply of
steam from a bdler and a supply of oxygen by a
blowing machine.

The products obtained by skilful manipulation
are— from good dry angar, 128% ; from good
treacle, 107% . " One cwt. of good treacle will
yield about 116 lbs. of marketable oxalic acid, and
the same weight of good brown sugar may be
calculated to produce about 140 Iba. of acid." "As
a general mle, 6 cwt. of saltpetre, or an equivalent
of nitrate of soda, with 2t cwt. of sulphuric acid,
will generate sufficient nitric add to decompose
1 cwt. of good sugar, and yield, as above, 140 lbs.
of fair marketable oxalic acid, free from super-
flnons moisture" (Ura). On the small scale, 6
parte of sugar yidd nearly 6 parte of crystallised
acid.

Chemically pure oxalic acid is best prepared by
precipiteting a solution of binoxalate of potassium
with a solution of acetate of lead, washing the
precipitete with water, decomposing it, whilat
still moist, with dilute sulphuric acid or 8ul>
phnretted hydrogen, and gently evaporating the
filtrate so that crystals may form as it cools.

OXALURIA. Also known as the oxalic add
diathesis. An abnormal condition of the system,
marked by the presence in the urine of crystals of
oxalate of lime. The crystals occur aa minute
transparent octahedra, and sometimes in the form
of dumb-bells. They can he easily recognised
under a microscope with a power of from 200 to-
250 diameters, when they present a very beautiful
appearance. They differ from phosphatic deposits
in being insoluble in acetic acid. Their presence
is mostly indicated by the appearance in the urine
of a cloud of mucus, which forms after the uriue
has stood some little time.

Oxalnria most generally aflecte persons of dys<
peptic and sedentary habits and of nervous tem-
perament ; those suffering from skin affections and
neuralgia are alao occaaionally attacked by it. In
ordinary caaes the treatment consiste iii the
administration of the nitro-hydrochloric acid in
infusion of gentian two or three times a day, or

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OXIDATION— OXTOEN

of a conne of quinine and iron, aided by plenty
of exercise in the open air, care beings taken to
aroid fatigue. If it can be borne, the shower-bath
should also be had recourse to. Rhubarb tarts
and tomatoes, which contain oxalic acid, must be
excluded from the diet ; so also should aerated
water and too much sugar.

If after a short time the oxaUtei should not
disappear from the urine under this treatment,
the patient should seek proper medical advice ;
since the persistent presence of this deposit is of
very serious significance, as indicating the exist-
ence in the bladder of that dangerons form of
urinary concretion known as ' mulberry calculus.'

OXISA'TIOH'. The combination of bodies with
oxygen, forming oxides ; the operation or process
ndopted to induce or facilitate such conversion.
Some familiar examples of oxidation are the
tarnishing of metals in air, the drying of <nls in
paints, the formation of vinegar from alcohol, the
respiration of animals, and combustion.

OZ'ISE. Sgn. OzYD ; Ozroux, li. A com-
ound formed by the union of oxygen with another

OZTC!HL0"ItI])E. S^. Oziohlobidb; Ozy-
CHiOBlDUir, L. A term often loosely applied to
compounds of an oxide and chloride, whether in
definite or variable proportions. See Ahtikoht
(Oxychloride), &c.

OZTCKATE. Sifn. Oxyobatuk, L. The
old name of a mixture of vinegar and water, dul-
cified with honey,

OXTCRO'CIiTrH. See PLAgmB.

OXTGEH. O. SgH. OxTGBir OAS, Db-

CHIiOaiBTIOATBD AIBf, EXPYBBAI. A., VlTAL A.f ;

OxYOENiuit, L, An elementary body discovered
independently by Scheele and Priestley in 1774.
It is remarkable that, although this substance
forms a large proportion of our atmosphere (nearly
one fourth), and confers upon it the power of
supporting respiration and combustion, and also
constitutes the principal portion of the water of
oar rivers and sens (eight ninths), and enters
largely into the composition of the majority of
the vnrious mineral bodies that form the bulk of
our globe, its existence should have remained un-
suspected, or at least nndetormined, until a com-
paratively recent dato. Oxygen is an essential
constituent of all living organisms. It is absorbed
by animals during respiration, and evolved in a
free stato by growing vegetables when exposed to
sunlight. The oxygon gas of the atmosphere is
mechanically mixed, not chemically combined,
with the nitrogen.

Frep. 1. From red oxide of mercury, heated
over a spirit lamp or a few pieces of ignited char-
coal. The operation is usually performed in a
small green glass retort, or in a short tube of hard
Bohemian glass, closed with a perforated cork
famished with a piece of bent glass tube of small
bore, to convey the liberated gas to the vessel
arranged over a pneumatic trough to receive it.
Pure. 1 oz. yields about 100 cubic inches.

2. From chlorate of potassium, as the last.
Pure. 100 gr. yield nearly 100 cubic inches.
This is tlie plan adopted in the P. Cod. The de-
composition occurs at a heat below that of red-
pess,

9. From a mixture of chlorate of potassium

(in coarse powder), 8 parte ; powdered binozide
of manganese, 1 part ; botli by volume. Pure.
100 gr. of the mixture yield about 110 cubic
inches of oxygen. This method, which has re-
ceived the approval of Faraday, is exceedingly con-
venient. This gas is evolved with a rapidity whick
is entirely at the command of the operator by
simply increasing or lessening the heat. The
residuum in the retort may be kept for another
operation, if not exhausted ; or it may be at once
washed out with a little warm water, and the
manganese, which is uninjured by the process,
reserved tor future use. Bed-lead, black oxide
of copper, red oxide of iron, and several other
substenoes, will do nearly as well as binoxide of
manganese.

4. From a mixture of bichromate of potassium,
8 parte; oil of ntriol, 4 parte; gently heated,
as before. Yields pore oxygen very freely (Bat-
main).

6. From binoxide of manganese and oil of
vitriol, equal parte ; as the last. 44 gr. of pure
binoxide of manganese yield 8 gr., or 24 cnlne
inches, of oxygen ; 1 oz. yields 88 gr., or 256 cubic
inches (Liebig).

6. (On the large scale.) a. From nitre ex-
posed to a dull red heat in an iron retort or gun-
barrel. 1 lb. yields about 1200 cubic inches of
gas, conteminated, more or less, with nitrogen
(Dr.).

b. From binoxide of manganese, as the last.
1 oz. of the pure binoxide yields 44 gr., or 128
cubic inches, of oxygen (lAebig) ; 1 lb. of good
commercial binoxide yields from 1500 to 1600
cubic inches, or from 6 to 6 galls.

c. M. Bonssingault has reinvestigated a pro-
cess, long known, although not usef ally applied,
by which pure oxygen gas may -be obtained from
the atmosphere at a trifling cost, so as to enable
it to be collected in unlimited quantities andpi»-
served in gasometers, like coal-gas, for applica-
tion in the arte, manufactures, and sanitetiffli.
This process depends upon a peculiar property
possessed by the earth baryte, of absorbing atmo-
spheric oxygen at one temperature and evolving it
at another. Thus if baryta, BaO, be heated
gently in the air to dark redness it tekes i^
another atom of oxygen, and becomes barium di-
oxide, BaO| ; but when the temperature is rusad
to a bright red heat this additional atom of oxy-
gen is given off, and baryta is re-formed.

Brin's patent process depends upon this pro-
perty of l»ryte ; by it large quantities of oxygen
are very cheaply prepared. It consisU in passing
air through earthenware retorte filled with baiyte
which are kept at a dull red heat. The baryta
absorbs the oxygen and the nitrogen passes on.
When no more oxygen is absorbed by the baryte
the current of air is turned off. The retorte an
connected with the gas-holders and the tempen-
ture is raised, the pressure within them being at
the same time slightly lowered. The absorbed
oxygen under these conditions is given off. By
thus alternately varying the temperature and the
other conditions of the process a regular produc-
tion of gas can be obteined from a small quantity
of baryta. The original baryte can thus be used
over and over again.

The oxygen obtained by this method is nanally

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OXTQEN

1S07

stored in iron bottles nnder great prenoTe, in
vhich condition it can be conveniently trans-
ported to factories, laboratories, Ac.

d. From ferrate of potassium, prepared on the
large scale. When exposed to moisture or thrown
into water, pure oxygen is erolred. This method
has been successfully adopted to maintain the air
of diving-bells, and of other confined spaces, in a
state fit for respiration.

a. The decomposition of anlphnric acid has
been recommended by Deville and Debiay as a
means whereby large quantities of oxygen gas
may be obtained at a low price. Into a tubu-
lated retort are put fragments of fire-bride, and
npon these, when raised to a full red heat, sul-
phuric acid is made to fall drop by drop, through
an iron tube, which is luted to the tubulnre and
reaches to the bottom of the retort, the acid
hting ponred into it through a bent funnel. The
ralphoric acid becomes decomposed into snl-
pburoos anhydride, oxygen, and water. The
volatilised products are sent through a spiral
condenser, by which the water and any nndecom-
posed acid become liquefied ; whilst the sulphur-
ous acid is removed by subsequent washing with
water, the oxygen being collected in the nsual
manner. Sulphuric acid yields 15*68% of its
weight of oxygen.

y. A process for obtaining oxygen on a large
•eile has been devised by Tessie du Hotay. It
consists in heating in a current of steam the
manganates, permanganates, chromates, and fer-
rate* of the alkalies and alkaline earths, and
regenerating the residue by passing air over it at
a red heat. This plan gives good results if the
■team be kept dry.

7. OXTOKV OAS AT THB OBDIlrABT TBKPnU-
TUBS. Boettger states that when a mixture is
made of equal weights of the peroxides of lead
and bariom, and dilute HNO, (9° Beaum^) is
poored thereon, a current of pure O, free from
ozone, is given off abundantly. This mixture of the
two peroxides ma; be keptdra in astoppered bottle
for any length of time. Boettger also prepares
pure oxygen, free from ozone, by submitting per-
manganate of potassium to a gentle heat.

8. Flettman (^WatU) has found that when
chloride of lime in solution is heated with a small
^inantity of freshly prepared peroxide of cobalt,
it is completely resolved into chloride of calcium
and oxygen. A concentrated solution consisting
of 85% of chloride of lime, which mast be pre-
Tionsly filtered to prevent frothing, yields, when
heated with -^ to i per cent of peroxide of cobalt,
a volume of oxygen from 25 to 30 times as
great as that of the Uqnid, and always rather
more than the calculated quantity, probably in
consequence of the absorption of oxygen from
the air. The remaining peroxide may always be
employed agun. A like result follows if, instead
of the peroxide, an ordinary salt of cobalt be
need. Fleitman explains the reaction on the
•apposition that there are several peroxides of
cobalt, and that the effects produced depend upon
the alternate formation and partial reduction of
» higher oxide ; or on the formation of a cobaltic
•nd a pereobaltic hypochlorite, which is subse-
4|aeBtly decomposed into cobaltous chloride and
oxygen.

Prop. Oxygen gas is colonrless, tasteless,
inodorous, and incombnatible ; the sp. gr. is
1-067 (Dumcu; 11026— Seneliut and Dtdong s
I'lll — Thornton); according to Regnault 100
cubic inches at 60° F., and 80 inches ol the baro-
meter, weigh 84-19 gr. (Duma*,- 84-109 gr.
— Berz; 84-6 gr. — Brandt). Its density to that
of atmospheric air is, therefore, as about 11 to
10. It is a powerful supporter of combustion,
and it* presence is essential to the existence of
both animal and vegetable life. It forms 21%
(20-81%) by volume, and 23% (2301%) by
weight, of the atmosphere (Dkhum). Water dis-
solves about 6% by volume of oxygen, and by
pressure a much larger quantity, forming oxy-
genated water (aqua oxTOBini). Oxygen has
been liquefied at a pressure of 820 atmospheres
and - 140° C.

Tittt. 1. It is distinguished from other gases
by yielding nothing bat pure water when mixed
with twice its volume of hydrogen and exploded,
or when a jet of hydrogen is burnt in it. 2. A
recently extinguished taper, with the wick still
red-hot, instantly inflames when plunged into
this gas. 8. A small spiral piece of iron wire
ignited at the point, and suddenly plunged into a
jar of oxygen, bums with great brilliancy and
rapidity. Charcoal, sulphur, and phosphorus do
the same.

Sttim. The estimation of the quantity of
oxygen in an organic compound is generally
made by difference, and has already been de-
scribed. For determining the quantity present
in atmospheric air, and other like gaseous mix-
tures, D6bere!ner has proposed the use of pyro-
gallic acid. The air under examination (freed
nrom moisture) is measured into an accurately
graduated tube over mercury, capable of holding
about 30 C.C., and which it should 2-3rd8 fill. A
solution formed of 1 part of dry hydrate of
potassium and 2 parts of water, and in volume
about l-35th that of the air, is next introduced
by means of a pipette with a curved point, and is
gently agitated therewith in the gas for a short
time; the decrease of volume gives the propor-
tion of carbonic anhydride present. A solution
of pyrogallio acid (1 grm. in 6 or 6 cm. of water),
equal in volume to one half that of the solution
of potash already used, is then introduced by
means of another pipette, and the mixed liquids
are cautiously shaken together over the inner
surface of the tube. When absorption ceases
(which it does in a few minutes), the quantity of
residual gas (nitrogen) is read oft from the gra-
duations; the differenoo in volume before and
after the introduction of the pyrogallic acid indi-
cates the proportion of oxygen. This is a modi-
fication of Prof. Liebig's method. 1 grm. of
pyrogallic acid in conjunction with hydrate of
potassium is capable of absorbing about 189 c.c.
of oxygen. Otiier methods employed for the
analysis of air, depending on the increase or loss
of weight when the air is passed over finely
divided copper heated to redness, the loss of
volume when the air is exploded in a eudiometer
with half its bulk of hydrogen, or when a stick
of phosphorus is left in it f5t some hours, are
described at length in every elementary work on
chemical analysM. The last method, although

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1206

OXYGENATION— OXYHTDBOGEN BLOWPIPE

lees accnrate than the othen, has the advantage
of extreme simplicity.

U*tt. Oxygen has been employed to increase
the illnminative and heating power of lamps, and
to render vitiated air respirable, &c. ; and when
largely diluted with atmospheric air, or condensed
in water, as a remedial agent in asphyxia arising
from the inhalation of carhonic anhydride and
osrbonic oxide.

Dr Ringer says that if oxygen be adminis-
tered as a gaseous bath for an hour or two at a
time, and the bath repeated six or eight times
a day, it is of great service in senile gangrene.

Concluding Semarki. Oxygen gas may be
collected in the nsual way, either over water,
mercury, or in hags ; or, on the large scale, in
gasometers. The purity of the prodacto of the
several processes given above depends on the
snbstances from which the gas is obtained being
themselves pure. For particular experiments the
first portion of gas shonld be allowed to escape,
or be received apart, as with this, as with the other
gases, it is contaminated with the atmospheric air
of the apparatus. The gas procured from man-
ganese or nitre may be purified by passing it
through milk of lime or a solution of caustic
potash; it will still, however, retain some
traces of nitrogen. Limousin ('Pharm. Cen-
tralhalle,' xiv, 318) has devised an apparatus for
the preparation of oxygen by the attendante of
hospitals, which obviates the risk of bnrsting of
the retorts, attending its preparation by the old
method. The apparatus consists of two cast-iron
hemispheres, whose edges, which are well polished
and about two centimetres thick, can be fitted
hermetically upon each other, and fastened by
three screws. The mixture of chlorate of potash
iiid peroxide of manganese is placed in the lower
hemisphere, which rests upon a tripod ; the upper
hemisphere, from which projects an iron tube, is
now screwed on, and the iron tube connected by
india-rubber and i^lass tubing with a Woulfe's
wash-bottle, from which the gas after being washed
passes through a second glass tube, and is thus
ready for use. It may be conducted into an air-
tight hag, in which it will keep for several weeks.
Such a bag when supplied with a tube and step-
cock will afibrd a ready means for inhalations.
See OsaA2(io SuBbtancss, Ozonb, Gabes, liqdb-
VAOnoN OP, &c.

OXYOSHAtlOB'. The act or process of com-
bining with oxygen. Formerly it was of more
general application than the word 'oxidation,'
with which it haa been r^^rded as synonymous.
'Oxygenation' is, however, at the present day prac-
tically obsolete.

OX'^YQEiriSEI) LAUD. Syn. Oztobhatbd

AXimOE ; AXUNQIA OXTGEKATA, L. Pnp. (Ph.

Bat. 1805.) From prepared lard, 16 parts, melted
over a slow fire, and then mixed with nitric acid,
1 part, the combination being promoted by con-
stant stirring with a glass rod until it ceases to
affect litmus paper. It should be extremely white,
and should be kept in the dark. See OiNDiBin
OP NiTBio Acid.

OXYHYDBOOEir BLOWPIPE. See Bi,owfifb.
Deville and Debray (' Ann. Ch. Phys.' [3], Ivi,
886) employ the oxyhydrpgen blowpipe in the fol-
lowing manner for efiecting the fusion of pla*

tinom and the refractory metals which accompanjr
it. The apparatus consiste of the blowpipe C
(tee belov)), a furnace ABD, and a crucible
OSI. The blowpipe is composed of a copper
tube about half an inch in diameter, terminating
below in a slightly conical platinum jet about
1| inches long. Within this tube, which is supplied
with hydrogen or coal-gas through the stopcock
M,'aa, second copper tube C for supplying oxy-
gen, which is supplied through the stopcock O,
terminated also by a platinnm nozzle with an
aperture of about a twelfth of an inch in
diameter.

The furnace ABD consists of three pieces of
well-burnt lime of slightly hydraulic quality,
which may be turned at a lathe with ease. The
cylinder A. is about 2\ inches thick, and is per-
forated by a slightly conical hole, into which tho
blowpipe fits accurately, passing about halfway
through the thickness of the mass. A second
somewhat deeper cylinder of lime, B, is hollowed
into a chamber wide enough to admit the cmcible,
and leave an interval of not more than a sixth of
an inch clear around it. KK are four apertures,
two of which are shown in the *ngr., for the escape
of the products of combustion.

The outer crucible HS is also made of lime,
but it contains a smaller crucible I of gas coke,
provided with a cover of the same material ; and
in this the substance to be used is placed, the
crucible resting on the lime support I/. The
conical cover Q- is made of lime, and ite apex
should be placed exactly under the blowpipe jet,
at a distance from it of } to 1} inches.

T)m different pieces of the fomace must be
bound round with iron wire to support them
should they crack. The oxygen is admitted under
a pressure equal to that of a column of 16 inches
of water. The temperature is gradually raised ta

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OXTHYDEOGEN LIGHT— OXTMEL

120»-

tbe mazimnm, and in about eight minutes from
this time the operation is complete.

By employing a jet of mixed coal-gas and
oxygen (JEQ — see e»gr.) in a furnace of lime

Derille and Debray succeeded, at an expense
of about 43 cubic feet of oxygen, in melting and
tefining, in 42 minutes, 26'4 lbs. avoirdupois of
platinum, and casting it into an ingot in a mould
of gas coke ; much larger masses have since been
melted by this method. Lime is so bad a con-
ductor of heat that if a cup of lime not more than
0*8 inch thick be filled with melted platinum the
exterior scarcely rises beyond ZO(f F. (Miller's
' Elements of Chemistry,' 3rd ed., pt. ii, p. 825).

OXTHTSBOOEH LIGHT. The following hints
•■ to the use of the oxyhydrogen light for the
optical lantern will be found useful to the inex-
perienced :

1. If the apparatus is frequently moved about
from one place to another, it should be contained
in a box which will hold the lantern snd all
accessories in compartments, so that it may be
seen at a glance whether all that is required for
an exhibition is in its place.

2. The ' blow-through ' jet is the simplest and
safest, but the ' mixed ' jet gives a more powerful
light, and is said to be more economical. Any
form of jet should have an arrangement by which
the lime cylinder can be turned round and raised
or lowered at will while the light is burning and
the lamp is in position.

8. The simplest, safest, and most convenient
way of using the gases is from steel cylinders ;
bags are cumbrous, short-lived, and very liable
to accident. Coal-gas may often be obtained
from the mains in the room in which the exhibi-
tion is to take place. This is convenient, as the
■apply is practically unlimited and requires no
attention.

4. Each cylinder of gas should be fitted with
ft regulator. Beard's is an excellent form for the
oxygen. It is best to have some other make for
the coal-gaa or hydrogen cylinder; the terrible
oonseqoences of mixing the gases and exploding
them under pressure will thus be effectually
avoided. Tha regulator! mutt ahoagt le uiedfor
th» tame gat, never interchanged. These regu-
lators are generally sent out with differential
screws for tightening them on to the gas cylinder,
lliis is objectionable, ss the threads are very liable
to be torn and are difficult to ac^ust. A simple
union fly nut, rather heavy and with strong arms
to fit tho wrench, is altogether preferable.

6. It is well to paint the words oziraBK,
EYDSOOBK, 0OAL-OA8, in large letters on the
respective cylinders, and to nse one coloured

mbber tubing for oxygen and another for th»
coal-gas or hydrogen in making connections.

6. Pressure gauges are sold for testing the-
amount of gas in the cylinders. One only is
really necessary, vis. for the oxygen. In using
a gauge never on ang aeoount oil or grease any
part of it, or a terrible explosion may result.
Further, turn the tap of the cylinder very tlowly ;
if turned rapidly the great pressure suddenly
pat upon the gauge may blow it to pieces. A
strong gauze cover is advisable. As gauges are-
expensive instrnments, it is well to know that the
weight of the cylinder is an excellent guide to
the quantity of gas left, a cubic foot of oxygen
weighing almost one ounce.

7. The best lime cylinders are the cheapest in
the end, and with care one will last a long time.
They should at all times, when not in use, be kept
in quicklime in a tin case, or better in a well-
stoppered bottle. When used the cylinder should
be carefully heated in the coal-gas flame, and
frequently turned, before turning on the oxygen.
This saves the lime from splitting. During an
exhibition, at convenient times, the lime sliould
be turned round a little in order to prevent
pitting.

8. Before commencing an exhibition the lan-
tern, condensers, front lens, and other optical
parts of the lantern should be carefully wiped
with a hot handkerchief to remove moisture, and
in cold weather it is very desirable to warm all
the apparatus before the fire, as this prevents the
deposition of moisture and the appearance of drops,
&c., on the screen.

9. When in use the oxyhydrogen light should
not hiss or make more than a hardly perceptible
noise, otherwise waste of gas is going on. A
skilled operator will not nse more than 3 feet of
oxygen and the same qnantity of coal-gas, or a
little more, per hour.

0XT1I£L. Syn. Oxtmel, L. An acidulous
syrup made of honey and vinegar. There are
only two oxymels in the last Ph. B. The ingre-
dients in an oxymel should be of such a character
and in such proportions as to produce a mixture
of the proper consistence without evaporation.

C^mel of Col'chlcnm. Syn. Oxtmbl col-

CHIOI COBMI, OZTMEI. COLCHICI, L. JPrep.

(Ph. D. 1826.) Fresh corms (roots) of meadow
saffron, 1 qz. ; distilled vinegar, 1 pint (wine -
measure) ; macerate for two days, press out the
liquor, filter, add of clarified honey, 2 lbs., and boil
down the mixture to the consistence of a syrup,
frequently stirring. — Dote, 1 to 3 dr., twice or
thrice a day ; in gout, rhenmatism, dropsy, &e.

Oxymel of Oarlic. Syn. Oxtubi. allii, L.
Prep. (Ph. L. 1746.) Sliced garlic, H oz. ;
caraway seed and sweet fennel seed, of each, 2 dr. ;
boiling vin^ar, 8 fl. oz. ; infuse, strain, and add
of clarified honey, 10 oz. In hooping-cough>.
chronic diarrhoa, rheumatism, &c.

Oxymel of SareUmB. {Van Mont.) Syn. Oxt-
VEL BABCIBSI. iVn>. Vinegar of narcissus
(made with 1 part of fresh flowers of daflbdil to
8 of vinegar), 1 part ; honey, 4 parts. Dissolve.
—Vote. A teaspoonful. In hooping-cough
and spasmodic asthma.

Oxymel, Pectoral. Syn. Oxtmbl pbctokalb,
O. ISVLM C0MF08ITVM, L. Frep. (Ph. Br.^

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1210

OXYBRHODYNB— OYSTER

Elecampane, 1 ox. ; orris root, } oi, ; water, 1}
pints; boil to lialf a pint, strain, add of honey,
16 OS. ; ammoniacnm, 1 oz.; (dissolved in) vine-
gar, 3 fl. oz. ; lastly, boil to an ozymel. — Dote,
1 spoonful occasionally ; in conglis, Ininiil
asthma, &c,
Ozymel, Slm'ple. 8f»- Vihioar btbup.

AOBIATBD BOWKT; OXYUVL (Ph. L. & D.),
Oznni. BIMFLKX, Mbl acitatuk, L. JPr^.
1. (Ph. L.) Acetic acid (sp. gr. 1048), 7 fl. oz. ;
distilled water, 8 fl. oz. ; miz and add them to
honey, 6 lbs., previously made hot. This oontuns
■only one half the acid ordered in the Ph. L.
1836.

2. (Ph. D.) Clarifled honey, lib.; acetic acid
•(sp. gr. 1-014), 8 oz. ; as before. Stronger than
the last.

8. (B. P.) Clarifled honey, 8 parts; acetic
acid, 1 part; distilled water, 1 part. Liquefy
the honey by heat, miz in the acid and yrater.

4. (Wholesale.) From honey (thick and good),
12 lbs. ; melt it by a gentle heat, add of distilled
vinegar (of fully 6% ), 2 quarts, and strain the
mizture through flannel. No evaporation is re-
quired.

Uiet, ^. Demulcent and refrigerant. — Dote,
1 to 4 fl. dr., either gradually sucked from the
■poon or dissolved through aome simple liquid.
Dissolved in water, it forms a useful and pleasant
cooling drink or gargle in fevers, sore throats,
hoarseness, &c. ; but in some individoaU it occa-
sions griping. It is commonly used as an adjunct,
in miztures, &c.

Ozymel of Squills. Sv». Honbt of bquilu ;
OXTHBI, 80ILLX (B. P.), Mbl boills '(Ph. L.),
O. BCILLITICITM, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Mix and
evaporate on a water-bath vinegar of squills, 1
pin^ and clarified honey, 2 lbs., till the prodnct
when cold has a specific gravity of 1*32.

2. Vinegar of squills, 2^ pints ; gently
evaporate it to 12 fl. oz., and add of honey (pre-
viously made hot), 6 lbs.

3. (Ph. L. 1836.) StnUned honey, 8 lbs.;
vinegar of squills, 1) pints ; boil to a proper con-
sistence. The formula of the Ph. D. 1826 was
similar.

Utet, ^e. Expectorant, and in large doses
nauscant. — Dote, j to 2 fl. dr. ; in chronic coughs,
hoarseness, humoral asthma, &c.

Ozymel of Vor'digriB. See Linimbkt ot

VBBDiaBIS.

OZTB'BHODYHE. Syn. OmiBEODINON.
An old compound fonned of 1 part of vinegar of
roses and two parts of oil of roses.

OZTSAC'CHABUH. A syrup acidulated with
vinegar. Sec Syrup.

OXTSUL'FHISE. A name given to certain
compounds or mixtures of metallic oxides and
sulphides. See Antikont OxYSULPniSB, &c.

OTS'TEB. Sy*. Ostbea, L. This well-known
■hell-flsh is the Ottrea edulie, Linn.

"The oyster is a genus of lamellibranchiate
moUusrs of the section with a single adductor
muscle. The shell consists of two unequal and
somewhat irregularly shaped valves of laminated
and closely foliated structure, and the hinge is
without tooth or ridge, the valves being held to-
getlicr by a ligament lodged in a little cavity in
each. The aniiiial is in its organisation among

the lowest and nmplest of lameltibranchiate
molluscs. It has no foot, and, ezoept when very
young, no power of locomotion, or organ of any
kind adapted to that purpose. Its food consists
of animalcules, and also of minute vegetable
particles, brought to it by the water, a continual
current of which is directed towards the month
by the action of tlie gills. The gills are seen in
four rows when the valves of the shell are sepa-
rated, a little within the fringed edge of the
mantle. In the most central part is the adductor
muscle; and between the adductor muscle and
the liver is the heart, which may be recognised by
the brown colour of its auricle. The month — for,
as in the other LameUibranekxata, there is no
head — is sitnated beneath a kind of hood formed
by the union of the two edges of the mantle near
the hinge. It is jawless and toothless. The
ovaries are very large during the season of repro-
duction, which extends over certain months when
oysters are out of season for the table. Oysters
are hermaphrodite" (Cbamben* <Encyclo-
piedia ').

The fecundity of the oyster is amazing. Leea-
wenhoek estimated that an oyster, when full of
spawn, contained from 8000 to 4000 of its off-
spring, and it has also been computed that one
oyster alone produces nearly a million and a
quarter of eggs. The eggs are hatched and the
young produced within Uie shell and mantle of
the parent, where they continue floatingor swim-
ming about in the vicinity of the gills in a
creamy-looking kind of mucus or fluid until ex-
pelled. Their expulsion is preceded by a change
of appearance in the fluid to a brownish or muddy
colour ; a circumstance that may possibly indicate
an alteration of composition in the liquid nn-
favonrable to the infant oyster, and thus lead to
its departure. Their departure or expulsion from
all the parent molluscs of the oyster bank or bed
takes place at the same time.

When they leave the parent shell the young
oysters, which in this condition are called tpat,
are not more than j-f^ of an inch in length ; and
two millions of them when closely packed do not
occupy a space of more than a cubic inch. Thus
cast adrift they are carried away by currents,
their multitudinous numbers being considerably
diminished by their falling a prey to numerous
fish, as well as from their frequent inability to
find a suitable resting-place. This obtained, the
young oyster or spat attaches itself to it, and
makes it the permanent home on which it eats,
grows, and breeds, and, debarred of locomotion, .
passes its existence, unless, of course, removed by
external causes. Pending its obtaining a suitable
locality the young oyster is provided with a
powerful swimming apparatus which, it has been
surmised, becomes iu>sorbed or otlierwisedisappears
when its function is rendered nnneceasaty by the
stationary life of the oyster after it has secured
a habitat.

The objects to which it attaches itself are na-
meroas. llie Ottrea paraeitiea, a species of
oyster found in warm climates, fixes itself to the
roots and branches of trees growing within reach
of and washed by the tiile. Again, in some of
the southern States of North America, large
oyster-beds, which are sometimes of such magni-

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OYSTBR

1211

tnde as to form buttiegseii ag^nst the force of the
tides and wiada, origmate from the habit of young
oyiten attaching themielves to the shelli of old
ones. Similarly the banks of some of the risers
of Qeoigia, which mn np some few miles inland
from the sea, are composed of masses of living
oysters attached to each other. These banks,
which are so massive as to make a channel for the
river, are known as racoon bankt, because this
animal is one amongst others which frequents
tiiem for the sake of devouring the oysters.
In some of the French pare*, or artificial oyster-
beds, the young oysters attach themselves to
large onglazed tiles, or to fagots or other solid
bodies which are placed in suitable situations
for the purpose; in the English, artificial beds
of hurdles are frequently employed, upon which
the spat become deposited. It appears the
young oysters select dark objects, such as slate
or black stone, in preference to bodies of a
lighter colour to fix themselves to, and that they
choose^ where practicable, the inner side of the
oinect, or that portion of it away from the light.
After a time the young oysters are removed from
the breeding beds, placed in the fattening beds,
from whence they are removed when they have
attained a sufficient size, and sent upon the
market. In. England oysters are not regarded as
fit to be eaten until they are at least three years
old ; whereas in France they are served np to table
aboot a year earlier. The chief enemy of the
yoang oyster is a species of whelk, known in
France as the bigournecM, dog-whelk, or piercer.
These creatures, which are found in immense
quantities in the celebrated oyster-beds at Arca-
chon, near Bordeaux, cause great destruction
amongst the bivalves. Fart of their anatomy
consists of a boring apparatus, with which they
pierce the shell of the oyster; whatever of the
dead oyster is leit by the whelk is devoured by
the crabs, which creep into the aportnre in the
sliell made by the former.

We have already alluded to the abundance of
oysters in ports of Georgia, where, we may add,
they are not only confined to the alluvial shores
of the rivers, but are also found in large numbers
amongst the long grass of the adjoining low
lands.

In these districts it is by no means an nn-
common practice for the inhabitants to improvise
a meal by picking up a bunch of oysters and
Toasting them over a fire kindled on the spot.
In many of these localities the oysters occur in
qnantittes so immense that a vessel of 100 tons
might be loaded within three times her own
length (Chambers' ' ISncyclopsedia ').

lliere are also many other parts of Ammca in
which the yield of the oyster-beds is enormous.
In the State of Maryland 6000 persons are said
to be employed dredging, and nearly 11,000,000
bushels of oysters were taken in 1870-71.

In Baltimore as many as 10,000 persons are
employed in tinning tUs bivalve. Comparing
tbe pwnteonsness of the oyster in America with
its great scarcity of late years in onr country,
and the consequent much loAer price of the
foragn bivalve, we should be prepared to learn
that considerable supplies of oysters, both alive
And preserved in tans, come to ns from America.

The bulk of those consumed in Britain are a
small variety, and come from Maryland and Vir-
^nia.

In 1872, owing to the diminished yield of the
English oyster-beds, an attempt was made to
introduce tbe American oyster into British
waters; and we believe the depdt for this pur-
pose still exists at Cleethorpes, at the mouth of
the Humber, where operations in this branch of
oyster culture are being carried on by the Con-
way Company. If, however, the opinion of an
eminent pisciculturist be correct, vix. that the
American oyster will not breed in onr waters, we
should conceive the experiment will be aban-
doned, since nothing will be gained by relaying
them that cannot be attained by simply import-
ing them and sending them to the market, sinee
it is asserted they are kept alive out of water for
a month.

A few years back a Select Committee ap-
pointed by Parliament to inquire into the causes
of the scarcity of oysters, issued in 1876 a report
in which, endorsing the opinion of previous
authorities on oyster culture, they attributed the
diminished yield of our oyster-beds to continual
over-dredging for them in open waters, without
allowing suflicient * close time.' The Committee
foand that, in France, where the stringent obser-
vance of the ' close season ' was enforced, the
supply of oysters had increased concurrently.
The Committee, therefore, recommended the es-
tablishment of a ' general close time,' extending
from May 1st to September 1st, subject to cer-
tain exceptions under the supervision of the
Board of Trade ; the levying of penalties for buy-
ing or selling oysters for consumption during the
* close season ' being also recommended. The
Committee further recommended that no oysters
should be sold from the deep-sea fisheries under
21 or 8 inches in diameter. Commenting upon
the above report, 'Nature' very sensibly re-
marks : — " What is i-eally wanted for the protec-
tion of the oyster is the assurance that these
animals shall not be sold before they have a
chance of reproducing their kind. Since the in-
troduction of the railway system, the demand for
oysters in distant places has become so great and
the price has risen so high, that oyster cnlturists
are tempted to send immature animals to market,
and it is this fact, more than any failure of spai^
that is leading to the scarcity. Tliere are not, in
consequence of the unceasing demand and con-
sequent high price, so many full-grown oysters
left to spat as there onght to he ; hence the
scarcity. Any Act of Parliament that decrees
two oysters to grow where only one grew before
will be greedily welcomed both by oyster cnltur-
ists and by the public, and we hope that the iasne
of the present report will lead to some effective
measures bmng taken for the preservation of this
delicious creature ere it be too late." Previous
to 1846 the wholesale price of best English
natives was £2 28. a bushel ; since then the price
has risen rapidly to £4 4s. in 1865, in 1866 to
£6, and in 1869 it had advanced to £8 ; that is,
they had risen nearly 800% in 8 years, which is
equivalent to an advance of from id. to 2d. each.
At the present time they are, we believe, sold at
I from 3s. to 8s. 6d. a dozen by the retail dealer.

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1212

OZOKERIT— OZONE

Oysters are nntritions and easy of digestion
when fresh, bat are apt to prove laxative to those
unaccustomed to their use. It is generally be-
lieved that they are in season each month of
the year the name of which contains the letter
E. Whitstable in Kent, and Colchester and
other places in Essex, are the groat nurseries or
feeding-grounds for snpplying the metropolis,
and, indeed, the whole of England, with the
most esteemed variety (kativbs) of this shell-
fish. The shells (xitSTiB pbepaeat*, t. Obtbb-
abia) were formerly used in medicine as an
absorbent.

Of the Tarioos species of oysters, that which
holds the foremost place in the estimation of tlie
ffourmtt is the ' English native ;' now, alas ! owing
to the unwise rapacity of the collector, nearly
dredged out of existence.

The native has an historic reputation, too, since
it appears it was eag^erly sought after by the old
Romans, and was a frequent dish at their tables.
The enthusiasm of the celebrated Dr Kitchener
for this particular oyster was very intense. He
is very particular in directing its shell to be
opened with the greatest care, so that it may be
eaten alive and ' tickled to death by the teeth.'

The green oyster of Ostend is also prized by
epicures j it acquires its colour from its food,
which consists chiefly of green monads and con-
fervtB, Some of the American oysters are excel-
lent in flavour, and are said to be without the
copper taste occasionally to be met with in English
oysters. They smack a little of the mussel.

Fayen gives the following as the composition
of the oyster :

Mean or two
AnaljMa.

Nitrogenous matter . . 14*010

Fatty matter .... 1-515

Saline matter .... 2-695

Non-nitrogenons matter and loss 1*395

Water 80*385

100000
See ShbiiL-fish, Sauces, &c.

Oyster, Scalloped. Put them with crumbs of
bread, pepper, salt, nutmeg, and a bit of butter,
into Bcallop-sbells or saucers, and bake them be-
fore the fire in a Dutch oven.

Oysters, Fried (to garnish boiled fish). Make
a batter of flour, milk, and eggs, add a little sea-
soning to it, dip the oysters into it, and fry them
a fine yellow-brown. A little nutmeg should be
put into the seasoning, and a few crumbs of bread
into the flour.

Oysters, Stewed. Open them, and separate the
liquid from them, then free them from grit by
washing, strain the liquor, and add to the oysters
a small piece of mace and lemon-peel, and a few
white peppercorns. Simmer very gently, and add
some cream and a little flour and butter. Let
them be served with sippets.

Oysters, to Feed. Put them into water, and
wash them with a birch brootn till quite clean.
Then place them bottom downwards in an earthen-
ware pan ; sprinkle them with flour, oatmeal, and
salt, and then cover with water. Repeat this
treatment every day, taking care to make the
water pretty salt.

OZOKERIT. Sgn. Fossil wax, Mixbbai.
wax,Cbeitb, Cbbbsik. This substance, whicK
has within the hut few years been utilised as a
source of paraffin and the mineral hydrocarbon
oils, is found in various localities in the tffltiary
strata, mostly occurring in close proximity to-
petroleum springs, and often associated with bir
luminous sandstones, clay schist, gypsnm, and
sodium chloride. But although extensive deposits
of it are to be met with in Qalicia, on the slopes
of the Carpathian mountains, it is by no means an
abundant body. In the Austrian emjure there
are many large manufactories for its conversion
into paraffin and the mineral oils. The producta
of this conversion are benzine, naphtha, heavy
oils, solid paraffin, and coke. Ozokerit is usually
met with as a brown and compact substance, occa-
sionally yellow, but sometimes black. It melts at a
temperature varying from 60° to 80° C, but some
inferior kinds are fusible at lOtf* C. ...

Nbft-GII. is a variety of ozokerit, and is found
on the island of Swiltoi-Ostrow. in the Caspian
Sea. According to RoasmSssler, neft-gil is treated
in the following manner :— 15 cwt. of the crude
material is put into iron stills provided with a
leaden worm, and submitted to fractional distilla-
tion, yielding 68% of distillate, consisting of 8%
of oil and 60% of crude paraffin. The oil thus
obtuned is yellow, opalescent, possesses an ethe-
real odour, and a sp. gr. of 0-75 to 0*81. Each
distillation yields a quantity of a light oil, boiling
below 100° C, which is used for the purpose of
purifying the paraffin. The crude paraffin ob-
tained by the first distillation is tolerably pure,
has a yellow colour, and can at once be treated
by the hydraulic press and centrifugal ma-
chine ; the oil from these operations is again sub-
mitted to fractional distillation in order to obtain
more paraffin. The pressed paraffin is melted and
treated at 170" to 180° C. with sulphuric acid,
which is next neatralised by means of lime, and
the paraffin again rapidly distilled, then again
submitted to strong pressure, and the material ob-
tained treated with 26% of the light oil ; it is then
again melted, again pre8Bed,audfinallytreatedwith
steam for the purpose of eliminating the last trace
of oil. The material obtained by this treatment
is a perfectly pure, colourless material, free from
smell, transparent, and so hard as to exhibit in
large blocks almost a metallic sound. The f using-
point is 68° C.

C/»ee, Teett, <fc. Ozokerit is imported from
Oalicia, Hungary, and Russia, for the manufac-
ture of candles. It is a source of illuminating
and lubricating oil, and is often used for adulte-
rating beeswax. From the latter substance it
may be distinguished by the fact that warm con-
centrated oil of vitriol scarcely attacks it, whereas
beeswax is completely decomposed.

In all its chemical properties ozokerit resembles
solid paraffin.

OZOHE (Qreek olu, I smell) is a variety of
oxygen characterised by its greater weight, its
peculiar chlorous smell, its intensely active oxi-
dising powers, and, finally, by the ease with which
it passes into common oxygen. The history of
ozone may he summed up as follows : — In 1786
Van Marum observed the production of a peculiar
smell when electric sparks were passed through

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OZONE

1213

oxygen. This smell, which every one who has
worked with an electric machine must have no-
ticed. Tan Maram regarded as the ' smell of elec-
trici^,' thinking that electricity was a sabatonce*
In 1840 SchOnhein, of Basle, proved the existence
-of a definite substance, to which he assigned the
name of oionc ; he also discovered several methods
-of prodncing it, a delicate test for it, and several
of its most striking properties. He subseqnentlv
added many new facts, bnt to the time of his death
lie never held a correct theory with regard to its
aature. Later researches by Harignac and De la
Rive, Becqoerel, and Fr^my, Andrews and Tait,
Soret, Brodie, and others, have established the
tzne natnre of this remarkable body. It is now
generally admitted that it only differs from
-common oxygen in containing three atoms of
oxygen in each molecale instead of two. In fact,
as the formula for oxygen is O^ that of ozone is
0|. It follows that ozone is half as heavy again
as oxygen, and it lias been demonstrated that its
q)ecific gravi^ is 84 (H = 1), that of oxygen
being 16. All the known reactions of ozone
-are easily explained in accordance with this
•view.

Ozone may be generated in several ways.
St. By the action of electricity on oxygen or air,
the silent or 'slow' discharge being the moat
efficaciona. The best apparatus is the induction-
tube of Siemens. This consists of two tubes, one
inside the other. The inner side of the inner and
the outer side of the outer tube are coated with
tinfoil, and these coatings are connected with the
terminals of a powerful induction coil. Dry nir
or oxygen streams between the tubes and passes
out, strongly charged with ozone.

2. Boillot has proposed a modification of
Siemens' apparatus, which consists of two glass
tnbes, one fitting within the other, and each coated
-externally with powdered coke, which is made to
adhere by means of gelatin. The coatings of the
two tabM are connected with the terminals of an
indnction ctnl, and a stream of oxygen is made to
pass between the tubes, and becomes thus exposed
to the influence of the silent discharge, as in
Siemens' contrivance.

3. Honzean has invented an apparatus which
be calls an ' ozoniser,' by means of which ozone
is produced in considerable quantities. In an
ordinary straight gas delivery-tube is placed a
wire of copper, lead, or, better, platinum, 4 to 6
decimetres long, with one of its extremities
passing through the side of the upper portion of
the tube. On the exterior of the tube is coiled a
-similar wire over the path of the preceding.

When the two are placed in communication with
a Rnhmkorff's coil, giving a 2 or 3 centimetre
spark, a slow stream of oxygen passing throogb
the tube will be strongly charged with ozone. By
this apparatus Honzcau has prepared oxygen con-
tidning 60 to 120 (once 188) milligrams of ozone
per litre. Blectrclysis of water furnished only 3
to 6 milligrams, barium peroxide and sulphuric
■acid 10 mUlignms per litre (' Comptes Smdus,'
' Watt's Dictionary,' second supplement, Ixx,
1286).

4. During certain processes of oxidation. A
-piece of phosphorus, half covered with -water in
A bottle of air, absorbs a portion of the oxygen.

while another portion becomes partially ozo-
nised.

6. By plunging a clean glass rod heated to
about 260* 0. into a jar conteining a few drops
of ether.

6. By mixing very gradually 8 parts of strong
sulphuric acid and 2 of permanganate of potash.

7. It has been shown that ozone is formed in
small quantity during the burning of hydrogen
at a jet, and in several analogous reactions.

8. During the liberation of oxygen at low
temperatures. When barium dioxide is moistened
with sulphuric acid, the odour of ozone is at once
apparent, and the evolution proceeds for a con-
siderable time.

9. In the electrolysis of water the oxyg«n
evolves a small quantity of ozone, especially if
the poles are small.

10. Linder has suggested an easy method for
the production of ozone for hygienic purposes,
which is as follows : — Make a mixture of man-
ganese peroxide, potsssium permanganate, and
oxalic add. Two spoonfuls of this powder, if
placed on a dish and gradually mixed with water,
will generate ozone sufficient for a room of medium
size ; more water is added in small portions from
time to time ; the powder may be kept in a bottle
ready for use.

But SchOnhein has shown that many essential
oils possess the property of absorbing it without
decomposing it. Bv the use of Siemens' appa-
ratus, oxygen cont^iing, as a maximum, twenty
volumes per cent, of ozone may be obtained.
This represents a contraction of about 1-llth
during formation. But it is at present impos-
sible to separate the one from the other. Ozone
is entirely converted into oxygen by a temperature
of 287° C. The oonveraion is efiected more slowly
at lower temperatures. Silver, iron, copper, when
moistened, are oxidised on the surface immediately
at ordinary temperatures by ozone ; organic sub-
stances are destroyed.

Silver even becomes converted into a peroxide,
although it will not combine with ordinary
oxygen, either when moist or dry. Little or no
absorption of ozone takes place when the metals
are perfectly dry, except with dry mercury and
dry iodine, both of which remove it immediately.
It was conclusively shown by Andrews and Tut
that little or no contraction followed the absorp-
tion of ozone by these or any other agents.
Hence, as suggested by these observers, it seems
probable that the ozone is resolved into a quantity
of ordinary oxygen eqnal in bulk to itself, which
is liberated at the moment when another portion
of its oxygen enters into combination with the
metal or the iodine.

Ozone lias been condensed into an indigo-
ooloared liquid, which boils at 106°.

Ozonised air becomes deozonised when passed
over cold manganese dioxide, silver dioxide, or
lead dioxide. When ozone is mixed with per-
oxide of hydrogen, water and oxygen are formed.
In these cases the ozone is converted into ordi-
nary oxygen, and the peroxides into monoxides.

Aatoione, which Schdnbein surmised to be
oxygen in an oppositely electrified condition to
ozone, has been shown by Van Babo to be per-
oxide of bydrog«n.

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OZONE'

From the em* with whidi it gives up iti third
atom of oxygen, ozone has been proposed, when
mixed with air, as a means of decolonrising wax,
stearin, and other orgnnic substances which can-
not be nubjected to the fames of snlphnrous acid
or chlorine, or at any rate only partially so. On
account of its oxidising properties, ozone is nsed
to bleach engp-avings discoloured by age ; these
are rolled into the neck of a large glass balloon,
in which a stick of phosphorus is suspended, and
which contains a little water in the bottom. It
has also been employed in oxidising alcohol to
aldehyde in the manufacture of the well-known
aniline green dye.

Being one of the most energetic oxidising agents
known, it is not surprising that the claims of
ozone as a disinfectant should have found many
supporters. One of its strongest advocates for
this purpose is Dr Cornelias Fox, who says,
" Ozone should be diffused through fever wards,
sick-rooms, the crowded localities of the poor, or
wherever the active power of the air is reduced
and poisons are generated. Its employment is
especially demanded in our hospitals, situated as
they mostly are in densely populated districts,
where the atmosphere is almost always polluted
by rebreathed air, decomposing substances and
their products, and where no mere ventilation
can be fully effective. If practicable, it would
be highly advantageous to direct streams of sea
air, or air artificially ozonised, into the fever and
cholera nests of our towns. Ozone may Ira easily
disseminated through public buildings, theatres,
and other confined atmospheres, where numbers
of people are accustomed to assemble, in order to
maintain the purity of the air."

Another ardent believer in the hygienic value
of ozone is Lender, who is also a strong advocate
for its medical application, and recommends it,
both in the form of ozonised air and water, in
tabercnlosis, rhenmatism, asthma, and many other
diseases.

The contention of those who assert that it is
impossible to convey snch an unstable body as
ozone into the blood without the ozone becoming
decomposed into ordinary oxygen is denied upon
the authority of Lehone and Houzeau, who state
that it is less liable to change than is generally
supposed, for they found, after working with it,
that its peculiar odour remained on their hands
and garments for some time. These views, largely
shared by many others, as to the beneficial efiects
of ozone have, however, not been allowed to pass
unchallenged. P. Thenard considered it im-
portant that both the public and medical men
should be apprised of the erroneous character of
the opinions generally entertained respecting the
action of ozone on the organism. Ozone, he says,
so far from exerting a beneficial effect, is one of
the most energetic of poisons ; and the serious
accidents which have occurred in his own labora-
tory do not leave the slightest room for doubt in
the matter.

Writing to the 'Comptes Rendas,' Ixxxii, p.
1857, Thenard narrates the case of a guinea-pig,
in which the beats of the pulse, normally 148 per
minute^ fell to ^^ after the exposure of the animal
for a quarter of an hour to an atmosphere charged
with ozone. He states that under the influence

of ozone, even when very largely dilated, the
blood-corpusclts rapidly cohere and change their
form. Other instances are recorded in wUeh tiM
blood, contrary to anticipation, has been found ia
the venous condition.

Drs Dewar and M'Kendriek found that dmne
acted as a very powerful irritant upon the mncons
membranes. Further, an experiment was made
by placing some small birds in a mixture of oxy-
gen and ozone, containing 10% of the latter. In
two minutes the birds were dead.

Ozone is frequently present in the atmosphere,
formed by electricity and perhaps by other means.
Ooriip-Besanez has shown (vide 'Ann. Chem.
Pharm ,' clxi, 282) that ozone is formed when
water evaporates, and he ascribes its occnrrenoe in
the atmosphere to this cause rather than to the
influence of electrical discharges. Payen states
that it does not amount to more than ntfiao ^
weight, and y^^tt by Tolnme of atmospheric air.
Other observers state that it varies in amount
according to height, locality, temperature, elec-
tricity, &c. Dr Buchanan says it is more abun-
dant " on the sea-coast than inland, in the west
than in the east of Great Britain, in elevated than
in low situations, with south-west than with
north-east winds, in the country than in towns,
and on the windward than on the leeward side
of towns." According to the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society ozone is most prevalent in the
atmosphere from February to June, when the
average amount is 6'0, and least from Jnly to
January, when the avenge is 5'7. The maximum
6*2 is reached in May, and the minimum 6'S in
November.

These results are said to he in accordance
with the conclusions arrived at by Berigny and
Houzean.

Although there appears no ground for donblang
that artificially prepared ozone, by reason of its
actively disinfectant properties, may prove a
valuable auxiliary in checking the spread of cer-
tain diseases, it seems far from satisfactorily
established that the same quality is possessed by
the ozone in the atmosphere, or, on the contrary,
as has been asserted, that certain ailments are
caused by it. During an outbreak of influenza at
Berlin, Schfinbein states that the air contained a
large quantity of ozone ; a circumstance confirmed
by Dr Pietra-Santa during the prevalence in
another locality of the same epidemic, which it
was imagined might be caused by the irritating
effect of the ozone on the organs of respiration.
Billard, Wolf, Boeckel, and Strambis all state
that, during the prevalence of cholera at Stras-
bourg, Berlin, and Milan, ozone was absent ftom
the atmosphere, and that the decline of the
malady was marked by ite reappearance. Uhle
ascribes the accumulation of malaria at night to
the non-formation of ozone by solar heat.

The above facte have, however, been disputed
by some ohaervers, whilst others have refused to
regard them as anything more than coincidences,
and have indeed cited evidence of a totally oppo-
site character; thus Orellois has stated that he
found more ozone in a marsh than elsewhere.

Kingzett has shown the incorrectness of
SchOnbein's statement that, when oil of tur-
pentine and other essential oils are oxidised by

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OZONIC ETHER— PADDTNQ

1216

•zpoenre to the air, oione is formed. SehSnbein
was misled because from the oxidised oil and the
air in its vicinity he obtained the oione reaction
with potaasinm iodide.

Kingxett has demonstrated that the compound
can be neither oxone nor hydrogen dioxide,
becaose it is destroyed at the boiling-point of oil
of turpentine, vix. 160°, at which temperatnre
oioM and hydrogen dioxide are permanent ; be-
aides which it resists to a certain extent the
action of sodinm thiosnlphate, and its scdntion in
water retains its properties after long-continned
boiling. Kingse^ believes that the active pro-
perties of the oxidised turpentine oil are dne to
the formation of monohydrated terpene oxide.

One of the moat deUcate tests for oxone is
potaiaiom iodide, either alone or mixed with
starch. A brown coIodt in the former cas«, a
blue in the latter, indicates the liberation of
iodiae. In the oiometer, strips of paper satu-
rated with starch and potassium iodide are ex-
poaed to the action of a definite volume of air in
a dark chamber. The comparative quantities of
OBone in different samples of air are judged of
by the intensity of the colour compared with a
fixed scale on which 1 is the lightest and 10
generally the darkest shade. See OzotronaniB.

Ozone acts as a reducing agent in certain
cnrionB cases. Thus hydrogen peroxide and
oione reduce one another, water and oxygen
being the sole products j and some substuicea,
such as platinum block and manganese peroxide,
convert it into oxygen without suffering change
tiiemselves, being probably oxidised and reduced
alternately.

OaOHIC ETHSB. Ether containing in soln-
tion peroxide of hydrogen and a little alcohol.
Employed as a test for blood, especially in nrine,
it changes the colour of the blood to blue when
mixed with fresh-made tincture of guaiacum.

OZOSOKITEK. This name has been given to
^Kpea prepared with a mixed solution of starch
.and iodide of potassium. It is white, but is
tamed blue iy ozonised air when exposed to it in
a slightly moistened state.

The following are the proportions given by
SchOnban for the preparation of the paper : — 1
part of pMrt iodide of potassium, 10 parts of
■tarch, and 200 of water. Lowe gives 1 part of
iodide to 5 parts of starch ; Hoffatt, 1 part to 2i
port*. The starch must be treated with warm
water and filtered, so that a clear solution is ob-
tained.

The iodide is dissolved in another portion of
water, bud gradually added. The paper, cut in
slips and previously soaked in distilled water, is
placed in the mixed iodide and starch for several
hoars; and, lastly, slowly dried in a cool dark
place, the slips being hung horizontally. SchOn-
bein's papers require moistening with water after
exposure before the trial is taken.

Fayen's ozonometer, which is an improvement
on the above, is made of red litmus paper with
half its surface impregnated with a 1% solution
of potaasinm iodide. The portion of the paper
becomes blue by contact with air containing
onme, in consequence of oxidation and the for-
mation of potash. The unimpregnated portion
of the paper undergoes no change unless the air

contains ammoniacal vapours, and then the paper
becomes bine over its entire surface.

BOttger has suggested the use of papers im-
pregnated with thallious oxide, as this substance
18 not changed by the action of nitrogen oxides.

Davy states that he has obtained very satisfac-
tory results in the estimation of ozone in the
atmosphere by employing a mixture of iodide of
potassium and arsenite of potassium.

The value of the ozonometer as an indicator of
atmospheric ozone must be looked upon as un-
certain, when it is borne in mind that there are
other bodies besides ozone frequently present in
the air, such as nitrous acid, chlorine, Ac, which
give similar reactions with the above reagents.

VACKtaSQ. Sfn. PAKioHe, Packioho,
CHQiBaa WBITB COPFBR. An alloy of copper,
sine, and nickel, containing also traces of iron.
It has been manufactured for several hundred
years in China and the East Indies. An analysis
by F^e is as follows : — Copper = 40*4, zinc =
25-4, nickel = Sl-6, iron = 26. Total =
100<K

iVap., ^e. White, slightly ductile, and per-
manent at ordinary temperatures; at a tempe-
rature below that of redness it suffers decompo-
sition, with the extrication of fumes of arsenions
acid. Formerly much used for the scales of
thermometers and other instruments, dial-plates,
candlesticks, Ac It is now almost superseded
by the alloy of nickel and copper called German
silver, to which the name is also applied by some
recent writers.

FACKlSQ. As there is considerable art in
packing brittle hollow-ware, as glass, china, Ac,
in such a way that it will stand exposure to the
jolting, blows, and agitation of land carriage, it
is better, when it is of much value, or in quantity,
to employ a person qualified for the job. A man
accustomed to poclang such articles may be
readily procured at any glass-works or china
warehouse for a trifling consideration. When
this cannot be done, it must be recollected that
the great secret of safe packing consists in tiie
articles being carefully preserved from undue
pressure or contact with each other, yet so firmly
arranged, and so surrounded with some material
as hay, straw, sawdust, &c, that they cannot be
shaken into such a condition by the ordinary con-
tingaicies of transport. Loose packing must
always be avoided.

VADTUSB. Among calico printers this term
is applied to the operation of impregnating tho
pores of their cloth with a mordant. It is now
almost exclusively performed by means of a
simple piece of machinery (padding machine),
which essentially consists of a 'large reel,'
around which the unprepared cloth is wound;
a ' guide- roller,' over which it passes to smooth
and adjust it before entering the liquor ; a copper
cylinder, or ' dip-roller,' nearly at the bottom of
the ' mordant-trough,' under which it is carried
from the guide-roller; a half-round polished
' stretched bar,' to give it equal tension ; a pair
of ' padded cylinders,' to remove superfluous
moisture ; and, lastly, a ' reel ' to receive the
mordanted ('padded') cloth. The degree of
tension is regulated by a weight suspended on a

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1816

PAINTER'S CKBAIC— PAINTING

lever, and motion is given to the whole by an
endleu band from the driving shaft. This msdiine
is also applicable to many of the operations of
dyeing, bleaching, and starching textile fabrics.

PAINT'XB'B CBEAH. Frep. Talie of pale
nnt oil, 6 oz. ; mastic, 1 oz. ; dissolve, odd of
sugar of lead, \ oz., previously gronud in the least
{KHsible quantity of oil; then further add of
water q. s. gradually, until it acquires the consist-
ence of cream, working it well all the time. Dsed
by painters to cover their work when they are
■obligud to leave it for some time. It may be
washed off with a sponge and water.

FAIHT'OTO. The art or employment of laying
on colour. In theJIiM arU, the production of a
picture or a resemblance in colours on a flat sur-
face. The artistic and mechanical consideration
of this subject does not come within the province
of our volume ; but notices of the leading materials
-employed by both artists and house-painters are
■given under the respective names. See the various
pigments, Colovbb, Oils, Vabkuhh, Ac, and
•ia/ow.

Painting, Olstem'per. A method of painting
generally adopted by the ancients. Water was
the principal medium, but various gelatinous and
albuminous ' binders ' were added to fix the pig-
-ments. Of these the most important were glue,
size, and white of egg. In modem distemper, as
executed by the painters of theatrical scenery,
panoramas, &c., spirit of tnri>entine is largely
employed aa a medium.

Painting, Elydor'ic. A method of punting
invented by M. Vincent, of Montpelior, having
(for its object to combine the fresh appearance
and fluish of water-colours with the mellowness
of oil painting. The liquid employed as a vehicle
for the pigments is an emulsion formed of oil and
water by the intervention of certain portions of
gum or mucilage.

Painting, Znain'al. In this variety of painting
■vitriflable colours are laid on thin plates of metals
and fused into them. The outline is first burnt in,
after which the parts are filled up gradually, with
repeated fusions at an enameller's lamp, to the
most minute finishing touches. " The enamel
painter has to work, not with actual colonrs, bnt
with mixtures which he only knows from experi-
ence will produce certain colours after the opera-
tion of the fire " I^AiJarC).

Painting, Sneans'tic. This method is very
ancient, bnt is now seldsm practised. According
-to Pliny, the colours were made up into crayons
with wax, and the subject being traced on the
ground with a metal point, they were melted on
'the picture as they were used. A coating of
melted wax was then evenly spread over all,
and when it had become quite cold was finally
polished.

The art of encaustic painting, after lying dor-
mant for about fifteen centuries, was revived by
Count Caylus in 1763. In its new form the
wood or canvas to be painted on is first well
rubbed over with wax, ajid then held before the
fire, so that the wax may penetrate and fill up
all the interstices, and form a perfectly even sur-
face. The coloured pigments are next mixed with
the powder noticed below, which is then rubbed
smooth with some thick gum-water, and applied

with brushes in the same manner as ordinary
water-colours. When the painting is finished,
and quite dry, it is bmshed over with pure white
wax in a melted state, the surface being eqnaliaed
by the skilful application of heat; it is, Uwtly,
polished off, as before.

The Powder. To white wax, melted in an
earthen pipkin, add, in small portions at a time,
an equal wmght of powdered mastic, stirring
continuously until the whole is incorporated ;
then pour it into cold water, and afterwards re-
duce it to powder in a wedgwood-ware mortar,
A small quantity only of this powder is need with
light colours; bnt more is required with ihe
darker ones, until, on approaching black, tha two
may be mixed in almost equal proportions.

Painting, Pres'co. This method of pMntiiig
was known to the ancient Kgyptians, aad vnw
commonly practised by the Greeks and Romans.
It is confined to the decoration of the walla of
buildings, and is executed by incorporating the
colours with the still moist plaster, or gesso. The
pigments employed are entirely mineral or vit-
reous. As it is extremely difficult to alter the
work after the colours are once absorbed, or
after the ground has hardened, the whole moat be
carefully designed before commencing the inctaTCh
and no more commenced at once. than can be
executed during the day.

Of all the varieties of painting, fresoo is "nn»
doubtedly the most virile, most sure, most reao>
lute, and most durable " ( VatarC), and the one
most adapted for the purposes of historical paint-
ing in its grandest and most exalted forms. In
comparison with it, it has been said that even taH
painting is " emplc^ent fit only for women and
children " (IGehatl Angela).

Painting, Glass. See Staikkd Glass.

Painting, OiL This well-known and mnch*
practised method of painting takes its name
from the vehicle employed for the colours. The
last may be any of those of a permanent character,
and whose natural tint is not altered by admix*
tnre with oil. Linseed, nut, and poppy oil are
those which are principaUy employed. The first
requires the addition of ' driers,' and hence is
generally used under the form of ' boiled oil.'
Spirit of turpentine is commonly used to thin
down the prepared colours, and the finished
picture is frequently covered with a coat of
varnish.

Painting, Por'calain. See Pottxbt, STAnras
Glass, Ac.

Painting, Vel'vet. Any of the ordinary non-
corrosive pigments or liquid colours, thickened
with a little gum, may be employed in this
art; preference being, however, given to those
that possess the greatest brilliancy, and whidi
dry without spreading. See Stains, Sec

Painting, Water-colonr. In its strictest and
modem sense, ' water-colour painting ' means the
painting on'paper with colours diluted with water.
The English school of water-colour painting haa
produced works which bear comparison with the
great masterpieces in oil, and even suipaaa them
in the delicacy of atmospheric effects. The old
practice of making the entire drawing in light
and shade by washes of Indian ink or neatnl
tints, and then adding the various local oolonia in

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tniuparent washes, hM g^T«n place to the more
healthy system of painting eveiy ol^t in its
appropriate local colour at the ontaet.

f AIVmrGS. Uany Taloable paintings saffer
prematare decay from the attacks of a micro-
scopic insect) a species at acams or mite. The
beet method of preventing this variety of decay
is to add a little creasote (dissolved in brandy or
Tinegar),Qrafev grains each of corrosive goblimate
•nd sal-ammoniac (dissolved in a little water) to
the paste and gine used to line the pictnre, as well
as to add a few drops of pore creasote or of an al-
coholic or ethereal solution of corrosive subBmate
to the varnish, when any is to be applied. If the
deatniction alluded to has already commenced the
painting should be at once carefully cleaned and
lelined, observing to employ one or other of the
remedies just mentioned.

The most appropriate and only safe situation
in which to keep paintings is where there is a
pare and moderately dn^ atmosphere. To pro-
tect pictures from the effects of cbmp it has been
•nggested to dip the canvas into a solution of
^cate of potash, and afterwards di^ it, previous
to its being used. Impure air abounds in carbonic
acid and sulphuretted hydrogen. It is the pre-
sence of the last in the air that blackens the
'lights,' and causes most of the 'middle tints'
and ' shades ' to fade ; and it is exposure to damp
that produces mouldiness and decay of the canvas.
For this reason valuable paintings should not be
kept in churches, nor suspended against heavy
walls of masonry, especially in badly ventilated
buildings. Excess of light, particularly the direct
rays of the sun, also acts injuriously on paintings,
since it bleaches some colours and darkens others.

The blackened lights of old pictures may be
instantly restored to their originttl hue by touch-
ing them with peroxide of hydrogen, diluted with
6 or 8 times its weight of pure water. The part
must be afterwards washed with a clean sponge
and water. The most astonishing results have
been produced in this way. See Pxbozjdb or

HTSBOaBX.

Fettenkofer, observing the colours of many of
the oil paintings in the Munich galleries appa-
rently fading, discovered that the dim and grey
appearance they then presented was not really due
to any decay of colour, but to a discontinuity of
the molecules of the vehicle, snd the resinous sub-
stances mixed with the pigments, the effect of
which was to break up and lessen the mass of
transparent colour, and to diminish its intensity.
Tins separation from each other of the alternate
partides he conceived was owing to the shrinking
and contraction they underwent after long years
of exposure to a moist atmosphere. To remedy it
Fettenkofer subjected the affected picture to two
rimple processes, which he is said to have found
absolutely successful. The ilrst, which he terms
the 'regeneration' process, consists in enclosing
the pictnre in a flat box, where it is exposed to
the vaponra of alcohol, part of which being ab-
sorbed by the resinous molecules, restores them to
their original volume. Hence it follows that the
gaps between the molecules being thus filled up,
there is presented to the eye a continuous mass of
transparent colour, as when the picture was freshly
painted.

voit. n>

In the previous operation the re^ons con-
stituents only of the picture have been acted npon
and restored to their normal condition. The
hardened molecules of the oil which have been
employed as a vehicle have likewise diminished in
bulk nom the same causes, and in so doing have
contributed to the lessening of the brightness of
the picture. In cases where it is fonud the in-
creased volume of resinous particles hag failed to
fill up the intervals between the shrunken oil
molecules, Fettenkofer subjects the pictnre to a
further process. In this, which he terms ' nonr-
ishing it,' the picture is simply mbbed over with
balsam of oop^ba.

Oil, which was formerly employed for this
purpose, is rmy strongly condemned by Fet-
tenkofer.

Oil paintings, as probably most of oar readers
are aware, are mostly executed either on wood
(' panel') or canvas, now principally on the latter.
Both these substances have to undergo a prelimi-
nary operation, known as ' priming,' the priming
being, in short, the ground on which the paint is
placed. This priming may consist either of a
number of layers composed of a mixture of chalk
or plaster with paste or glue, or else of a series of
ooats of oil colour. When a canvas or panel is
prepared with the former it is called 'distemper
priming J ' when with the Utter, 'oil priming.'
The distemper is the more quickly prepared,
but is open to tiie objection of bieing easily
broken, and of a liability to absorb moisture,
which renders it apt to separate from the canvas.

If the priming be of oil colour it is desirable
that the chief pigment used in making it should
be white-lead, and that if any other colours are
added they should be in comparatively small
quantities. Dr H. Liebreich cites an example in
which a departure from this precaution, perse-
vered in from the middle of the 16th to that of
the 17th century, by a celebrated school of
Italian painters (the Bologna), has resulted in
the destruction in their works of all the glazing
of the picture, "so that those colours only can be
recognised which either contain white, or are
glazed on white." Furthermore, that the dark
priming used by these artists has caused the dark
parts of their pictures to become still darker.

This priming, which was of a reddish-brown
colour, was composed of a mixture of bole Ar-
menian and ntnber ; and it is conjectured it was
employed with the object of modifying or soft-
ening too violent contrasts of light and dark
ooloors, and thus of easily securing efFective '
chiaroscuro, and of uding rapid execution.

The Dutch and Flemish painters moatiy em-
ployed a light-coloured priming; sometimes it
was of a light oak colour. Vandyke is said to
have used grey grounds for his pictures, and in
some few instances dull red ones ; and since his
pictures are free from the objectionable qualities
met with in the works of the Bologna artists, it
has been surmised that in this method of work-
ing he had recourse to impasto colouring.

In the selection of wood, which is subsequently
to be aged for the picture, considerable jnd^ent
and experience are required, that from the tough-
est and soundest oaks, nut trees, or cedar being
sought after. The catting it into boards, and

77

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seMoning it, are aUo points exacting » great
amoQut of time and care.

The backs of mctarea, if made of wood, in
addition to their liability to attacks from inucta,
not nnfreqnently warp, or fiuorea form in them,
or they may become hopelessly rotten.

When the picture warps, it shonid be moist-
ened with water at the bs[ck, on which it should
be laid for 24 hours, at the end of which time, or
sometimes less, it becomes perfectly straight.
Fissures may be filled up by pieces of wood cut
to the reqaired size. Small pieces of rotten
wood, if not too near the painting, may be cnt
out, and the gaps filled np with wedge-shaped
pieces of wood. Where the loss is insignificant
it may be stopped'up with cement. When the
panel is very rotten and decayed, it may be ne-
cessary to remove the picture from it altogether,
and to place it either on a new panel, or upon
what Dr Liebreich regards as better still, a piece
of canvas.

This is by no means so formidable and as-
tonishing an operation as it may at first sight
appear; in short, as will be directly shown, the
picture may, if necessary, be freed from its prim-
ing even, without any difficolty.

Hacqnin, of Paris, was one of the first to re-
move an oil painting from its base, and to place
it upon a new one. He did this with one of
Raphael's Madonnas, in the gallery of the
Louvre ; and the same treatment has since been
extended to the ' Resurrection of Lazarus,' by
Sebastian del Piombo, one of the pictures in onr
National Gallery. This process is generally ac-
complished as follows :

" First of all the surface of the pictore is
pasted over with gauze and paper; after that the
wood is made straight by moistening, or, if
necessary, by making incisions with the saw, into
which cuneiform pieces of wood are driven. By
means of a tenon-saw the panel is to be sawn
into little squares, which must be removed by a
chisel, and in this way the thickness of the wood
- is reduced to half an inch j it is then planed until
it becomes no thicker than paper, and the rest is
removed by means of a knife and with the fingers.

"The painting being thus severed from its
liasis, it can be fixed on canvas if the priming is
sufficiently preserved. In the opposite case a
mixtnre made of chalk and glue, or something of
£he kind, must be put on first, and very evenly
smoothed after being dry. This done, the new
'Canvas has to be fixed upon it by means of a
mixtore of glue, varnish, and turpentine, and the
:Substanoe of the picture pressed tightly and
evenly against it by mean* of warm irons"
{LiebrejM).

Defects in the priming of an oil punting,
when they are confined to a slight separation of
ithe priming of a canvas, may be remedied by
goring into the gap caused by the severance a
little solution of size, and then pressing the sepa-
rated surfaces gently together. Slight cracks
must be filled up with fresh priming.

For paintings in which the whole of the prim-
ing seems insecure, or has extensively separated
from the canvas, it is recommended to remove
them entirely from the old basis and to transfer
them to new panels or canvas.

The property of nnchangeableness or indispo-
sition to fade, as exemplified in the retention
of its freshness of colour by a pictnre, is one
which, it is asserted, is very much more gene-
rally met with in the pictures of the Italian
(from the Italian school must be excepted that
of Bologna) and Dnteh painters of the 16th,
16th, and 17th centuries, than in those of the
French and English schools of the last hundred
years. Opinions have been advanced in explana-
tion of tills drcnmstance. One is, that the older
masters nsed pigments and vehicles of much
greater purity and freedom from adnlteraiioil
than the latt^ generations of painters ; another,
that they worked by a method and prepared
their colours by a process unknown since thdr
time, — in fact, that they were possessed of a tech-
nical secret, which, as they never divulged it,
has died with them ; a third, that they had cludce
of many colonrs nnknown in the present day.

One of the later and most valuable contribn-
tions to onr knowledge of these points has been
made by Dr B. Liebreich, in his lecture ' On the
Deterioration of Oil Paintings,' delivered at the
Royal Institution, March 1st, 1878, which also
embraces the practical deductions to be drawn
from the results of his investigation*. The plan
adopted by Liebreich for unravelling the so-
called secret by which the old masters so gene-
rally contrived to secure permanency for thrir
colours was ingenious and logical ; it cousuted in
dissecting the structure and chemically analysing
the pigments, vehicles, &c., of the picture* of the
pupils of the great masters; for "fortunately
they painted with the same material and by the
same methods as the masters, and thousands
of picture* by the pupils, well preserved and in
different stages of decay, may be easily secured."

The third explanation, previously given as a
reason for the superior durability of the oolonr-
ing of the old over the later oil paintings. Is thus
disposed of by him. He says :

" We meet very often with the idea that the
old masters had been in possession of colours,
that i*, pigments, the knowledge of which has
been lost, and that this accounts principally for
the difference between the oil painting of the
15th and 16th centuries, on the one hand, and
that of the 18th and 19th on the other. But this
is a great mistake. We know perfectly well the
pigments used by the old masters ; we possess the
same and a considerable number of new ones,
good as well as bad, in addition."

He adds, " In using the expression of good and
bad, I am thinking principally of their durability.
From this point of view the pigments can be
placed under three headings :

" 1. Those that are durable in themselves, and
also agree well with the other pigments with
which they have to be mixed.

" 2. Such as when sufficiently isolated remain
unaltered, but when in contact with certain other
pigments change colour, or alter the others, or
produce a reciprocal mocUfication.

" 8. Those which are so little durable that, even
when isolated from other pigments, the mere
contact of the vehicle, the air, or the light
makes them in time fade, darken, or disappear
altogether.

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1219

"Tt« old matter* uted wUiout mem onlg
i>o*» belongiufftothtftrtt efthe*» three aategoriet.
for t\o»e belonging to tke teeond theg impMed on
iAoauehat eertain limit* and mreeantiom. TAoie
belonging to tie third they didnotuteat all.

" That some of the modem masten have not
followed these principles is not owing to a lost
secret, bat to the fact that they disregarded those
well-known principles, and eren consciously acted
against them. In Sir Joshna Reynolds' diary,
for instance, we read that in order to produce
eertain tints of flesh he mixed orpiment, carmine
lake, and bine-black together.

" Now, orpiment is one of the colours of the
-second category, carmine lake one of the tiiird.
That is to say, orpiment, as long as it remains
isolated, keeps its brilliant yellow or reddish-
orange colour; bnt when mixed with white-lead
it decomposes, becanse it consists of snlphnr and
arsenic ; and it moreover blackens the white-lead,
because the snlphnr combines with it. Carmine
lake, even if left isolated, does not stand as an oil
colonr, and therefore has been superseded by
madder lake.

" Unfortunately some of the most brilliant colours
are perishable to snch a degree that they ought
never to be used; yet it seems to me that just in
' one branch of art, in which of late remarkable
progress has been made — I mean landscape paint-
ing— the artists, in order to obtain certain effects
of colonr not easy to be realised, do not always
resist the temptation to make use of a number of
pigments, the non-durability of which Is proved
beyond doubt."

Another point which Dr Liebreich regards as
of mnch more importance even than the selection
and treatment of their pigments, and in which he
says the old masters exercised great discretion,
was the more sparing use of the vehicles and
liquids they mixed with their colours.

He points out that there are certidn pigments
which, when mixed with the oil, impede its dry-
ing, whilst others there are which halten it.
" Supposing now," he says, " we shonld add to
each of the different pigments the same quantity
of oil, the drying of it would progress at different
rates. Bnt in reality this difference is very greatly
increased by the fact that the different pig-
ments require very different quantities of oil, in
order to be ground to the consistency requisite
for painting."

Pettenkofer quotes the following figures given
to him by one of the colour manufacturers :

100 poU (weight) White-lead

requi

re IS parte of oil

^

,j

Zinc wbite

^j

14

^

>*

Green chrome

i>

U

II

«»

»

Chrome yellow

»>

19

II

M

II

Vermilion

85

If

light red

II

81

^

>»

Hadder lake

63

Yellow oelire

M

"

M

,j

Light ochre

II

78

11

76

•1

Brown manganeie

^^

87

!'

Terre-Tcrte

,^

100

Pariiian bine

10«

Bnnit terre-Tcrte

113

11

BerUn hiae

IIS

w

|»

iTorr black

II

lis

II

CobaU

135

yiorentine brown

ij

ISO

^^

Bnmt terra licnna

181

)■

I*

Baw terra sienna

1*

140

*t

According to this table a hundred parts of
the qnick-drying white-lead are ground with
18 parts of oil ; and on the other hand, slow-
drying ivory black requires 112 parts of oil.

It is very important that artists shonld have
an exact knowledge of these matters. But it
seems to me that they are insufficiently known
to most of them. All, of course, know perfectly
how different the drying quality of different
colours is. But that these different colours intro-
duce into the picture so different a quantity of
the oil, and how largo the quantity is in the
colours they buy, and, farther, that the oil as
well as the mediums or siccatives they add to dry
the colours are gradually transformed into a caout-
chouo-like opaque substance, which envelops and
darkens the pigments, and, moreover, that the oil
undergoes, not in the beginning, bnt much later
on, when it is already completely dry, changes uf
volume, and so impairs the continni^ of the pic-
ture—all this is not sufficiently known ; otherwise
the eostom of painting with the ordinary oil
colours, to be bought at any oolourman's, would not
have been going on for nearly a hundred years, in
spite of all the clearly shown evil results — results
due chiefly to the principal enemy of oil painting,
that is to say, the oil.

A close optical examination and accurate study
of the pictures of the French and English mas-
ters of the last hundred years have revealed to
Dr Liebreich their principal defects, which he
says are —

1. Darkening of the opaque bright colours.

2. Fading of the transparent brilliant colours.
8. Darkening, and, above all, cracking of the

transparent dark colours. He states that these
cracks are so characteristic and distinctive of the
pictures of this period tiiat they might be used as
a test as to whether or not a picture really be-
longed to this school, or was only a copy.

'Hiis peculiar cracldng in the paint is, accord-
ing to Dr Liebreich, particularly observable in
Guericault's 'Wreck of the Hednsa' in the
Louvre, and also in Ingres' ' Portrait of Cherubini ;'
and as the same effect is not to be seen in the
works of the Dutch and Italian artists, the very
rational inference to be drawn is that the methods
followed by these schools were sounder than those
adopted by their English and French successors.
Dr Liebreich believes the cracks were owing to
the practice of painting over one colour with
another before the first was perfectly dry.

"The study of the alterations," says Dr Lie-
breich, " already fully developed within the last
hundred years only, and their comparison with the
works of the old masters, would suggest the fol-
lowing roles for the process of painting :

"1. Tliat the oil shonld in all colours be re-
duced to a minimum, and under no form shonld
more of it than absolutely necessary be introduced
into a picture.

"2. All transparent colours which dry very
slowly should be ground, not with oil at all, but
with a resinous vehicle.

" 8. No colour should be put on any part of
a picture which is not yet perfectly dry, and,
above all, never a quick-drying colonr upon a
slowly drying one which is not yet perfectly dry.

"4. White and other quick-drying opaqut,

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eoloan nuy be pot on thickly. On the
tnoMfuent and slowly drjing eaiaua aboi
•Iwmyi be pot on in thin layers. If the effect of
• thick Uyer of these ktter is reqoired it most
be produced fay Imying one thin Liyer orer snother,
taking care to bare one oompletMy dry befon the
next is laid on. If transpanot CMOon are mixed
with snffident qoaatity </ white-lead they may be
treated like opaqoe ones."

Dr Liebreich oondndes his interesting lectore
with some jodicioos advice on the sobjeet of pie-
tore cleaning, and points oot that, since diflerent
^ctnres reqoire to be differently operated opon,
all aniversal agents and methods soggested for
the pnrpose ate open to suspicion, and shoold be
discarded.

For pictoies the Tarnish of which has become
cracked or dim he recommends PetteiAaCer's
treatment with alooholised vapour, already de-
scribed. For those in which tlie varnish may
have become dark yellow, brown, or dirtj, he ad-
vises its removal altogether, being very cwef al to
specify the condition* under wbi& thu shoold be
accomplished, and the risk the picture may run
of being spoiled if entrusted to an omntelligent
and ignorant manufacturer. " If a picture," he
says, " is thronghout painted in oil, if its snbd«noe
has remained sound and even, and it has been
varnished with an easily soluble mastich or
dammar varnish, there will be neither difficulty
nor danger in removing the varnish. This can,
in such a case, be done either by a dry process —
that is, by rubbing the surface with the tips of
the fingers, and thus reducing the varnish by de-
grees to a fine dnst — or by dissolving the varnish
by application of liquids which, when brought
only for a short time into contact with the oil
painting, will not endanger it. We have, how-
ever, seen that the works of the old masters sre
not painted with oil colonrs like those used by
modem punters, but, on the contrary, tjiat cer-
tain pigments, and especially the transparent
oolonrs used for glazing, were ground only with
resinous substances. These latter have in the
conne of time been so thoroughly imited with the
layer of varnish spread over the surface of the

Sicture that there no longer exists any decided
mit between the picture and the varnish. It is
in such pictures that a great amount of expe-
rience and knowledge of the process used for the
picture, as well as precaution, are required, in
order to take away from the varnish as much only
as is indispenssble, and without interfering with
the picture itself.

"Numberless works of art have been irre-
parably injured by restoters, who, in their eager-
ness to remove dirt and varnish, attacked the
painting itself. They then destroyed just that
last finishing touch of the painting without which
it is no longer a masterfnece."

"The cleaner is, then, reminded that if the
removal from the pictures of their varnish, when
this is known to consist of a spirituous solution
of the gum mastich or dammar, requires the
amount of discretion and judgment before speci-
fied, still greater care and prudence are necesaaiy
when dealing with pictures whose surfaces have
been covered with oil, oil varnish, or oleo-resinons
Tarnish. All these substances, which in time

men or Ich ohacnra the ^tnre, fonn on its face
a dark and opaqoe film, and this frequently
nqoires for its removal tlie application of aoma
agent, which, in dissolving the layer of vamiab, ia
very liable at the saise time to dissolve the anb-
ataaoe of tlie inctare alM."

As a leoent inatuoe of the iqjoikMa eCects of
iiQDdiciooa cleaning, Dr Liebreich mentioM the
eaae of a valoaUe pictore in the Fitti Palace, at
Fknnca, the 'St. John of Andrea del Saito.'
The softnesa of the ootline at the face of the
figore, which he remembers pnvioDS to its
attempted restoration, had been eutinly de-
stroyed, which disastrons resolt Dr liiehreich
conceived had been caused by the entire removal
at the glazing.

A new method for elcaniag pictnres ia dMcribed
by E. Von Bihra in the 'Journal fur Ftsktiscbe
Chemie.' A very indistinct tnl painting was freed
from dost with a feather, washed with a sponge
and water, and then covered for eight minotea
with a layer of shaving soap. The soap was then
washed A with a brash and then left to dry. It
was next thorooghly cleaned with linen doth
soaked in nitro-beDXol. The picture was now
distinct, hot tiie colonrs dull. Finally, it waa
treated with olive oil. and a coating of quick-
drying varnish hud on ('Academy,' May 6th,
1878). In giving insertion to the above, we do
not venture to give an opinion as to its valoc or
the reverse. We would recommend it to be read
side by ude with Dr liebreich's advice on picture
cleaning, given above. — Ed. See Wi.xxR-coi<ouii8,

SmCT OP IiISHT OH.

FAOnCS. In trade, this term is commonly
q>plied to pigments ground with (»1 to a thick
paste, ready to be ' thinned down ' with oil or
turpentine to a consistence adapted for application
witJi a brush.

Paints are prepared on the small scale by
grinding the dry pigments with the oil by means
of a stone and miUler ; on the large scale they are
ground in a colour mill. There are several pig-
ments, as King's yellow, Scheele's green, verdigris,
whito-lead, Ac, which from their poisonous cha-
racter cannot be safely ground by hand, except in
very small qnantities at a time, and then only by
the exercise of extreme caution.

In mixing or thinning down paints for use it
may be useful to mention that, for outdoor work,
boiled oil is prindpally or wholly employed,
unless it be for the decorative parts of houses,
when a portion of turpentine and pale linseed oil
is often added. For indoor work, linseed oil,
turpentine, and a little ' driers ' are generally
osed in the same way. The smaller the propor-
tion of oil employed for the purpose, the less will
be the gloss, and the greater the ultimate hard-
ness of the coating. For ' flatted white,' &c., the
colour being ground in oil, requires scarcdy any
further addition of that ajiicle, as the object is
to have it ' dead ' or dull. The best driers are
ground litharge and ground sugar of lead ; the
first for dark and middle tints, and the last for
light ones.

To preserve mixed paints in pots from ' skin-
ning over ' or drying up, they should be kept
constantly covered with water; or, what is bett^,
with a thin film of linseed oil.

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PALAMOND— PALMITIC ACID

Bmslies, when ont of lUe, majr b« preRerred in
a rimilar manner to mixed punta. Wben dirty,
or reqaired for a paint of auothA- eotoar, they
may be cleaned with a little oil of tatpentine,
which may be either preserved ftxr the eame pur-
pose another time, or may be allowed to depoait
Its colour, and then nsed to thin down paints as
usual. In no case, however, shonld it be thrown
bad: into the cistern or pan with the pnre
'tnrp«.'

Faints, nsz'ible. Pnp. Take of good yellow
BOap (cat into slices), 2^ lbs. ; boiling water, 1^
galls.; dissolve, and grind the solation whilst hot
with good oil paint, l| cwt. Used to paint canvas.

Faints, yitrlfl'ahle. See Bhahbi,, Oiazb,
Staxkbd Glass, Ac.

FALAKOBI). Chocolate, 1 oz. ; rice flour, 4 ot. ;
potato arrowroot, 4 os. ; red sanders, in fine

rwder, 1 dr. Mix. (In the above, by chocolate
meant the cacao beans roasted and pnlverised
without addition. Indian arrowroot, or tons-
les-moit, may be sabstitnted for tiie potato
arrowroot.)

FALLA'DIUM. Pd-I06S. A rare metal
discovered by Dr Wollaston in the ore of plati-
num, in 1803. It occurs in a fairly pure condi-
tion along with Brazilian platinum ore, and to
aome extent in most ores of platinum. It is alao
found associated with gold in the Hart, and in
several parts of South America.

Prep. 1. A solution of the ore of platinum in
aqua regia, from which most of the metal has
been precipitated by chloride of ammonium, is
neutralised by carbonate of sodium, and then
treated with a solution of cyanide of mercury;
the white insoluble precipitate (cyanide of palla-
dinm) is next washed, dried, and heated to red-
ness ; the residuum of the ignition (spongy palla-
dium) is then submitted to a gradnaUy increased
pressure, and welding at a white heat, so as to
form a button, in a similar manner to that
adopted with platinum. — Prod. Columbian ore
of platinum, 1% ; Uralian do., 0-25% to 0-75% .

2. The native alloy of gold and palladium (from
the Brazils) is submitted to the operations of
qoartation and parting, the nitric acid employed
being of the density of I'S ; the silver is next
precipitated from the solution by means of a
aolntion of common salt or dilute hydrochloric
acid, and the decanted supernatant liquid, after
evaporation to one half, is neutraUaed with
ammonia, and concentrated so that crystals may
form; these (chloride of palladium and am-
monium) are cautiously washed in a little veiy
oold water, dried, mixed with borax, and exposed
in a crucible to tiie strongest heat of a powerful
blaat-fumace, when a solid button of pure palla-
dium is formed.

Prop., 4*0, Palladium closely resembles pla-
tanom in appearance, fusibility, malleability,
and ductility ; but it is less dense, and has a
rather more silvery colour than that metal ; it is
freely soluble in aqua regia, and is slowly attacked
by nitric acid, but the other acids exert little or no
action on it ; heated to redness in the air, a very
superficial blue or purple film of oxide forms on
the surface, which is again reduced at a white
heat. It mehs at US' (Wedgwood). Sp. gr.
11-4 at 22-6° (JDniUa and DOrag). It readily

1821

unites with copper, silver, and some other metals,
by fusion.

_ Tettt. 1 . The hydrochloric acid solation is pre-
cipitated by potassium cyanide as yellowish-white
cyanide of palladium, soluble in both hydrochloric
acid and ammonia. 2. The nentral solutions of
palladium are precipitated in the metallic state
by ferrous sulphate, dark brown by sulphuretted
hydn^en, and yellowish white by cyanide of
mercury. S. A drop of tincture of iodine placed
on the surface of metallic palladium, and then
evaporated by the heat of a spirit lamp, leaves a
black spot. By the last two tests palladiom is
readily distinguished ih>m platinum.

Ut»t. It has been employed to form the scales
of mathematical and astronomical instmment',
and is nsed in dentistry. Its alloy with silver is
a vety valuable white metal. It is also nsed for
making t^ smaller divisions of grain and gramme
weighte. Palladium is not tarnished by sul-
phuretted hydrogen. An alloy of 1 part of palla-
dium and 100 parts of steel is well adapted for
cutting instruments which require to be perfectly
smooth on the edge. The palladious and palladic
salts are not of commercial interest.

PAUnMC ACID. CuHn.COiH. It is the
flrat of the fatty acids which occnr ns glycerides
in vegetable and animal fats, and form true soaps
with the alkalies ; palm oil largely contains it
as palmitin, which is also found in notable quan-
tities in spermaceti and beeswax.

Prap. 1. By the action of potash on oleic add
(new commercial process).

2. (Small scale.) Palm oil is boiled with
potash; dilute sulphuric acid is added to the
solution, which precipitates palmitic and oleic
acids. The precipitate is washed and dried, dis-
solved in hot alcohol, from which solution the
palmitic acid crystallises ont.

S. (Large scale.) Palm oil is decomposed by
superheated steam in a still; the volatile pro-
ducts of the reaction condense in the receiver and
separate into two layers, of which the lower con-
sists of glycerine and water, and the upper oily
layer of palmitic acid. These layers are separated,
and on cooling the npper one forms a white crys-
talline solid, which is used in candle-making.

Prop., ^e. Pnre palmitic acid crystallises in
fine white needles which fuse at 62° C., and con-
geal to a scaly crystalline mass, having a foliated
fracture. It is odourless, tasteless, friable, and
lighter than water, in which it is insoluble; it
dissolves freely in boiling alcohol or ether. It
burns well, and is nsed in the manufacture of
candles.

Sttim. It is usually required to determine
palmitic acid in thepresence of stearic acid. For all
practical purposes the approximate proportion of
each may be fonnd by Muter's method. He mixed
acids are melted, and a little is drawn up into a
pur of glass tabes, drawn out at one end to a long
thin point, until the drawn-out parts are com-
pletely filled. After having been allowed to cool
these tubes are suspended in water with a thermo-
meter between them. Heat is applied and the
temperature noted at the moment when the con-
tents of the tube become transparent. They are
again allowed to cool gradually and the tempera-
ture read off at the instant of re-solidification.

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1328

PALMITIN— PANCEEAS

A safficiently approximate resnlt is obtained by
reference to the following table by Heinti :

Proportion by
wei^t of

FalniiUe

add.
. 10 . .

Mixture

bUsuh
add.
90
80
70
60
60
40
86
80
20
10

Melt*

at

20 . .
80 . .
40 . .
60 . .
60 . .
66 . .
70 . .
80 . .
90 . .

Cent
67-2
66-8
62-9
60-8
66-6
66-3
66-6
661
57-8
60-1

Vahr.
168-00
149-60
146-25
140-50
188-76
183-26
180-26
181-00
1S6-60
140-90

8oUdil«tat

Cent. Fakr.
62-6 . 144-60

60-8
59-3

140-60
188-75

66-6 . 188-76
66-0 . 181-00
64-6 . 180-00
54-8 . 129-76
64-0 . 129-25
53-8 . 128-80
54-6 . 130-10

FAL'MITnr. Syn. TRirAjatvnx. C,H,
(C»H]iO^,. The solid portion of palm oil puri-
fied by first preving oat and then repeatedly
treating it with hot alcohol and ciystallising
from ether. It is also formed when monopalmi-
tin is treated with excess of palmitic acid and the
mixtare kept at 260° — 270° for about eight hours.
It is produced artificially by the action of pal*
mitio acid on glycerine at a nigh temperature.

Berthelot has obtuned and examined a mono-
and a di-palmitin.

Prop., (fv. PMrly white glistening crystals,
which melt at 60-6° C., and which, accordmg to
Mackelyne, after farther heating again ciysti^ise
and then melt at 66*5°. These crystals are very
soluble in ether and moderately soluble in hot
alcohol. By saponification it is converted into
palmitic acid. (See aiove.')

PAIf ITA'TIOH. <%». Palfub, Pawitatio
OOBSis, L. A violent and irregular beating or
action of the heart, either temporary or occa-
sional. When it does not arise from sudden or
violent agitation or distress of mind, it may be
regarded as a symptom of a disturbance of the
nervous functions by disease, in which case at-
tention should be directed to the removal of the
primary affection, which in a very large number
of cases consists in aneamia and dyspepsia. Good
plain food, regpular habits, and proper exercise
will cure most cases of palpitation. Some suitable
tonic is often a useful adjunct to the treatment.

FAL'ST. See Pabaltbib.

PASACE'A. A term formerly applied to those
remedies which were supposed to be capable of
caring all diseases, and still applied to some
quack medicines.

PASADA. See Bbbad Jbixt (under Jb&lt).

PAV'AST PXBHXVTATIOH. The vinoos
fermentation as developed in the dough of bread.

PAir'CAKES. These are essentiaUy fried
batter, variously enriched and flavoured, accord-
ing to the taste of the cook. When they contain
fruit, fish, meat, or poultry, or are highly
seasooed or ornamented, they are commonly

called VBITTBB8.

iVp- (^- Sogtr.) Break 2 to 4 eggs into a
basin, add 4 small table-spoonfuls of flour, 2 tea-
spoonfuls of sugar, and a little salt; beat the
whole well together, adding, by degrees, i pint of
milk, or a little more or less, depending on the
nze of the eggs and the quality of the flour, so
as to form a rather thick batter; next add a little

ginger, cinnamon, or any other flavoar at will;
lastly, put them into the pan, and when set, and
one side brownish, lay hold of the frying-pan at
the extremity of the handle, give it a sadden bat
slight jerk upwards, and the cake will torn over
on theoUier side; when this is brown, XA ap
with sifted sugar, and serve with lemon. See
Fbittbiu.

PA5CBEAS. This gland, known popnlarlv as
the sweetbread, or stomach sweetbread, reseaaDlea
the salivary glands very closely in struetore^ bot
differing greatly from them in the natare of it*
secretion. It lies just below the stomach on the
left side of the body, with its broad end or bead
in the horseshoe bend of the duodenum, in the
centre of which its duct opens, generally by an
opening common to the pancreatic and bile dneta.

The pancreatic secretion produces four distinct
and separate effects upon the food, due probably
to the action of as many distinct ferments, as
follows :

1. Siaatatlc Action, or power of converting
starch into sugar, is mnch more energetic than
that of the salivary ferment acting npon nne as
well as boiled starch.

2. Tryptio Action, or power of converting
proteids into peptones, depends upon the pre-
sence of a ferment called Panereaiin ( CorvUart)
or Frypriu (W. XSJkne). This ferment is ex-
ceedingly energetic, and if a fresh and still warm
pancreas be rubbed up with an equal volume of a
1% solution of acetic add and then extracted
with glycerine, the extract will be found to act
powerfully on proteids. If the action be pro-
longed the peptones are further altered, and
Umai» (C,H„KOj) and tgronn (C^u^Qi) ^t>> •
number of other bodies are produced.

[Putrefactive Phenoaieoa,] If the actico of
the pancreatic fluid be still further prolonged,
and if the fluid be alkaline, a number of fonl-
smelling bodies are produced; indol (CgH^M),
tkatol (C^H)> alio Pftntol (C«H,0). Tltese
changes are due to putrefaction, and may be pre-
vented by the addition of calomel, salicylic acid,
or thymol to the fluid.

3. Action on Keutral Fats. This is twofold :

(a) The formation of a fine permanent MMttum,

(b) The splitting of the fats into glycerine and
the corresponding fatty acid, e.g.

(C.jH.„0^ + 8f H,0) = (C,H,Oi) -t- 8(C„H«0.)
Trutearin. Water. Oljceriae. Stniieacid.

This latter action is due to a special ferment,
the alkaline juice combining with the fat^ acids
to form soaps, and thns by saponification and
emulaification the fats are absorbed.

4. According to Euhne and W. Roberta the
pancreas also contains a l«LK-CTmiiuir» fbx-

HBITT.

Preparation of Feptonisad Food. The follow-
ing directions for the use of 'liqtior panereati-
cus' (Senffer) in the preparation of pepttmised
or p«-tially digested foods are munly reprinted
from Sir Wm. Roberts's ' Lumleian Lectures,' de-
livered before the Royal CoUqre of Phyncians,
London:

1. Peptonited or Partial^ Digetted Food*.—
PeptoHued Mili. Mix three quarters of a pint
of fresh milk with a quarter of a pint of water,
and warm in a saucepan to a temperature of about

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PANCREAS

122S

14(y F., th»t is, aa hot at it can be tasted without
burning the moath ; then poor into a jog or basin,
add 2 teaspoonfals of liquor pancreaticus and half
- a level teaapoonful of bicarbonate of soda, stir,
and place near the fire to keep warm. In a few
minutes a considerable change will have taken
place in the milk, but in most cases it is best to
allow the digestive process to go on from 10 to 20
minntes, according to the degree of peptonisation
or predigestion desired. Partially peptoniaed
milk is scarcely distinguishable in taste from or-
dinary new milk, though it is very much more
digestible. As tbe process of peptonisation or
digestion goes on a slight bitterness is developed,
wMch is unobjectionable to many palates s a few
trials will, however, indicate the limit most ac-
ceptable to the individual patient j and aa soon as
this is reached the milk must, if not required by
the patient at once, be boiled up to prevent the
further action of the liquor pancreaticus. It will
then keep like ordinary milk. The addition of a
little coffee to peptonised milk effectually covers
the slightly bitter taste. If peptonised milk is
eonsamed at the period indicated, that is to say, at
the end of 10 to 20 minutes, it need not undergo
any final boiling; it is better, indeed, to use it
without boiling, because the half-finished pro-
cess of digestion will go on for a time in the
stomach.

PtpUmited Oruel, Arrowroot, ^e. Gruel may
be prepared from any of the numerous farina-
ceous articles which are in common nse — wheaten
flour, oatmeal, arrowroot, sago, pearl barley, pea
or lentil flour. The gruel should be very well
boiled, and made thick and strong. It is then
poured into a covered jug, and allowed to cool to
a lukewarm temperature. Liquor pancreaticus
is then added in the proportion of 2 teaspoonfuls
to the pint of gruel, and the jug is kept warm as
before. After standing half an hour to an hour
the product is boiled and strained. Tbe action of
liquor pancreaticus on gruel is twofold ; tbe starch
of tbe meal is converted into sugar, and the albu-
minoid matters are peptonised. The conversion
of the starch causes the gruel, however thick it
may have been at starting, to become quite thin.
This is often an advantage to the weak invalid,
who can then drink the product with ease, when
thick foods could not be swallowed. Peptonised
proel is nseful as a basis for peptonised sonps,
jellies, blanc-manges, &c.

Ptptonimd MiUe-graal. This may be regarded
aa an artificially digested bread and milk, and as
forming by itself a complete and highly nutri-
tious food for weak digestions. It is very readily
made. ¥mt a good thick gruel is prepared from
any of the farinaceous articles above mentioned.
Tbe gruel, while still boiling hot, is added to an
eqoaf quantity of cold milk, llie mixture will
then be of the required temperature. To each
jAiA of this mixture 2 teaspoonfuls of liquor
pancreaticns and a pinch of bicarbonate of soda
are added. It is kept warm in a covered jug for
half an hour, and then boiled for a few minutes
and strained. Theslightbittemessof the digested
milk is almost completely covered in the pep-
tonised milk-gmel, and invalids take it withont
the least objection. Those who fail to peptonisc
milk-gruel so as to make it acceptable to the

palate and stomach of the patient invariably
allow tbe peptonising process to go on too far, and
in such cases the mixture should be boiled after
standing a shorter time.

Peptonised Ouitard Pudding. A delidonsand
highly nutritive pudding for invalids may be
made as follows : — Take half a pint of peptonised
milk-gmel prepared as above, and allowed to cool
somewhat aiter the final boiling, add to this two
eggs well beaten, with sugar and flavouring to
taste, and bake in a very slow oven.

Peptottited Soup*, Jelliet, and Blane-mangei.
To give variety to peptonised dishes, soups, jel-
lies, and blanc-manges containing peptonised ali-
ments may be prepared, and these, whilst con-
taining a large amount of digested starch and
digested proteids, possess excellent flavour, which
the most delicate palate could not accuse of having
been tampered with. Soups are prepared in two
ways. The first way is to add what cooks call
' stock ' to an equal quantity of peptonised gruel
or peptonised milk-gmel. A second and better
way is to use peptonised gruel, which is quite thiu
and watery, instead of simple water, for tbe pur-
pose of extracting shins of beef and other mate-
rials employed for the preparation of sonp.
Jellies are prepared simply by adding the due
quantity of gelatin or isingUss, previously soaked
in water, to not peptonised gruel, and flavouring
the mixture according to taste. Blanc-manges
are made by treating peptonised milk in the same
way, and then addmg cream. In preparing all
these dishes it is absolutely necessary to complete
tbe operation of peptonising the gruel or the mUk,
even to the final boiling, before adding the stiffen-
ing ingredient; for if Uqaor pancreaticus be al-
lowed to act on the gelatin, the gelatin itself un-
dergoes a process of digestion, and its power of
setting on cooling is utterly abolished.

N.B. Flavouring agents may be added to any
of the above preparations if thought desirable.

Peptomttd Beef-tea. Half a pound of finely
minced lean beef is mixed with a pint of water.
This is simmered for an hour and a half. When
it has cooled down to a lukewarm temperature
(about 140° F.) a tablespoonful of the liquor

rcreaticus is added, and it is then kept warm
two hours, and occasionally stirred. At the
end of this time it is boUed for five minntes, and
the liquid portion, measuring about half a pint, is
strained off. Beef-tea prepared in this way is
rich in peptone, highly nutritions, and of very
agreeable flavour.

2. lAquor Pancreatiout at an Addition to Food
thortbf before it it eaten. Certain dishes com-
monly used by invalids — farinaceous gruels, milk,
bread and milk, milk flavoured with tea or coffee
or cocoa, and soups strengthened with farinaceous
matters or with milk — are suitable for this mode
of treatment. A teaspoonfnl or two of the liquor
pancreaticus should be stirred up with the warm
food as soon aa it comes to table. And such is ,
the activity of the preparation that, even as the
invalid is engaged in eating — if he eat leisurely,
as an invalid should— a change comes over the
contents of the cup or basin : the gruel becomes
thinner; tbe milk alters a shade in colour, or per-
haps curdles softly ; and the pieces of bread soften.
The transformation thus begun goes on for a time

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1X24

PANCBEATISr— PAFAYEBUnS

in the (tomacb, and, before the gaitrie acid puts a
«top to the procesi, the work of mgeaiion ia already
far advanced.

Thia mode of oaing Uauor panereaticoa la simple
and oonTBuient. No addition of alkali ia required,
and of course no final boiling. The only preean-
tion to be obaerred ia that the temperature of the
food, when the liquor is added, doea aotexoeed 160°
F. (66° C). Thia point is rerjr easily ascertained,
for no liquid can be tolerated in the month, even
when taken in sips, which has a temperature
above 140° F. (80° C). If, therefore, the food is
Buffimently cool to be borne in the mouth, the
liquor pancreaticus may be added to it wiijiont
any risk of injuring the activity of the ferments.

8. Xdquor Panereatieut urith or after Meal*.
One or two teaspoonfuls of liquor pancreaticus
may be mixed with a wine-glassfnl of water, and
sipped during meals consisting of starchy or f ari-
naceoDi foods. It may also be taken 2 or 8 hours
<^Ur meals; in the latter case it is well to add
about 15 gr. (half a level teaspoonfhl) of bicar-
bonate of soda, to protect the pancreatic ferments
for a time against ttie action of the acid juices of
the stomach.

4. Liquor Pamertatieut a* an AdtUHou to
Nutritio* Xuemata. Liquor pancreaticus is pecu-
liarly adapted for administration with nutritive
enemata. The enema may be prepared in the
usual way with milk-gmei and beef -tea, and a
dessert-spoonful of liquor pancreaticus should be
added to it just before administration.

"Sofix. ia peptonising or partially digesting
food by means of ' liquor pancreaticus ' (Senger)
it is important to remember that the liquor must
not be added to food of any kind at a higher tem-
perature than 140° F. This temperature can be
estimated with snficient accuracy, should no suit-
able thermometer be at hand, by tasting. If too
hot to rip without burning the mouth it would
entirely destroy the activity of the liquor pan-
creaticus, and must be allowed to cool somewhat
before such addition is made. Artificial digestion,
like cooking, must be regulated as to its degree,
and it is earn to regulate it by the length of time
during whidi the process is allowed to go on. The
practical rule for guidance in peptonising articles
of food contuning milk is to allow the process to
go on until a perceptible bitterness is developed,
bnt not unpleasantly pronounced, and not longer.
As soon as this point is reached the milk or milk-
grnel should be consumed, or, if not required at
once, should be boiled for a minute, so as to put
a stop to fnrther changes which would render
the {oodact less palatable. The eztentof the pep-
tonising action can be regulated eitiberby increas-
ing or diminishing the quantity of the liquor
pancreaticus, or by increasing or diminishing the
time during which it is allowed to act on the food.
The bitter taste referred to is only produced in
articles of food containing milk. In peptonising
these, therefore, it is important not to carry the
process so far as to render them unpalatable.

FAKCSEATDT. (Ori(^<*.) It is obtained from
the pancreas of recently killed animals by treat-
ing the colourless viscous juice with alcohol, and
drying the precipitate in vacuo.

Dr Dobell's ' Crude Pancreatic Emulsion * ia
prepared as follows .—After freeing from fat and

all foreign matters the pancreas of a freiUy
killed pig, H lbs. of porifled pancreas are bmisea
in a marble nortw, uid to it are added 2} Iba. of
lard ] these are wellbeaten together, and then to the ■
mixture 8 lbs. at water are ^ded, very gradually,
so as to ensure the perfect absorption of tse
Utter.

The panereatised tat is prepared by shaking np
1 part of the ' cmde emultion ' with 8 parts of
ether, allowing the mixture to stand, drawing
off the ethereal solution, and carefally distilling
off the ether. The panereatised fat remains. Jit
Dobell says that panereatised fat, unlike the
crude fat, has no tendency to putrefy. His
' puriSed pancreatic emulsion ' is made by mixing
very carefully together 6 parts of panereatised
fat, 7i parts of distilled water, and 2i parts of
rectified spirit, and fiavouring with oil of clovas.

Saoohuutib curokBATiK. Mr Hatdaoa
('American Journal of Riarmacy') adapts the
following process for the preparation of this
substance : — Tlie pancreas is dissected and xoaee-
rated in water acidulated with hydrochloric aod
for about forty-eight hoois, then separated, and
the acidulated solution of pancreas passed tfannigfa
a pnlp filter until it is perfectiy clear. To this
clear solution is then added a saturated solution of
chloride of sodium, which is allowed to stand
until the pancreatin is separated. This is careMty
skimmed off and placed upon a muslin filter, and
allowed to dnun, after which it should be washed
with a less concentrated solution of sodium
chloride and then put nnderthe press. When all
the salt solution has heeai removed, and the mass
is nearly dry, it is rubbed with a quanti^ of
sugar of milk, and dried thoroughly without heat,
after which it is diluted until ten grains emulsify
two drachms of cod-liver oil.

FAlflFICATXOV. The changes which occur
in fionr-dongh nnder the influence of the fermen-
tative process and heat, by which it ia converted
into bread.

FAFAm (Fkpayotine). A ferment prepared
from the juice of the papaw fruit {Oarieapap<^a)
which has the property of digesting albumen and
fibrin. It is a whitish amorphous powder, soluble
in water, said to be capable of peptonising SOO
times its weight of blood-fibrin. The f rnit of the
papaw tree b>s long been used, both in the Eist
and Wert Indies, for rendering tough meat and
poultry tender. Prof. Finkler and Dr Schoffer
recommend a 6 per cent, solution of papune as
the best solvent for diphtheritic and croupous
membrane. The surface is painted with the solu-
tion every five or ten minutes ; the membranes
are said to be thus removed in a few hours, and
the fever to disappesr. Mr E. Horry Fenwiek
has used papaine, in combination with cocaine,
with marked l>enefit in syphilitic ulcers of the
tongue and throat. The ulcers and white patches
rapidly clean and begin to skin over. — 2ioio, 2 to
8 grains.

PAFA'VSSnrX. Sg». Papatbrdta. All
alkaloid discovered by Merck in opium. It crys-
tallises in needles; is insoluble in water; is
slightly soluble in cold alcohol and in ether ; and
forms crystallisable salts with the acids which
possess litUe solubility. The hydrochlorate, one
of the most charactdristie of these ccmponnds.

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cryttalluea in beantif ul eolonrless prinni, which
ponaM a high refractivB power, and are only
very slightly aolnble in hydrochloric add.
Flackiger itates that papaverine ia mnch leu
active than thebaine, that it ii not (oporiflc either
with men or animals, that it does not arrest diar-
rhoea, and is but stightly knalgeme.

FAPBB. Sy*. CHABTA,PAFniT8,Ii.; Papixb,
Fr. The limits of this work preclude the intro-
doction of a description of the msnnfactore of
this well-known and most oaef ol article, which is
now almost ezclasively made by machinery of an
elaborate and most ingenioos description. We
mna^ therefore, content ourselves with a short
notice of a few of the preparations of the mann-
factored article. (See beUtie.)

Oood white p^ier shoald be perfectly devoid
of odonr, and when burnt it should leave a mere
nominal amonnt of ash ; digested in hot water,
the liquid should be neutral to test-paper, and not
affected by sulphuretted hydrogen or the alkaline
sulphoreb), or by tincture of iodine. Coloured
papers should not contain any deleterious matter.

Fapwr, Antlasthmatle. (P. Codex.) £ym

CSAKU. WMTFISA, L. ; CaBTOX AHTIA8THXA-

nQVI^ Fr. Unsized grey filtering paper, 18 os. ;
nitre, 6 oa. ; belladonna, stramoninm, digitalii^
lobdia iiifi4ta, phellandriom, all in powder, i ox.
of each ; myrrh and olibannm, in powder, 1 oz.
each. Tear the paper in pieces and soak it in
water till qnite soft ; drain off the greater part of
the water, and beat it into a paste ; incorporate
with it the powders previoasly mixed. Then put
into tinned iron moulds, and dry by a stove.

Paper, Aatirhenmatie. Syn. Chahta ahti-
BHxmATlOA, L. (K. Berg.) Buphorbinm, 80
parts; eantharides, 15 parts ; alcohol, 150 parts.
Digest eight days, filter, and add resin, 60 parts,
and turpentine, 60 parts. Thin paper is to be
brushed over two or three times with this
varnish.

Paper, Atropine. 8fn. Chabta atbosui, L.
Paper is impregnated by steeping in solution of
su^hate of atropia in such a manner that a
piece i ot m inch square shall contain -^^ of
a grain of the salt ) a square of -^ of an inch
the -^\,, of a grain. This square inserted
between the eyelids will dilate the pupil.

Paper, Atropine, Oelatinlsed. Tablets of
gdatin are impregnated with sulphate of atropia,
as above.

Paper, Blistering. See VmiCAirTS.

P^er, Cloth, lliis is prepared by covering
game, calico, canvas, &c,, with a surface of
paper pulp in a ' Fondrinier machine,' and then
fimshing the compound sheet in a nearly similar
manner to that adopted for ordinary paper.

Paper, Coronred. Por those papers which are
merely coloured on one side the pigments, ground
up with gam water or size, or the stains thick-
ened with a little of the same^ are applied with a
brush, sfter which the sheets are sospended on a
line to dry.

For paper coloured throoghoot its substance
the tinctorial matter is usually miied with the
palp in the process of manufacture; or the
mannfoctnred paper is dipped into a b^ of the
colouring substance, and then hung up to dry.

Papss, Cop'ylng. Pr»p. Make a stiff oint

ment with butter or lard and black-lead or lamp-
black, and smear it thinly and evenly over soft
writing-paper by means of a piece of dannel ; the
next day wipe off the superfiuous portion with a
piece of soft rag.

Die, ifv. Placed on white paper and written
on with a style or solid pen, a copy of the writ-
ing is left on the former. By repeating the
arrangement, two, three, or more copies of a letter
may be obtained at once. This paper, set upin a
case, forms the ordinary ' manifold writer ' of tiie
stationers. The copying or transfer paper used
for obtaining &c-Eimiles of letters written with
' copying ink ' is merely a superior quality of
bank-post paper.

Paper, Zmery. See Exbbt.

Paper, ftlaas. Prep. From powdered glass,
as emery paper. Used to polish wood, &c See
Olasb (Powdered).

Paper, Goat. Sj/n. Chabta aithabthsi-

TIOA, L. i PaPIBB rAYABS, Fr. JVep. 1. En-
phorbinm, 1 part; eantharides, 8 parts (both in
powder) ; rectified sjnrit, 8 parts ; ether, 3 parts ;
digest in a stoppered bottle, with frequent agita-
tion, for a week ; to the strained tincture add of
Venioe tnpentine, 1 part ; lastly, dip thin white
paper into it, and dry the sheets in the air.

2. {Xohr.) Euphorbium, 1 dr.; eantharides,
4 dr. J rectified spirit (strongest), 5 oz. ; make a
tincture, to which add of Venice turpentine, 1|
oz., previously liquefied with resin, 2 oz. ; and
spread the mixture, whilst warm, very thinly on
pax>er. Used as a counter-irritant in gout, rheu-
matism, &e.

Paper, Eydrogiaph'le. An absurd name given
to paper which may be written on with simple
water or with some colourless liquid having the
appearance of water.

/Vep. 1. A mixture of nut-galls, 4 parts, and
calcined sulphate of iron, 1 part (both perfectly
dry and -reduced to very fine powder), is rubbed
over the surface of the paper, and is then forced
into its pores by powerful pressure, after which
the loose portion is brushed oS, Writes black
with a pen dipped in water.

2. From persulphate of iron and ferrocyamde
of potassium, as the last. Writes blue with
water.

S. As the last, bat using sulphate of copper
instead of sulphate of iron. Writes reddish
brown with water.

4. The paper is watted with a colourless solu-
tion of ferrocyanide of potassium, and after being
dried is written on with a colourless solution m
persulphate of iron. Writes blue.

Obt. The above applications, we need scarcely
say, are more amusing than useful. See Stx-

VAIHBTIO ISK.

Pi^r, laeomhns'tible. See Ikcojibvbtiblb
Fabbiob.

Paper, Iridss'cent. Pnp. (Beailey.) Sal-
ammoniac and sulphate of indigo, of each, 1 part;
sulphate of iron, 6 parts; nut-galls, 8 parts;
gum-arabic, f part; boil them in water, and
expose the paper washed with the liquid to (the
fumes of) ammonia.

Paper, Issue. £^. Chabta ad tonticttlob,
L. Prep. {Soubeiran.) Elemi, spennac€ti,and
Venice turpentine, of each, 1 part; white wax, 2

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PAPER

parte ; melt them together by a gentle he»t, and
spread the mixture on paper. Uiied to keep iisaet
open.

Paper, Iilthograph'lo. trtf. 1. Starch, 6 ox.;
gum-arabic, 2 oz.; alnm, 1 oi.; make a atnmg
solation of each leparately, in hot water, mix,
■train throngh gaaze, and apply it whilrt still
warm to one side of leaves of paper, with a clean
painting- brnsh or sponge j a second and a third
ooat must be given as the preceding one beoomei
dry ; the paper mnst be, lastly, pressed, to make
it smooth.

2. ffive the paper 8 coate of thin size, 1 ooat of
good white starch, and 1 coat of a solution of
gamboge in water ; the whole to be applied cold,
with a sponge, and each coat to be allowed to dry
before the other is applied. The solations should
be freshly made.

Uit, i(e. Lithographic paper is written on
with lithographic ink. The writing is trans-
ferred by simply moistening the iMck of the
paper, placing' it evenly on the stone, and then
applying pressure a reversed copy is obtained,
which, when printed from, yields corrected
copies resembling the original writing or draw-
ing. In this way the necessity of executing the
writing or drawing in a reversed direction is ol>-
viated. See Liteogbapbt, Ink, &c.

Paper, Oiled. Prsp. Brush sheete of paper
over with ' boiled oil,' and suspend them on a
line till dry. Waterproof. Extensively em-
ployed as a cheap substitnte for bladder and gut
skin to tie over pots and jars, and to wrap up
paste blacking, ground white-lead, Ac.

Paper, Parch'ment. Sun. VkVYKOS, Viob.
TABU PABCHHINT. Frep. 1. (PoKDuir^ and
FiffuUr.) Dip white unsized paper for half a
minute in strong sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1-842, and
afterwards in water containing a little ammonia.

2. (7F. 2f. Qaine, Patent 1857.) Plunge un-
sized paper for a few seconds into aulphnric acid
diluted with half to a quarter its bulk of water
(this solution being of tlie same temperature as
the lur), and afterwards wash with weak am-
monia. This process, now extensively worked by
Messrs De la Rue and Co., produces a much
better material than does that of Poumar^de and
Figuier.

Prop. A tongh substance, resembling animal
parchment, and applicable to the same purposes.
It is largely used for covering pots of pickles and
preserves, and by the chemist for the intervening
membrane in experimente in diffusion. See

DiALYBSB, DIAI.TBIS, &C.

Parchment paper in the form of tubes of various
diameters and of any length may be obtained
of Karl Brsndegger, Ellwangen, Wurtemburg,
Bavaria. Portions of this tube are far superior
for dialysing to the ordinary hoop arrangement,
as there is no risk of leakage.

Paper, Paste. Boil white paper in water for
five hours ; then pour off the water, and pound
the pulp in a mortar ; pass it through a sieve and
mix with some gum-water, isinglass, or glue. It
is used in modelling by artists and architects.

Paper, Protective. Yarious attempte have
from time to time been made to prepare paper
which might make the fraudulent alterations
of cheques and other documents diflScult or

impossible. These attempte hare taken two
different directiona, which may be briefly de-
scribed.

The first and best known method oondsto in
printing, in some delicate and easily destroyed
colour, a complicated pattern on the face of th»
paper. Any reagent which will remove the writ-
ing will, of course, destroy the pattern below, and
so render the alteration evident. The cheqnea
used by Messrs Contte and Co. are fine ezamplei
of this kind of protection, the whole of the pi^ier
l>eing printed over with the name of the firm in
characters so delicate, that they can scarcely be
read without the assistance of a lens.

The obvious objection to this method is, that
it is possible for a skilful forger to replace the
printed design before the completion of the
alteration.

The other method condste in the introdoetioa
into the paper during ite manufacture of tDXa»
substance or mixture of substances which abalV
strike a characteristic colour when chemical
agente are applied to the ink.

One of the earliest attempte of this kind was.
that of St^henson, who introduced ferrocyanide-
of potassium into the pulp. When any acid wa»
applied to the writing, Prussian blue was formed
with the ud of the iron of the ink. In another
process iodide of potassium and starch were in-
troduced into tfae paper, the application of chlorine
then producing a blue stain (iodide of starch),
while in a third {Robtou't) the pulp was stuned
with the ingrediente of common writing ink.

None of these methods gave, however, any
very efficient protection agunst fraud, for in each
case it was tolerably easy to restore the paper to
ite original condition. But another process
which followed upon the others has proved more
successful, and, when properly applied, gives a
paper which is practically secure. This process
was patented by Barclay, and consiste in the in-
troduction into the pulp of ferrocyanide of man-
ganese. When any acid is applied to the writing
on this paper the blue stein of Pmssian blue
appears. This can, it is true, be removed by
alkalies, but in that case the manganese is pre-
cipiteted as the brown peroxide, an effect also-
produced by bleaching powder. This brown
stein can be removed by sulphurous acid, but in
tliat case Prussian blue appears simultaneously,
BO that the forger has merely a choice between a
brown and a blue stein.

When such paper is printed with a delicate de-
sign in some funtive ink (common writing ink
wonld be the best), the greatest attainable safety
is obtained.

Ferrocyanide of manganese is easily formed by
adding to the pulp pure crystallised chloride of
manganese, and rather more than an equal weight
of ferrocyanide of potassium, both iu solnticnii
{Heaton).

Paper, Ba"ior. Smooth unsized paper, one of
the surfaces of which, whilst in a sUghtly damp-
stete, has been rubbed over with a mixture of
calcined peroxide of iron and emery, both in im-
palpable powder. It is cut up into pieces (about
4x3 inches), and sold in packete. Used to wipe
the razor on, which thus does not require strops
ping.

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Paper, Suor-strop. iVom emery and quartz
(both in impalpable powder), and paper pulp
(estimated in the dry state), eqnal parts, made
into sheets of the thickness of drawing-paper, by
the ordinary process. For use, a piece is pasted
on the strop and moistened witii a little oil.

Pftp«r, Ke'sin. 8gn. Poob iuit'b vlabtxr ;
Chabta BBsnroBA, L. iVop. 1. Beeswax,
1 oz. ; tar and resin, of each, 3 oz. ; melted to-
gether and spread on paper.

2. (Ph. Bor.) Paper thinly spread over with
Mack pitch. Calefacient, stimulant, and counter-
irritant ; in rheumatism, chest affections, &C.

Paper, Bhea'matiam. See Papbbs, Qout and

BXBIN.

Paper, Safe'ty. Ify». Pafibb sb bvbbt<. Ft.
White paper pulp mixed with an equal quantity
of pulp tinged with any stain easily affected by
chlorine, acids, alkalies, Ac., and made into sheets
as tunal.

Paper, Test-. Sgn. Chabta bzfiabaiobu,
L. Under this head may be conveniently included
all the Tarieties of prepared paper employed in
testing. For this purpose sheets of unsized paper
or of good ordinary writing-paper (preferably the
first) are uniformly wetted with a solution of the
salt, or with a cold infusion or decoction of the
tinctmial substance in distilled water, and are
then hung up to dry in a current of pore air ;
they are, lastly, cnt into pieces of a convenient
size, and preserved in closed bottles or jars. For
use, a small strip of the prepared paper is either
dipped into or moistened with the liquid under
examination, or it is moistened with distilled water
and then exposed to the fumes. A single drop,
or even less, of any liquid may be thus tested.

The following are the principal test-papers and
their applications :

Papeb, Bbazil-woos. From the decoction.
Alkalies turn it purple or violet; strong acids,
red.

Pafeb, Buckthobn. From the juice of the
berries. Beddened by acids.

Pafbb, Cbbbbt-juicb. As the last.

Fatsb, Daelia; OBOBonrA P. From an infu-
rion of the petals of the violet dahlia ( Otorgina
purpurea). Alkalies turn it green, acids red;
strong caustic alkalies turn it yellow. Very
delicate.

Fafib, Eujbbbbbby. From the juice of the
berries. As the last.

Papibb Fayabs. See Pafbb, Ooxrr.

Pafxb, IiTDiao. From a solution of indigo.
Decoloured by chlorine.

Papbb, Iodisb ov PoTASsnw. a. From the
aolntion in distilled water. Turned blae by an
addnlated solution of starch.

h. From a mixture of a solution of iodide of
potassium and starch paste. Turned blue by
chlorine, ozone, and the mineral acids, and by ur
containing them.

Pafbb, Lbas. From a soluljon of either
acetate or snbacetate of lead. Solphnretted
hydrogen and hydrosulphuret of ammonia turn it
black.

Pafbb, Lmnrs. In general this is prepared
from infusion of litmus, without any precaution,
bat the following plan may be adopted when a
•nperior teat-paper is desired :

a. (Blue.) Triturate commercial litmus, 1 oz.,
in a wedgwood-ware mortar, with boiling water,
3 or 4 fl. oz.; put the mixture into a flask, and
add more boiling water until the liquid measures
fully i pint ; agitate the mixture frequently nntil
it is cold, then filter it, and diride the filtrate into
two equal portions ; stir one of these with a glass
rod preriously dipped into very dilute sulphuric
acid, and repeat the operation until the litmus
infusion begins to look very slightly red ; then add
the other half of the filtrate, and the two being
mixed together, dip strips of unsized paper into
the liquid in the usual manner, and dry them.
Acids turn it red; alkalies blue. The neutral
salts of most of the heavy metals also redden this
as well as the other blue test-papers that are
affected by acids.

b. (Bed.) The treatment of the whole quantity
of the infusion (see above) with the rod dipped in
dilate sulphuric acid is repeated until the fluid
begins to look distinctly i«d, when the paper ia
dipped into it as before. The alkalies and alka-
line earths, and their sulphides, restore its bine
colour; the alkaline carbonates and the soluble
borates also possess the same property. Very
sensitive. An extemporaneous red litmus paper
may be prepared by holding a strip of the blue
variety over a pot or jar into which 2 or S drops
of hydrochloric acid have been thrown.

Pafbb, Mallow. From an infusion of the
purple flowers of the common mallow. Affected
like ' dahlia paper.'

Papsb, HANSAiTBgB. From a solution of sul-
phate of manganese. Ozonised air blackens it.

Pafbb, Bhvbabb. From a strong infusion of
the powdered root. Alkalies turn it brown, but
boracic acid and its salts do not affect it. Very
sensitive.

Pafbb, Bosb. From the petals of the red
rose. As the last. Alkalies turn it bright green.
Dr A. S. Taylor recommends the infusion to be
very slightly acidulated with an acid before
dipping the paper into it. More sensitive than
turmeric i>aper.

Pafbb, Staboh. From a cold decoction of
starch. Free iodine turns it blue.

Papbb, Sulpbaib op Ibon. From a solution
of ferrous sulphate. As a test for hydrocyanic
acid and the soluble cyanides.

Papbb, Tubhbbio. From decoction of tur-
meric (2 oz. to the pint). It is turned brown by
alkalies, and by boracic acid and the soluble
borates. It is not quite so susceptible as some
other tests, but the change of colour is very
marked and characteristic.

Papbb, Znic Olbatb. Tissue-paper saturated
vnth a hot solution of pure oleate of zinc. Used
as a healing astringent application.

Paper, Tra"elng. Frep. 1. Open a qnire of
smooth unsized white paper and place it flat upon
a tablej then apply, with a clean < sash tool,' to
the upper surface of the first sheet, a coat of
vamidi made of equal parts of Canada balsam
and oil of turpentine, and hang the prepared
sheet across the line to dry ; repeat the operation
on fresh sheets until the proper quantity is Hnished.
If not sufficiently transparent, a second coat of
varnish may be applied as soon as the first has
become quite dry.

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PAPER-EANOIKGS— PAPBIEA

2. RqI) the paper with a mixtnreof equal parti
of nut oil and oil of tnrpentine, and irv it imme-
diately by rubbing it with wheaten near ; then
hang it on a line for 24 honrs to dry.

<^. Both the above are used to copy dtstr*
inga, writing, &e. If washed over with oX-gfall
and dried, they may be written on with ink or
water-coloura. The first is the whitett and
clearest, but the second is the toughest and most
flexible. The paper prepared from the ref age of
the flax-mills, and of which bank-notes are
made, is also called ' tracing paper,' and some-
times 'vegetable paper.' 'Hiis requires no. pre-
paration ; but, though very flexible, it has little
strength.

Paper, Varnished. Before proeeeding to var-
nish paper, card-work, pasteboard, ftc, it is
necessary to gpive it two or three coate of size, to
prevent the absorption of the varnish, and any
injury to the colour or design. The size may be
made by dissolving a little isinglass in boiUng
water, or by boiling some clean parchment cut-
tings until they form a clear solution. This,
after being strained through a piece of clean
muslin, or, for very nice purposes, clarified with
a little white of egg, is applied by means of a
small clean brush, called by painters a Sash tool.
A light, delicate touch must be adopted, especially
for the first coat, lest theink orcolonrs be started
or smothered. When the prepared surface is per-
fectly dry, it may be varnished in the osual
manner. See Maps, VABiragH, £c

Paper, 'Wa"fer. See Wafbbs.

Paper, Waxed. Prep. Place cartridge paper,
or strong writing-paper, on a hot iron plate, and
rub it well with a lump of beeswax. Used to
form extemporaneous steam or gas pipes, to cover
the joints of vessels, and to tie over pots, &c.

For the various photographic papers see
PaoToasiFHT.

PAFEB-HAHQINGB. The ornamental paper
used to cover the walls of roomsj ftc. Under the
old system, thu paper, after being sized and pre-
pared with a ground colour, had the pattern pro-
duced on it by the common process Of ' stencil-
ling,' a separate plate being employed for each
colour that formed the pattern. To this suc-
ceeded the nse of wooden blocks, the surface of
which bearing the design in relief, and being
covered with colour, was applied by simple hand
pressure on the paper, in a precisely similar
manner to that adopted in the block-printing of
calicoes. The cylinder calico-printing machine
has now been successfully applied to the mann-
factnre of paper-hangings.

The colours employed for paper-hAngings are — '

Blacks. Frankfort, ivory, and blue black.

Blueb. Prussian blue, verditer, and factitious
nltramarine.

Browmb. Umber (raw and burnt)) and mix-
tures.

0BA.T8. Prussian bine and blue-black, witii
Spanish white.

OsKiHB. Brunswick green, Scheele's greea,
Schweinfurt green, and green verditer; also mix-
tures of blues and yellows.

Reds. Decoctions of Brazil-wood (chiefly),
brightened with alum or solution of tin ; the red
ochres j and, sometimes, red Uke.

YiOLBM. DeeociiMi of logwood and alnn;
also blues tempered with bright red.

WHiTiM. White-lead, solphat* of haijta,
plaster of Paris, atfd wUting, and miztmei of
them.

YmlLOWi. Chrome yellow, deooetioncfPrenA
berriea or of weld, terra di «i«inflt and the
oehre*.

The vrincle employed to give adhes!v6ne« and
body to the colours is a solution of gelatin at
glue, sufficiently stiong to gelatinise on oooBng.

Th« satiny lustre observable in some paper-
hangings (8ATIH fapsbb) is produced by dast-
ing flndy powdered French chalk over the sattict,
and nibbing it strongly with a brush or bnmislier.
The gionnd for thu purpose is prepares with
plaster.

Flock and tkltbt fafbbs are produced by
covering the surface of the pattern with a mor-
dant formed with Ixnled oil thickened with white-
iMd or ochre, and then sprinkling powdered
wdoUen flocks on it. These are previously dyed,
and ground to. the , required fineness in a mill

P^^IEK-HACHE. Pulped paper moulded into
forms. It possesses great strength and lightness.
It may be rendered partially waterproof by the
addition of sulphate of iron, quicklime, and glne
or white of egg to the pulp ; and incombustible
by the addition of borax and phosphate of soda.
'The papier-mich£ tea-trays, wwten, snnff-boxes,
Ac., are prepared by pasting or glueing sheets of
paper together, and then submitting them to
powerful pressure, by which the composition
acquires the hardness or board when dry. Soeh
articles are afterwards japanned, and are then per-
fectly waterproof.

The refuse of the cotton and flax mllla, and
numerous other substances of a like charaetra-, are
aow worked up as papier-mAch^, and the manu-
factured articles formed of them are indis-
tinguishable from those prepared directly frod)
paper.

A practical paper on moulding, inlaying, de-
corating, and varnishing papier-mftchj wUI be
found in 'Work,' September, 1889 (CaaseDand
Co.).

PAPIB'S DIOBSTES Is a strong, dosed, iroo
vessel, in which water can be heated above 812°
F., thereby acquiring a temperature that adds
considerably to ite solvent powers. This appsra-
tns is put to many nsefbl applications In the attt,
of which one is the speedy extraction of gelatin
from the earthy matter of bones. The bones
maybe boiled for honrs at 212° without uajmA
eSlsct being prodnced. The high tempeiatore
acquired by the water is effected by the conflne-
ment of the steam, the internal preaanre of wlaA
can be regulated by means of a safe^-vslve
attached to the vessel. By this arrangement the
water may be kept at any uniform tinnperat<n«
above 212° at pleasure. Professor Junicfaeo
(' Chemical News *) recommends the use of the
digester for the purpose of boiling meat and
other food. It appears from the author's experi-
ments that the time for cooking various artirles
of dally consomption is mnch shortCT when
effected under strong pressure, while a great
sa^dng of fuel is also effected.

PAPSJKA. Syn. Huvoabiav bjd nrm.

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Prepared from the fnut at C^ietm amutiun.
nie Zt^adimtrpigfriltaU (be tei^ moit esteemed.
It is nach employed m # cppdiipent, and placed
on the table in a salt-cellar.

PAPTTtnT. Bee Papis, PAXOExnT.
PAB'ACHUTE. In aSiostation, an instnunent
or appaiatns having for its object to retard the
deaeent of heavy bodies through the air. The
only form of parachute which has been hitherto
adrated vith success is that of the common nm-
hraUa when extended. The ignaterials of which
the apparatas is made are canvas and cord, both
Bg^t biit strong, and carefully put together. The
ear t/> contain the adventurer resembles that of
tJie balloon, only smaller.

It is estimated that a drenlar parachute, to de-
scend in safe^ with an adult, wdghing, with the
apparatus, 225 lbs., must have a diameter of at
least 30 ft. Urn terminal veloeify would then be
at the rate of 12 to 18 ft. per second, or about 6i
mflea per hour; and the shodc experienced on
contact with the earth would be eqnal to (hat
which the aSronant would recnve if he drc^ped
fireely from a height about 8^ ft.

Serrsral descents from balloons, after they have
acquired a great elevation, have been eflSected
vitbont accident by means of parachutes. Un>
fartnnately, however, any want of integrity in
the machine, or any accident lAich may happen
to it after its detachment from the balloon, is
ineparable and ftttal.

PAKACTAI'OGES. The htown solid matter
left in the retort when cyanide of mercury is de-
composed by heat. It is polymeric witti qpa-

mogen.

PABAPPnr. Sg»- Tas-oil bzubih. This
remarkable solid hydrocarbon is one of the several
sabatances discovered by Beichenbach in WOOD-
tAM. It may be obtained from coal, bituminous
Aale, &c., by distillation. It exists also iu the
state of solution in many kinds of petroleum.
From a chemical point of view the minerals known
as fiMol wax, oiocint, hatehettin, Ac, may be re-
garded aa soUd paraffin.

JVwp. 1. (From wood-tab — Eeiehenbaeh.)
IMitil beech-tar to dirness, rectify the oily por-
tion of the product, which is heavier than water,
until a thick matter begins to rise, then change
the receiver, and moderately urge the heat as long
aa anything passes over ; next digest the product
in Uie second receiver, in an eqn^ measure of al-
eobol of 0-833, gradually add 6 or 7 parts more
of alcohol, and expose the whole to a low tem-
perature; crystals of paraffin will gradually fall
down, which, after being washed in cold alcohol,
must be dissolved in boiling alcohol, when crystals
of pure paraffin will be deposited as the solution
cool*.

8. (From OOAL — Jama Toimg.) The details
of this process for obtaining paraffin and its con-
genen by the slow distillation of coal (preferably
' Biighead ') are given in our article on PAXAnnr
on.. The solid paraffin is separated from the last
prodocts, or ' heavy oils,' by artificial cold ; it is
then melted and run into monlds.

8. (From Rahoooh pbtboiauk— Flatent.) In
this process, which is wwhed by Price's Candle
Company, superheated steam is employed as
the heating agent. The paraffin, or 'BXUfOimKi,'

as it is called, ia (be last product which distiU

4. (Fropi nil.) The various processes whioh
bavA been s^gg^ted for obtaining paraffin from
pe^ 4(C-> V« Siguier in principle to Young's.
The g^reat point is to conduct the distillation at
m low a (wnperatuii; as possible.

iV^p, A white, hard, tasteless, inodorous,
tranduceut body, melting at 110° F. and up-
wards, acoordiiig to its source, and homing with
a bright white flame. It has great stabiliW—
sulphuric acid, chlorine, and nitric add below
8X2° exerting no action upon it. Cr Anderson
states th«t KS composition and properties vair
with tdbe source from which it is derived. With
respect to the melting-point, this variation is
very remarkable. Thus, Tonng's paraffin, from
Boghead coal, melts at 114°, wlule that from Ban-
goon petroleum (' belmontine ') melts at 140°, and
that from peat at 116°.

Utu, i(e. Paraffin is now largely used for
making candles, for which purpose it is specially
adapted, being a most elegant substance, and sur-
passing all otiber candle materials, even sperma-
ceti, in illuminating power. Its property of not
being acted upon by acids or alkalies renders it
snitMle tor preparing the stoppers for vessels
holding chemical liquids; also for electrotype
moulds. It is not acted upon by ozone, so that
it has been employed with great advantages in
experiments on this body for rendering air-tight
all joints in the apparatus. As it contains no
oxygen, it might be employed to protect oxidis-
able metals like aodinm and potasnnm from con-
tact with the air. One use of paraffin candle-
ends will commend them to the ladies of the
household — a small piece of paraffin added to
starch will be found to give a gloss and brilliancy
of surface to starched linen that can be obtained
by no other addition.

Imfortt of Paraffin in 1889.

Fumffln. ewt <

From Germany 1,804 . 8,181

„ United Statesof America 806,838 . 861,868
„ other foreign countries . 86 . 68

Total from foreign countries. 808,178 . 864,602

From British East Indies . . 7,422 . 10,277
„ Australasia. . . . • 6 . 8

Total from British Possessions 7,428 . 10,286

Grand total 815,606 . 374,887

FASAFFnr OILS. See Oils.

FASALSEHTSE. CgH„0,. A colourless liquid
of peculiar odour and pungent taste. Sp. gr,
'998. A new hypnotic. In physiological action
it strongly resembles chloral, but differs from it
in its action on the circulatory system, strengthen^
ing the heart's action while diminishing its fre-
quency. It has also a well-marked action on the
kidneys, greatly increasing the flow of the urine.
The skin is not at all affected. The drug is said
not to give rise to digestive disturbances, to
headache, or to any other unpleasant symptom.
It has been found a valuable remedy in mania,
melancholia, and other nervous affections, as well

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1280

PARALYSIS— PARASITES

•a in tlie ileepleunesi that aceompaniei acute
faroDchial catarrh, lobar pnenmonia, and heart
Aimammt^ When prescribed in mixtorei, (ymp ot
orange or orange-flower water may be added, to
diigmie the diaag^reeable taite of the drag-. —
Dow, 80 to 60 minima.

PARAITSIS. Syt. Vaist. A loes or oon-
Biderable diminution of power of voluntary
motion, or functional action, of any part of the
body. In ita moat uaual form one aide only of
the body is affected. It not uncommonly aeizea
the lower extremitiea, or all parte below the
pelvia ; sometimea the arms only ; and oecaaion-
ally a part, aa one aide of the face, one eyelid,
the tongue, or the mnaclea of deglutition. In
these caaes the apeech frequently becomes india-
tinct and incoherent, and the memory and judg-
ment impaired, whilst the features become drawn
and cUstorted.

The causes of paralysia are yariona. It may
be occasioned by pressure on particular parte of
the brain, tlie apinal cord, or the nerves ; by poi-
sons, the long-continued ose of sedatives, local
ii^uries, the sudden suppression of proAiae and
habitual evacuations. It may alao be a conse-
quence of an attack of apoplexy, or it may be
symptomatic of other diaeaaea, aa acrofula, sy-
philis, and worma. When it ia of a diatinctiy
local character it may arise from excessive use or
undue employment of the part or organ. That
of old age is, probably, a mere consequence of the
failing nervous energy of the system being un-
equally distributed.

Palsy usually comes on with a sudden and
immediate loss of the motion and sensibility of
the parts ; but in a few instances it is preceded
by a numbness, coldness, and paleness ; and some-
times by slight convulsive twitches. If the dis-
ease affects the extremitiea, and has been of long
duration, it not only produces a loaa of motion
and sensibility, bnt likewise a considerable flac-
cidity and wasting away of the muscles of the
parts affected.

The treatment of paralysis depends upon a
careful consideration of its cauae, and requires in
all cases skilled advice. Much harm may be
done by the reckless use of violent remedies.

PABASAFH'TEALUr. Sgn. Abthbaoeit.
See Antrbaobk.

PABAPXCTDT. SeePBOnN.

PAS'ASITES. The parasitical animals that
infest the human body are referred to under the
heads Acabi and Pbsiouli.

Parasites, Animal. The following list ia given
in Williams' ' Veterinary Medicine : '

1. Nat. Ord. Nbh atosa.
Genus Ateari*.
A. megalocephala, horte and an, small intestine.
A. Inmbricoides, pig, cattle, small intestine.
A. mystax, eat, dog, small intestine.

Oenns EutirongyUu.

E. gigas, dog, horse, eatile, kidneys and bladder.

Oenus THaria.

F. lachrymalis, horte and ox, lachrymal ducts.
F. papilloss, Aorte, ox, and an, eye, brain.

F. immitis, dog, heart and blood.
F. trispinulosa, dog, capsule of lens.

Oenns Spinoptera.
S. megaatoma, %om, tumours in stomach.
S. sanguinolenti, dog and wolf, tumonrs in sto*

inach.
S. strongylina, pig, stomach.
S. seotata, at, OBSO^hagns.
S. hamnlosa, eommon/bwL
S. Cincinnati, horte, foot ligaments.

Oenns Otgnrit.
O. cnrvnla, hone and att, lai^e intestine.
Genua Doehmiut {StronggUu of some anthors).
T). hypostomus, ihiep, goatt, Ifc., intestine.
D. tubeformis, eat, duodenum.
D. trigonocephalna, dog, stomach and intestine.
D. cemaoB, theep, intestine.
D. doodenalis, man, duodenum.

Oenna Strongglui.
S. armatus, horte, inteatine.
S. tetracanthna, horn, inteatine.
S. dentatus, pig, large inteatine.
S. syngamns./o<D/f, trachea and bronchi.
S. radiatus, ox, intestine.
8. venulosus, goat, intestine.
S. micrums, cattle, horte, am, trachea and

bronchi.
S. fllaria, ihtep, goat, eamel, ^., tradua and

bronchi.
S. paradoxus, pig, trachea and bronchi.
S. filicoUis, theep, small inteatine.
S. ventricosas, cattle, small intestine.
S. inflatns, cattle, colon.
S. oontortus, theep and goat, abomasnm.
Stephanurns dentatna, pig, kidneys.

Oenus THckina.
T. spiralis, man, pig, ox, rabbit, rat, ^e., muscle.

Genua Tricocephahu.
T. dispar, man.

T. affinia, theep and goat, ctecnm.
T. depress! nscul us, dog, csscum,
T. crenatus, pig, wild boar, large inteatine.

8. Nat Ord. Tbbkatoda.
Oenna Dittoma,
D. hepaticum, theep, eattle, goat, and pig, rarely
in horn, att, eat, and very rare in man, gall-
bladder.
D. lanceolatum, theep, eatile, goat, pig, gall-
bladder,
D. campanulatum, dog, liver.
D. conjunctum, Indian dogt, bile-dncts.

Oenna Amphittoma.
A. conicum, eattle, paunch.
A. truncatum, cat.

Genua Semittoma {Solottoma),
H. alatum, dog, wolf, fox, small inteatine.
H. cordatum, cat.

Genus Oattroditeut.
O. polymastos, Sggptian hortet.

8. Nat. Ord. Cbstoda.
See TjtviA and Tapbwobic.

Parasitea, Human. The following is a list of
the principal parasites infesting man. It ia ex-
tracted from the 'Dictionary of Hygiene,' ot
Wynter Blyth, who states that he has arranged
it, with some slight alterations, from a table in
Sir Aitken's ' Science and Practice of Medicine.'
The first two divisions include animal parasites,

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PABATARTABIC ACID— PABSNIP

USl

the third vegetable onei. No. 1, or Sntozoa, are
•nimal panuites f oond iniide the human body ;
No. 2, those foand ontnde ; No. 8, oonnating of
T^etable paratites, comprin* Xnt^ijfta and
Xpipkjfta, the former exuting in the interior,
•nd the latter on the exterior of the hnmiin
body. Some of the principal paraiitei have
•Iroidy been descril>ed and figured in theae pagei.

I. Eutotoa.
Acephalocystis endogena, livtr,
A. mnltifida, brain.
Anchylostomum len Scleroatoma duodenale, ta-

tettinei.
Anthomia canicularia, iutetti»»».
Aacarii alata, i»i»itintt,
A. lambricoides, iiUe$ti«st.

A. myetax, inteitinet.

Bilhwzia tea IMstoma hamatobia, portal and

fituout tgtttm.
Bothrioccn>Iiidaa cordatos, inUttium.

B. Utna, tiUettitut.

•CystioerctM oelloloea, len tela oellakwn (C. of

Tenia soliom), mtielei.
^Jyitioerctu of Tsnia marginata (C. tenaicoOis),

intettinet.
Dactylioa acaleatns, urvuary Uaddmr.
Diploaoma crenatiu.

JQiitoma len Diitomum craraum, dModtnam.
D. hepaticum, sen Fasciola hepatica, giM-hladder.
D. heterophryes, imtttUne*.
D. lanceolatum, itpatie duet.
S. ocoli hnmani, *eu ophthslmobiom, eapnU qf

ergttalUme Int*.
Bitrachycems mdns, inteitint*.
JSchinoooccna hominia (hydatid of Tmnia echino-

coccus), liver, tplean, and omentum.
Filaria bronchialis, seu trachealis, broncAialglandt,
J*, sea Dracunculns medinensis, iki» and areolar

tutue.
F. ocoli, sen lentis, cgw.
F. sanguinis hominis, hlood.

Hexai£rydium pingidcola, ovary.

H. Tenaram, venotu tgttem.
.Monoxtoma lentis, erytUUUne.

(Estms hominis, intettinee.
■Oxyuris Termicolarls, i»te$tinet.

Fentastroma constrictum, inteitimet and liver.

P. denticnlstum, inteeiinet.

Polystroma pingnicola, ovary.

P. sangoioola, sen veranim, venom* tgetem.

Spin^tera hominb, urinary bladder.
-Stiongylas sea Eostrongylus brouchialus, bron-

cMal tubee.
.S. sen Eostrongylns gigas (Acarns renalis),
kidney and inteetinee.

Tisnia acanthotrias, inieetinee.

T. elUptica, inteeiinee.
'.T. flavopancta, iuteetinti.

T. lopboaoma, imleetinei.

T. mediocanellata, tnteeiinet.

t. nana, inteeiinee and liver.

T. solinm, inteetinee.

Tetnwtoma renale, kidney.

Trichina spiralis, mueelei.
'.^Mcocephalus dispar, inteetinee.
II. JEetotoa.
.'Demodez sea Acaros foUicnlorum, lehaeeout eui-
etance ofeutaneouefollielee.

Pedicnlns capitis (head louse).

F. corporis, sea vestimenti (body loose).

F. palpebrarnm (brow louse).

F. pubis (Fhthirins inguinalis) (crab loose).

P. tabescetium, phthiriaeie {louey dieeaee).

Fulex penetrans (chigoe), ehin, cellular tieeue.

Sarcoptes seu Acaros scabiei (itch insect), Moiiw.

IIL Sntopiyta and Hpiphyta.
Aehorion Lebertii (Tricophyton tonsurans). Tinea

toneurane.
A. SchSnleinii, Tinea/avoea.
Chiouyphe Carteri (fnngas of Mycetoma), de^

tieeue*, bonee ofhande and feet.
Leptothriz buccalis (alga of the mouth).
Microsporon Andouini, Tinea decalvan*.
K. furfur. Tinea vereieolor.
M. mentagrophytes, /oUic2«( of hair in eyeoei* or

mentagra.
CKdiam albicans (thrash fungus), mouth, mueou*

and eutaneou* eurfaee*.
Paccinia favi. Tinea favoia.
Sarcina ventriculi, ttomaeh.
Torola eererisiiB (Cryptoooccos cerevisin, yeast

plant), etomaeh, bladder, t(c.
Tricophyton spomloldes. Tinea polomia.

PASATASTAB1C ACID. See B^csMio Aon>.

FABCH'KSHT. See Vbllitm, and Papib
(Parchment).

FASCHKSBT FAFEB. See Pa»b.

PABEOOBIC. See TnroiuBB op Camphos
(Compound).

Paregoric, Scotch. See Tutctusb ov Opnnc
(Ammoniated).

PABEI'BA BBA'TA. See Vblybt LiA^r.

PABKEBIES. An old name for xylonite and
celluloid, from its original discoTerer, Alex.
Parkes, of Birmingham, patented by him in the
year 1855.

FABB. A name applied to the salmon until
near the end of its second year, when it loses its
dark lateral bars by the superaddition of a silvery
pigment. It was formerly r^arded as a distinct
species.

PABBliET. Syn. PxTBOBELnrux, L. This
well-known herb is the Apium petroeelinum. The
root is diuretic ; the fruit (seed) carminative ; the
leaves are a pleasant stimulating salRd and condi-
ment, and are much used to flavour broth and
soup. " The fruit is a deadly poison to parrots "
(Lind. es Burnett).

FABS'HIP. The root of Paetinaea tafiva.
The parsnip is native to England and Ireland,
but does not grow in Scotland. It is likewise met
with in many parts of Europe and in Northern
Asia. In the wild state the root is somewhat
acrid, and iigorious effects have been known to
follow its use as food. By cultivation, how-
ever, it loses both its acridity and dangerous
properties, and forms a table vegetable not in
universal favour.

In the Channel Islands parsnips constitute the
winter food of cows ; and these animals when fed
upon them are said to yield batter of a better
quality than can be obtained from them when
partaking of any other fodder.

The flesh of cattle fed on the parsnip is also
highly commended. In the north of Ireland the
juice of the root, mixed with hops and yeast, is

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U8S

PASTE

made into a fermented liqnor. Futnip wine it
an agreeable alcoholic beverage.

Cdmpontion of the Pamip.

Nitrogenous matter . . 1*1

Starch 9*6

Sugar 5*8

Fat 0-6

Salt! 1-0

Water 82*0

100-0

FA8TB. Ss». FiJSTA, L.; PItb, Fr. This
word is very loosely applied to substances and
preparations differing so widely from each other,
that it would be scarcely possible to class them
together. We shall, therefore, refer the reader
to the individual articles. The pastes (pttes) of
French pharmacy are compound medicines of the
consistence of hard dough, and which do not stick
to the fingers. They are formed of sugar and
gum, dissolved in water or in some medicated
liquid. They are evaporated so as to mitte these
principles by degrees, and give them the pliancy
and the firmness of paste. They are employed in-
ternally in doses more or less variable in a similar
manner to lozenges. " P&tes, properly so called,
are divided into transparent, or such as are made
without agitation, like jujubes of brown liquorice ;
and opaque, or such as are made with agitation,
like tiie pfttes of marsh-mallow, lichen, &c,"
(TroMta* and EtceiC). See Pabtii (Artificial
Gems), Pabtbt, and btlow.

Paste, Adhesive. 1. Let 4 parts, hj weight, of
glue soften in 15 parts of cold water for 16 hours',
after which the mixture must be moderately
heated until it becomes quite clear. To this mix-
ture 65 parts of boiling water are to be added
without stirring. In another vessel 30 parts of
starch paste are stirred up with 20 parts of cold
water, so that a thin milky fluid is obtained with-
out lamps. Into this the boiling glue solution u
poured, with constant stirring, and the whole is
Kept at the boiling temperature. When cooled
10 drops of carbolic acid are to be added to
the paste. This paste possesses great adhesive
power, and may be used for leather, paper, or
cardboard with great success. It must be pre-
served in closed bottles to prevent evaporation of
the water, and will in this way keep good for
years ('Dingler's Journal').

2. The paste used by the TTnited States Govern-
ment for gumming postage stamps is made by
the formula given below. It has the pro-
perties of being very adhesive, does not be-
come brittle or scale off, and is well adapted
for sticking paper labels to tin and other
metals. Ta^e of starch, 2 dr.; white sugar, 1
ox. ; gum-arabic, 2 dr.; water, q. s. Dissolve the
gum, add the sugar, and boil tmtil the starch is
cooked.

Paste, AI'mond. Sgn. Fabta amtosaliita,

P. AMYGDAI.ABU1I, P. BtQIA, L. ; PAtB BOTALE,

Fr. Prep. 1. (Moist.) a. Tkke of blanched
Valentia almonds, 4 oz.; reduce them to a very
smooth paste by patient pounding in a clean mor-
tar, adding, towards the lust, a little rose-water
with some eau de Cologne, or 8 or 4 drops of otto
of roses or neroli, or an equivalent quantity of

any other perfhmQ, acoording to tiie bane] of tlie
artiste.

h. From bitter and sweet almonds (Uaaofaad),
equal parts; i;ose- water, q. s. It teqaiias ao
otiier perfume.

e. To either of the preceding add spermaeett
i 01. The white of an egg, or i ox. of white toapk
is added by some makers. With about ( dr. of
powdered camphor to each ox. of the alMve it
forms the ' camphorated almond paste ' of the
shops.

d. Tske fine Narbonne honey and white bitter
paste (see ielow), of each, 1 lb.; beat them to a
smooth paste, then add, in alternate portaons, of
oil of almonds, 2 lbs. ; yolks of 5 eggs ; and re-
duce the whole to a perfectly homogeneous pasty
mass. Much esteemed. It is commonly sold
under the name of ' honey paste,' ' pAte royale,'
&c. In a similar manner are nmde nosegay,
orange, rose, vanilla, and other like pastes having
almonds for a basis, by merely adding the respec-
tive perfumes.

2. (PVLTBBVLBHT.) o. (Or^.) Ftmsred
from the cake of bitter almonds nom which the
oil has been thoroughly expressed by drying,
grinding, and sifting it.

b, (Bitter white.) As the but, but the almonds
are blanched before being pressed.

0. (Sweet wUto.) As tiie last, but using sweet
almonds.

Oh*. All the above are used as ooametaes, to
soften and whiten the skin, prevent chaps,
abrainons, ehUblains, fte. The honey paste, sod
the sweet and bitter white pastes, are tiiose most
esteemed. (See lelov.)

Ifubt, Almond (in eonfeetUnmy). Pnp. 1.
Take of Valentia almonds, 8 lbs. ; bitter do., i lb.;
blanch them, and reduce them to a very smooth
paste by pounding, then put them into a dean
copper pan along with white sugar and good gum-
arabic, of each, 1 lb. (the last previously fissolred
in about a pint of water) ; apply a gentle best,
and stir until the whole is mixed and baa acquired
a proper consistency, then pour it out on a smooth,
oUed, marble slab, and when cold eat it into
squares.

8. As the last, but when the mixture has
acquired the consistence of thick honey, setting it
aside to cool ; when nearly cold the whites of six
eggs are to be added, and heat bdng again gradu-
ally applied, the whole is to be stirred until it
acquires the proper consistence, as before.

8. Blanched sweet almonds and white sugar,
of each, 1 lb.; blanched bitter almonds and
powdered gum, of each, 8 oz. ; beat them, in the
cold, to a perfectly smooth paste, with orange-
flower water or rose-water, q. s., so that it may he
sufficiently stiff not to stick to the flngos, and
then cut the mass into squares, as bef&e. The
above are eaten as confections.

Paste, Ancho'vy. Prep. . Remove the larger
bones from the fish, and then pound them to a
smooth paste in a marble mortar, adding a little
bay-salt and cayenne pepper at will; naxt rab
the pulp through a fine h^r sieve, and about
3-4ths fill the pot with it ; lastly, cover the surface
of each to the depth of about i inch with good
butter in a melted state. It should be kept io a
cool situation. Other flsh pastes, as those of

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PASTE

1988

Uoaten, lolwteM, ahrimps, Mviwe, ftc., we made
inanmilar mumer.

PmU. AnenleaL See CArsTicM, PATnrr
MxsjcnraB. and Fowdsbb.

Paste, landry'g. See Pasts, Pbciokai
(»«2ow).

PMta,BiTd. SeeOBBiCAS Fa8t>.

Faate, Black Gomuit. As black currant
losengea, but limply cntting tlie man Into dice
or aqoarei.

Parte, Car'rageai. Prtp. From Iri«h moM,
as the lichen pute of tiie P. Cod. (aee bslow).

Paata, CUStL ^rtp. FowdOTed eapeicnm,
8 ox.; olive oil, 82 ocj spermaceti, 6 oz.
Kaoeratethe capdcnm in the oil for three days,
strain, press, Alter, and warm. Melt the sperma-
ceti and add it to the oil, stirring the mixtnre
nnlalotdd.

Parte, Chinese'. Pnp. From bollock's blood,
10 lbs , redoeed to dryness by a gentle heat, then
powdered and mixed with quicklime, also in fine
powder, 1 lb. It is used a a cement, made into
a paste with water, and at once applied.

Paste of Ch]o"rlde of ZIbo. See Cacbtiob.

Parte of Dates. ^. Fabta DATmvBBx,
P. DAORXOsnir, L.; PJln bs dattss, Fr.
From date* (stoned), as jiynbe paste. Pectoral,
and slightly astringent. Paste of gam Senegal
is nsnsily sold for it.

Parte, De Handel's. iV«p. From opinm, i
dr. ; camphor, 1 dr. (both in powder) ; extracts
of belladonna and henbane, of each, 1 dr. ; oil of
cajepnt and tinctnre of cantharidee, of each, 10
or 12 drops J distilled water of opinm (or of
lettuce), q. I. In toothache.

Parte, OepH'atory. Sj/n. Pasta BPii.AToaiA,
L. Several preparations of this character are
noticed at pages 552-8. 1. A mixtnre of slacked
lime, 2 parts, and water, 8 parts, satmrated with
solt^mretted hydrogen, is said to be so powerfnl,
that "a layer a line in thickness denudes the
scalp in three minutes " {BeatUj/).

2. (IVgroa.) ' Powdered snlphate of copper
made into a soft paste with yolk of egg.

Parte of figs. Bgu. Iftaisi. oabioaxux, P.
noABlA, L. Prtp. 1. From figs, as jqjube
paste.

2. {Sombrir«m^ Pnlp of figs, 1 part ; press it
throngh a sieve, mix it with powdered sugar, 4
parts, oonoenteated by a gentle heat (if neces-
sary), roll the mass out, and cut it into squares
or losenges.

PMta, flour. Bg*. Colls d> pAtb, Fr.
FroBi wberten liaat. Paper-hangers, shoe-
makers, Ac, usually add to the floor |^ to 4 of its
weight of finely powdered resin. It is then some-
time* called ' bwd paste.' The addition of a few
drops of creasoto or oil of cloves, or a little pow-
dered camphor, eolocynth, or corrosive sublimate
(espedally the flnt two and the last), wQl pre-
vent insects from attacking it, and preserve it in
cov«red vessds for years. Should it get too hard,
it may be softened with water. See CsKSinB.

Partem Intt. Prtp. 1. To each pint of the
•trained jnioe add of gnm-azalnc, 1' oz. ; gently
eraporate to the eondatenee of a syrup, and add
an eqoal weight vi braised white sugar ; as soon
as the wliole is united, pour it out on an oQed
•lab, and, when ctAA enongh, cat it into jnecei.

2. Gtrie acid, ] oz. ; gom-arabic, 6 oz. ; white
sugar, \ lb. ; wi^er, q. s. ; dissolve, and flavour
with any of the fruit essences. It may be co-
loored with any of the stains used for confec-
tionery or liqueurs.

8. As fruit lozenges.

Paste, Pur'aitore. See FoLnE.

Paste, Glove. See Qabtsikb.

Paste of Onm-arabie. iSya. Pasta wnaa,
L. } FAxa Dx ooma, P. sa s. asabiqttb, Fr.
Prtp. I. As marsh-mallow paste, omitting the
mallow roots.

2. Onm-arabic (picked), 1 lb.; water, 1 pint;
dissolve, add of white sugar, 1 lb. ; evaporate by
a gentle heat to a very thick syrup, then add the
whites of 8 eggs, previously bnten up with
orange-flower water, 1 fi. oz., and strain through
muslin, and continue the heat with constant stir-
ring, until of a proper consistence on being cooled.
The last two are commonly sold for marsh-mallow
paste (p4te de gnimauve).

8. (Transparent.) From gum-arabic (picked),
1 lb.; cold water, 1 pint; white sugar, IJ-lbs.;
proceed as the hut, aidding orange-flower water,
1 fl. oz., towards the end. Often sold under the
name of ' white jujubes.'

Paste of Oum Senegal. %». PAn sa aoma
SamoAL, Fr. As junrss pasti, without the
fruit.

Partem Hon'ey. See Pabti, Alxosd.

Paste, Ju'Jube. 8yn. Junrsas, Juxctbb lo-
zaseas ; Pasta nsTXTAM, L. ; PIts sa jujiTsas,
Fr. Prtp. (P. Cod.) Jujubes (the fruit), 1 lb. ;
water, 4 lbs. ; boil \ hour, strain with expression,
settle, decant the clear portion, and clarify it
with white of egg; add a strained solution of
gum-arabic, 6 lbs., in water, 8 lbs., and to the
mixture add of white sugar, 6 lbs. ; gently eva-
porate, at first constantly stirring, and afterwards
without stirring, to the consistence of a soft ex-
tract, then add of orange-flower water, 6 fl. oz.,
and place the pan in a vessel of boiling water. In
12 hours carefully remove the scum, pour the
matter into slightly oiled tin moulds, and flnish
the evaporation (hardening) in a stove heated
to 104° F. It is commonly coloured with beet-
root, cochineal, or safiVon. Expectorant; in
conghs, &c. Paste of gum-arabic Is usually sold
for It.

Paste, Laasar's. Prip. Salicylic acid, 85 gr. j
oxide of zinc, 1 oz. ; starch, 1} oz. ; vaseline, 2|
oz. Melt the vaseline, and mix with the powders
in the proper manner.

Paste, U'ehen. Sg*. Pasta liohbnis, L.;
PAti db LlOHBir, Fr. Prtp. (P. Cod.) Iceland
moss, 1 lb. ; watOT, q. s. ; heat them to nearly the
boiling-point, stnun with pressure, reject the
liqoor, and boil the moes in fresh water, q. s., for

1 hour ; strain, press, add of gum-arabic, 5 lbs. ;
white sugar, 4 lbs., and evaporate to a proper
consistence, as above. Pectoral. With the ad-
dition of i gr. of extract of opinm to each os., it
forms the opiated lichen paste (P. Cod.).

Paste, IilqnoTiee. iSjy*. Liqttosiob jvruvas ;
Pasta oltoysbeizx, L. ; PAtb db BisuBsa, P.
DB B. koibb, Fr. Pr«p- I^- (P- Cod.) Beflned
juice and wUte sugar, of each, 1 lb. ; gnm-aiabio,

2 lbs. ; water, 8 quarte ; ^Ussolve, strain, evaporate
conriderably, add of finely powdered wris-root, \

78

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PA8TB

01. ; oil of uiisced or euenee of cedrat, a few
dropa, and pour the paite npoo an oiled slab, or
into moulds, as before.

2. (Brown : FA8TA a. VUBOA, L. ; FAti db b.
BBVKB, Fr.) Beflned juice, 4 ox. ; wbite sugar, 2
lbs. ; gum-arabic, 8 lbs, ; water, 4 pints ; proceed
as last.

8. (Opiated : Path sb b. ofiao£, Fr. — P. Cod.)
To the last add of extract of opium, 16 gr.

4. (Wbite : Faib DE b. blaxohb, Fr.) As Vo.
2, substituting the powder of the decorticated
root for the extract. All the above are pectoral ;
the second is also slightly anodyne. They are
useful in tickling coughs, hoarseness, tc.

Paste, London. Syn. Fabxa LoxsnEKBii, L.
I'np. Equal parts of caustic soda and unslaked
lime. Reduce to a fine powder in a warm mortar,
and mix intimately. Keep it in well-dosed
bottles, and when required for use take as much
as is sufficient, and make it into a paste with
water.

Paste, Karsh-mallow. Sg». Pasta alteubx,
L.; PXtb db auiMArTB, Ft. iV«p. (P. Cod.
1816.) Decorticated marsh-mallow root (French),
4 ox. i water, i gall. ; macerate for 12 hours,
strain, add white sugar and gum-arabic, of each,
2i lbs. ; dissolve, strain, evaporate without boiling
to the thickness of honey, constantly stiiring, and
add, gradually, the whites of 12 eggs, well Wten
with orange-flower water, 4 fl. oz., and strain ;
continue the evaporation and constant stirring
until the mass is so firm as not to adhere to the
fingers, then proceed as before.

Obf. It should be very light, white, and
spongy. In the P. Cod. of 1889 the marsh-mallow
root is omitted, and the name is changed to that
of ' pAte de gomme,' a compound long sold for it
in the shops. Both sre agreeable pectorals. See
Pabtb of Qirx-ABABIO.

PMte, Odontal'gic. Sg». Pabia odohtai^
OIOA, L. Pnp. 1. Pellitoiy (in powder), 1 dr.;
bvdrochlorate of morphia, 3 gr.; triturate; add
of honey, 2 dr. ; and oil of cloves, 6 drops.

2. Powdered mastic, pellitoiy, and white sugar,
of each, 1 dr. ; chloroform, q. s. to form a paste.
It must be kept in a stoppered bottle. See Tooth-
AOHB, and belote.

Paste, Or'ange. Fttp. From orange flowers, 2
lbs. ; bitter and sweet almonds, of each, blanched,
2i lbs., beaten to a perfectly smooth paste. An
agreeable cosmetic. See Pastb, Almovd.

Paste, Or'geat. iVsp. From blanched Jordan
almonds, 1 lb. ; blanched bitter a. and white sugar
and honey, of each, i lb. ; beaten to a paste, with
orange-flower water, q. s. (or neroli, afew drops),
and put into pots. As a cosmetic, or to make
orgeat milk. For use, rub 1 oz. with | pint of
water, and strain through muslin.

Paste, Pec'toral. Sgn. Pabta fbotobalib, L.
Prep. 1. (Paib pbotobau db Baudbt.) Take
of gum-arabic and white sugar, of each, 7 lbs. ;
water, q. s. ; dissolve, add of extract of liquorice,
8 oz. ; evaporate, add extract of lettuce, 2 dr. ;
balsam of tolu, 1} oz. ; orange- flower water, 4^
fl. oz.; whites otieggti oil of citrons, 6 or 6
drops.

2. (PiTB PBOIOBAI.B BAUAVIQTTB SB BbQ-

NAUi/i.) From the flowers of coltsfoot, cudweed,
marrow, and red poppy, of each, 1 oz. ; water, 1

quart) boil, strain; add of gnm-aratnc, 80 ec.;
white sugar, 20 oz. ; dissolve, concentrate, add of
tincture of tolu, 8 fl. dr., and pour the mixture on
an oiled slab.

8. (Axibatbd ooltbtcoi pasib; PAtb sb
TUBBiiiASB li I/'anib.) From a strong decoction of
coltsfoot flowers, 1 quart; Spanish juice, i lb.;
dissolve, strain, evaporate, as before, and towards
the end add of oil of aniseed, 1 dr. All the above
are nsefal in hoarseness, coughs, &c.

Pasts, Phoa'phor. See Batb.

Paste, Phoapherou. A phosphorous paste that
will keep a long time may be made by tiie follow-
ing process : — Shake 9 puts of phoephoms in 90
parts of warm syrup, and pour the still warm
mixture into a pan in which 90 parts of wheat-
flour have been previoosly put ; agitate rapidly,
and add 60 parts of ivory •black, 60 parts of water,
and 120 parts of lard.

Paste, Pol'lshiag. Rrtp. I. (For oopper and
brass.) See Bhabb Pabti.

2. (For iron and steel.) From emery ^n fine
powder) and lard, equal parts.

8. (For pewter.) From powdered Bath brick,
2 parts ; soft soap, 1 part; water, q. s. to makea
paste. Used with a Uttle water, and afterwards
well rinsed off.

4. (For fumitore.) See PouSK.

Paste, Ba"ior. Pnp. 1. From jewellers'
rouge, plumbago, and suet, equal parts, melted
together, and stirred until cold.

2. From prepared putty powder (levigated
oxide of tin), 8 parts ; lud, 2 parts ; crocus martas,
1 part ;' triturated together.

8._ Prepared putty powder, 1 os. ; powdered
oxalic acid, i oz. ; powdered gum, 20 gr. ; make
a stiff paste with water, q. s., and evenly and
thinly spread it over the strop, the other side of
which should be covered with any of the common
greasy mixtures. With very little friction this
paste gives a fine edge to the razor, and its action
is still further increased by slightly moistening it,
or even breathing on it. Immediatdy after its
use the razor should receive a few turns on the
other side of the strop.

4. Diamond dust, jewellers' rouge, and plum-
bago, of each, 1 part ; suet, 2 parts. Powdered
quartz is generally substituted for diamond dost,
but is much less effective.

5. {Mteki't.) Emery (reduced to an impal-
pable powder), 4 parts; deer suet, 1 part; well
mixed together.

6. {Pradiar'i.) From powdered Turkey stone,
4 oz. ; jewellers' rouge and prepared put^ powder,
of each, 1 oz. ; hard suet, 2 oz.

Obt. The above (generally made up into square
cakes) are nibbed over the razor strap, and, the
surface being smoothed off with the flat part at a
knife or a phial bottle, the strop is set aside for a
few hours to harden before being used.

Paste, Bagnaolf s. See Pabib, Pbocobal

Paste, Bieord's. Wood charcoal and strong
sulphuric acid, equal parts by weight ; mix well.
Used as an application to cancer and phagedenic
growths.

Paste, Bubeflt"cient i^s. Pasta bubbta-
OiBiTB, L. lYep. {Clanu.) From acetate of
lead. 1 oz.; bisulphate of potassa, 8 oa.; water,
q. s. It acts powerfully and quickly on tiie skin.

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PASTES

l2S6

Fute, Bvcf I. JVtp. From powdered opiam
•ad extract of henbane, of each, 10 gr. ; powdered
pellitory and extract of belladonna, of each, 20
gr. ; oil of clores, 10 drops. In toothache.

Faate, 81iM"tiag. Frtp. 1. Kaplea soap
(genuine), 4 ox. j powdered Castile soap, 2 ox. ;
lun^j, 1 ox.i essence of ambergris and oils of
CMsia and nutmq^, of each, 6 or 6 drops.

i. White wax, spermaceti, and almond oil, of
each, i at. j melt, and, whilst warm, beat in 2
aqmu-ea of Windsor soap previooslj reduced to a
paste with a little roae-water.

8. White soft soap, 4 ox. ; spermaceti and salad
oil, of each, i ox. ; melt them together and stir
ontil nearly cold. It may be scented at will.
When properly prepared tiiese pastes produce a
good lather with ritber hot or cold watier, which
does not dry on the face. The proper method of
using them is to smear a minute quantity over
the beard, and then to apply the wetted sha^ng-
bmsh, and not to pour water on them, as i* the
common practice.

Paste, Styptio, of Ontta Pareha. Sgn. Piaxi.
AVTTM rtacsa sttptku, L. (Mr BeardiUg.)
Ontta peroha, 1 ox.; Stockholm tar, li to 2 ox.;
creosote, 1 dr. j shellac, I ox., or q. s. to render it
■nfflciently hud. To be boiled together with
constant stirring till it forms a homogeneous mass.
For alveolar hamoirhage, and as a stopping for
ieeth in toothache. To be softened by moulding
with the fingers.

Pa«t«, Swadiaar. See CHiusiiAiir.

Paste, Tooth, fjya. Pibta »nrn«uou, Euo-
xvAxruH DBHTtmomf, L. Various preparations
are known under this name. They consist, for
the most part, of the ordinary substances used as
dentiftiees, tednced to the state of a very fine
powder, aikl mixed with sufficient honey, sugar,
or capillaire, to give them tiie required consistence.
Honey of roses is often used for this purpose,
with some agreeable perfume at will. A little
eau de Cdkwne or rectLBed spirit is a useful addi-
tion. The following are a few examples :

1. (Cabboh fasts ; Opux oabboniqvb.)
The chippings of Turkey stone, cylinder charcoal,
and prepared chalk, of each, 2 oz. ; cochineal and
elovea, of each, 1 dr. ; honey, 6 ox. ; eau de
Cologne, q. s. It should not be put into the pots
until the next day, and should be afterwards well
preserred from the air. .Much prised by smokers
and by persons troubled with a fetid breath from
rotten teeth.

(Cbibbt ioote pabtb.) Precipitated chalk,
8 lbs. J rose pink, 1 lb. ; powdered orris, 4 ox. j
glycerine, 4 ox.; honey, 8 ox.; Engluh oil of
lavender, 2 dr.; oil of cinnamon, i dr.; oil of
bergamot, 2 dr. Powder and sift the solids,
beat well with the other ingredients, and allow
to stuid a month. If at that time the paste is
too ttiB, reduce with water only.

8. (C0BA£FA8TB; OPIAT SB5TIFBI0S BOTTai.)

From prepared oonl, 8 ox.; cuttle-fish bone,
4 ox.] mastic, 2 ox.; cochineal, i ox.; honey,
f lb. J essence of ambergris, 1 fi. dr. ; oil of
cloves, } fl. dr., dissolved in rectified spirit,
1 fl. ox. As the last. Cleanse the teeth ra-
pidly.

8. (Dyon's Chabooai fakib.) From oUonte
of potass*, 1 dr. ; mint wat«r, 1 fi. ox. s triturate

until dissolved, then add of powdered charcoal,
2 ox. ; honey, 1 oz.

4. (Magic pasib.) From white marble dusii
4 ox.; pumice-stone (in impalpable powdor),
8 ox.; rose pink, 1 oz.; honey, i lb.; otto of
roses, 16 drops. Bapidly whitens the teeth,
but it should not be used too freely, nor too fre*
qnently.

6. (P. Cod.) Prepared coral, 4 oz. ; Utartrate
of potassa, 2 oz. ; cuttle-fish bone and oochineiU,
of each, 1 ox.; alum, i dr.; Narbonne honey,
10 ox. ; with essential oil, q. s, to aromatise the
mixture.

6. (Pelletier's OsosilirB.) This is stated to
be a mixture of pulverised sepia-bone, hotter of
oacao, and honey, with essential oil.

7. (RoBB FABIB.) Coral paste scented with
roses, or the following : — Cuttle-fish bone, 1 oz. ;
prepared chalk, 2 oz. ; cochineal, 4 dr. ; honey of
roses, 8 oz.; otto of roses, 6 drops.

8. (SOLTTBU PABTB, SAIiUTB SBimPBIOK.)

From bitartrate of potassa or sulphate of potassa
(in fine powder), 8 ox. ; honey of roses, 2 oz.

9. (Spahibh SBimnuoB, Castilub tooth
OBBAic.) From Castile soap (in fine powder) and
cattle-fish bone, of each, 2 oz. ; honey of roses,
6 ox. An excellent preparation. It is superior
to all the other pastes for removing tartar and
animalcula from the teeth.

10. (Yahilla pastb.) From red cinchona
bark,2 dr.; vanilla, 1 dr.; cloves, i dr.; (the hut
two reduced to powder by trituration with)
white sugar, 1 oz.; cuttle-fish bone and marble
dust, of each, i oz. ; syrup of saffron, q. s.

11. (V101.BI pasib.) From prepared.chalk and
cuttle-fish bone, of each, 8 oz. ; powdered white
sugar, 8 oz. ; orris root, 1 ox.; smalts, i oz.;
syrup of violets, q. s. to mix.

12. (Winckler's B08BATB dbhtipbiob.) From
cuttle-fish bone, 1 part ; conserve ot roses
(Ph. L.), 8 parts ; white otto of roses, 2 drops to
the OS.

18. Chalk, 8 os. ; myrrh and rhatany root, of
each, 2 oz. ; onis root, 1 oz. ; honey of roses, q. s.
to mix. In foul and spongy gums.

Pasta, Tootb'ache. See Pabtb, Osoktaiaic.

Paste, Tor'nwBttL Sm. Fabia tobkbbtilub,
L. Pr»p. (Jtform.) Powdered totmentil root
made into a paste with white of egg. In whit-
low; applied on linen. Mixed with an equal
weight of simple syrup, it has also been reoom-
mended in dysenteiy and diairiioea.

Paste, Unna's. J?rtp. White gelatin, 8 parts;
zinc oxide, 8 parts; glycerin, 6 parts; water, 9
parts. Dissolve the gdatin in the wator and gly'
cerin, then add the zinc oxide and stir well, used
to paint on the skin in eczema, also as a dressing for
ulcerated legs. Before use it must be melted 1^
standing near a fire, or in a hot-water bath. Jt
is punted on with a brush.

Paste, VianoA. See Cavstio Pocuoa wna

LlKB.

Paste, VoUer's. JPrtp. From dragon's blood,
1 dr. ; powdered opium, 2 dr. ; powdered gnms of
mastic and sandanch, of each, 4 dr. ; oil of rose-
mary, 20 drops ; tincture of opium, q. s. to form
a paste. In toothache.

Paste, Ward'a. Bee CoNPBOTioir o> Pbpfbb.

PA9TX8. 8g», A«nnot»i< 9>h8, Fapij-

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PASTES

TiovB &.; Pubbm riaxuxuat abtimoiklum.
Ft. Yitreous oomponndi made in imitation of
the gemi and precioni stones. The snlMtanees
which enter into their composition, and the

Srinciples on which their succesaful prodnetion
ependa, have been already briefly noticed. The
present article will, therefore, be confined to
giving the reader a few ori^nal f ormnUe, togetlier
with several others oarefnlly selected from the
most reliable English and Continental authorities.
hike enamels, the artificial gems have for their
basis a very fusible, highly transparent and
brilliant, dense glass, which is known under the
name of ' frit,' ' paste,' ' stiaas,' ■ flax,' < fondant,'
or ' Hayence base,' and which in its state of
greatest excellence constitutes the 'artificial
diamond.' For convenienoe, this will be noticed
bere under its last synonym. (See below, also
Ure's ' Dictionary of Arts, &c.)

Imethyit. 1. Paste or strass, 600 gr. ;
oxide of manganese, 8 gr.; oxide of cobalt,

2. (Z>MMMiU- WUlani.) Strass, 4808 gr. ; oxide
of manganese, 86 gr. ; oxide of cobalt, 2 gr.

8. (Laufon.) Strass, 9216 gr. ; oxide of
manganese, 16 to 24 gr. j oxide of cobalt, 1 gr.

Aqua Karina. From strass, 4800 gr.; glass
of antimony, 80 gr.; oxide ot cobeJt, 1} gr.
See Bksyii, of which this is mere^ a variety.

Aventnrlne. 1. From strass, 600 gr.; scales
of iron, 100 gr. ; black oxide of copper, 60 gr. ;
fuse until the black oxide of copper is reduced to
the reguline form, then allow the mass to cool
very slowly, so ttaib the minute crystals of metal
may be equally diHosed through it. Has a rich
golden iridesoenoe.

2. As the last, but submitting oxide of chro-
mium for the protoxide of copper. Appears
brown, filled witii countless gold spangles; or,
when mixed with more paste, of a greenish grey,
filled with green spangles.

BaiyL (DouaaU-WUland.) Strass, 3466 gr. ;
glass of antimony, 24 gr. ; oxide of cobalt, 1| gr.
See Aqva Kaxoia..

Carbmiele. See Gabihr.

Chxyiolite. From strass, 7000 gr.t pore cal-
dned sesquioxide of iron (' trocns martis '), 66 gr.

ComaUan. 1. (Rn>.) From strass, 7000 gr.;
glass of antimony, 8600 gr. ; calcined peroxide of
iron, 876 gr. ; binoxide of manganese, 76 gr.

2. (Whitb.) From stiass, 7200 gr. ; Mlcined
bones, 260 gr. ; washed yellow ochre, 66 gr.

Diainoiid. 1. From rock crystal (purert), 1600
gr. ; borax, 660 gr.; carbonate of lead ^ure),
8200 gr.; oxide of manganese, i to 1 gr.;
powder each separately, mix them together, fuse
the mixture in a clean crucible, pour the melted
mass into water, separate any reduced lead, and
again powder and remelt the mass.

2. Pure silica, 160 gr. ; pore litharge^ 260 gr. ;
borax and nitre, of each, 60 gr. t arsei^oiM aeid,
21 gr.

8. (^VoiumU-WUland.) a. From rock crystal,
4066 gr.; minium, 6800 gr.; potash, 2164 gr.;
borax, 276 gr. ; arsenic, 12 gr.

h. From rock crystal, 8600 gr.; ceruse cf
Clichy (pure carbonate of lead), 8606 gr. ; potash,
1260 gr. s borax, >60 gr.

4. {Fontamer.) Pure silica, 8 ox. ; salt of

tartar, 24 os.; mix, bake, cool, treat the fused
mixture witli dilute nitric acid until efiervescence
ceases, and afterwards with water as long as
the washings affect litmus paper ; next dry the
powder, add to it of pun carbonate of lead, 12
ox., and to every 12 os. of the mixture add cf
borax, 1 ox.; triturate in a porcelain mortar,
melt in a clean crucible, and pour the fused mass
into cold water ; dry, powder, and repeat the pro-
cess a second and a third time in a clean cru-
cible, observing to separate any revived lead. To
the third frit add of nitre, 6 dr., and again melt.
The product is perfectly limpid and eztremely
brilliant.

6. (Xoa^oa.) Litharge, 100 gr. ; pore iilioa,
76 gr. ; white tartar or potash, 10 gr.

6. (LofMl.) Pure silica, 100 puts ; red oxide
of lead (minium), 160 parts; calcined potash, 80
to 86 parts ; calcined borax, 10 parts; anenioos
acid, 1 part. This produces a paste which has
great brilliancy and refractive and diaperrive
powers, uid also a similar speeiflo gravity to tbe
Oriental diamond. It fosM at a moderate heat,
and acquires the greatest brilliancy when re-
melted, and kept for two or three days in a fused
state, in order to expel the superabuBdant alkali,
and perfect the refinmg (' Polyteeh. Joam.'). Hie
products of the above formulss are net only
employed to imitate the diamond, but they also
form the basis of the other faotitions gems. (See
above.)

7. (Tbllow TtUJUaiD.) Stress, 600 gr. ; glass
of antimony, 10 gr.

Kagle Karine. From strass, 8840 gr. ; copper
stain, 72 gr.; pure zaffre, 1 gr.

Xmeiald. 1. From stnas, 7000 gr. ; carbonate
of coraer, 66 gr.i glass of antimony, 7 gr.

2. Paste, 960 gr.; glass of antimony, 48 gr. ;
oxide of cobalt, 8| gr.

8. {Ihutmlt'WUtamd.) Paste, 4606 gr.;
green oxide of oopper, 42gr. ; oxide of chrome, 2gr.

4. (Xanfoa.) Paste, 9612 gr.; acetate of
copper, 72 gr. ; peroxide of iron, 1| gr.

Ganat 1. Paste or strass, 1200 gr. ; glass of
antimony, 680 gr. ; purple of Caseins and Uaozide
of manganese, of each, 8 gr.

2. {DotamU-Wi^lamd.) Paste, 618 gr. ; glass
of antimony, 266 gr. ; puple cf C^srius and oxide
of maaganesek of eaeh, 2 gr.

8. (vnraeiB eiBim.) Ft«m paste, 7000 gr. ;
glass of antimony, 8460 gr. ; Mlcined peroxide of
iron, 66 gr.

Lapis lamll. From paste, 7000 gr. ; calcined
horn or bones, 670 gr. ; oxides of cobalt and
manganese, of each, 24 gr. The golden veins are
produced by painting them on t^ pieces with a
mixture of gold powder, borax, and gum-water,
and then gently heating them until the borax
fluxes.

OpaL 1. From atiasi, 960 gr.; calcined bones,
48 gr.

2. {Fontamier.) Paste, 1 ot.; hMn silver, 10
gr. ; calcined magnetio ore, 2 gr. ; abaorbent
earth (calcined bones), 26 gr.

Buby. 1. Paste, 46 puts ; Unoxide of man-
ganese, 1 part.

2. Fkste, 1 lb. ; purple of Cassins, 8 dr.

8. (DommU'Wiaamd.) a. From pastes 2880
parts ; oxide of manganese, 72 parts.

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1287

h. Top*! paate that hai tamed ont opaque, 1
part; (trass, 8 parts; fuse them together for SO
boors, cool, and again fuse it in small pieces be-
fore tile blowpipe. Very fine.

4. (^Foniamm:) Strass, 16 oi. ; precipitate of
Cassins, peroxide of iron, golden sulphide of anti-
mony, and manganese cslcined with nitre, of each,
168 gr. ; rock crystal, 3 oi. or more. -

5. Paste and glass of antimony, of each, 8 oz. ;
Tock crystal, 1 oi.; pmple of Cassias, li dr.
Toms on the orange.

BappUre. 1. Prom strass, 8600 gr. ; oxide of
cobalt, 60 gr, j oxide of manganese, 11 gr.

2. (IhuanU. WUlond.) Paste, 4608 gr. ; oxide
of eobalti 68 gr. ; fuse in a little Hessian crucible
for 80 hoars.

8. (Anloaisr.) Flwte, 8 oz. ; oxide of cobalt,
48gr.

Topas. 1. From strass, 1060 gr.j glass of
antimony, 44 gr. ; pmple of Cassias, 1 gr.

2. {DemtmU-WUltrnd.) Paste, 8466 gr.; cal-
dned peroxide of iron, 86 gr.

Tufnoiae. Prom blue paste, 20 to 24 parts ;
calcined bones^ 1 part.

ConohuU^ Mtmorit. It is absolutely neces-
sary for the soccesafnl application of the preced-
ing formola that the substances employed should
be perfectly tne from impurities, more particu-
larly those of a mineral kind. The Utharge,
oxide of lead, and carbonate of lead, abore all
things, must be entirely free from oxide of tin,
aa the smallest {larticle of that substance may
impart a 'milkiness' to the paste. All the in-
gredients must be separately reduced to powder,
and, after bung mixed, sifted through lawn. The
duJoniuast be carefully condacted and continuons,
and the melted mass shoold be allowed to cool
very slowly, after having been left in the fire
from 24 to SO hoars at the least. Hessian
eradbles ate preferred for this purpose, and the
heat of an ormnaiy pottery or porcelain kiln is
■nffieient in most cases; bnta small wind-fomace
devoted exdnoively to the purpose is, in general,
more convemat. It is found that the more
tranquil, contanuous» and uniform the fusion, the
denser and dearer is the paste, and the greater
it* refractive power and beauty.

AU the coloured vitreous compounds noticed
under Gi.Afls may be worked up as ornamental
stones, in the same way as those just referred to.

The following methDd of obtaining artificial
rabies and emeralds, first pdnted out by Boittger,
is exceedingly ample and inexpendve, and de-
serves the senous attention of tiiiose interested in
ttua ingodons art: — Recently predpitated and
well-washed hydrate of aluminum is moistened
with a few drc^ of neutral cfaromate of potss-
dum, and kneaded so that the mass assumes a
tinge scarodv perceptible ; it is then rolled up
into small sbcu, about the thickness of a finger,
and slowly dried, taUng the precaution to fill the
Assures (Jt any) that form daring dedccation
withfresh hydrate of aluminum. When perfectly
dry, and after having been submitted to a gentle
heat) one end of theaa sticks is brought into the
termination of the flame of an oxyhydrogen blow-
p^e^ nntila portion of the mass is fused into a
•maQ globule. After the lapse of a few minutes,
several minute ball* form, umng a diameter of

some millimetres, and of such intense hardness
that quartz, glsjs, topaz, and granite may be
easily and perceptibly scratch^ with them.
These, when cut and polished, appear, however,
slightjy opaque. By employing uitnte of nickel
in lieu of chromate of potassium, green-coloured
globules, closely resembling the emerald, are
obtained.

By the substitution of oxide of chromium for
chromate of potassium, Mr Booley produced
factitious gems of considerable hiudness and
beauty, though slightiy opaque in some por-
tion of the mass. The addition of a very littie
silica prevented, in a great measnre, this tendency
toopadty.

It may be observed that the beauty of pastes
of factitious gems, and especially the brilliancy
of mock diamonds, is greatiy dependent upon the
cutting, setting up, and the skilful arrangement
of the foil or tinsel behind them. See Ehaxbl,
Pons, Gam, Olasi, kc.

FAS'TXLS. [Fr.] Coloured crayons.

PASTIL. Sgn. Pastillb ; PASTiXLtrg, Pas-
TiLLTnt, L. A lozenge or confection. The pas-
tilles (PABTHiLi) of French pharmacy are meroly
'confectionery drops' aromatised or medicated.
The name is also given to mixtures or odorous
substances made up into small cones and bnmt
as incense. (See below.)

The following very useful notes are abstracted
from a paper by Mr Wyatt :

Pastils are soft jelly-like jojubes, variously
medicsted, msde from a gelatin and glycerin
base, called in the Throat Hospital Pharmacopceia
' Glyco-gelatine,' which is made according to the
following form : — Oelatin, 1 oz. ; glycerin, 2^ oz.
(by wdght); orange-flower water, 2| oz. (by
weight); asunoniacal solution of carmine, a
suffldency.

Cut the gelatin into shreds and soak in the
orange-flower water for two hours ; then transfer
to a water-bath and heat with the glycerin until
the gelatin is dissolved. Colour with the carmine
solution, and pour into an oiled tray to cool.

The Pharmacopoeia gives no formula for the
solution of carmine, but 30 minims of one made
as follows is enough for 6 oz. of gly co-gelatin : —
Carmine, 80 gr.; solution of ammonia, a safS-
ciency. Dissolve the carmine in 6 dr. of the
ammonia, filter, and wash the filter with more
ammonia until 1 fl. oz. has been collected.

The medication of the pastils is accomplished
by mdting an ounce of glyco-gelatin on a water-
bath, addmg the medicine, previously rubbed to a
thick syrup with glycerin if a powder, stirring
until nearly cool, and pouring into an oiled mould,
cutting the mass into 84 pastils when cold. A
suitalm mould for small quantities is one mth
ndes soldered on, square in shape, 8 in. by 8 in.,
divided into 86 squares by means of deeply im-
pressed lines on the under side, these causii^ the
finished pastils to have a slightly rounded snr-
fiuse, the lines leaving a series of deep grooves
which serve as a guide to cutting.

Orange-flower water bdng distasteful to many
persons, Mr Wyatt recommends as a pleasant
variety other flavoured waters, frmt-jnice, tdu,
and glycyrrhizin.

Of the flavoured waters rose or dnnamon water

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may be used initead of ontage-fLower water, and
in the same proportion, whilst 8 fl. dr. of cherry
laurel water with 2i oz. of distilled water impart
a pleasant almond flavonr.

He has also used raspberry and lime-fruit juices,
the raspberry in the same proportion as the
orange-flower water, the lime-juice in the pro-
portion of half juice and half distilled water.

A toln mass was made by using in the place of
glycerin toluinated glycerin, made by heating
li parts of tola with 80 of glycerin and 6 c^
water over a water-bath for an hour, filtering on
cooling, and making up 86 fl. parts by the addi-
tion of glycerin.

Qlycyrrhizin, 24 gr., dissolved in the water
used to soak the gelatin, imparted an excellent
liquorice flavour, very useful to hide the taste of
ammonium chloride.

In addition to the formula of the Throat
Hospital Pharmacopoeia, the following have
proved useful in many cases :

Faatilli ApomorpliliUB. Apomorphine hydro-
chlorate trituration (1 in 8), 9 gr.; glycerin,
10 minims; glyco-gelatin (lime-juice), H oz.
Rub the trituration smooth with the glycerin,
add to the previously melted glyco-gelatin, stir
until nearly cool, and poor in an oiled mould,
catting into 36 pastils on cooling.

FastilU Coeaina. Cocaine hydrochlotrnte, 1 gr. ;
glyco-gelatin (raspberry), 1| oi. Helt the
glyco-gelatin, stir in the cocaine, allow to stand
until the air-bubbles have risen, pour into an oiled
mould, and cut into 86 pastils when cold. Each
contains -ff gr. cocainm hydrochlor.

PaatUli Codeine Codeine, 4^ gr.; glycerin,
8 fl. dr.; glyco-gelatin (liquorice), H oz. Dis-
solve the rodeine in the glycerin wiih heat, add
to the melted glyco-gelatin, stir, and poor into an
oiled mould, catting, when cold, into 86 pastils.

Each contains i gr. coddne, and is equal to 1
fl. dr. of the syrupus oodeins [XartiudaU).

FattiUl SaioL Salol, 90 gr.; glycerin, 90
minims ; glyco-gelatin (toluinated), 1 ji oz. Rub
the salol with the glycerin, add ihia to the
previouslv melted glyco-gelatin, and heat until
the salol is dissolved; stir until nearly set, pour
into an oiled mould, and cut into 86 pastils when
cold. Each contains 2i gr. saloL

Various other formulsa can be devised, accord-
ing to the dispenser's ingenuity, taking the pre-
caution, of course, to use no ingredients with
which gelatin is incompatible.

The plain glyco-gelatin of the raspberry,
lime-fruit, and the liquorice flavours, when cast in
a large mould (such as the lid of an ordinary 8 lb.
jujube tin), and cut into square or diamond-
sluiped lozenges with a pair of scissors, is an ex-
cellent Bobstitute for the glycerin (P) jujubes
usually sold, containing, as it does, more than a
homoeopathic dose of glycerin.

Faatils, Szplo'slve. Fumigating pastilles, con-
tuning a little gunpowder. Used to pro-
duce diversions, but they often prove far from
harmless.

FastUa, Fn'mlgatliig. ^m. Aboiutio fab-
ulIiM, Iscikbb p.; Pabtixij itnunziB, P.
OSOBATI, L. Prtp. 1. Benzoin, 4r os.; cm-
carilla, i oz. ; nitre and gum-arabic, of each,
8 dr. } myrrh, 1 dr.j oil* of nutmeg and doves.

of each, 25 drops ; charcoal, 7 oz. ; all in fine
powder ; beat them to a smooth ductile mass
with cold water, q. s. ; form it into small cones
with a tripod base, and dry them in the air.

2. (Semy and Onibourt.) Powdered gum-
benzoin, 16 parts ; balsam of tolu and powdered
sandal-wood, of each, 4 parts ; a light charcoal
(Linden), 48 parts; powdered tragacanth and
true labdanum, of each, 1 part; powdered nitre
and gum-arabic, of each, 2 parts ; cinnamon
water, 12 parts; as above.

8. (P. Cod.) Benzoin, 2 oz.; balsam of toln
and yellow sandal- wood, of each, 4 dr. ; nitre,
2 dr. ; labdanum, 1 dr. ; charcoal, 6 oz. ; mix
a solution of gum tragacanth, and divide the moss
into pastilles, as before.

4. (PABTII.LBB A 1.1 nvm D'osANai.) For
powdered roses in the next formula substitute
pure orange powder, and for the essence of roses
use pure neroli.

6. (Pabtiixbb X lA. BOBI.^ Oum-benzoin,
olibannm (in tears), and styrax (in tears), of each,
12 oz. ; nitre, 9 oz. ; charcoal, 4 lbs. ; powder of
pale roses, 1 lb. ; essence of roses, 1 oz. ; mix
with 2 oz. of gum tragacanth, dissolved in rose-
water, 1 quart.

6. (Pabtillbb a la VAirnxB.) Qnm-benzoin,
styrax, and olibanum (as last), of each, 12 oz. ;
nitre, 10 oz. ; cloves, 8 oz. ; powdered vanilla,
1 lb. ; charcoal, 4i lbs. ; oil of cloves, ) oz. ;
essence of vanills, 7 or 8 fl. oz. ; as before.

Obt. The products of the above formnlte are
all of excellent quality. They may be varied to
please the fancy of the artiste by the substitution
of other perfumes or aromatics. Cheaper pastilles
may be made by simply increasing the quantity of
the charooal and saltpetre. The whole of the in-
gredients should be reduced to fine powder before
mixing them. The use of musk and civet, so
often ordered in pastilles, should be avoided, as
they yield a disagreeable odour when burned.
The addition of a little camphor renden them
more suitable for a sick chamber. The simplest
and most convenient way of forming the mass
into cones is by pressing it into a mould of lead
or porcelun.

Pastilles are burned either to diifnse a tdeasaot
odour, or to cover a disagreeable one. For this
purpose they are kindled at the apex and set on
an inverted saucer or a penny piece to bum.
Persons who use them frequently employ a small
china or porcelain toy (' pastille house ') sold for
the purpose.

Pastils, Kouth. Sjf*. Bbbatr ph/l, Cachot

lOZEHCUB; PABTlUil COBMBTICI. L.J CaOITOV
ASOXATIBli, C. ABOVATIQUa, C. SB BOLOOHA,

GxAnrs db cachou. Ft. Prep. 1. Soft extract
of liquorice, S oz. ; gum catechu and white
sugsr, of each, 1 oz. ; gam tragacanth (powdered),
1 oz. ; oil of cloves, 1 dr. ; oil of . cassia, i dr. ;
essence of ambergris and oil of nutmeg, of each,
12 drops ; make a firm mass with rose or orange-
flower water, q. s., and divide it into 1-gr. pills ;
when these are dry, cover them with gold or
silver leaf.

2. Solazti juice (dried by a gentle heat and
powdered), 4 oz.; lump sugar, 8 oz.; powdered
catechu, 2 oz. ; powdered tragacanth, 1 oa. ; oil of
doves, 2 fl. dr.; oil of cania, 1 fl. dr. ; wbite of

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egg or roafr-water, q. «. to form a pill-mais ; as
before.

8. Powdered catechn, 1 ozi; Solazri juice, 4
oz. ; lump ingar, 12 oz. ; oils of cloves, cassia, and
peppermint, of each, 1 fl. dr. ; mndlage of traga-
canth, q. I. to mix ; as before.

4. Extract of liquorice (soft), 2 oz.; wUte
■ngax, 3 oz. ; powdered tragacanth and cascarilla
(or orris root), of each, i oz. ; oil of cloyes, i fl.
dr.; oil of cassia, 12 drops j water, q. s. ; as before.

6. ((^knaUier.) Powdered coffee, chocolate,
and sugar, of each, li oz.; powdered vanilla and
freshly burnt charcoal, of each, 1 oz. ; mucilage
of tragacanth, q. a.

6. Chloride of lime (dry and good), 1 dr. ; white
sugar, 8 oz. ; powdered tragacanth, 1 oz. ; oil of
doves, 80 dn^ ; rose-water, q. a. To disinfect
the breath.

Oi«. Almost every maker employs his own
forms for these articles. The objects to be umed
at are the possession of rather powerful and per-
aiatent odour, and a toughneaa to prevent tneir
too rapid aolation in the mouth. The original
Italian formula included liquorice, mastic, casca-
rilla, charcoal, orris root, oil of peppermint, and
the tinctures of ambergris and musk, but is now
seldom employed in this country. The flavour of
peppermint does not, indeed, appear to be approved
of by English amokera. Sometimea, inatead of
being made perfectly apherical, they are flattened
a little.

Caokov k I'AXBaa &bi8, Cxobov X la oa-

VBUiB, CaOHOV a IiA nSUB D'OSAir&B, Caohov
XUBQUi, CAOHOU X I>A BOSS, CAOHOV X LA TA-

irtLLS, CAOHor X la tiolbih, &c, are merely
flavoured and acented respectively with the
essences or oils of ambergiia, cinnamon, neroli,
muak, rose, vaidlla, violets, &c. See Bbeach,
Caohov Aboxatib^, hoxBia-ss, Pills, &c.

FA"STST. Articlea of food made of 'paste'
or dough, or of which ' paste ' forma a principal
and characteristic ingredient. The word ie popu-
larly reatricted to thoae which contain puff paate,
or auch as form the staple production of the
modem pastrycook ,■ but it is, in reality, of much
more general signification.

Several varieties of paste are prepared for dif-
ferent purposes, of which the following are the
principal:

Fwn Fasti. The prodnction of a flrst-claas
pnfl paate ia commonly regarded aa a matter of
eonmderable difficulty, but by the exerciae of the
proper precautions it is, on the contrary, an ex-
tremely simple afEadr. This paste, before being
placed in the oven, consists of alternate lamins
of butter or fat and ordinary flour dough, the
latter being, of course, the tUcker of the two.
During the proceas of baking, the elastic vajMur
diaengaged, being in port reatrained from flying
off \>j the buttered stuf aces of the dough, difraaea
itaeU between these laminas, and cauaea the maas
to awell up, and to form an aasemblage of thin
membranes or flakes, each of which is more or
leas snarated from the other. Individually,
these fliOces resemble thoae of an ordinary ricii
unleavened dough when baked ; but collectively,
tHey form a very ligbt eruat, poaaeasing an ex-
tremely inviting appearance and an agreeable
flavour.

The precautions above referred to are — the nae
of perfectly dry flour, and its conversion into
dough with a light hand, avoiding unnecessarily
working it ; the use of butter free from water or
buttermilk, and which has been reduced to pre-
cisely the same degree of plasticity as the dough
between which it is to be rolled ; condnctiug the
operation in a cool apartment, and, after the
second or third folding of the dough, exposing it
to a rather low temperature before proceeding
further with the procesa ; and, lastly, baking the
paate in a moderately smart but not too hot an
oven. The following are examplea :

1. (Rich.) Take of flour, 1 lb. ; butter, i lb. ;
cold apring water, q. a. ; make a moderately soft
flexible dough, then roll in (as described above) of
dry freah butter, i lb.

2. (Ordinary.) Take of flour, 1 lb. ; cold water,
q. a. ; make a dough, and roll in, as before, of
bntter, 6 oz.

8. (Sundall.) Take i peck of flour, rub into
it 1 lb. of butter, and make a ' light paate ' with
cold water, juat stiff enough to work well ; next
lay it out about as thick as a crown piece ; put a
layer of bntter all over it, aprinklaon a little flour,
double it up, and roll it out again ; by repeating
this with fresh layers of bntter three or four
times or oftener, a very light paste will be formed.
Bake it in a moderately quick oven.

4. (Sojfer.) Put 1 lb. of flour upon your
pastry-slab, make a bole in the centre, into which
put a teaapoonf ul of salt, mix it with eold water
into a softish flexible paste with the right band,
dry it off a little with flour until you have well
cleared the paste from the slab, but do not work
it more than you can possibly help ; let it remain
for 2 or 8 minutes upon the slab, then take 1 lb.
of freah butter from which you have squeezed all
the buttermilk in a cloth, and brought to the
some consistent as the paste, upon which place
it; press it out flat with the hand, then fold over
the edges of the paste, so aa to hide the butter,
and reduce it wiUi the lolling-pin to the thick-
nesa of about i an inch, when it will be about
two feet in length; fold over one third, over
which again pass the rolling-pin ; then fold over
the other third, thua forming a square ; place it
with the enda top and bottom before yon, shaking
a little flour both under and over, and repeat the
rolls and turns twice again as before; flour a
' baking-sheet,' upon which lay it on ice, if handy,
or otherwise in aome cool place, for about half an
hour i then roll it twice more, turning it as before,
and again place it upon ice or in the cold for half
an hour; next g^ve it two more rolls, making
aeven in all, and it ia ready for use. " Tou must
continually add enough flour while rolling to pre-
vent your paste sticking to the slab."

Hal>-Puvp Pastx. As the preceding, using
only one half the quantity of butter, and giving
the paste only three or four folds.

Shobi Pabth, Shobt Cbvst. 1. Flour (dry
and warm), 1 lb. ; sugar, 8 oz. ; butter, ^ lb. ; 2
eggs; water, i pint; moke a light dough. If one
hatf of ' Jones's patent flour ' be nsed no ^rg<^U
be required.

2. (Sogtr.) Put on the ' paste-slab ' or ' pie-
board ' 1 lb. of flour, 2 oz. of pounded sngmr, 6 oz.
of butter, 1 egg, i teaspoonfal ot «alt> and i pint

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of water ; mix the sugar and water well together,
add them with the water by degrees to the floor,
and form a paste, bnt flrmer than pafT paste.

Pnt Pabtb. That commonly used is * short
paste,' varied at will, bat at good tables the npper
crust of the pie is generally made of ' poif paste,'
and the remainder of ' short paste.'

PuDSiNa PA8TB. This for baked puddings
may resemble the last. For boiled puddings (or,
indeed, for any) the paste may be either ordinary
' short paste,' or one made with 2 to 6 oz. of butter
or lard, or 8 to 8 oz. of chopped beef suet, to each
lb. of flour, with or without an ^g, and a little
sugar, according to the means of uie parties. The
first is most appropriate for those contaiuing
fresh fruit, and uiat with suet for meat puddings,
and those containing dried fruit, as grocers' cur-
rants, plums, &c. Milk or milk and water is often
used instead of simple water to make the dough.
Qinger, spices, savoury herbs, &c, are common
additions to the crusts of puddings. Where
economy is an object, and especially among the
lower classes, kitchen fat is frequently substi-
tuted for suet, and lard for batter. When
'Jones's patent flour' is employed an excellent
plain pudding paste may be made by simply mix-
ing it up with very cold water, and immediately
putting it into the water, which should be boil-
ing, and kept in that state until the podding is
dressed.

FA'TIHT XSSlCmS. Syt. Mbdioa-
ummcji ABOAVA, L. The majority of the pre-
parations noticed onder this head are the nostrums
popularly termed ' qoack medicines,' and which
are sold with a Government stamp attached to
them. The term patent, as applied to these pre-
parations, is confusing and misleading, tiie
nqority of the public believing them to be in-
Tentions which have received the seal of the
Pktent Office, whereas very few are real patents.
The application of a Qovemment stamp to a
medicme has, by usage, given the right to ose the
word patent. A few other secret or proprietary
remedies are also, for convenience, included in
the list. An alphabetical arrangement, based on
the names of the repnted inventors or proprietors
of the articles, has been adopted, as bemg the
one best soited for easy reference. The composi-
tion of a nomber of them is given from caroEul
personal inspection and analysis (by Mr Cooley),
and that of the remainder on the aothority of
Ghray, Orifflth, Paris, Bedwood, the members of
the Philaddphia College of Phannaoy, and other
respectable writers. A variety of articles, not
indoded in the following lists, is noticed along
with other preparations for the class to which
they belong, or onder the names of their proprie-
tors. See Baxbak, Cuatb, Dbofb, BegKiraa,
TnroTuxi, Onmaurr, Piiia,^.

Ahenwtiiy's Fills. See Abbbititet Mkdi-
onns.

Albinolo'* (Mntaent See Hoixowat's Oibt-
lOBT (istow).

All Ahmed'! Treainrai of the Sestrt. There
are three preparations indnded under this name :

a, (AKTiSBPno Maxasxa.) From lead plaster,
8 parts) gum, thns and suad oil, of each, S
parts; beeswax, 1 part; melted together by. a
gentle heat, and spread upon calico.

h. (PlOTOBAI,, AVTIFHTHUIB, Or COCaH

Pills.) From myrrh. Si lbs. ; squills and
ipecacuanha, of each, 1 lb. (all in powder) ;
white soft soap, 10 ox. ; oil of aniseed, 1^ ot. ;
treacle, q. s. to form a pill mass.

e. (SpHAIBOPBFTIO or AimBILIOITg PiLU.)

From aloes, 28 lbs. ; coIo<^th pulp, 12 lbs. ; rho-
barb, 7 lbs.; myrrh and scammony, of each,
31 lbs. ; ipecacuanha, S lbs. ; cardamom seeds,
8 lbs. (all in powder); soft so^, 9 lbs.; oil of
juniper, 7 fl. oz. ; treacle, q. s. This, as wdl as
the last, is divided into 8i gr. pills, which are
then covered with tin-foil or silver leaf. An ex-
cellent aperient pill, no doubt, and one likely to
prove useful in all those cases in which the ad-
ministration of a mild diaphoretic and stomachic
pnrge is indicated. Unlike many of the ad-
vertised nostrums of the day, there is nothing in
their composition that can by any possibility
prove ii^nrions ; but beyond thu they are desti-
tute of virtoe.

Anderson's Scotf s Pills. See Pilu.

Atkinson's Influit Preservative. From car-
bonate of magnesia, 6 dr.; white sugar, 2 oa.;
oil of aniseed, 20 drops; spirit of sal volatile,
2i dr. ; laudanum, 1 dr. ; symp of saffron, 1 ox.;
caraway water to make up 1 pint.

Balm of Baekaiiri. See Balsak.

Balaam of Lift. Sgu. Bauxb sb tib, F^.
Several compound medicines of this name are
noticed on page 261. The following are well-
known nostrums :

1. (^SoffiHann't.) a. Of the oils of cinnamon,
cloves, lemon, lavender, and nutmegs, and balsam
of Pern, of each, 2 dr. ; essence of ambergris, oil
of amber, and oil of rue, of each, 1 dr. ; cochine^
12 gr. ; strongest rectified spirit. Si pints ; mix.

i. (Ph. Dan. 1840.) Oils of cinnamon, cloves,
lavender, and nutmegs, of each, 20 gr. ; purified
oil of amber, 10 drops ; balsam of Pera, 30 gr. ;
rectified spirit ftinged with alkanet root), 10 oi.

2. (Oaitw't.) Nearly similar to Hoffmann's.
8. (Turlington't.) Benzoin and liquid styrax,

of each, 18 oz.; balsam of toln and extract of
liqnorioe, of each,4r oc; balsam of Pern,.2os.;
aloes, myrrh, and angelica root, of each, 1 oz. ;
highly rectified spirit of wine^ 7 pints; digest,
with frequent agitation, for 10 davs, and filter.
Externally, the above are rubefacient and cor-
roborant; internally, stimulant, cordial, and
pectoral.

Batten's Btitlih Oil. From oil of turpentine,
1 pint ; Barbadoes tar, | lb. ; oil of rosemary,
1 fl. oz.

Blake's Green Xonntain Ointment. We are
told that the active ingredient in this compound
is Amiea Montana, wiUi a basis of soap cerate.
It is very nseful as an external application in
several affections. The chief objection to its use
is that it is a secret preparation.

Blake's Toothache Essence. From alom, in
flne powder, 1 dr. ; sweet spirit of nitre, 6 dr.

Boerhaave's Odontalgic Essence. From opium,
i dr. ; oil of cloves, 5 dr. ; powdered camphor,
6 dr.; rectified spirit H fl. oz.

Bonohazdaf a TaitalM* Apatiant. From phos-
phate of soda, I oz., pUced in a soda-water bottie,
which is than filled op with carbonated water at
the bottling machine. For a dose.

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PATENT ICBDICINBS

1241

tend*! Tooth TbMtiiTO. From peUitoiy of
Spain (bmiaed), 1 os.; oamplior, | oz. ; opism,
4 OE. ; oil of doTM, 1 dr. ; ugest for 10 dayi in
reotifled sinrit, \ pbit.

Brodnm's ISerrtnu CoidiaL Fnp. 1. "Ori-
gimJl; it consisted limply of an infnaion of
gentian root in English ain> coloured and fla-
voured with a litue red lavender (compound
qiirit of lavender). After a time ttie doctor
added a little bark to the noatrum, and subse-
quently made other additions" ('Anat. of
Quackery').

S. (Parit.) ^Dnctures of gentian, calomba,
cardamoms, and cinchona, compound spirit of
larender, and steel wine, of each equal parts. "It
ia tonic, stomachic, and stimulant ; but, beyond
these, possesses no ontative properties " ('Anat. of
Qnackeiy').

CUorodyne. This nostrum, which was first in-
troduced as ' a combination of perchloric acid
with a new alkaloid,' has become a popular
ano^rne and sedaUve. Several preparations are
sold nnder this name, and the claims of the rival
makers have occasioned some expensive lawsuits.
The name was undoubtedly invented by Or J.
Collia Browne, but Hr Freeman, pharmaceutical
chemist, claims to be the inventor of the prepara-
tion. Whether Browne's and Freeman's ' cUoro-
dynes ' are essentially the same, we are not able
to determine, but we know that there is not the
slightest foundation for the statements made by
each mannf aeturer respecting the new vegetable
principle contained in his medicine. CUorodyne,
in every one of its forms, is simply a mixture of
certain well-known matconals, some of which sre
rather dangeroos ingredients for a popular
nostram. According to the analysis of Dr
Odgen, Browne's chlorodyne is composed as
fdlowss

Chloroform, 6 dr. ; chloric ether, 1 dr. ; tine-
tore of capsicum, i dr. ; oil of peppermint, 2
drops J hydrochlorate of morphine, 8 gr. ;
Scheele's hydrocyanic add, 12 drops; perchforic
acid, 20 drops ; tincture of Indian hemp, 1 dr. ;
treacle, 1 dr. ' Towle's chlorodyne ' is prepared
aoeording to this formula, the ingredients being
named on the labeL

dado's CoBi^vttniiai. See CoH&iitrmnTX.

Coehrane's Cough Bemedy. Acidulated syrup
of poppies.

Com Hostnuns. See CoBir.

Cottereau's Odontalgic Hwenae. A nearly
saturated ethtireal solution of camphor, mixed
with about l-12th of its volume of strong liquor
of ammonia.

Cnrtis's AntireMEMl XotiOB. A mixture of
Beanfov's solutixm of chloride of lime, 2 fl. os.,
with cold soft water, 8 fl. ox. For use, 1 to 2
table-spoanftals are put into a wine-glassful of
water.

Salby'i CannlsatiTe. Prep. 1. (Dr Parit.)
Carbonate of magnesia, 40 gr. ; tincture of castor
and compound tincture of cardamoms, of each,
80 drops; tincture of assafostida and spirit of
pennyroyal, of each, IS drops ; laudanum, 6
atopt ; ml of aniieed, 8 drops ; oil of nutmeg, 2
drc^ } «^ of peroermint, 1 drop ; peppem^t
water, 8 fl. os. — Ikut, i to 1 teaspcxmfiu. The
botUe should be well slu^en before pouring itont.

2. (Wholesale.) Carbonate of magnesia, 1 ox. ;
tincture of castor, 6 fl. dr. ; tincture of assafce-
tida, 8 ft. dr. ; oils of aniseed and pennyroyal, of
each, i ft. dr. ; oil of nutmeg, 15 dn^ ; syrup of
poppies, 7 oz. ; rectified spirit^ Si fl. oz. ; pepper>
mint water, | jont ; as before.

Davidson's Cancer Bemedy. A mixture of
arsenions add and hemlock, both in powder (Dr
Parit).

Davis's Calorific. The 'liqitid' is oommer*
cial acetic acid (sp. gr. 1*048), diluted with about
an equal volume of water, and coloured with
burnt sugar or spirit colouring. The ' ssixld '
consists of a piece of red flannel backed with oil<.
skin, to prevent evaporation. A few drops of
calorific are sprinkled on the flannel, which is
then bound over the affected part. The heat of
the body gradually volatilises the acetic add, and
the escape of the vapour bdng prevented by the
oil-skin, a strongly counter-imtant action is set
up.

Derbyshire's Embrocation. Rtp. From opium
and mottied soapt of each, 2 oz.; extract of hen-
bane, 2 dr.; and mace, i dr.; boiled for 80
minutes, in water, 8 pints; to the cold liquor,
rectified sinrit, 1 quart, and liquor of ammonia, 1
fi. oz., are added, and, after repose, the clear por-
tion is decanted. A preventive of sea-sickness.

Dathler*! Cerate. Tellow basilicon.

Duncan's Qout Kedidne. See Qout.

Dutch Agne Bemedy. Prtp, A mixture
formed of Peruvian bark and cream of tartar, of
each, 1 01. ; doves, i dr. ; reduced to fine powder.
— Vott, 1| dr., every 8 hours (Vr Parit).

Godfrey's CordlaL Prep. 1. (Original for-
mula.) Opium (sliced), i oz. ; sassafras chips, 1
oz. ; English brandy, 1 quart ; macerate for 4 or
6 days, then add of water, 1 quart, treade, 8^
lbs., and simmer the whole gentiy for a few
minutes ; the next day decant tiie dear portion.

2. (Dr Parit.) Aniseed, caraways, and oori-
anders, of each (bruised), 1 oz. ; sassafras chips,
9 OS. ; water, 6 pints ; simmer gentiy until re-
duced to 4 pints, tiien add of treacle, 6 lbs. ; and
when nearly cold, further add of tincture of
opium, 8 fl. oz.

8. (Phil. Coll. of Phar.) Carbonate of potassa,
2^ oz. ; water, 26 pints (oild wine measure) ; dis-
solve, add of sugar-house molasses (treade), 16
pints (o. w. m.) ; simmer the mixture, remove the
scum, and when it has considerably cooled, add of
tincture of opium, 24 fl. os. ; oil of sassi^ras, i
fl. oz.; (dissolved in) reetifled spirit, 1 quart
(o. w, m.). It contams about 16 drops of lau-
danum ("li gr. of opium) in each fl. oz.

The following forms are also current in the
wholesale trade :

4. From molasses, 16 lbs. ; distilled water, 2}
galls.; oil of sassafras, 1 fl. oz.; ^dissolved in)
rectified spirit, i gall.; bruised ginger, 1 oz.;
cloves, i oz. ; laudanum, 8 fl. oz. ; macerate for 14
days, and strain through flannd.

6. Sassafras chips, 1 lb. ; ginger (bruised), 4
OS.; water, 8 galls.; simmer until reduced to
2 galls.; tiien add of treacle, 16 lbs.; rectified
spirit, 7 lbs. ; laudanum, 1 pint.

6. O^nm, i os. ; treade, 7 lbs. ; boiling water,
1 galL; 'dissolve and add cf rectified spirit^ 1
quart; dl of sassafras, | dr.; doves and mustard

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1842

PATBKT MEDICINES

■eed, of each, i ox. ; corUndw and caraway ie«ds,
of eacfa, 1 dr. ; digest for a week.

7. Caraways, coriandera, and aniieed, of eacli,
1 lb. ; water, 6 galli. ; diitil 6 galU., and add of
treacle, 23 Iba.; landannm, 1 qoart; and oil of
aasaafraa, 1 fl. oc., previonsly dinolved in rectified
(pint, 1 gall.

Oil. Thi< preparation ii anodyne and narcotic,
and, amongBt the lower clasBea, ia commonly giren
to children troubled with wind and colic. Ita
frequent and excesaive me has sent many infanta
prematnrely to the grave. Gray aaya, " It ia
chiefly used to prevent the crying of children in
pun or starving." The dose is | teaapoonfnl and
npwarda, according to the age and snaceptibility
of the child.

Orave'i Oont Fieventive. Fnp. A tinctore
prepared by ateeping, for a week, dried orange
peel and hiera picra, of each, 1 os., and rhubarb,
\ oz., in brandy, 1 pint.

Qiinrod's Beig«dy fbr Spasms. From acetate
of morphia, 1 gr. ; apirit of aal volatile aod aul-

Shnric ether, of each, 1 fl. oz. ; camphor julep, A
. oz. ; for a mixture. It should be Kept closely
corked, in a cool place, and should be well shaken
before use. — Dote. A teaapoonfnl in a glass of
cold water or wine, as required. It is a really
valuable preparation.

HoUoway's Ointment. The original formula of
Ai.BiKOiiO'8 onmcBirT, of which this pretends to
be a reproduction, contained the ' graiaaea de ser-
pent et de vip&re,' and other pharmaceutical curi-
osities. The principal ingredients, however, in
the HOLMWAT's oiirrmirT of the present day
are very homely substances. In the case of
Sillen c. Holloway, tried at the Court of Common
Pleas in January, 1868, the plaintifiTs counsel
asserted that, on the ointment lieing received by
the agent in Paris, it was submitted to the
authorised Qovemment chemists to be analysed,
in accordance with the laws of France prohibiting
the sale of secret remedies, and was found by them
to contain butter, lard, Venice turpentine, white
wax, yellow wax, and nothing else. In a letter
to the 'IHmes' Mr Holloway atated that the
French analyaia waa incorrect, for three of the
ingredienta named were not in the ointment,
while there were other components which the
analysts had not discovered. The formula adopted
by those who prepare an imitation ointment on
thrflarge scale, and which closely resembles, if it
be not actually identical with, that employed by
Mr Holloway, is as follows : — Fresh butter (free
firom water), f lb. ; beeswax (good), 4 oz. ; yellow
resin, 8 oz. ; melt them together, add of vmegar
of cantharides, 1 fl. oz., and simmer the whole,
with constant agitation, for 10 or 12 minutes,
or until the moisture is nearly evaporated; then
add of Canada baleam, 1 oz. ; expreaaed oil of
mace, i dr. ; balaam of Peru or liquid styrax, 10
or 12 dropa ; again stir well, allow the mixture to
settle, and when it is about half cold (not before)
pour it into the pots, previously sli^tiy warmed,
and allow it to cool very slowly. The label will
do the rest. No two samples of HoUoway's oint-
ment are precisely of the same colour or con-
sistence.

HoUowi^s nilt. Trom aloe*, 4 part* ; ialap,
g^ger, and myrrh, of each, 2 part*; made into a

mass with mucilage^ and divided into 2-gr. ^la,
of which about 4 dozen are put into each It. lid.
box.

Jackson's Bathing Spirit A species of soap
liniment, made of soft soap, 1 lb.; camphor, 6
oz. ; oils of rosemary and thyme, of each, } fl. oz.;
rectified spirit, 1 gall.

Kay*'* Infanf * Pr**ervatiTe. A prepontion
partaking of the joint properties of Atkinson's
nostrum and Godfrey'a cordial, but more power-
ful than either, as indicated by the doaea in
which it ia directed to be given during early infancy,
viz. " two, three, or more drops."

Keatlng's Cough Lozenges. These are aaid to
be compoaed of — lactucarinm, 2 dr. ; ipecacuanha,
1 dr. ; sqnills, f dr. ; extract of liquorice, 2 oz. ;
sugar, 6 oc. ; made into a mass with mncilage of
tragacanth, and divided into 20-gr, lozenges.

King's Sartaparilla Fills. From the compound
extract. " Instead of two pilla being equivalent
to I fl. oz. of the concentrated decoction or easenoe
of aaisaparilla, aa aaaerted, it takea about 82 of
them to represent the given quantity, and about
4 of them to be equal in strength to the common
decoction of the Pharmacopoeia." "Instead of
one 2f. 9d. box of these pills being equal to a pint
of the costly concentrated fluid preparation, it
would take nearly It lbs. of them for that pur-
poae " (' Med. Circ.,' ii, 498).

Kitchener'* Feri*talti«Persnaders. See Pau.

Lambtrf * Astbmatie Balsam. The active in-
gredients in this compound are said to be squills
and aqueous extract of opium.

Lenianrier'* Odontalgic E**«itee. From ace-
tate of morphia, 1 gr. ; dissolved in cherry-laurel
water, 1 oz. For use, a teaspoonful is added to i
a wine-glassful of warm water, and the month
well rinsed out with the mixture.

htwfi Purgative, a. (No. 1.) Vegetable tnr-
peth, 6 dr.; scammony, Ii oz. ; jalap, 6 oz.;
brandy, 10 pints ; digest for 24 hours, and add a
syrup made of senna, 6 oz. ; water, Ii pints;
sugar, 82 oz.

b. fNo. 2.) Aa the last, only \ stronger.

0. (No. 3.) Twice aa atrong aa No. 1.

Lewis's Balsamic Ointment This preparation,
which ia declared by its proprietor to be ' utterly
nnanrpaaaable,' for the most part resembles Hollo-
way'a ointment (' Med. Circ.,' ii, 493).

Lewis's Xlectnarinm. A liqnid nostrum, said
to be alterative and to contain a small quantity of
both antimony and mercury.

Lewis's Silver Cream. This noatmm is said to
depend for its efficacy on white precipitate and a
salt of lead.

Locock's Pulmonic Lozenge*. See Wapibb.

Mahomed's Paste. See Eliotuabt.

Kardanf s Norton's Drops. A mixture of the
tinctures of gentian and ginger, holding in solu-
tion a little bichloride of mercury, and coloured
with cochineal.

Marriott's Dry Vomit. A mixture of equal
parts of tartar emetic and sulphate of copper.

Marsden's Drop*. A oolourod solution of cor-
rosive sDblimate (J9r Parii).

Matthien'* Vemlftige. a. (To destroy the
worms.) Tin fllinga, 1 oc. ; male fern roo^ 6 dr.;
worm-aeed, 4 dr. ; reeittons extract of Jalap and
sulphate of potassa, of each, 1 dr. ; hon^, q. s. to

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PATENT MEDICINES

1248

ferm an electnai?. — Dote. A teaspoonfal, re-
peated ereiy third or fourth hour for 2 or 3 days,
when the foUowing are to be snbetituted,-and con-
tinned nntil the boweU are well acted on.

t. (To ezpeVthe worms.) Jalap and anlphate
of potasaa, of each, 40 gr. ; scammony, 20 gr. j
gamboge, 10 gr. ; honey, q. >. aa before.

KcKinny'i Golden Ceiata. This appears to
resemble Poor Man's Friend.

KcKIasey's Katapotla. This notoriona nos-
tmm is compounded of aloes, S oz. ; soap, 1) oz.
(both in powder) j beaten np with syrup of saffron
and a little essential oil, and divided into pills
Tarying in weight from 2 to 24 gr. each (' Med.
CSrc,' IV, 86).

KcElaiey'sKedldnal Powder. Sgn. Bbt.T.
Sxixh'8 k. f. From dried lavender flowers and
rosemary tops, of each, 2^ oz. ; aaarabscca, 1 oi. ;
reduced to powder, and further disguised with a
little perftime. A very small qnanBl^ of subsul-
phate of mercury is also most probably added. 2
or 8 ]^che* of this powder, taken 8 or 4 times a
day as snuff, is said by the proprietor to be suffi-
dent to cure almost any faiown disease. See

AaAXABAOOA.

Korison's Adhesive Paste. See Plabtbs.

Knlaon'i Aperient Powder. A mixture of
cream of tartar and lump sugar, in nearly equal
proportions, with sufBcient powdered cassia to
give it an aromatic flavour. See Fills.

OUlvier's Blsouiti. Take of the white of 2
^Igs ; water, f p>ut ; beat them together, strain
the mixture, and add to it a solution of bichloride
of mercury, 76 gr. ; collect the precipitate, wash,
dry, powder, and carefully weigh it ; next add to
it such a qnantiinr of flour, &e., that each 2-dr.
biscuit may contain exactly f gr.

Papier A^ard. See Papxb (Qout).

Pftte Arsenieale. A powder composed of arseni-
ons acid, 8 p.; dragon's blood, 22 gr. ; cinnabar,
70 gr. It I* to be made into a paste with the
•alivB at the time of applying it. A favourite
remedy in cancer on the Continent (Dr
Pant).

Perry's Balm of Syriacnm. From English gin,
1 pint; moist sugar, i lb. ; (dissolved in) water,
4 ot. J mix, and add of paregoric (Tinct. Camph.
Co.— Ph. L. 1886), 1 oz. ; tincture of tolu, \ oz.;
tincture of cantharides, q. s. ; together with a few
drops each of the oils of aniseed and spearmint;
a^tate well together, and the next day filter, or
decant the cleu portion.

Perry's Preventive Lotion. This is stdd to be
a solution of sal alembroth, 2 dr., in water,
1 jnnt. For use, it is diluted with 4 or 6 times
it* Imlk of water.

Pleate'i Toothaelie Xsienee. From liquor of
ammonia, 8 parte; landannm, 1 part. It is
applied on lint.

PUnles AagOlqnes. Syn. Qkaisb si SAirri.
Take of aloes and juice of roses, of each, 4 oz. ;
jnicei of borage and chicory, of each, 2 oz. ; beat
tbem together, and when th«y are reduced to the
consistence of a soft pill-mass, add of powdered
rhnharb, 2 dr. ; powdered agaric, 1 dr. ; and divide
the mixture into li-gr. pills. A good purgative.
— 2)oi»,4tol2,

P0or Man's Mend (Awiiek). See OnmcnT
(Brown).

Poor Man's Friend (13r SobarU^i), This
consiste chiefly of ointment of nitric oxide of
mercory.

Pringle's Bemedy fbr Typhus {Dr Pari*).
Pale cinchona (bruised), \ oz. ; water, 12 fl. oz. ;
boil them together for 10 minutes, adding, to-
wards the end, Virginian snake-root (bruised),
2 dr. ; macerate for an hour in a covered vessel,
and to the strained liqnid add of dilute sulphuric
acid, 2 fl. dr., add when the mixture is cold, fur-
ther add of spirit of cinnamon, 1 fl. oz. The
dose is 2 table-spoonfuls every six hours.

Beynolds* Oout Spedfle. Wine of oolchicum
disgiused by some unimportant additions.

Bighini's Odontalgic Drops. A solution of
creasote in an equal weight of the strongest
rectified spirit, coloured with cochineal, and dis-
guised hj the adiUtion of a few drops of oil of
peppermint.

Bnspinf s Styptio. A strong solution of gallic
add in spirit of roses, Dr A. T. Thomson says
that it also contains sulphate of zinc.

Bust's Toothache Paste. See Pabtb.

Bcotfs Drops. Sj/n. TaaimM ov soot.
From wood-soot, 2 oz. ; assafoetida, 1 oz.; brandy
or proof spirit^ 1 pint. — Dote, 1 to 2 teble-spoon-
f uls ; in hystcoia, Ac.

Smith's Powder. See McKivbst'b Powsbs.

Solomon's Anti-impetigines. A solution of
Uchloride of mercury disguised by the addition
of a little flavouring and tinctorial matter (' Med,
Circ.,' ii, 69, 70),

Standert's Bed Mlztnre. Take of carbonate of
magnesia, 1 oz,; powdered Turkey rhnharb, i oz, ;
tincture of rhubarb, 8 fl, oz, ; tincture of opium,
2 fl. dr, ; oils of aniseed and peppermint, of each,
} dr, ; (dissolved in) gin or proof spirit, 6 fl. oz.;
agitato the whole together, then further add of
soft water, li pinte. In colic and diarrhoea. —
Dote. A wine-glassful. The spirit is frequently
omitted, but then the mixture soon spoils.

Standerfs Stomaehie Candy. TUceof lump
sugar, 1 lb, ; water, 8 fl. oz. ; dissolve by heat ;
add cardamom seeds, ginger, and rhnlmrb, of
each, 1 oz, ; and when the mixture is complete,
pour it out on an oiled slab or into moulds.

Storey's Worm Cakes. Take of calomel and
dnnabair, of each, 24 gr.; powdered jalap, 72 gr.;
ginger, 1 dr, ; white sugar, li oz. ; syrup, q, s.;
mix and divide into a dozen cakes. Bumble
'Ching's lozenges' in their action. (See page
1007.)

Btmve's lotion. See LonoH, Hoopnrs-
oonsH.

Bnoeession Powd«r. A mixture of powdered
quartz and diamond dos^ chiefly the flrst. Used
as an esdiarotio.

Tasteless Ague Drops. A solution of arsenito
of potasaa. It is the common ague medidne in
the fen counties of England.

Turlington's Balsam. See Balbax o> Lin
(oioee).

TalMgin's Solation of Solvent MtnaraL From
arsenions add, } dr,, dissolved in hydrochloric
add, li dr., and the solution diluted with dis-
tilled water, li pints. In ague, Ac It has
rather less tiian half the strength of the solntioB
of anenite of potassa, Fh, L.

Tanee's Cream, See Chilblaut.

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1M4

FAT7LLINU— PEABL

WaUer** Ointment. See Chilblatw.

Wwd'i Purging Powder. A mixture of jalap
and cream of tartar, eqoal parti, ooloared with a
little red bole. — Dow. A teaipoonfnl, or more,
in broth or beer, twice or thrice daily; in
dropiy.

Wafaeter'i Diet Drink. A sweetened decoction
of betony, dolcaman, gnaiacnm wood, liqnorice
root, aanapeaiila, lainfrai, thym«, and tur-
meric.

Wilton's Gont Tincture. Tbia la laid to be
wine of colchicom.

Wright's Pearl Ointment. Take of white pre>
dpitate, 8 os. ; Gonlard's extract, 1 |nnt; mb
them to a cream, and add the mixture to white
wax, 7 lb*., and oliTe oil, 10 lbs., previooal;
melted together by a gentle heat s lastly, stir the
whole nntil it is nearly cold (' Pharm. Jonm.').

Tonng's Aperient Brink. From carbonate of
soda, 2i dr. ; bitartrate of potasaa, 8 dr. (both in
crystals); throw them into a soda-water bottle
containing cold water, 8 fl. oz., and immediately
cork it down secorely, and keep it inverted, in a
cool place, until required for nse.

Zaahetti'i Bohemian BeetoratlTe Tiaetue.
From crushed laisins, } lb. ; hay saffron, 2 oc. ;
aqueous extract of opium, 3 dr. ; powdered eo-
ebineal, 8 dr.; capillaire and orange-flower water,
of each, } pint; proof spirit, 8 pints; digested
together for a week, and tiien stnuned, with
expression.

PATTLLnrlA. See Ouaxaha.

PATKlZnre. The name given to Mr Payne's
process for preserving and mineraliung wood.
Bee Dbt.boi.

PIAOH. Sjf». PxBSioux, L. The fmit of
JVaiHW Ptrtiea. Two varieties are known in our
gardens — ouxosTOiri raAOH and iBMUion
PBACH, terms which explain themselves. The
fniit is wholesome; but the flowers and kernels
contain prussio acid, and are ptnsonons.

Dr FNsenins has analysed uiis fmit, and f oond
its composition to be —
SoMU matttr ; imt Dntch.

Sugar 1-680

FrM acid (reduced to equivalent in
malic acid) 0-613

Albuminous substances . . . 0-463 1

Fectons substances .... 6-818 J

Ash 0-428

ImoUMt matter t

Seeds 4«B9

Pectoee .* .* .' ! ',}<^Wl

[Ash from soluble matter indnded in

weights given .... 0*042]
Water 84-990

100-000
It will be seen from the above that the peach
contuns a very small amount of sugar.

The peach, the original habitats of which were
Persia and the north of India, is now very gene-
rally grown in the sonth of Europe, in many
parts of the East, and verv largely in the more
temperate portions of North and South America ;
more particnlarlT in Pennsylvania, New Jersey,
and Maryland, where there are extensive orchards
of peach trees. This fmit is also extensively

cultivated by the Harmon oommnnity at Utah.
The fmit of the xioiabihi, which is a variety
of the peach, differs from that of the latter in
having a smooth skin. When stewed, the fruit
of the peach is said to be useful in habitual con-
stipation.

PEACH'WOOD. The produce of a species of
Ctualfinia, now extensively used in calico
printing.

PXAB. Sy»- PnuB, L. The fmit of Pgnu
eomtauMf, Linn., one of the BOBAOBX. Its general
qualities resemble those of the apple.

COKPOUTIOir 01 THX PlAB.

SolmbU matttr i

Sugar 7*000

Free add (reduced to equivalent in

maUcadd) 0-074

illbnminons substances . . . 0-260

Fectons substances, Ac . . . 8*281

Ash 0*285

IioliibU matter :

Seeds 0-S901

Skins 8*420/

Pectoee 1*840

[Ash from insoluble matter indnded

in wdghts given .... 0-060]

Water 88-960

lOO^XXI

(JVlMSSMM.)

PSA&L. Sgn, Haboasita, MABSAsinm,
PlBliA, Uino, L. The most beautiful and costly
pearls are obtained exclusively from the pMri
oyster (Meleagrina margarii^ira) of the Indian
seas. The pnndpal fidieries are on the coast of
C^lon, and at Ohnuts, in the Persian Onlf. An
inferior description of pearl is procured from a
fresh-water shell-flsh (i7«to mtaryariitfera) in
the neighbourhood of Omagh, county of Tyrone.
A "Txiifi. quality is also procured from the river
Tthan, Aberdeenshire. It is probable that pearls
from this source collected by the andent Britons
may have given rise to the statement by Ttdtu^
in his 'Life of Agricola,' of pearls "not yetj
orient, but pale and wan," being among the indi*
genous products of Great Britain.

Pearls are compoaed of membrane and carbo-
nate of caldum ; or, in other words, of snbstancee
similar to bladder and chalk, in alternate layers.

The cause of the production of pearls ia Ughly
curious and interesting. When an^ fordgn body
gains a permanent loc^fment within the sheila m
any of tne molluaca which are lined with pearly
matter, or nacre, the pearly secretion <» Um
animal, instead of being spread in layers on the
inside of its habitation, is accumulated around
the offending particles in concentric films of ex-
treme tenuity, and more or less spherical, f onning
a pearl.

Pearls were formerly used in medidne as ab-
sorbents or antadds; and among the ancients
thev were occasionally taken, dioolved in add,
both as a remedy and for the purpose of displaying
the careless opulence and luxury of their posses-
sors. A perfect pearl, large, truly spherical, highly
irideacent, and reflect!^ and deoompoaing the
rays of light with vivad^, daima to rank with
the most costly of the gems, and in some parts

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FEARLASH— PEAS

IMS

of the BMt is, wHh jnitioe, more higUy prized
th*a even the diamond. In Europe, howeTer,
the present estimation of thdr valoe is somewhat
different. " A handsome necklace of Ceylon pearls,
smaller than a large pea, costs from £170 to
£300 ; bat one of pearls abioat the size of pepper-
corns may be had for £16. The pearls in the
former sdl at a guinea each, and those in the
latter at abont It. 6d." (Milburn). Seed pearU
are of little Talue, however beaotifQl.

Pearl, ArtificiaL These are hollow spheres or
beads of glass, perforated with two holes at
opposite sides to permit of their being strong
into necklaces. A small portion of essence
d'orient is introdnced into each, by snotion, and
is then spread over the inner surface of the glass.
When this has become dry and hard, the globe is
filled np with white wax, spermaceti, or gam-
araUc. The glass of which the beads are formed
is slightly blnish and opalescent, and very thin.
The latest improvement consists in removing the
glassy appearance of the snrface of the prepsred
bead by ezposnre to the fames of hydrannoric
add, highly diluted.

Pwrl, Kother «f. 8gn. Vmowu cosoum,
L. ; Naobi SB PXBLl, Fr. This is the internal
or nacreons layer of those shells which produce
the pearls for ornamenting the persons ; hence
the term 'mother of pearl' is by no means in-
appropriate. It is also dwived from several other
species, known in trade as ear-shells, green snail-
shells, Bombay shdls, &c.

The brilliant hues of mother of pearl do not
depend so much upon the nature of the substance
as on its structure. Its surface is covered by
minute oorrugations or furrows, which give a
chromatic appearance to the reflected light. Sir
David Brewster was the first to show that this
■nbstance is capaUs of imparting its iridescent
•ppearaaee to n^le metal or fine black wax.

Mother of pearl is cat and wrought with nearly
rfmilar tools to those used for ivory, but its treat-
ment, owing to its more fragile nature and delicsto
stnu^nre, requires considerably greater care. It
is polished with colcothar or put^ powder.

The nnmeroas applications of mother of pearl,
for buttons and knife-handles, boxes, inlaying
work, Ac, are well known.

PKAXL'ABE. This is prepared by calcining
crude potashes on a reverberatory hearth, dissolv-
ing the calcined mass in water, and, after repose,
decanting the dear solution, and evaporating it
to dryness in flat iron pans, the prodoct bdng
constantly stirred towards the end to reduce it to
• semi-granular state. Although purer, its rich-
ness in absolato alkali is less than that of the
potashes &«m which it is prepared, bdng only
from 4ff% to 61% . This exists almost entirely
under the form of carbonate. The commerci^
valueof this substance is determined by the ordi-
nary processes of AZXAlJiann'.

PBAKL BAXLST. SeeBAKLXT.

PBAKL gLAYOPK. See Easaxos.

FBAXL WEin. This is a snbchloride of
liiamuth] bat the name is now commonly iq^lied
to trisnitimto of bismuth, which is sold for it.

PBASI8 (Esse). %». Kobh biass. Hie
petals of rai roses beaten in an iron mortar for
•ome hoars, until tJiey form a smooth black paste.

then rolled into beads and dried. Hard ; very
fragrant ; take a fine polish.

Pearls, to Polish. Tkke very finely pnlverised
rotten-stone, and make it into a thick paste by
adding olive oil ; then addsnlphuric aci^ a suffi-
cient quantity to make into a thin paste.

This is to be applied on a vdvet cork, rub
quickly, and as soon as the pearl takes the polish
wash it. This mixture when pn^erly applied will
give to pearl a brilliant polish.

PEAKS, Wooden (Xglonelum pyriforme.
Knight), so called from the extreme luu^sss and
form of the fruit.
' PSAS. Bgn. Oabdbh FBAfl, MoTOB p. ; PlIA.
L. The seed of Pittm tatvnm, lann., Poggiale
found in 100 puts of common green peas, dried
and shelled, 67 of starch, 81-7 of a nitrogenous
substance (legrnmin), 1-9 of f attv matter, 8-8 of
cellulose, 8-8 of ash, and 18-7 of water. In the
fresh state (sBBBir pbas) they are nutritive, and,
with the pods which cimtain them, are highly ser-
viceable m scur^. The last have been used for
making beer. The dried seeds are still more
nutritious, but are heavy and flatulent unless well
cooked. For kitchen use ' rut pbas ' should be
chosen, and after having washed them in a little
clean soft water, and albwed them to drain, they
should be left to soak in cold soft water for at
least 13 hours before ^plying heat to them, and
should then be dressed in the same water in which
they have been soaked, and be only gently nm-
mered until they are reduced to a jralp. Addi-
tions of meat, vegetables, Ac, should not be
made until they have nearly arrived at this con-
dition. < Wholb pbas ' require soaking for at
least 18 or 80 hours.

A substitute for green peas in winter may be
obtained by pladng the dried seedson a flat dish,
sprinkling them with water, and keeiang them in
a warm ntnation. In a few days germination
commenoes, and, after it has proceeded snfliciently
far, the whole is dressed in we usual manner. An
easier and simpler plan is to preserve the green

poas, when they are in season, by the eonuaon
method adopted for goosebeiriss and other like
fruit.

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PBBBLE— PBMPHIOUS

Pea floor, ii aametimim naed to adnltente ordi-
nary floor. It i> never added to thia latter to a
greater extent than 4% , a«, if tUi aoantity be
exceeded, it makei the hreadheary and dark.

It i( alao oied as a lophiiticant for other lab-
■tances, sometimes for batter.

Peas, Is'tM. Sgn. Piba pm> vohtiouxis, L.
Orange berries, or the small nnripe froit of the
orange trees, dried, and smoothed in a lathe. See
Issva.

FEB'BLE. The trade name for the transparent
coloorless variety of rock crystal or qnarti nsed
for the lenses of spectacles instead of glass, over
which, from its extreme hardness, it has the ad-
vantage of being little apt to be scratched.

FSCTIC ACni . The name given by Braconnot
to an acid which is foond veiy generally difCnsed
tbrooghoat the vegetable kingdom.

Prep. From carrot roots, from which the joioe
has been pressed out, by boiling them with -J^
part <k their weight of carbonate of potaasinm,
and about 6 times their weight of water, until
the liquid beoomea gelatinoas when neutralised
with an acid. A pecbite of potassium is formed,
from which the acid may be obtained by neatral-
ising the alkali with a stranger acid, or by care-
fully adding a solution of chloride of calcium as
long as a gelatinous precipitate (pectate of cal-
cium) falls, and after wauiing this with water,
decomposing it with dilute hydrochloric add.

j^np., 4*0- A colourless j^y, having an acid
reaction; scarcely soluble in cold water, more so
in hot water ; and precipitated by acids, alkalies,
alcohol, salts, and even sugar. Its compounds
with the bases are called peotates. By long boil-
ing with solution of caustic alkali it is converted
into metapectic acid, which does not gelatinise
(see belov).

FSCrnr. Sf». VianABi.B jxu.t. ob-
tained by adding alcohol to the juice of ripe cur-
rants or other fmit, until a gelatinous precipitate
forms, which most be drained, washed with a
little wMk alcohol, and dried.

Prop,, S[c, In the moist state it forms a neutral,
tasteless, solnUe, transparent jellv{ when dried, a
translucent mass, closely resembling isinglass;
boiled with water, or with dilute acids, it is con-
verted into parapeotin and metapectin; in the
presence of alkalies, these, as well as pectin, are
changed into pectic add, and by continuing the
ebullition for some time longer, into metapectic
acid, which is not gelattooos. See Pionc Aois.

FXCTOKAL BAISAX. The same as balbax
ov HOHIT, wUch fM. The reference to ' Pectoral
Balsam,' which occurs at the end of the artide
' Balsam of Honey,' conveys the impression that
it is a diffiarent medicine. This is an error.

FECTOBALS. Under this head are popularly
included all the various remedies employed in
breath or chest diseases.

piDICnJIiL See Lottbb and AoiBUB.

PXLLAOSA. A skin disease aeoompanied by
nausea, vertigo, diarrhoea, cramps, and neuralgic
pains, which, when'onoe acquired, returns every
summer with increasing force, the patient becom-
ing demented and even insane and maniacal, with
sauidal temdendes. The disease is indigenons in
hot conntries^ and is oommon in Italy, Spain, and
the Bonth of Fnuioe. The Italian Govemment,

believing it to reanlt Cram the use of badly har-
vested maisa, has csnsed kilns to be erecbad in
several of the aSaeted districts tor drying tka
grain, the usual open-air methoda bejng pn>-
hibited. Some beneflt is said to have rasolted,
but the cause of the disease is donbtf ol, and as
good food and tonics and avoidance of exposore
to the sun are among the chief remedies, the im-
provement in these districts may be due rather to
the extra care taken to provide the staple food in
good conditi(ni than to tite removal of any specific
cause.

PELLKTIXSIVX. Sy%. PKLKmouxA. An
alkaloid (C,HuNO) discovered by Tanret in the
bark of Pimiea greautium. Pelletierine is a oo>
lourless liquid ; dissolves in 80 parts water i freely
soluble in alcohol and ether. When exposed to
oxygen it is rapidly changed to a resinous mass.
Salts of the alkaldd when heated become add in
reaction.

A solphato and tannato of pelletierine are used
medicinally for the removal en tapeworm. — Dow,
8 to 8 gr., followed in 2 hours with 1 oi. castor
oil.

FXLUETS, TOOTEACHX (pUUriek). Prep.
Cocaine hydrochlorato, 16 gr. ; powdered o|uom,
64 gr. ; menthol, 16 gr.; althoa (powdered), 48
gr. ; mndlage of acada, 9 gr. Make into ^-gr.
pills and keep in wdl-stoppered vials. For ose,
one of these pellets is to be inserted in the hollow
tooth.

FSLIJCLB. See CBTRtA£LIUTIOH.

PXLUTOST. Sjftt. Pmklixosi or Spaih,

PiLIJIOBT ROOT; PxXasSBI S&DIX (B. P.),

Pybbthbvk (Ph. L. and E.), L. The root of
Anaejielu$ eyreMmat. It is a powerful topiod
excitant. It is chiefly employed as a masticatory
in headache, toothache, p^sy of the tongne, and
facial neuralgia and rheomatism ; and made into
a tincture with rectified spirit, it is a oonuntm
remedy among dentists for the toothache. In-
ternally, it has been given as a gastric stimnlant,
and in intermittenta, &c. Half to 1 dr. may be
chewed at a time.

FELTKT. The name applied to for skins in
the state in which they are leodved from the
hunters. To prepare them as furs, the iuude cf
them is generally first ' tawed ' by tiie application
of a solution of alum. They are next well dnsted
over and rubbed with hot plaster of Paris or
whiting, and are, lastly, thoroughly dried and
brushed clean. When it is desired to change or
modify their colour, the grease being removed by
lime-water or a weak soda lye, they are stretched
out on a table or board, and the ordinary Uqnid
mordants and dyes are applied to them hot by
means of a painter's brush.

The furs of the rabbit and hare are rendered
fit for the purposes of the felt and hat maavfac-
turen by a process called by the French 'MbreU^t.'
This consists in thoroaghly moistening the ^^'
with a solution of qnidcsUver, 1 part, in aqna-
forids, 16 parts, dilated with half to an equal
bulk of water. This is applied witJi a brush, and
the moistened skins bdng laid togetiier, face to
face, are dried as rapidly as possible in a stove
room. See Fuss.

PSKFEiaTrs. A somewhat rare disease of the
skin, in which large vesidee or blisters filled with

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PBNALTISS

1247

• feroni flaid 'deTelop tbemielye*. In the mild
form of the disorder the bliaters vuy in size from
s pea to a chestnut. They chiefly altack the ex-
tremitiea, and break after three or f onr days, when
they then give rise to a thin scab, which soon
heais and disappears without caoaiDg any bodily
derangement.

In the acute form, however, there is a consider-
able constitutional disturbance, which shows itself
in the shape of more or less fever and inflamma-
tion; the blisters too are larger, and the scabs
▼eiy irritable and obstinate. Children during
teething, or owing to injudicious diet, are fre-
quently subject to this kind of pemphigus. There
is also a chronic variety of the disease, which
varies but slightly from the acute form, except
that it continues longer. Old people are those
who principally suffer from this chronic pem-
phigus.

A mild attack seldom calls for any treatment ;
the beat course to pursue in the case of an acute
one is to administer some saline aperient, to adopt
a moderately low diet, and to protect the exposed
parte caused by the breaking of the blister by
applying to them some simple dressing, such as
spermaceti ointment.

When the case becomes chronic it will be
advisable to consult the medical practitioner.

FEIAIiTIES. The following sections of the
Public Health Act of 1876 refer to various
offences for which penalties may be inflicted
under the statute :

Binxsnis or re-erecting a house in an urban
district without proper drains, &c., £50 (s. 26).
For building or re-erecting a house in any
district wiuiont proper sanitary conveniences
(privies, to.), £80, or less (s. 85).

Unauthorised building over sewen or under
•treets in an nrban district, £6 penalty, and 40t.
per day during continuance of c^ence (s. 26).

BUBIAX^ For obstructing a justice's order
with regard to the burial of a person who has
died from an inf ectipua disease, &c., £6, or less
(s. 142).

Bxx-LAWB. Penalties may be imposed by local
authorities for the contravention of bye-laws ;
such penalties are not to exceed £6, and for con-
tinning offences further penalties of sums not
exoeecung 40f. a day (s. 183). Penalty for injury
or defacement of any board, Ac, on which a
notice or bye-law of any authority is inscribed
by the authority of the Ch>veinment Local Board,
or of the local authority, £6, or less (s. 806).

CbUiABS, unauthorised occupation of, 2Cliir. per
day (s. 78).

Cuuvsnrs ass WKinwASHrirs, Ac. Failure
to comply with notice to cleanse and whitewash
a house, 10*. per day (s. 46).

C!oxTitA0Z8. All contracts are to specify some
pecuniary penalty (s. 174). Officers or servants
being concerned or interested in contracts, ac-
cepting fees, are liable to a penalty of £60, re-
coverable with full costs of suit.

DiBlxvaonoN. Fulnre to comply with notice
to disinfect end cleanse artidee and premises,
not lesa than li. and not more than lOt. per day.
Sxpenses of local authority d(^ng the work may
also be reeovered (s. 120). Failnre to disinfect
pnblio conveyances after conveying infected per-

sons, £5, or less (s. 187). For letting infected
bouses without proper disinfection, £20, or less
(s. 128).

Dbainb, &o. Unauthorised connection of a
drain with a sewer, £20, or less (s. 21). For
neglecting to comply with notice for the con-
struction of priries, &e., for factories, £20, or
less, and 40<. per day. For non-compliance with
notice for the construction of drains, privies, Ac.,
10*. per day (s. 41).

EpiDBlfio DiSBABsa. For violation or ob-
struction of the regulations of the Local Govern-
ment Board with regard to eiddemio diseases, £6,
or less (s. 140).

EXFOBiTBB of infected persons or things, £5,
or leas (s. 126).

HousM OB Books. Making fake statements
with regard to infections diseases for the purpose
of letting, £20, or leas, or imprisonment for one
month with or without hard labour (s, 129).

LoDSnra-HorBBB. Receiving lodgers in un-
registered houses, failure to make a report, failure
to give notice of infectious diseases, £6, or less,
and 40f, per day during continuance of offence.
Befusal or neglect to affix or renew notice of
regulation in common lodging-houses, £6, or less,
and 10*. a day during continuance of offence after
conviction (s, 79). For neglecting the lime-
washing and cleansing of lodging-houses accord-
ing to the Act, 40*., or less (s. 82).

Uavubb. Failure to comply with a notice of
urban authority to periodiculy remove manure,
Ac., 20*. a day (s. 50).

Mbat. For exposing for sale or having in
possession unsound meat and other articles of
food specified in the Act, £20, or less, for each
carcass or piece of meat, or fish, &c., or three
months' imprisonment witii or without the option
of a fine (s. 117). For obstruction of officer in-
specting the food, £5, or less (s. 118).

HoBTeASB OB Ratb. Befusal of custodian
of register to jwrmit inn)ection, £60, or less.
N^lect or refusal of clerk to register transfer
of mortgage, £20, or less.

NuiBAiroB. The court may impose a penalty
of £6, or less, with regard to nuisances generally
(s. 98). For want of diligence in earning out
the order to abate nuisance, 10*. per day; for
contravention of order, if wilful, 20*. per day
during such contrary action, besides the expenses
of the local authority in abating the nuisance
(s. 98).

For nuisance of pigs, pigsties, and the con-
tents of cesspools, &c., overfiowing, 40*., or lesa,
and 6*. per day during continuance of offences

(8.47).

Obbtbuosioit. For wilful obstruction of mem-
ber of, or person authorised hy, local authoritv,
£6, or less (s. 806). '

Obstruction of owner by occupier in carrying
out any of the provisions of the Act, £5 per
day, commencing twenty-four hours after non-
compliance with the justice's order (s. 806).

C^ioXB. Certain offices are not to be held
by the same i>er8on. Penalty for offence, £100,
recoverable with fall costs of suit (s. 192).

Obdbb 07 Jvbtiobb. Refusal to obey order
for admission of local authority, £6, or less (a.
108).

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1848

PENCILS— FENNTBOTAL

BATia. Befawl of officen in cnitody at rate-
books, valiuition litti for the relief of tlie poor,
&c., to permit intpection, £6, or leai («. 212).

Befnaal of penon to permit inspection of rate,
£5, or less (i. S19).

SoAYiirenre. Obstmction of the oontraetor
or local antbority in scaTenging the streets or in
removal of refuse, £6, or leas (s. 42). Neglect of
local authority to acarenge after nndertaMng to
do so, 6*. per diw (s. 48).

Stbbbts. ynlfnl nnanthorised ^splacement
or injury of pavement stones, injnry to fences,
ftc., of streets vested in urban antbority, £5, or
less, and a further penalty of 6t. or less for every
square foot of pavement injured, ie. Compen-
sation may also be awarded by the court for
injury to trees (s. 149).

For building or bringing forward buildings
beyond the geiwral line of the honses in the street
in an urban ^Ustrict, 40t. per day after written
notice (s. 166).

Tbasb, Omygivs. Unauthorised establish-
ment of, in an urban district, £60, and 40f . per
day during continuance of offence (s. 112).
Nuisance arising from ofhnsiTe trade is punish-
able by penalty — for first offence, not less than
40>., and not exceeding £6 ; for second or any
subsequent offence, double the amount of the last
penalty which has been imposed, but in no case to
exceed £200 (s. 114). .

Watib. Pollution of, by gas, £200 ; and when
offence is continued at the end of 84 hours'
notice, £20 per day (s. 68).

For injuring water-meters, 40r., or less, and
the damage sustained may iJso be reeoivered (s.
60).

WoBXfl. For wilful damage of works or pro-
perty belonging to a local antbority, in cases
where no ower penalty is provided, £6, or less (s.
807).

•,• All penalties, forfeitorea, costi, and ex-
penses directed to be recovered in a summary
manner, or not otherwise pronded for, may be
prosecuted and recovered under the 'Summary
Jurisdiction Acts' before a court of summary
jurisdiction (P. H. S. 261) j but proceedings for
the teoovety of penalties ate onlv to be taken by
ibe person aggrieved, or by the local authori^ of
the ^Ustriet, except the consent in writing of the
Attomey-Qeneral be obtained. But this restric-
tion does not apply to the proceedings of a local
authority with regard to nuisances, offensive
trades, houses, tee., without their district, in cases
in which the local anthori^ are anthorised to take
proceedings with respect to any act or defiralt
[s. 268).

Unless otherwise provided for, the penalty is
thus applied : — One half goes to the iafbrmer, and
the remainder to the local authority of the district
in which the offence was committed { but if the
local authority be the informer tiiey are entitied
to the whole ot the penalty recovered.

All penalties and sums recovered by a local
authonty are paid to the treasurer, and carried to
the account of the fund applicable to the general
purposes of the Public Health Act.

(The jnstices or court have power to reduce
penalties impcied by 6 Geo. IV, c 78. F.H. Put

FXrCIIS. This name is applied to the small
brushes made of camel's bur nasd by artists, as
well as to the plumbago crayons famimriy known
as black-lead pencils. The last are prepared by
one or other of the following methods :

1. The blocks of pluming are exposed to a
bright red heat in a dosdy covered erodble, and
are afterwards sawn into minute sticks, and
mounted in cases of cedar or satin-wood.

2. The plumbago, in powder, is calcined as
before, and then mixed with an equal, or any
other desired proportion of pure washed clay, also
in powder, after which the mixture is reduced to a
plastic state with water, and pressed into grooves
cut on the face of a smooth board, or into well-
greased wooden moulds, in which state it is
left to dry. When dry, the pieces are tempered
to any degree of Itardness by exposing them,
surrounded by sand or powdered charcoal, in a
closely covered crucible to various degrees of heat.
The crucible is not opened until the whole has
become cold, when the prepared ' slips ' are re-
moved and mounted as before. This method was
invented by M. Cont< in 1796.

S. The dough or paste, prepared as last, is re-
duced to the required form by forcing it through
a perforated plate (in a simuar manner to that
adopted for coloured crayons), or into minute
metallic cylinders, from which it may be Teadily
shaken after it has become partially dry.

Obt. The Uadt tot some varieties of drawing-
pencils are immersed for a minute in very hot
melted wax or suet before mounting them. To
the composition for others a litUe lamp-black is
added, to increase and vary the degree of black-
ness. The pencils for asses' skin books and pre-
pared paper are tipped with 'fusible metal.'
Numerous improvements in pencil cases aod pencil
mounts have been patented of late years by
Stevens and others.

Pen'oHs, KedieaL (Codex.) Under the term
Otojfont mtdieamaiUtum Vm Codex iiudodes
On^n* tMotait cPtwysirf mUigt, which are com-
posed of nitrate of silver with 10, 60, 66, or 76%
of nitrate of potash. The crystals are to be melted
in a silver or porcelain crucible and ponied into
moulds.

FaaeUi, Bvlphate of Copper, are to be pe-
pared in tiie same manner, but in melting tliem
the crystals should be first broken small, and the
beat employed must be gentle.

Pen'dls, Taanls, are thus prescribed : —
Powdered tannin, 10 grms. j powdered gum,
GO eentignns. ; distilled water and glycerine, q. s.,
as littie as possible. Having mixed the tannin
and the gum, this powder is to be made into a
mass of pilular condstence, and rolled and cut
into cylindrical strips of the size required.

Fen oils, lodofbrm, are to be prepared in the
same manner.

PHnTTSOT'AL. ^. Puiaoitfit (Ph. L.
and E.), Maimu. r. (Ph. D.), L. "The i«oent
and dried flowering herb of Mtmfha pmitgimm,
Linn." (Ph. L.). PnnrTSOTAZ tia is a popular
emmenagogue, ex^ctoiant, and diaphoretic, and
is in common use m asthma, brondiitis, hooping-
cough, hysteria, suppressions, Ac. Water, i

(rfl, and nirita of pennyroyal are oSciBaL Tlray
are now chiefly used as mere adjuncts or vaiiicles.

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PENTASTOMATA— PEPPER

1249

SmASTOIEATA. There aro two varietiei of
thia dntozoon — the Ptntattoma denticulatiim,
which Leackut hai ihown to be the lame of the
Pentattoma Utiundet, and the Pentiutoma eo»-
*triet»m. The P. dmtieuUitum infests the homan
liver and small intestines. The P. oonrtriatum
does not appear to be known in this country. The
latter appears to have cansed death by setting up
peritonitis. According to Dr. Aitken these para-
sites are provided with two pairs of hooks or
claws, placed on each side of a pit or mouth, on a
flattened head. He says : " These claws appear
to be implanted in socket-like hollows or depres-
sions, surrounded by much loose integnment.
These socket-like hollows appear to be elevated
on the summit of the mass of tissues which lies
underneath the folds of integuments snrroonding
the base of the hooks. These parts are regarded
aa the feet of the parasite, and the hooks are the
fore olawa. Hie pit or mouth is of an oval shape,
the long axis of the oval lying in the direction of
the length of the worm,

" The less or outer margin of the pit is marked
by a well-defined thin line. There are no
spines nor hooka on tiie integument of the elon-
gated body."

FSPFSS (Black), agn. Fbppib; Pipbb,

B.P.; NlSBI BAOOB, PiFBB NIOBITX (Ph. L.,

B., and D.). L. " The immature fruit (berry) of
Fiper mgr%m, Linn., or the black pepper vine."
(Ph. L.)
Am*. The ground black pepper of the shops is

universally adulterated; in fact, the public taste
and judgment are so vitiated that the pure spice
is unsaleable. A most respectable London firm,
on commencing business, supplied their customers
with unadulterated ground pepper, but in three
cases out of every four it was returned on their
hands and objected to, on account of its dark
colour and rich pungency, which had induced the
belief that it was sophisticated. The house
alluded to was therefore compelled by the cus-
tomers to supply them with an inferior, but
milder and paler, article. The substances em-
ployed to lower black pepper are known in the
trade as—' P. D.,' ' H. P. D.,* and ' W. P. D.'—
abbreviations of pepper dust, hot p. d., white
p. d. The first is composed of the faded leaves
of autumn, dried and powdered ; the second, the
ground husks (hulls) of black mustard, obtained
from the mustard mills ; and the third is common
rice, finelynowdered. Equal parts of black pep-
percorns, H. P. D., and W. P. D., form the very
best ground pepper sold. The ordinary pepper
of the shops does not contain more than }th to
^th of genuine pepper, or 2 to 2i oz. in the lb.
Very recently, ground oil-cake or linseed meal
has been chiefly employed as the adulterant, in-
stead of the old ' P. D.'

Dr. Parkes (■ Practical Hygiene ') says : " The
microscopic characters of pepper are rather com-
plicated. There is a husk composed of four or
five layers of cells and a central part. The cor-
tex has externally elongated cells, placed verti-

cally, and provided with a central cavity, from
which lines radiate towards the circumference;
then oomea some atrata of angular cells, which,
towards the interior, are larger and filled with
oU. The third layer is composed of woody fibre
and spiral cells. The fourth layer is made up of
TOi. n.

large cells, which, towards the interior, become
smaller and of a deep red colour ; they contain
most of the essential oil of the pepper. The
central part of the berry is composed of large
angular cells, about twice as long as broad.
Steeped iq water, some of these cells become

79

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1260

PEPPEB

yellow; otfaen rem^n oolonrleu. It has been
supposed that these yellow cells contain piperine,
as they give the same Teaction as pipeline does,
namely, the tint is deepened by alcohol and nitric
acid, and sulphuric acid applied to a dry section
caoses a redcUsh hue " (SatnU).

Utet, 4-0. Black pepper is a powerful stimu-
lant, carminative, and rubefacient. Its use in mo-
deration, as a condiment, is peculiarly serviceable
to persons who are of cold habit, or who snfler
from weak digestion ; but in inflammatory habits,
and in affections of the mncous membranes, it is
generally highly iiyurious. As a medicine it is
often serviceable in nausea, vomiting, chronic
diarrhoea, and agues. In North America a com-
mon remedy for the last is i ox. of ground
pepper stirred up with a glassful of warm beer;
or a like quantity made into a tincture by steep-
ing it in five or six times its weight of gin, rum,
or whisky, for a few days.

Prepared black pepper is made by steeping the
berries for three days in three times their weight
of vinegar, and then drying and grinding them.
It is milder than common pepper. See COH-
noTioMB, PrPBsnra, &c

Pepper, Cayenne. Sj/n. Bibd fkffbb, Ceiu

P., OUIHBA p., iNSIUr p., RbS F. ; PiFSB OAF-

8ICI, p. OATHirNB, L. Tius is prepared from
chillies, or the pods of Capneum fruluceiu, or
from Cajwimiii baeeatum, or bird pepper, but
generally from the first, on account of its greater
pungency and acrimony; and, occasionally, from
Captieum aamiitfli, or medicinal capsicum.

Jrep. 1. I'rom the dried pods (powdered),
1 lb. ; and wheaten bread or captain's biscuits
(heated until they are perfectly dry and brittle,
and begin to acqnire a yellow colour throughout,
and then powdered), 7 lbs.; mixed and ground
together. Colonring matter and common salt
are frequently added, but are unnecessary.

8. As the last, but making the mixture into
a dough with water, then forming it into small
cakes, drying these as rapidly as possible at a
gentle heat, and then grinding them.

3. (London.) The ripe pods, dried in the sun,
are stratified with wheaten flour in a dish or tray,
and exposed in a stove-room or a half-cold oven
until they are quite dry ; they are then removed
from the flour, and ground to fine powder ; to
every oz. of this powder 1 lb. (say 16 oz.) of
wheaten flour (including that alroady used) are
added, and the mixturo is made into a dough
with a little tepid water and a teaspoonful of
yeast; after fermentation is well set up, the
dough is cut into small pieces, and baked in a
slow oven until it is perfectly haid and brittle; it
is then beaten or ground to powder, and forms
' c^enne pepper.'

Pure cayenne pepper, when burnt, leaves a
scaroely perceptible quantity of white ash; a red-
coloured ash indicates the presence of red ochre,
brick -dust, Armenian bole, or other earthy colour-
ing matter. It red lead is present, it will be
left behind under the form of a dark-coloured
powder, or a small metallic globule.

Pur. The ' cayenne pepper ' of the shops is
often a spurious ■ article, made by grinding a
mixture of any of the reddish woods or saw-dust
vwith enough red pods or chillies to render the {

mixture sufficiently acrid and pungent. Com-
mon salt, colcotbar, red bole, brick-dust, ver-
milion, and even red lead, are also common
additions.

Uiet, (fv. The capsicums resemble the pqtpen,
except in their greater energy and their pungency
being unmodified by the presence of essential (uL
As a condiment, under the form of cayenne
pepper, and in all diseases in which the employ-
ment of a powerful stimulant or rubefacient is
indicated, their uses are well known. In medi-
cine the fruit of Captieum anmium (Linn. — Ph.
E. and D. ; C./oMiigiaium Blame— B. P., Ph. L.),
or annual capsicum is ordered (Capsicum— Ph.
L., E., and D.). The London College directs
the fruit to be that of 'Ouinea,' less than one
inch long, oblong, cylindrical, and straight. See
Ebsikob ov CATiinix.

Pepper, Prepared Q^mns, is the residuum of
cayenne — vinegar, essence, or tinetare, dried and
ground (see btlov).

Pepper (Soluble) Cayenne, i^nt. Cbtkai^
Lisis BOLUBLi OAYiNiTB. Fnp. 1. Capsicum
pods (recent, ground in a pepper mill), 1 lb.;
rectified spirit, 2) pints ; proceed by percolation
so as to obtain 2i pints; from this distil one
half of the spirit by the heat of a water bath;
to the residuum add of fine dry salt, 6 lbs.;
mix them well together, and dry the mixture at
a very gentle heat, frequently stirring ; lastly rub
it through a sieve, and put it into warm dry
bottles. It is usuallj coloured with a little ver-
milion or rouge (sesquioxide of iron), but it
possesses an agreeable colour without it.

2. Essence of cayenne (No. 1, page 662), 6
pints; distil off S pints, add to the residual li-
quor of dry salt, 12 lbs.; mix well, dry by a
gentle heat, and otherwise proceed as beftwe.

8. Capsicums (ground), 3 lbs. ; red sanderi or
Brasil wood (sliced or rasped), 10 os. ; rectified
spirit, 1 gall.; macerate for 14 days, then ex-
press the tincture, filter, distil off one half, add
of dry salt, 16 lbs., and proceed as before.

4. As tlM first formula, with the addition of a
strong decoction of saSrou, q. a. It gives a
beautiful colour to soups, Ac

Ob*. The above formula are those actoally
employed by the houses most celebrated for
their ' soluble cayenne.' The products are of the
very finest quality, and are perfectly wholesome.
We speak from an extensive experience in the
manufacture. The spirit distilled from the
essence forms a most suitable menstruum for
making fresh essence or tincture of cayenne.

Pepper, Culwh. See Cusana.

Pepper, Jamai'w. See Pnonro.

Pepper, Kif ohen. See Sficb.

Pepper, Kong. Sgn. Pipbbib LOirai nnroTva,
PiPBB LOKeuK (Ph. L. and E.), L. " The im-
mature fruit (dried female spikes) of Piptr
Iionffum, Linn." (Ph. L.), or long-pepper Tine.
The spikes are about 1) inches in length, with
an indented surface, and are of a dark-greT colour.
In its general properties it resembles black pester,
but it is less aromatic though equally pungent.
Elephant pepper is merely a larger vane^ of tlus
species (Orag). The not and stems, sliced and
dried, form the 'pippnla mooU' of the East
Indies (Aoctw^A).

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PEPPER PODS— PEPSIN

1251

Pepp«r, Bad. See CxTamra,

Peppar, Vliite. Sgn. Pipkb axbvk, L. This
U maik by either loaking ordinary black pepper
in a solution of eommon salt until the ontinde
■kins are soft, and then mbbing them off in the
hands, or by merely nibbing off the skins of the
OTfT-ripe berries that fall from the vioes. An
inferior quality is made by bleaching black pepper
with chlorine.

06f .' The Dse of white pepper instead of black
is an instance of the sacrifices made to please the
eye. Pore white pepper has only about l-4th
at the strength of pure black pepper, whilst it is
nearly destitute of the fine aroma of the latter.
It also contains a mere trace of piperina or
inperine, one of the most valuable constituents of
black pepper.

FXP7SB PODS. Capsicums. See CATiinra

nPVBB.

PBPFXSiaST. Sfn. MxirraA PifasiTA
(Ph. L., E., and D.), L. « The recent and dried
flowering herb of Itantha piperita" (Ph. L.), or
garden peppermint. The flaToar and odour of
this herb are well known. It is the most pleasant
and powerful of all the mints. Peppermint water
and the essential oil have long been employed in
uraaea, griping, flatulent colic, hysteric, dia^hoea,
&o. ; but in regular practice chiefly to cover tiie
taste of nauseous medicines, or as an adjunct or
vehicle for more active remedies. See Oils (Vola-
tile), WArraBa,&c.

PEP'BDr. a^n. aAamuoa, CHTxoanr. A
peeoliar principle found in the gastric juice, and
which, in conjunction with hydrochloric acid, also
present in the stomach, confers upon it the power
of digesting the albuminous portions of the food.

Prap. 1. {BaaU, ' Med. Times and Qaz.,' Feb-
ruary 10th, 1878, p. 162.) '• The mucous mem-
brane of a perfectly fresh log's stomach is care-
fully dissected from the muscular coat, and placed
on a flat board. It is then lightly cleansed with
a sponge and a little water, »nd much of the
mucus, remains of food, Jbc., carefully removed.
With the back of a knife, or with an ivory psper-
knife, the surface is scraped very hard, in order
that the glands may be squeezed and their con-
tents pened out. The viscid mucus thus obtained
eontahis the pure gastric juice with much epithe-
lium from the gUnids and surface of the mucous
membrane. It is to be spread out upon a piece of
glass, so as to form a very thin layer, which is to
be 4ried at a temperatnre of 100° over hot water,
or •'• vacuo over sulphuric add. Care must bo
taken that the temperature does not rise much
above 100° P., because the action of the solvent
wonld be completely destroyed. When dry the
nmens is scraped from the glass, pocrdered in a
mortar, and transferred to a well-stoppered
bottle. With this powder a good digestive fluid
may be made as follows : of toe powder, 6 grs. ;
•trong hydrochlorie acid, 18 drops ; water, 6 oz.
Xaoeiate it at a temperature of 100° for an hour.
The mixture may be filtered easily, and forms a
perfectiy clear solution very convenient for ex-
periment.

"If the powder is to be taken as a medicine,
from two to five grains may be given for a dose,
* little diluted hydrochloric acid in water bdng
taken at the same time. The pepsin powder may

be mixed with the salt at a meal. It is devoid of
smell, and has only a slightly salt taste. It under-
goes no change if kept perfectly dry, and con-
tains the active principle of the gastric juice
almost unaltered.

"The method of preparing this pepsin was
communicated to Hr Bullock, of the firm of
Messrs Bullock and Company, S, Hanover-street,
Hanover Square, who at once adopted it for the
preparation of medicinal pepBin,and soon improved
upon it in some particulars. The dose is from 2 to
4 or'5'grs. — Test. Jths of a grain of this pepsin,
with 10 drops dilute hydrochloric acid and an
onnoe of distilled water, dissolve 100 grs. of
hard-boiled white of egg in from 12 to 24 hours.
In the body probably twice this quantity of white
of egg or even more wonld be dissolved in a com-
paratively short space of time. The digestive
powder prepared &om the pig's stomach retains
its activity for any length of time if kept dry.
The solution made with this pepsin and hydro-
chloric acid was nearly tasteless and inodorous.
One pig's stomach, which costs sixpence, will
yield abont 46 grs. of the powder prepared as
above described.

"Oradnally the usefulness of this prepara-
tion of pepsin of the pig was found out, and it
had to be prepared in increasing quantities. I
should be ^raid to say how many pigs' stomachs
have been used of late years during the winter
season.

"In 1867 Dr Pavy carefully examined the
pepsin prepared and sold by many different firms,
and found that this dried mncns of the pig's
stomach was the most active of them all (' Medical
Times and Gazette,' 1867, vol. i, p. 836). In 1870
Profeesor Tnson instituted a still more careftil
comparative examination, and with a similar
result ('Lancet,' August 18th, 1870); for he
found that this preparation was ttointg-Jlve time*
ttronger lha» lome othert that he obtairud for
examiaaiion."

2. (Seheffer, ' Pharm. Joum.,' March 28rd,
1872, p. 761.) " Of the weUcleaned fresh hog
stomach the mucous membrane is dissected off, ,
chopped finely and macerated in water acidulated
with muriatic acid for several days, during which
time the mass is frequently well stirred. The re-
sulting liquid, after being strained, is, if not
clear, set aside for at least 24 hours in order to
allow the mucus to settle. To the clarified liquid
the same bulk of a saturated solution of sodium
chloride is added, and the whole thoroughly
mixed. After several hours the pepsin, which, by
the addition of chloride of sodium, has separated
from its solution, is found floating on the surface,
from whence it is removed with a spoon and put
upon cotton cloth to drun ; finally it is submitted
to strong pressure, to free it as much as possible
from the salt solution.

" The pepsin, when taken ttom the press and
allowed to become air-dry, is a very tough sub-
stance, and presents, accorcUng to thickness, a
different appearance, resembling in thin sheets
parchment paper, and in thick layers sole leather]
its colour varies from a dim straw yellow to a
brownish yellow. Besides a little mucus, it con-
tuns small quantities of phosphate of lime and
chloride at sodium, which, however, do not inter-.

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1262

PEBCENTAOB— PERCOLATION

fere with its digeetive propertiea, u they an
found also in normal gaabric juice.

In order to get a purer article I rediiiolTe
the pepsin, as obtained after expression, in acidn-
lated water, filter the solution through paper and
precipitate again with a solution of sodium
chloride; the precipitate, after draining and
pressing, is now free of phosphate of lime and
mucus, but still contains salt. In the freshly pre-
cipitated state the pepsin is very readily soluble
in water, and cannot therefore be freed from
adhering salt by washing.

" By allowing the pressed sheet of pepsin to
get perfectly air-dry — whereby it becomes coated
with a white film and small crystals of chloride
of sodium — and by immersing it then in pnre
water for a short time, the greater part of sodium
chloride can be extracted, but it has to be done
very rapidly, as the pepsin swells np considerably
and loses its tenacity. By operating in this
matter I have obtained a pepsin which dissolves
in acidulated water to quite a clear coloorless
liquid, but as it still contains txaoes of salt, I pre-
fer to call it purified pepsin."

8, (B. P.) A preparation of themnoons lining
of a fresh and healthy stomach of the pig, sheep,
or calf. The stomach of one of these animals,
recently killed, having been cut open and laid on
a board with the inner surface upwards, any ad-
hering portions of food, dirt, and other impurity,
are to be removed and the exposed surface slighuy
washed with cold water; the cleansed mucous
membrane is then to be scraped with a blunt knife
or other suitable instrument and the viscid parts
thus obtained are to be immediately spread over
the surface of glass or glazed earuienware, and
quickly dried at a temperature not exceding 100°
F. ; the dried residue is to be reduced to powder,
and preserved in a stoppered bottle. — Doie, 2 to
6gr.

Papaiii, Saoohantted. To work it into sac-
charated pepsin ('American Journal of Pharmacy,'
Januaiy, 1871) the damp pepsin, as it is taken
from tiie press, is triturated with a weighed
quantity of sugar of milk to a fine powder, which,
when it has become air-dry, is weighed again, the
quantity of milk sugar subtracted, and so the
amount of pepsin found. The strength of this
dry pepsin is now ascertained 'hv finding how
much coagulated albomen it will dissolve at a
temperature of 100° F. in five or six honn^ and
after this sufficient milk sugar is added to result
in a preparation of which 10 gr. will dissolve
120 cpr. of coagulated albumen, and this pre-
paration I have called saccharated pepsin.

Papsln with Starch. Pepsin mixed with starch
■is the medicinal ptpiine of M. Boudault; the
Poudre ntttrimtntive of M. Corvisart.

Pepsin, fflyeerite of. Syn. GLTOiBimi
PKPBIHI, Ij. Frep. Pepsin (N. P.), 640 gr.;
hydrochloric acid, 80 minims; purified talcum,
120 gr. ; glycerin, 8 fl. os. ; water, enough to
make 16 fl. os. Mix the pepsin with 7 fl. os. of
water and the hydrochloric acid and agitate nntil
solution has been effected. Then incorporate the
purified talcum with the liquid, filter, returning
the first portions of the filtrate until it runs
through clear, and pass enough water through the
filter to make the flltnte measure 8 fl. oi. To

this add the glycerin and mix. Each fl. dr. n-
prosents 6 gr. of pepsin (N. F.).

Nott. For filtraing the aqueous solution of
pepsin fint obtained by the above formula, as well
as for filteiing other liquids of a viscid character,
a filter-paper of loose texture (preferably that
known as ' Textile Filtering Pi^ier'), or a layer
of absorbent cotton placed in a funnd, or peteo-
lator, should be employed.

P^sin, Add Glycerin of. Pnp. Pure pepsin,
1 ox. ; hydrochloric acid, 2 dr. ; glycerin, 8 os. ;
water, 12 ox. Mix the acid with 2 oz. of water,
and mb np with the pepsin ; add the rest of the
water, digest for 24 hours, then add the glycerin,
and after 2 days decant or filter.

FXBCSarAaX. LlteraUy, 'by the hundred.'
In commere the term is applied to aa allowance^
duty, or commission on a hundred ( Wtbiter).

FEBCHLO"BATS. £^. FaRCHLOSAB, L. A
salt of perchloric add.

The perchlorates an distinguished from the
chlorates by their great stability, and Iw not
turning yellow when treated wim hydiodlorie
add. Like the chlorates, they give off oxygen
when heated to redness. They may be prepisred
by directly neutralising a solution of the add
with a solution of the base. See PoTABum
(Perchlorate of) and ChIiOBIHS.

PBaCHIiO"BIC ACED. See CsaMKOm.

PEBCOLA'TKHI. £^. Msthos ov on-
FLAOBlciHT. A method of extracting the soluble
portion of any substance in a divided state, by
causing Qie menstruum to filter or stnun through
it. The ' sparging ' of the Scotch brewers is an
example of the application of thisprindpleontiie
large scale. In phorwtaejf, the 'method of dis-
placement' is frequently adopted for the pre-
paration of tinctures, infusions, Ac., and is, in
some respects, superior to digestion or maceration.
" The solid materials, usually in cotuve or mo-
derately fine powder, are moistened with a snffi-
ciency of the solvent to form a thick pulp. In 12
hours, or frequently without delay, the mass is
put into a cylinder of glass, porcelain, or tinned
iron, open at both ends, but obstructed at the
lower end by a piece of calico or linen, tied tightly
over it as a filter ; and the pulp being backed b^
pressure, ranging aa to degree with different
articles, the remainder of the solvent is pottfed
into the upper portion of the cylinder, and
allowed gradually to percolate. In order to ob-
tain the portion of the fluid which is absorbed by
the residuum, an additional quantity of the sd-
vent is poured into the cylinder, until the tinotute
which has passed through equals in amount tiie
spirit originally prescribed. The spirit employed
for this purpose is then recovered, for the most
part, by pounng over the residuum as much water
as there is spirit retained in it, which may be
easily known by an obvious calculation in eadi
case. The method of percolation is now preferred
by all who have made sufSdent trial of it to apply
itcorrectiy"(Ph. E.).

The first portion of liquid obtained by the
method of displacement is always in a state of
high concentration. In general it is a dmple so-
lution of the soluble ingredients of the crude
drug in the fluid employed. But sometimes the
solvent, if compound, is resolved into its eom-

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PBBCOLATION

1868

ponent partoi and the fluid which paste* thioagh
at any giTen time is only one of these, holding
the aolable parts of the drag in s<dntion. Thus
if dilnted alcoliol be poorad over powder of
myrrh, in the cylinder of tite percolator, the
fluid which first &ops into the receiver is a soln-
tion of aa oiW om^atence, chiefly composed of
resin and volatile oil, dissolved in alcohol. In like
manner, when the powder of gall-nnts is treated
in the same way by hydrated solphnric ether,
two layers of flmd are obtained, one of which is
a Ughly concentrated solntion of tannin in the
water of the ether, and the other a weak solution
of tiie same principle in pnre ether. In all
eases, therefore, in which it is not otherwise
directed it is absolntely necessary to agitate the
several portions of the liqiud obtained by perco-
lation together, in order to ensure a prodaot of
nnifwm strength or activity.

Saiveral forma of dispUuiement apparatos are
employed by difFerent operators. A simple and
vswnl one is that fignred in the margin. It
has, also, the advantage of being inexpensive^
and may be made by any worker in tin plate.

In operating on some substances it is found
advantageons to hasten the process by preaante.
This may be effected by aav of the methods
adopted for that porpoae. and already daa<a1bed
ondier FnvBAIIOH. An ingeniona little appara-
tus, which is well adapted for small qumtities, ia
shown in the t»gr. By pouring merouiy or water

a. Twealatot.

I. Btaad.
t. Baerfm.
d* Hnialiuiuii.

«. BalKtasce opented on.
/. CaUeo Btninar.

{hnmgh («), into the hotUe (e), the air in the
latter auffers compresaim, and acta in a corres-
ponding manner on the percolating liquor in (a).
The whole of the joints mutt be made air-tight.

a. Pareslitor.

I. Tubs connectiss it wtth—

e. AdoaUs-neckaabotUocon-

tdBiBf—

^ Mareuijf.

t. FeadiBf-tsbe.

/. BaesiTer.

/. 8top<«ock to rapiUto or
airaat tke pmiora of air on tha
oonicaU of the cjrliadar (a).

The method of displacement, although appar-
enUy dmple, requirea for ita successful application
no inconsideisble amoont of experience and skill
in manipolation. The principal points to be at-
tended to are— tiie reduction of Uie substance to
the proper state of comminution (neither too
eoane nor too fine), — the due regulation of the
poriod of maoaration aceotding to the hardness.

density, and texture of the substance; and, more
important still, — the proper packing of the in-
gredients in the cylinder. Chi the correct per-
formance of the last the success of the process
mainly depends. Some anbatancea require con-
siderable preaaure to be used, whilst otbiera, when
even lighUy packed, scarcely permit tibe fluid to
pass through them. When the material is too
loosely packed, the menstruum passes through
quickly, but without exerting its proper solvent
action { when too great pressure is employed,
percolation either progresses very slowly or not
at all. On the whole, the firmness of the pack-
ing should be inversely as the solvent and
slultening power of the menstruum upon the
solids exposed to its action; but to tfais rule
there are many exceptions, and each substance
may be said to reqmre spedal treatment. An.
excellent plan, applicable to all aubataucea, and
especially to those of a glutinous or mucilaginous
nature, u to mix the powder with an equal balk
of well-washed siliceous sand before nibbing it
up with the menstruum. In reference to the
coarseness of the powder it must be observed
that substances which readily become soft and
pappy when wetted by the menstruum, should
not be used so fine as those that are more woody
and fibrous, and not of a glutinous or resinous
nature.

The ' method of displacement' has the advan-
tage of expedition, economy, and yielding pro-
ducts posseaaing oonaiderable uniformity of
strength ; but the difficulties attending its appli-
cation by the inexperienced are serious obstacles
to its general adoption in the laboratory. It
answers admirably for the preparation of all
tinctures that are not of a resinous nature, and
for most infusions of woody and fibrous sub-
stances, as roots, woods, barks, leaves, seeds,
insects, &c., and particularly when cold or tepid
water is used as the solvent. It is also especially
adapted for the preparation of concentrated in-
fusions and essences, as they may thus be obtained
of any required strength without loss, or requiring
concentration by heat, which is so destructive to
their virtues.

« When (ordinary) tinctures are made in large
quantities, displacement is never likely to super-
sede maceration, on account of any practical
advantages it may possess. If the prescribed
directions be duly attended to, the process of
maceration is unexceptionable. The process is
more simple than the other ; the mode of opera-
tion is more uniform, it is, in fact, always the
same ; it requires less of skill and dexterity in
oondocting it ; it requires less constant attention
during its progress, which, in operating on Urge
quantities, is a consideration ; and, finally, the
apparatos required is less complicated. When,
however, only small quantities of tincture are
made at a time, and kept in stock, the adoption
of the process of displacement will often be found
convenient and advantageous. It offers the
means of making a tincture in two or three hours,
which, by the other process, would require as
many weeks " {Mokr amd Bedtoood).

Another useful application of the method of
displacement is to the manufacture of extracts on
the large scale. Here it is superior to any other

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1264

PEBCnSSION— PERFUMES

plan. By the rimple and inexpeniiTa forms of
sppantus in block-tin, atoneware, or gflau, which
have recently been designed for the pnnwu, not
merely a fint-clau product is ensured, bat a
great saving in fael and laboor is at the same
time effected. The reader is referred to the last
edition of the ' United States Pharmacopteia,'
and to papers by Messrs Saunders and Schweitsw
in the ' Pharmaceutical Tear Book for 1878,' and
by Mr Campbell in the same publication for
1874, for additional information in the subject of
" Percolation." See Biuwiira, Extkact, Tnro-

TUBS, &C.

FEaCtrS'SIOBT. Sljfn. PiBCirgBio, L. In msdt-
cine, the act of striUng any part of the body
with the fingers, or any instrument, to ascertain
its condition.

FEBCTTB'SIOK CAPS. The composition em-
ployed to prime these articles is noticed under

FuLMItrATIlia KSBOUBT.

PEBTECT LOYX. See Liqvxub (Parfiut
amour).

PSB'FUKE. A substance that emits or casts
off volatile particles which, when diffused through
the atmosphere, agreeably affect the organs of
smell. The term is also applied to the vola-
tile efflnvia so perceived. The principal source
of perfumes is the Vegetable Kingdom. Its
flowers, seeds, woods, and barks furnish a rich
variety, from which the most fastidious con-
noisseur may select his favourite bouquet. A few
perfumes, as musk, ambergris, and civet, are
derived from the Animal Kingdom ; but n<me of
these evolve an aroma comparable in freshness to
tiiat of the rose, or in delicacy to that of the
orange-blossom, or even the unpretending jasmine.
The Inorganic' Kingdom yields not. a single
perfume, so called; nor has the science of
chemistry yet been able to produce a single
odoriferous compound from matter absolutely
inorganic.

PXBFXrilEBT. Perfumes in general; also
the art of perfuming them. In its commercial
application, this word embraces not merely per-
fumes, but also cosmetics, and other articles of
a closely allied character employed at the toilet,
the manufacture and sale of which constitute the
trade of the modem perfumer. In addition to
these gfven here, many formula met with in
trade, both simple and compound, will be found
under the heads Coskbtics, Dkpixatobt, Ea-
BEirCS, HAIB DTX8, OixB, Pabtbs, Pabtilb,
PoKASB, Sfibit, Watibs, tc., to -which we
refer the reader.

FSBTUKES. For most of the following for-
mulsB we are indebted to the "Chemist and
Druggist" and the "British and Colonial
Druggist " :

Bouquet d'Auumr. Rose triple, 10 <a,; ex-
tract, of rose, 20 oz.; of violet, 20 oz. ; of cassie,
20 01. ; of jasmine, 20 oz. ; of dvet, 8 OS. ; of
musk, 8 oz. ; of ambergris, loz.

Bouquet dee Fleure. Extract, of jasmine,
80 oz. ; of rose, 20 oz. ; of violet, 80 oz. ; of tube-
rose, 20 oz.; of orris, SO OS.; of orange, 10 oz.; of
musk, 4 ox. ; 01. French geranium, }oz.

Bouquet dm Boi. Extract, of jasmine, 20 oz. ;
of violet, 80 oz. ; of rose, 80 oz.; of vanilla, 8 oz. ;
of vitivert, 6 oz. ; of musk, 8 oz. ; of ambergris.

i oz.; essence, of bergamot, 60 minims; 01.
doves, 60 minims ; otto of rose, 60 minims.

Ckne Pinlc, Etemiee iff. Rose triple, 7 oc;
extract, of rote, 10 oz.; of orange, 6 os.| of cas-
sis, 6 oz. ; of vanilla, 8 oi.; of mnsk, i oz.; OL
cloves, 18 minims.

Court Bouquet. Extract, of rose, 80 oi. ; of
violet, 20 oz. ; of jasmine^ 80 oz. ; of tuberose,
10 oz. i of caasie, 8 oz. ; Of musk, 8 oz.; of dvat,
1 oz. ; of ambergris, 1 oz. ; lose triple^ IS oz.;
essence, of bergamot, i oz. ; of lemon, i oz. ;
OI. citron, i oz. ; OI. neroli, 69 minims.

Sieenee of WKte Boee. Take of oil of patch-
only, 10 minims ; essence of musk, 10 minims ;
otto of rose, 80 minims ; alcohol, 90% , 80 fl. oa.
Mix.

SxtrmtdfAmbre.JbrtkeRaudkertMef. Rose
triple, 10 oz. ; extract, of ambergris, 90 oz. ; of
mnsk, 6 oz.; of vanilla, 8 oz. ; aq. roaa, 7 oz.

Bxtraet of Tlowen. Extract, of rose, 80 oa. ;
of tuberose, 80 oz. ; of violet, 80 oz. ; of stoiax,
H oz.; of mnsk, i oz.; essence, of bergamot,
t oa. ; of lemon, i oz. ; OI. citron, 88 minims.

jFleur d'ltaUe. Extract, of rose, 40 oz.; of
jasmine, 20 oz. ; of violet, 80 oz. ; of oassie, 10
oz. ; of tuberose, 10 oz. ; of triple, 16 oz. ; of
musk, 8 OS. ; of ambergris, 1 oz.

&ardema. Extract, of jasmine, 80 oz.; of
tuberose, 66 oz. ; of cassie, 6 oz. ; of musk, 8i oz. ;
of storax, 8i oz. ; of civet, 1 oz. ; OI. Tlang-
ylaog, SO minims; 01. neroli, 40 minims; OL
French geranium, 00 minims; otto of rata^ 80
minims.

Selitropa Xxtraet. Take of heliotropine,
60 grs. ; oil of orange flowers, 8 drops ; essence
of musk, 16 minims ; alcohol, 14 fl. oz. Mix.

Note. The essence of musk is made by robbing
1 dr. of mnsk with 1 dr. of milk sugar to • uni-
form powder in a warm mortar, adding thereto
2i fl. oz. of water, 6 fl. oz. of 90% alcohol, and
i fl. dr. of liquor ammonia. The whole is digested
eight days and filtered.

Roly Baeil. Extract, of tonqnin, 40 oz. ; of
vanilla, 60 oz. ; of geranium, 40 oz. ; S.V.R., 80
oz.; extract, of storax, 16 oz. ; of mnsk, 4 oz.; of
orange, 80 oz.; of cassie, 80 oz.; of jasmine, 80 oa.;
of tuberose, 20 oz. ; of rose, 86 oz. ; OL dtron, 8
dr.; OI. bergamot, 1 dr.; otto of rose, 46
minims,

Roveuia, Xeeenee of. S.T.B., 40 oz. ; essence
of lemon, i oz.; 01. IVench geranium, SO minims;
01. cloves, 80 minims; 01. neroli, 10 minims;
otto of rose, 40 minims ; aq. rosa, 10 oz. ; extract
of musk, 1 oz.

Ronej/eueile. Extract, of rose, 80 os. ; of vio-
let, 80 os.; of tuberose, 80 oz. ; of cassie, 20 oz. ;
of vanilla, 7 oz. ; of stoiaz, 4 oz. ; of musk, 1 oz.;
01. neroli, 12 minims; OL almonds, 7 minims;
otto of rose, 10 minims.

Jockey CM, Essence of jasmine, 4os.; otto
of rose, 1 dr. ; essence, of musk, 1 os. ; of ton-
quin, 2 oz. ; 8.V.B., 0 oz.

Kern Oardeut Bouquet. Extract, of neroli, 80
oz. ; of cassie, 10 oz. ; of tuberose, 10 oz. ; of jas-
mine, 10 oz.; of violet, 10 oz.; of rose, lOoz. ; of
geranium, 10 oz.; of musk, 8 os.; cfl dvet,
1 oz.

Leap-gear Bouquet. Extract, of tnbaoae,
80 oz. ; of jasmine, 20 os.; of los^ 16 os.; vH

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PBEFUMES

1266

wntal, 10 (w. J of patchonly, 10 M.; of Tertjenk*
8 01. ; of dret, 2 os. ; roae triple, 6 oz.

Ltbamm OidarrtBOod, for the SanditnkUf.
Oil of cedar, 1 oi.; S.T.B., 26 os. ; loae triple,

6 01.

Lima-tret SloMom Bouquet. S-V.^L, 40 ox. ;
Ol. lign aloe, } oz. ; extract, of roae, 10 oa. ; of
jaamine, 10 oz. ; of orria, 10 oz. ; of miuk, 3 oz. ;
roae triple, 10 oz. ; eaaence of lemon, 80 minima.

Ifoat Sole. Extract, of roae, 40 oz. j of orange,
20 OS. ; of violet, 20 oz.; of jaamine, 20 oz.j
rose triple, 20 oz. ; extract, of mnsk, 4 oz. j of
■mbergria, 8 oz.

Mouei^ne Souquel, Extract, of mar&shale,
20 oz. ; of caaaie, 10 oz. ; of jasmine, 10 oz. ;
of toberoae, 10 oz. ; of roae, SO os.; 01. aantal,
4S minima.

JTornatiw. Otto of mae, 10 minimi; extract,
oftnberoae, 60 oz.; of jonqoille, 40oz.; of violeta,
10 01. ; of storax, 6 oz. ; of mnik, 1 oz.

Ifaial Bouquet. Boee triple, 8 oz. ; extract, of
loae, 10 oz. ; of violet, 10 oz. ; tit jasmine, 10 oz. ;
of santal, 6 oz. ; of vitivert, 6 ox. j of pa^honly,
4 oz. ; of verbena, 2 oz.

(k^ord aud Cambridge Bouquet. Boae triple,
10 oz. ; extract, of jasmine, 10 oz. ; of tul)erose,
10 oz. ; of caaaie, 10 oz. ; of vanilla, 6 oz.; of
aantal, 6 oz. ; of violet, 20 oz. ; of geianiam, 4
oz.; of roae, 10 oz.; of patchonly, 3 oz. ; of
atoraz, 1 ox. ; eaaence, of bergamot, 60 minims ;
of lemon, 40 minima; extract of mnak, 8 oz.

Seieda. Extract, of orria, 120 oz.; of orange,
60 oz.; of caaaie, 90 oz.; of jasmine, 40 oz. ; <^
rose, 40 ox. ; of violet, 20 oz.; of storax, 6 oz. ; of
mnak, 4oz. ; aq. flor. aur., 10 oz. ; aq. toaa, 10 oz.

Boyal Muui Bouquet. Bose triple, 10 oz. ;
extract, of nee, 10 oz.; of caaaie, 7 oz. ; of
neroli, 6 oz. ; cf orange, 7 oz. ; of orris, 6 oz. ;
of civet, 1) oz. ; of musk, i oz. ; of tonqnin,

7 ox.; 01. citnm, 60 minims; essence of lemon,
60 minims.

Suieet Pea, Stieuoe iff. Extract, of orange, 10
oz.: of tnbeniee, 18 oz. ; of rose,10oz.; of violet,
1 ox.; of vanUla, 2 oz.; of storax, 1 oz.; otto of
rose, 7 minima.

Tea Bote, Etteuee of. Bose triple, 16 ox. ; ex-
tract, of rose, 26 ox. ; of geranium, 20 oz.; of
aantal, 10 oz. ; of neroli, 6 oz. ; of orria, 6 oz. ; of
violet, 10 oz. ; of storax, 8 oz.

VoUnUeer'e Garland. S.Y.B., 20 oz.; 01.
neroli, 4 oz. ; 01. lavandula ang., \ oz. ; 01. berga-
mot> i oz. ; OL French geranium, 60 minims; 01.
doves, 10 minims; otto of rose, 60 minims; ex-
tract, of orris, 20 oz. ; of jaamine, 7 oz. ; of casae,

7 ox. ; of violet, 10 oz. ; m mask, 2 ox. ; of dvet,
i ox. ; of ambergris, i oz.

WiUe lAlae, Stmnee of. Extract, of tuberose,
20 ox. ; of rose, 10 oz. ; of orange, 7 oz. ; 01.
almonds, 6 minims ; extract civet, ( oz.

Yellow Boee*. Bose triple, 16 oz. ; extract, of
rose, 80 oz.; of tonqnin, 6 oz.; of tuberose, 30
oz.; of violet, 10 ox.; verbena, 4 oz. ; of musk,

8 ox.

Tlaug-Ylaug Seeeuae. 1. Take of alcohol,
90%, 8 fl. oz.; oil of ylang-ylang, 8 minims;
otto of rose, 4 minims ; oil of orange flowen, 2
minima; vanillin, 1 gr. ; tincture of toln, 2 oz. ;
rose water, 1 oz. IHgeet together several days
and filter throngh osrbonate of magnesia.

Note, The tinetore of tola is made by digest-
ing 1} oz. of toln balsam with 16 oz. of 86%
alcohol for 6 days, with frequent agitation, allow-
ing to stand, and Altering.

2. Tkke of alcohol, 90% , 8 fl. oz. ; oil of ylang-
ylang, 8 minims ; oil of orange flowers, 8 Tninimii •
rose water, 6 fl. dr. Mix.

Xanz de Cologne. The author of the first on
the list was awarded the prize of a free trip to
Paris by Messrs Gosnell.

Prep. 1, Eaaence, of bergamot, 2 dr.; of
lemon, 1 dr.; oil, of neroli, 20 drops; of ori-
ganum, 6 drops ; of rosemary, 20 drops ; S.V.R.
treble-distilled, 1 pint ; orange-flower water, 1 ox.

2. Oil, of bergamot, 160 minims ; of lemon, 60
minims ; of Portagal, 60 minims ; of neroli, 20
minims; of petit-grain, 10 minims ; of lavender
(Eng.), 20 minims; of rosemary, 10 minims; of
melissa, 6 minims ; flnest spirit, 80 oz. ; rose-
water, 14 dr. ; orange-flower water, 14 dr.

8. Oil, of bergamot, 100 minims; of lemon, 60
minims ; of Portugal, SO minims ; of petit-grain,
10 minima ; of lavender, 20 minims ; of rosemary,
16 minims ; finest spirit, 80 oz. ; rose-water, 9 dr. ;
orange-flower water, 9 dr. ; distilled water, 9 dr.

Tke above formulffi are for preparing the per-
fume by the cold method. The proper plan is to
add the oils to the spirit in the order in which
they are set down, shake well, and set aside for a
few days, shaking occasionally before adding the
waten. After these aro added, ae;ain set aside
for some time, and, if not perfectly clear, filter.

4. Oil, of Portugal, 180 minims; of bergamot,
180 minims; of cedrat, 120 minims; of lemon,
120 minima; of neroli, 190 minims; of petit-
grain, 120 minims ; of rosemary, 240 minims ; of
Umon, 240 minims ; finest spirit, 10 oz.

This formula is for the preparation of a con-
centrated esu de Cologne, which will bear dilution
with 10 times its volame of fine spirit. Dissolve
the oils in 10 oz. of the spirit, and set aside for
14 days, shaking 4 times a day. Then distil the
miztura twice, when the result will be 10 oz. of
an exceedingly strong perfume, which improves
in odour the longer it is kept, and is specially
suited for exportation. It is of good odour when
freshly dilated with spirit, but in this case also
the odonr improves on keeping.

6. Oil, of bergamot, 876 minims ; of cedrst,-60
minims; of lemon, 60 minims; of lavender, SO
minims; of Portugal, 60 minims; of thyme, 4
minims ; of neroli, 76 minims ; of rosemary, 76
minims; finest spirit, 62 oz. If ix and distil, then
add to the distillate 2i oz. of melissa water and 6
oz. orange-fiower water, and distil again. The
product is a very fine ean de Cologne, the formula
dating as far back aa 1821, bat the following
goes even farther, viz. to 1818.

6. Oil, of neroli, 10 minims; of lemon, 40
minims ; of bergamot, 60 minims ; of cedrat, 16
minims ; of lavender, 18 minims ; of rosemary, 10
minims ; melissa water, 4^ oz. ; flnest spirit, 80
oz. Dissolve the oils in the spirit eontained in a
retort, giving the mixture a thorough shaking,
then close the retort and keep the contents jnst
warm for 48 houn, wheroby perfect blending of
the oils with the spirit is ensured. Then place
it for 24 honrs in a cool place, after which
filter it through paper until it if obtained pei^-

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1866

PEBiaKB— PERNAHBUCO WOOD

fectly clear. With the filtnte mix the meliMa
water.

1. Oil, of bergamot, f oc.; of lemon, i oi.; of
roaemsry, 1 dr. ; of citronella, 20 drope ; of neroli,
1 dr. ; rectified spirit, 82 oi.

8. Oil, of bergamot, 12 minimi ; of lemon, 12
minims ; of neroli, 12 minims ; of orange peel, 12
minims j of rosemary, 18 minims j carduaom seeds
(in powder), 60 gr. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint.

9. Oil, of lemon, 2 dr. ; of neroli, 2 dr. ; of
orange peel, 8 dr.; Bnglish oil of lavender, 20
minims ; English oil of rosemary, 10 minima ;
oil of bergamot, 7 dr. 80 minims ; rectified spirit,
66^ oz. ; orange-flower water, 17i os.

10. Essential oils of bergamot, lemon, cedrat,
of each, 100 grms.; essential cMt of lavender,
neroli, rosemary, of each, 50 gnus. ; essential oil
of cinnamon, 26 grms.; alcohol (80°), 12,000
grms. ; alcohohkte A balm (eau des Cannes), 1600
grms. ; spirit of rosemary, 1,000 grms. Dissolve
the essential oils in the alcohol, add the two
alcoholates, and let stand for 8 days. Distil in a
sand-bath \ of the mixture (Codex).

11. Siam benzoin, 16 gr.; oil, of lavender, 80
gr. ; of rosemary, 16 gr. ; of neroli, 80 gr. ; of
petit-gnun, 80 gr.; of cedrat, 80gr. ; of Porldgal,
160 gr. ; of lemon, 160 gr. ; of bergamot, 160 gr. ;
of rose geranium, 16 gr. ; alcohol (96%), 68
fl. oz. The essential oils (all by weight) are dis-
solved, in the order (^ven above, in the spirit,
and then the finely powdered benzoin is added.
Allow to stand with frequent agitation for at
least 4 weeks; place in a still, add an eqaal
quantity of water and distil over abont 64 fl. oa.,
having previously collected and set aside the first
onnce. Allow the distillate (64 fl. oz.) to stand
another 4 weeks in a glass vessel which is ex-
posed to snnlight or diffused daylight; the longer
the water is kept the better it is.

12. Oil, of bergamot, 14 minims ; of lemon, 84
minims; of petit-grain, 20 minims; of neroli
bigaradia, 7 minims; of rosemary, 14 minims;
spirit of wine (genuine), 12^ fl. oz. ; mix.

Soft. The addition of a little amber or mask
essence makes the perfome more persistent. This
eau de Cologne obtained the gold medal at the
Sydney Exhibition.

Lavender Water. Prep. 1. Oil of lavender,
4i oz. ; tonqnin beans, 7 oz. ; oil of bei^gamot, 2
oz. ; otto of rose, 160 minims; musk, 82 gr. ;
rectified spirit, 8 galls, (old measure of 128 oz. to
the gaU.).

2. Ambergris, 12 gr. ; oil of bergamot, 6 oi. ;
English oil of lavender, 1^ oz. ; oU of cloves, 6
dr. ; English oil of santal, 4 dr. ; otto of rose, 4
dr. ; musk, 4 dr. ; rectified spirit, 8 galls, (old
measure, 128 oz. to the gall.)

8. English oil of lavender, 16 oz. ; (dl of berga-
mot, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit of wine, H galls, (old
measure) ; distilled water, 6 pints (old measure)
mask, 80 gr.; sugar (powdered lump), 1 oz.;
orange-flower water, 6 pints (old measure).

4. English oil of lavender, 8 dr. ; essence of
ambergris (1 dr. in 16 oz.), 1 dr. ; (^ of berga-
mot, i dr.; orange-flower water, 1 oz.; rose- water,
1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 oz.

5. English oil of lavender, 2( dr. ; oil of ber-
gamot, i dr.; musk, 10 gr.; rectified spirit,
16 ox.

6. English oil of lavender, 8 as. ; foreign oiX of
lavender (good), 1 oz.; oil of bergamot, 1 oa. ;
esMuce ofaiaak (1 dr. in 16 ox.), 6 dr. ; esaance
of tonqnin beans (1 in 10) 1 oi. ; reciafled spirit,
96 oz.

7. Bnglish oil of lavender, 8 oi.; oil of ber-
gamot, li oz. ; essence of tonqnin beus (1 in 10),
1 oz.; triple rose-water, 18 ot. ; xectiflisd a^iit,
80 oa.

8. Mnsk, 40 gr. ; oil of bergamot, 1 oi. ; Eng-
lish oil of lavender, 6 ox. ; French essence of
millefleur, 8 oz. ; pnlv. nd. iridis, 8 oa. ; otto of
roses, 80 minims ; essence of ambergris (1 dr. in
16 ox.), 8 oz.; distilled water, 40 os.; rectified
spirit, 6 pints.

9. English oil of lavender, ( ox. ; oil of berga-
mot, 80 minims ; essence of tonqmn bean (1 in
10), 80 minims; essence of mask, (1 dr. in 16
ox.), 00 minims) rectified spirit, 16 ox.

10. English oil of lavender, 10 dr. ; oil of ber-
gamot, \\ dr. ; essence of mnsk (1 dr. in 16 os.),
i oz. ; oil of neroli, 4 drops ; oil of genninm, 6
drops ; English oil of sandal-wood, 7 drops ; recti-
fied spirit, 80 oz. ; water, 80 ox.

11. Oil, of lavender, 4 dr. ; of bergamot, i dr. ;
of lemon, i dr. ; mnsk, 8 gr. ; rose-water, 8 ox. ;
rectified spirit, 18 ox.

18. KnglishoilofIavender,iox.;irilof neiDli,10
drops; essence of ambergris (ldr.inl6ox.), los.;
essence of musk (1 dr. in 16 ox.), 1 ox. ; rectified
spirit, to make 30 ox.

18. Alcohol (pnre, 90%), 85 fl. ox.; oU of
lavender (Hitcham), 6 dr. ; essence of mask, 8 dr.;
essence of amber, 1 dr.

Ferflunei, Aoe'tio. See TnnaAB.

PSRIQEE. In astronomy that p^nt in the
orbit of the moon where she is nearest to the
earth, or the point in the earth's orbit where oar
globe is nearest to the son. It is also nsed as a
general term to denote the least distance of a
body from the earth.

FSKIESLIOV. That point in the orbit of a
planet or comet which is nearest to the son.

PERIODIC ACID. Sg*. Hysuo pbbiodati.
(HIO4). 1. By passing a onnent of chlorine
gas through a solution of sodic iodate, containing
caustic soda, in the proportion of 8 atoms of the
latter to 1 atom of sodic iodate. The hydrated
basic sodic periodate, which crystallises out, is
dissolved in dilated nitric acid, and precipit^ed
by the addition of argentic nitrate; a normal
argentic periodate crystallises as the liquid oooU,
and this salt being treated with water, is decom-
posed into a basic argentic periodate, which is
insoluble, and periodic acid, which is dissolved.
By evaporating the solution, the periodic add
may t>e obtained in deliquescent, obliqae, rhombic
prisms, which are somewhat soluble in alcohol
and in ether.

2. From perchloric add by the aoiion of iodine.
See lonim.

PESISTAL'TIC PSBBUA'DXBS. See Pnu
(Kitchener's).

PES'KAKDrr WHITE. See Baxivk (Sul-
phate) and White PlOMXim.

PEBVAKBU'CO WOOD. %«. Puoh Wood.
The wood of Ctudlpimia aeJuMUa. It oonstitates
the paler variety of Braxil wood nsed by tiie
dyers.

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U67

nOUHraA OOXPAKAVA or 00XAXIA5A.
Thx STBA.WB1KBT MOTH. Iiqary ia oooMionad
to itmwbeny planU bj tiie oaterpUlara of tbk
littie moth faitening np their Iwvm and blos-
•onu, mad the imall immature Btrawberriat latw
on, with their weba, and feeding npon them.

A report wa« reoeired from Ferthihire that
■trawberry {danta were axsSmmg in thia manner,
and in lome eztanaiTe beda near Soathampton
moeh loaa waa aoatained from the action of theae
eaierpillan, and in other parte of the ooontry.
Complainta hare been reeeived from a few places
in Kent with regard to this attack. On the other
hand two large giowen, near London, in thia
eomity saj that they have not noticed that any
tronble haa been oaoMd by thia inaect. Most gar-
deners will remember to have aeen ita work in
their atrawberry beda, tiioogh perhaps ignorant
of the origin of the evil.

Iiif« Mitioty. It belongs to the family Tartri-
eUht of the Ztpidopttra, and the genns Paronta,
to eallad, as Weitwood says, from the Qreek word
signifying a bntton, because the t^ieal apecies
of this genos have a tnft of raiud scales upon
•adi of tiieir fore wings, resembling a button.

There ia aome little doubt aa to the exact name
of this atrawbeny moth. MissOnnerod stylea it
tomariama, or eomparana. Dr EUia, whom Mias
Onnerod quotea, terms it eomariana, probably
after the weed which bears a small inconspicuons
paendo-tndt rather like a small strawbwry, railed
eomamm palmttrt. Neither Stephens nor West-
wood apeaka of thia apecies, though H&bner styles
a somewhat similar mothooaiparduKi, and Zdlar
tomarioita. It is most probable that it is a dis-
tinct spedee, and might be termed,/Vii;arta.

In colour the moth is brownish with yellowish
wings, having a Urge patch of black npon each
fore wing, ^ose expanse is about nine lines.
The lengtii of its body ia five lines. It is pre-
•nmed, for unfortunately the life hiatory of this
■nth la moat incomplete, that the perfect insect
•mecgea fifom the ehryaalis state, which ia paaaad
in tlte ground, in May, and places eggi upon the
haaea cS. the atrawber^ planta, fnnn which large
green caterpillars eome, and drawing the leaves
together with thdr weba feed npon them in anog
■edosion.

iVmnrftM. Digging quicklime in between the
wws of strawbetnr plants in the autumn when the
mnners and leaage have been cleared away,
weald kill many of the caterpillars, if done after
•a attack in the preceding summer.

Good cultivation between the rows is alao de-
drable when the flrnit is picked. This may be
done by hand, or by horses, oa the planta are now
aet wide enoogh ^ait by modem cnltivaton for
liorsebodng.

BewudiM. Women and children, the future
strawberry pickera, might much check (Jm cater-
^Uan by cutting off the infested leaves with
•ciasors or shears, where they could do thia with-
out ii^niy to the large fruit (Beport on ' Insects
Iqiiiriona to Crops,' 1^ Charles Whitehead, Eaq.,

FKBIT. Sgn. PYSAOivif, L. A fermented
liquor prepared from peara in the aame way as
eider ia from apples. The red rough-taated aorta
•n ivineipally uaed for Uiia parpoae. The beat

perry contains 9% of absolute alcohol ; ordinary
perry ftom 6 to 7% .

Perry ia a very pleasant-tasted and wholesome
liquor. When bottled ' champagne fashion,' we
have seen it frequently passed off for champagne
without the fraud being suspected.

PXE'SIAV BBB'KDS. See FsairOH mbbibb.

PEBSPIBATIOH. The liquid or vapour se-
creted from the surface of the body by the sweat-
glands, small tnbular glands situated deeply in
the true skin, and commnnicatiag with the sur-
face by means of a spiral tube, the opening of
which on the skin (pore) may readily be seen by
the use of an ordinary hand-magnifier. The
number of these glands is very great, and has been
estimated at two-and-a-half mulions, with a total
secreting surface of about twelve hundred square
yards. Under ordinary circumstances the water
excreted by these glands passaa oft in the form of
vapour, and we are unconscious of ita presence,
the perspiration is then B«d to be " insensible ; "
but under the influence of great heat, or severe
bodily labour, or even of the emotions, terror,
pain, Sui., the glands secrete so rapidly that the
fluid accumulates in drops on the surface of the
skin, such perspiration is said to be " sensible."
The total amount lost by the skin under ordinary
circumstances is about three pounds weight per
diem ; but, as the result of severe exertion, this
amount may be doubled — the former loss is re-
placed by tiie water of the food and drink almost
aa rapidly aa it takes place; the latter, only
parti^y, and any great losa of weight aa the
result of bodily labour generally requires a day
or two for its complete reparation. The amount
of such loss is an excellent guide to the condition
of the individual, and one of the great objects of
" training" is to bring the organism to such a
state that the excessive loss of water through the
skin shall not occur.

The secretion of the sweat is one of the most
important functions of the skin, as by it the
temperature of the body is to a large extent regu-
lated and maintained at a constant level (about
98-4° F.). This is accomplished by the inceaaant
evaporation of the sweat from the surface of the
body. The sweat glands are abundantly supplied
with minute capillary blood-vessels, man which
they derive the material of their secretion. These
blood-vessels are under the control of the nervous
system, and dilate or contract nnder suitable
stimuli, thus increasing or diminishing the supply
of blood to the gland. Heat and cold are such
stimuli, the former causing the vessels to dilate,
and the supply of blood b^ig greatly augmented,
the glands accrete more freely, the temperature
ia reduced by the increased evaporation, and the
eifect of excessive heat is thus neutraUsed. Cold
produces the converse dfect, causing the vessels
to contract, diminishing the blood-supply to the
skin and therefore the activity of the gluids, the
diminished evaporation preventing too great a
loaa of beat from the body. The importance of
the sweat cannot be exaggerated; and it ia a mat-
ter of great consequence that the skin should be
kept clean, and every care taken to prevent the
blocking of the pores of the sweat glands. The
extra quantity of blood which finds its way to
the vessels of the skin as the result of a warm or

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1268

PEBUVIAK BALSAM— PETBOLEtTM

hot bath ii of great therapentie Talue, enabling
Q< ai it doei, by very limple means, to relieve the
teniion on the internal organa, heart, brain, Ac.,
and in many cases thereby save life.

nKUTIAV BAI8AM. See BliaAX O*
Fnu.

PXBU'VIAV BABK. See Cnccsovx.

FES'SAST. Stfn. Pissuit, PsBgiBiuv, L.
An instmment maide of caontclioue, gntta percha,
box-wood, or ivory, inserted into the vagina to
snpport the mouth and neck of the nteros. They
•re variously formed, to meet the prejndices at
the individmd or the necessities of the esse. The
cup, conical, globe, and ring pessaries (pessi) are
those best known.

Pessaries pre]>ared by the pharmadst are of a
conical shape, weighing from ( to 2 drachms,
cast in gun-metal moulds. They have, as a basis,
either pure cocoa-butter, or what is called ' Qela-
tine Moss,' made as follows : Qelatine, 1 ok., im-
merse in water a few minutes, pour off the water,
and in half-an-hour dissolve in 4 os. of glycerine.
Those most commonly used are : Tannic acid, 10
gr.; glycerine, 80 gr.j atropine, ^ gr.; bella-
donna extract, i to 1 gr.; cocaine, i gr.; iodo-
form, 5 to 10 gr. ; potassium bromide or iodide,
10 gr. ; zinc oxide, 10 gr.

The different formula are given below :

Faaaary, Alnm. 8yn. Pbbbus ALnoNig.
Alum, catechu, wax, of each 1 dr. ; lard, 6i dr.

Penaiy, Bdladoaaa. Sgn. Ptaava rblIiA-
Xtoma. Extract of belladonna, 10 gr. j wax,
22i gr.j lard, 1^ dr.; in each pessary.

Pessary, Kareiirial. Stfn. Fbbbub htbsajb-
OTBI. Starong mercurial ointment, i dr.; wax,
idr.;Urd, Idr. Mix.

Pewary, Lead. 8gn. Phsvi TLxntBl, Acetate
of lead, 7i gr.; white wax, 22i gr. ; lard,
lidr.

Pessary, Iodide of Lead. Syn. Pbbsub plttiibi
lODZsi. Iodide of lead, 5 gr. ; wax, 26 gr.; lard,
li dr.

Pessary, Tannin. Sgn. Pssbvs TAXinxi. Tan-
nin, 10 gr.; wax, 26 gr.; lard, 1^ dr.

Paaaary, Zlno. Syn. Fbbbvb znroi. Oxide of
xinc, IS gr. ; white wax, 22} gr. ; lard, H dr.

PESriLSKCE. See Plaoux.

PE8TILEVTIAL DISEASES. All those dis-
eases which are epidemic and malignant and
assume the character of a plague. See Ceolbsa,
Sec.

PXTOira'. Sameas^ooi^osi^.

PSTHOKESE. The pure liquid portion of
mineral tar. It has a pale yellow colour, a pene-
trating odour, and a high boiling point ; is lighter
than water, and is isomeric with the oils of tur-
pentine and lemons. In its general proportions
it resembles rectified mineral naphtha.

PETBOOoEXTK. Sj/n. Rocs on, Liqvid
BITVmV, OlX. OP PXTBB ; Olkttx pbtb« Bitv-
Kix LiQinsim, L. PsFBOLBXTK is an oil found
oozing from the ground or obtained on ainking
wells in the soil. To a limited extent it is met
with in most countriea of Europe and in the
West India islands, but occurs in abundance in
the district of the Caucasus, in PennsylTania
and other parts of the United States, in Canada
and Burmiah. It varies in coloar from slight
yellow to brownish blaek, in consistenoe from a

thin molnle liquid to a fluid aa tUek as iieacle, in
specifie gravi<7 from 800 to 1100 (water being
1000), and is either clear and transparent or tur-
bid and opaque. Petroleum is essentially a
volatile .oil, and when submitted to distillation
yields gases homologous with light carbnretted
hydrogen of marsh-gas, liquids of similar oonsti-
tntion, and solid psiraffin-Uke bodies. Commer-
cially petroleum is distilled so as to yield
petroleum-spirit or mineral naphtha, which b
used as a substitute for turpentine and for burn-
ing in sponge-lamps and costermongers' barrow-
lamps; petroleum oil, which is osed all over the
world as mineral lamp-oil for illnminating pur-
poses ; and a heavy oil employed for lubricating
machineiT. The value of a sample of rock-oil is
ronghly determined by distilling a weighed quan-
tity in a small glass retort and weighing the
products. The petroleum or middle product must
be of such a character as to have a speo&c
gravity not higher than 810 or 820, and to con-
toin so little petroleum spirit that it only evolves
inflammable vapour when heated to 100° FWhr. in
the manner prescribed in the Petroleum Acta
1871 (see beloto). Any petroleum product or
mineral oil which will not stand this test, and
which is kept in larger bottles than one {dnt, and
in larger total quantity than three gallons, can-
not be stored or sold except by licence of the
local authorities.
DireetitHu for TaHng Pttrotaum to a*etriai»

the ttmperatun at vhiek it gvui off ii^lam-

mahle vapow.

The vessel which is to hold the oil shall he of
thin sheet iron ; it shall he two inches deep and
two inches vride at the opening, tapering sligbtlr
towards the bottom ; it shall have a flat rim, with
a raised edge one quarter of an inch round the
top; it sh^ he supported by this rim in a tin
vessel four inches and a half deep and four and a
half inches in diameter ; it shall also have a thin
wire stretched across the opening, which wire
shall be so fixed to the edge of the vessel that it
shall be a qnarter of an inch above the surface
of the flat rim. The thermometer to be nsed
shall have a round bulb about half an inch in
diameter, and is to be graduated upon the scale
of Fahrenheit, every ten degrees occupying not
less than half an inch upon the scale.

The inner vessel shall be filled with the petro-
leum to be tested, but care must be taken that
the liquid does not cover the flat rim. The outer
vessel shall ho filled with cold, or nearly cold
water; a small flame shall be applied to the bot-
tom of the outer vessel, and the thermometer
shall be inserted into the oil so that the bulb
shall be immersed about one and a half inches
beneath the surface. A screen of pasteboard or
wood shall be placed round the apparatus, and
shall be of such dimensions as to snrround it
about two thirds and to reach several inches above
the level of the vessels.

When heat has been applied to the water until
the thermometer has risen to about 90° Fahr., a
very small flame shall be qnickly passed across
the surface of the oil on a level with the wire. If
no pale blue flicker or flash is produced, the ap-
plication of the flame is to be repeated for every
rise of two or three degrees in the thermometer.

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PBWTEB^PHiEDON BETULf

1269

Wbtm tlM ftuhing-print 1im 1)een noted, the test
•haU be repeated with a f raih sample of the oil,
naiiig oold, or nearly cold water as before ; with-
drawing the sonroe of heat from the oater vessel
whence temperature approaches that noted in
the first experiment, and applying the flame test
at every rise of two degrees in the thermometer.
See Naphtha, Oils (Mineral), Ac

7EWTIE. This is an alloy of tin and lead, or
of tin with antimony and copper. The fliat only
is -properly called pewter. At least three varietiea
are known in the ta«de : —

Prtf. I^Plati phwtkb.) From tin, 79% ;
antimony, 7% ; bismath and copper, of each,
2% i Used to make plates, teapots, &c. Takes a
fine polish.

8. (TxiniB FSWTIB.) From tin, 79% ; anti-
mony, 16^ ; lead, 6% ; as the last. Used for
minor artidea, syringes, toys, tc.

8. (Lbt iiwriB.) From tin 80% ; lead,
20% . Used for measores, inkstands, &e.

Mt. According to the report of the French
commission, pewter containing more than 18 parts
of lead to 82 parts of tin is onsaf e for measures
for wine and similar liqaors, and, indeed, for any
other atensils exposed to contact with our food
or beverages. The legal sp. gr. of pewter in
France is 7*764 ; if it be greater it contains an
excess of lead, and is liable to prove poisonoos.
The proportions of these metals may be approxi-
mately determined from the sp. gr. ; bat correctly
only by an assay for the purpose. Britannia
metal. Queen's metal, &c., are varieties of pewter
much used for making teapots, cream-jugs, &c.
Articles of pewter used to be cast in moulds, but
the process of ' spinning ' is now more commonly
resorted to ; this consists in bringing the sheet
of pewter against a rapidly revolving tool by
which it is gradually fasMoned. See Bbabs,
GBKMAir siiivaa, Lead, andTnr.

PBXDOS VStVlM (Linn.). Thi Mvbtabd
BniLa. "Black Jack" is the name given to
this destructive little beetle in the Fen district,
where it does much harm to white and brown
mustard crops. It is known pretty generally
where mustard plants are cultivated for seed, as
well as where turnip seeds of all kinds are pro-
duced. The mustard plant, however, seems to
be its chief attraction. Kohl rabi and thousand-
headed kale are also often much ii^ured by it,
but it draws a line at mangel wnrxel plants, and
leaves them uninjured. It has been known as
infesting cruciferous plants for a long while.
Curtis states that he often found it upon tnmip
leaves (' Farm Insects,' by J. Curtis, 1859), and
Professor Westwood gave an account of it in the
' Gardeners' Chronicle,' in 1884. Without doubt
this beetle has been mistaken for the common
tnmip flea, Phgllotrata namomm, as it is nearly
the same size and of a somewhat similar oolotir,
though the mustard beetle does not spring or
jomp like it, and its ii\jury to plants is almost
identical, at least in the early stages of the at-
tack. 'Those who know this particular beetle,
the Phadou b«Ma, and have taken notes of its
habits, relate tiiat it advances in battalions and
invades fields of mustard, rape, turnips, and kohl
rabi, clearing off the leaves, and leaving nothing
but the stems and stalks. Lately the onslaughts

of this beetle have increased so much that the
Seeds and Plants Diseases Committee of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England advised
the Council to issne a circular to agriculturists,
inviting information to be sent to Miss Ormerod,
the Consulting Entomologist of the society, to
prepare for publication. This will contain
interesting and valuable facts as to the habits
of this insect and means of prevention and re-
medies.

In the neighbourhood of Peterborough, Whit-
tlesea, Ely, Wisbech, and other Fen districts,
where mustard seed is extensively grown, infinite
harm has been caused. One grower of rape seed
estimated his losses from this insect at £1,000.

Orowen of turnip, rape^ and mustard seeds in
Romney Marsh, in Kent, and near Sandwich, in
Kent, and in other parts of Kent where these
seeds are grown, have noticed from time to time
the ravages of a beeUe npon these crops, but they
had considered that it was a species of fiea beetle,
and were surprised to find that it belonged to
an altogether different family.

It is not known in America. It is common in
France, and destructive there to turnip and mus-
tard plants, and espedally to rape plants which
are extensively cultivated for <dl. In Germany
it is well known. Calwer says it is found in
Northern Europe, and in that part of Europe
where the climate is moderate (C. G. Calwer's
' Eif erbach '). Ealtenbach says the spring larvn
are found in May and June, and there is a second
generation later on ('Die Pflanzenfond^' von
J. H. Ealtenbach).

It appears as if there were more than one
generation in this country also, as beeties are to
be seen throughout the summer.

Life Sirioty. The Phadon baiula belongs to
the nmily Ohrytomaiida, of the division Phgto-
fikaga, of the order Caleoptara, and to the genns
Phaio:

The beetle is abont one and a half lines long,
of an oval shape, and in colour is of various tints
of dark blue, dark violet, and dark green, with
black legs and antennte, having large wings. The
beetles pass the winter in the perfect state in
the ground, in the stems of plants, in pieces of
straw, dead charlock stems, pieces of dead mus-
tard stems, and under grasses and weeds. They
attack mustard, turnip, rape, kohl rabi, and
thousand-headed kale plants, directly their leaves
appear, and the females deposit eggs upon these,
from which larves, or gmbs, come in a few days
and live on the leaves for a short time and, de-
scending to the earth, become chrysalides. They
change again to beetles in abont a fortnight
according to Ealtenbach, which go forth to
destroy in countless swarms.

The larva, or grub, a little more than two lines
long, has six feet, and is of a smoky yellow
colour, as Curtis has it, with black spots.

Prmtviion. After these beetles have been
abundant, all pieces of stems of mustard, rape,
and turnip plants should be got off the land, or
ploughed in very deeply. Weeds, especially
charlodc, Simafi* artmuit, and grasses should M
kept from the land and the outsides of fields, as
the beetles shelter under them during the winter.
Ditches, water-conrses, and drains should be kept

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laeo

PHARAOH'S SEBPSNTS— FHABMACT ACT

cUued ont, beoanie th«ie beetles like inoh plaoee,
•nd shelter there dnring the winter.

When muitard, rape, mnd other cmcifooaa
plants are grown for seed, it is advisable to bom
the stalks, as the beetles are harbonred in these.
It is stated that the beetles have been found
aUve in the seed after it has been stored in sacks
for two years; therefore it is desirable that seed
from fields that have been infested should be ex-
amined before it is sown, and run through the
seed-winnowing machine with fine screens.

Smnedisi. When young mustard plants in-
tended for seed are infested with this beetle in
the spring, top diessings of lime, or of sml, or of
finely triturated guano, should be put on early in
the morning, before the dew is off the pUmts.
Unless the beetles are checked and disoomfited at
the beginning of their attack, they will increase
and multiply with astonishing rapidly, and con-
centrate weir energies upon the plants when
these require all thisir power to develop seed.
The same remarks apply to rape and turnip plants
for seed, which sho^d be watched carefully, and
early endeavours made to stop their advance.

It does not appear that there are any remedies
that can be appUed with much advantage, when
mustard, rape, or turnip plants for seed are at-
tacked by this beetle in the late stages of their
growth. (' Reports on Insects Imurious to Crops,'
by Chas. Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.)

PHARAOH'S 8ERPEVT8. 1. The chemical
toy sold under this name consists of the powder
of su^hocyanide of mercury made up in a cap-
sule of tin foil in a conical mass of about an inch
in height.

Ignited at the apex an ash is protruded, long
and serpentine in shape. The fumes evolved are
very poisonous.

2. (Nov-POiBOXOUB.) Bichromate of potessiam,
2 parts; nitrate of potassium, 1 part ; and white
sugar, 8 parts. Pulverise each of the ingredients
separately, and then mix them thoroughly. Hake
small paper cones of the desired size, and press the
mixture into them. They will then be ready for
use, but must be kept from light and moisture.

PHARKACT ACT. The following are the
principal clauses of the Pharmacy Act of 1860
(81 anid 82 Victoria cap. czxi). We have separa-
ted and placed last, those provisions of the Act
which rdate to the sale of poisons :

Wltereas it is expedient for the safety of the
public that persons keeping open shop for the
rebuling, dispensing, or compounding of poisons,
and persons known as chemists and druggists
should possess a competent practical knowledge
of their business, and to that end, that from and
after the day herein named all persons not already
engaged in such business should, before commenc-
ing such business, be duly examined as to their
practical knowledge, and that a register should
be kept as herein provided, and also that the Act
passed in the 16th and 16th years of the reign of
her present Majesty, intituled 'An Act for Regu-
gnlating the Qualification of Pharmaceutical
Chemists,' herainafter described as the Pharmacy
Act, should be amended : Be it enacted, by the
Queen's most excellent M^esty, by and with the
advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and
Tempoiml and Commons in this present FlMrlia-

sent assembled, and hj antbmity of Oie maae, as
(oUows:

From and after tbe Slst day vi Deeeaber,
1868, it shall be unlawful for any person to sell
or keep open shop for retuling, dispensing, w
compounding poisons, or to assume or use the
title 'Chemist and Druggist,' or chemist or drug-
gist, or pharmacist, or dispensing cbenust, or
druggist, in any part of Great Britain, unless
such parson shall be a pharmaceutical chemist or
a chemist and druggist, within the meaning at
this Act, and be registered under this Act, and con-
form to SDch regulations as to the keeping, dis-
pensing, and selling of saeh pdsons as may from
time to time be prescribed by the FbarmaMotioal
Society with the consent of the Privy Council
(Chiuae 1).

Chemists and druggists within the meaning of
this Act shall consist of all persons who at any
time before the passing of this Act have cairied
on in Qreat Britun the business of a chemist aod
druggist in the keeping of open shop for the oom-
ponnding of the preseriptiona of duly qualified
medical practitioners, also of all assistants and
associates, who before the passing of the Act
shall have been duly registered under or accord-
ing to the provisions of the Pharmacy Act, and
also of all such persons as may be duly registered
under this Act (Clause 8).

All such persons as shall from time to time
have been appointed to conduct examinations
under the Fhumacy Act shall be, and are hereby
declared to be, examiners for the purposes of this
Aot, and are hereby empowered and required to
examine all such persons as shall tender them-
selves for examination under the provisions of
this Act (see above), and every person who shall
have been examined by such examiners, and shall
have obtained from them a certificate of com-
petent skill, and knowledge, and qualification,
shall be entitled to be registered as a chemist and
druggist under this Act, and the examination
aforesaid shall be such as is provided under the
Pharmacy Act for the purposes of a qualification
to be registered as assistant under that Act, or as
the same may be varied from time to time byany
bye-law to be made in accordance with tiie Phar-
macy Aot as amended by this Act, provided that
no persim shall conduct any examination for the
purposes of this Act until his appointment has
been approved by the Privy Council (Clause 6).

No name shall be entered in the register, ex-
cept of persona authorised by this Act to be re-
gistered, nor unless the registrar bo satisfied by
the proper evidence that the person claiming is
entitled to be registered; and any appeal from
the decision of the registrar may be decided by
tbe council of the Pharmaceutical Society ; and
any entry which shall be proved to the satiraaction
of such council to have been fraudulently or in-
correcUy made may be erased from or amended
in the register, by order in writing of such coundl
(Clause 12).

The registrar shall, in the month of January
in every year, cause to be printed, published, and
sold, a correct register of the names of all phar-
maceutical chemists, and a correct register of all
persons registered as chemists and druggists, and
in such registers, respectively the names shall be

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PHARMACY ACT

1281

in alpbabetical order, according to the Bamames,
with the respective residences, in the form set
forth in schedule (B) to this Act, or to the like
effect, of all persons appearing on the register of
pharmacentical chemists, and on the register of
chemists and dmggista, on the Slst day of De-
cemCer last preceding, and sadi printed registers
shall be called ' The Registers of Fharmacentical
Chemists and Chemists and Druggists,' and a
printed copy of sach registers for the time being,
purporting to be so printed and pablished as
■foresaid, or any certificate under the hand of the
■ud r^strar, and countersigned by the president
or two members of the council of the Pharma-
ceutical Society, shall be evidence in all courts
and before all jostices of the peace and others,
that the persons therdn specified are registered
according to the provisions of the Pharmacy Act
or of this Act, as the case may be^ and the absence
of the name of any person horn sudi printed re-
gister shall be evidence, until the contrary shall
be made to appear, that such person is not regis-
tered according to the provisions of the Pharmacy
Act or of this Act (Clause 18).

From and after the Slst day of December,
1868, any person who shall sell or keep an open
■hop for the retailing, dispensing, or compound-
ing poisons, or who shall take, use, or exhibit the
name or title of chemist and dmggist, or chemist
or druggist, not being a duly registered pharma-
eeatical chemist, or chemist and dmggist, or who
■hall take, use, or exhibit the name or title pbar-
maoentical chemist, pharmaceutist, or pharmacist
apt being a pharmaceutical chemist, or shall fail
to conform with any regnlaidon as to the keeping
or aelUng of poisons, made in pursuance of this
Act, or who shall compound any medicines of the
British Pharmacopceia, except according to the
fomralaries of the said Pharmacopoeia, shall for
every such offence be liable to pay a penalty or
nun of £6, and the same may be sued for, re-
covered, and dealt with in the manner provided
by the Pharmacy Act for the recovery of penalties
under that Act ; but nothing in this Act contained
■ban prevent any person from being liable to any
other penalty, damages, or punishment to which
he woidd have been sulject if this Act had not
lieen passed (Clause 15).

Ciamitt ef the Piarmaeg Aet rtlating to tka
laU cf Poitont.

It shall be unlawful to sell any poison either
by wholesale or retail, unless the box, bottle,
vessel, wrapper, or cover in which such poison is
eonb^ned be distinctly labelled with the name of
the •rticle and the word poison, and with the name
and address of the seller of the poison ; and it shall
be imlawf nl to sell any jprntoa at those which are
in the first part of schedule (A) to this Act, or
may hereafter be added thereto under section II
of this Act, to any person unknown to the seller,
unless infaroduoed by some person known to tbe
■eller ; and on every sale of any such article tbe
seller shall, before delivery, make or cause to be
made an entry in a book to be kept for that
purpose, stating, in tlie form kA forth in schedule
(F) to this Act, the date of tiie sale, the name and
address of the purchaser, the name and quantity
of tlie article sold, and tiie purpose for which it
is stated by the purchaser to be reqmred, to which

entry the signature of the purchaser and of the
person, if any, who introduced him, shall be
affixed ; and any person selling poison otherwise
than is herein provided, shall, upon a summary
conviction before two justices of the peace in
England or the sheriff in ScotUind, be liable to a
penalty not exceeding £5 for the first offence, and
to a penalty not excMding £10 for the second or
any subsequent offence ; and for the purposes d
this section the person on whose behalf any sale
is made by any apprentice or servant shall be
deemed to be the seller, but the provisions of this
section, which are solely applicable to pdsons in
the first part of the schedule (A) to this Act, or
which require that the label shall contain the
name and address of the seller, shall not apply to
articles to be exported from Oreat Britain by
wholesale dealers, nor to sales by wholesale to retail
dealers in the ordinary course of wholesale dealing,
nor shall any of the provisions of this section
apply to any medicine supplied by a legally quali-
fied apothecary to his patient, nor apply to any
article when forming part of the ingrodients of
any medicine dispensed by a person registered
under this Act, provided such medicine be labelled
in the manner aforesaid with the name and addiew
of the seller, and the ingredients thereof be en-
tered, with the name of the person to whom it is
sold or delivered, in a book to be kept by the
seller for that purpose, and nothing in this Act
contained shall repeal or affect any of the provi-
sions of an Act of the Session holden in the four-
teenth and fifteenth years in the reign of her
present Miq'esty, intituled ' An Act to r^ulate the
Sale of Arsenic ' (Clause 17).

SOHasvLi (A).
Parti.

Arsenic and its preparations.

Pmssic add.

Cyanide of potassium and all metallic
cyanides.

Strychnine and all poisonous vegetable alka-
loids and their salts.

Aconite and its preparations.

Emetic tartar.

Corrosive sublimate.

Cantharides.

Savin and its oil.

Ergot of rye and its preparations.
Fart 2.

Oxalic acid.

Chloroform.

Belladonna and its preparations.

Essential <^ of ajmonds, unless deprived of
its pmssic add.

Opium and all preparations of ofdom or of
poppies.

By virtue and in exercise of the powats vested
in the council of the Pharmaceutical Society of
Ghreat Britain, the said council do hereby resolve
and declare that each of the following artides,
vis. —

Preparattons of pmssie add,

Preparations of cyanide of potasdnm and of all
metallic cyanides.

Preparations of strychnine,

Preparations of atropine,

Frq)arations of oorronve sablimate,

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PHENACBTINE— PHIALS

PrnMiktioiu of marphine.

Bed oxide of mercnry (commonly known u red
precipitate of mercniy),

Ammom»ted mercnry (commonly known m
white precipitate of mercury),

Chloral hydrate and ita preparation*,

Koz vomica and ita preparation*.

Every compound containing any poiion within
the meaning of ' The Pharmacy Act, 1868,' when
prepared or sold for the deatmction of vermin,

The tinctnre and all vesicating liquid prepara-
tions of cantharides,

— ought to be deemed a poison within the m«an>
ing of the 'Pharmacy Act, 1868;' and alio
that of the same each of the following artioles,
via. —

Preparations of pmssic acid.

Preparations of cyanide of potassium and of all
metallic cyanides.

Preparations of strychnine,

Prraarations of atropine,
—ought to be deemed a poison in the first part of
the schedule (A) to the said ' Pharmacy Act,

186a'

And nof^oe is hereby also c^ven, that the said
Sodety have submitted the said resolation for the
approind of the Lqrds of Her Majesty's Council,
u>a that such approval has been given.
By order,

Elus Bbimsidgb,
Storttary emd Segittrar of t\e PharmaatuHeal
Sooittg of Great Britain. .

And whereas the council of the Pharmaceutical
Society of Great Britain did, on the 17th day of
Kovember, 1877, resolve and declare in the words
following :

" That by virtue and in exerdse of the powers
vested in the council of the Pharmaceutical Society
of Great Britain, the said council does hereby re-
solve and declare that Ckloral Sydrate and it*
preparation! ought to be deemed poisons within
the meaning of the ' Pharmacy Act, 1868,' and
onght to be deemed poisons in the second part of
the schedule (A) of the said 'Pharmacy Act,
1868.'"

And whereas the said Society have submitted
the said resolution for the approval of the Privy
Council, and the Lords of the Privy Council are
of opinion that the said resolution should be
approved.

Now, therefore, thdr Lordships are hereby
pleased to signify their approval of the said

resolution.

C. L. PlBL.

Further information on the laws affecting
pharmacy will be found in the Calendar of the
Pharmaceutical Society.

Tsrdien states that of late years the criminal
administration of phosphoma' has increased eon>
ndmably in France. For example, from 1851 to
1878, in 798 cases of poisoning, 887 or 86-8%
were dne to arsenic, and 867 or 81-1% to phos-
phoms ; whilst in the years 1878 and 1874, in
141 criminal poisoningB by arsenic and phos-
phorus, only 74 were dne to arsenic The explana-
tion of these facts may reasonably be ascribed to
the much greater faciUty with which phosphorus,
in the form of matches or vermin pastes, cam be
prooored than arsenic.

fHlllXiBfUH. Bjfn. PswaMSBTtsvu tasa.-
AwrPHnriTiDijr. Ci,HaNO|. I* am acetyl
compound of phenitidin and analogoiis to anti-
febrin (aoetanilide). It was first prepared by Dr
O. Hinsbergr, of Elberfeld, who together with
Professor Kast submitted it to physiological in-
vestigation as to its antipyretic propertaea.

According to Dr KoUer of Vienna who has
made extensive experiments with this new body,
phenacetin is undoudtedly an antipyietio, but
action takes place less promptly but last* longer,
than in the ca*e of other antipyretics. He osaally
administered it in doses of from 4 to 7 gr. and
found that single large doses were more service-
able than successive small one*. He found that it
was not followed by any disagreeable after-effect*.

Mr Grenfell, in the 'Practitioner' for May,
1888, gives some interesting detailed accounts of
the nse of phenacetin in cases of pyreiia. "The
action of the drug," he says, " beg^ within half
an hour after administration, the patient generally
prespires freely and feels drowsy. SiMp often
follows, pain is relieved, while the patient alw»«
says that he feels moro comfortable after it." He
finds the most suitable dose for an adult i*
about 8 gr. He has used it extensively both a*
an antipyretic and as an analgesic in neuralgia
with good results. Phenacetin is in white shining
laminar crystals, tasteless and without smcU, only
slightly suable in water and glycerin, rouJily
soluble in hot alcohol. It is most easily adm>iii>
istered in the form of capsule*.— J9ow, 6 to U gr.

PEEirOL. C,H,0. See Cabsouo Aois.

PHSVOL SODiaiTE. Mr Beringer found that
the following formula yielded a preparation very
similar :— Coal tar. 8 tr^y os.; soda, 180 gr.;
water, sufficient to make 16 fl. ox. Dissolve the
soda in 4 fl. ox. of water and warm, add the coal
tar, and thoroughly agitate the mixture for a few
minutes. Then add the remunder of the water,
and set aside in a covered vessel in a warm places
frequently agitating for 7 days. Decant the
aqueous solution, and filter through a moistened
filter, washing the residue with sufficient water
to make the finished product measun 16 fl. os.

No. 8 phenol, 8 parts; caustic soda, 4 part*;
water, 100 parts.

PEE'VTL. C,H,. The hypothetical eompoand
radical of the pheny 1-series. Carbolic add is said
to be iU hydrate.

PHBTrL'AjaVX. C^EtHfN. Aniline is
sometimes so named on account of iU relation to
the phenyl series,

PHIAUB. The ordinary green moulded phial*
used by the pharmaceutist are made of a glass
obtained from common river sand and soapboilers'
waste. In the manufacture of the glass for the
white phials purer materials (and t^eae as free
from iron and alumina as passible) are used. De-
colourising agento are also employ^. The follow*
ing is given as the compoaition of a white glass
for apothecariea' phials in 'Chemisby: Theoretical,
Practical, and Analytical ' (Xaektntit and Ct».) :
100 lbs. white sand.
80 — 86 „ potaA, impure.

17 u Ume.
110—180 „ ashes.

'86^*6 lbs. binoxide of manganeae-
collet.

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PHILONITTM— PHONOGRAPH

1368

mala, Bologiift. SnuU flaiki or phUU of on-
annealed glass, which fly to pieces when their
snrfmee is scratched by a hard body. Thns, if b
small piece of flint be dropped into them they are
shiTered; whereas if a bullet be nsed they remain
nninjnred.

VBXUyvnm. The ancient name of an aro-
matic opiate, reputed to possess many virtues,
invented by Philo. See Cosnorioir o> Ofiuic.

PHILOS'OPHXK'S 8T0B£. Sgn. LAfis
FBtLOSOFBOBmc, L. A wonderful substance,
the discovery of which formed the day dreams of
the alchemists. It was supposed to be capable
of converting all the baser metals into gold, and
of earing aU diseases. Some of the alchemists
appear to have laboured under the delusion that
they had actually discovered it. The last of these
enthusiasts was the talented and unfortunate Dr
Price, of Guildford. Speaking of the age of
alchemy, Liebig says : — " The idea of the trans-
mutability of metals stood in the most perfect
hannony with all the observations and all the
knowledge of that age, and in contradiction to
none of these. In the first stage of the develop-
nwnt of science, the alchemists could not possibly
have any other notions of the nature of metaJa
than those which they actually held. . . . We
hear it said that the ides of the philosopher's
■tone was an error; bat all oar views have been
developed from en«irs, and that whiob to-day we
Tegard as truth in chemistary may, perhaps, before
to-morrow, be regarded as a fallacy."

PHILOSOPHIC CAHBLX. An inflamed jet of
hydrogen gas.

PHII.080PHIC WOOL. Flowers of zinc.

PEIL'TSX. 8gn. FRTurmnt, h. A charm
or potion to excite love. The ancients had great
faith in such remedies. Nothing certain is now
known respecting their composition ; but there is
■nficient evidence that recourse was frequently
had to them by the ancients, and that " their
operation was so violent that many persons lost
their lives and their reason by their means." The
Thessalian philtres were those most celebrated
(Juv., vi, 610, Ac). At the present day the
administration of preparations of the kind is inter-
dicted by law.

PHLOSXTDT. CuHjA- A crystallisable,
sweat substance, formed along with grape sugar,
when phloridzin is acted on by dilute adds.

PHLOaiS'ZDr. C„HmO,o. Bg%. PSLOBIZIKI;
PHXPHTDKimm, L. IVwp, By acting on the
fresh root-bark of the apple, pear, or plum tree,
with boiling rectified spirit the spirit is distUled
off, and the phloridzin crystallises out of the
residual liquor as it cools.

Prop., Jj^e. Fine, colourless, silky needles,
freely soluble in rectified spirit and in hot water,
bnt requiring 1000 parts of cold water for its
■olataonj its taste is bitter and astringent. When
its solution is boiled with a little dilate sulphuric
add or hydrochloric acid, it is changed into grape
sugar and phloretin.

Fhloridzm bears a great likeness to salicin. It
is sud to be a pow^nl febrifuge. — Do*«, 8 to
16 gr.

PHOCyjIC ACID. See DBUHnno acd).

PHCEHIcnrs. See iHsioo fuxfu.

PHOHO'OBAPH. A review of the history of

the art of recording and reprodadngaoond shows
that Dr. Hooke, in 1681, exhiUted some experi-
ments before the Boyal Sodety, demonstrating
how mnsical notes and other sounds conld be
produced by means of toothed wheels rapidly
rotated.

In 1864, Charles Boorsenil proposed to use two
diaphragms connected by an electric wire, and, by
speaking into one of them, reproduce the spoken
sounds at any distance in the other. This idea
was actually carried out by Philip Beis five years
later.

The phonautograph was patented by Leon
Scott in 1867 ; and Faber constructed a compli-
cated speaking machine which pronounced a row
words and sentences moat nnsatlBfactorily. The
complex mechanism by which this was effected
was contrived upon the prindples of the human
organs of speech, for the machine possessed an
india-rubber toogue and lips, and an artificial
larynx, made out of a thin vibratiag tube of ivory,
Faber's automaton, although of much greater
scientific interest than the automatic flute and
flageolet players of Yancanson, the trumpeter of -
Drox, and similar exhibiUons of curious workman-
ship, was, like these, only a mechanical curiosity,
without any promise of a useful application.

In 1876 appeared the Bell Telephone, the Unt
really good instrument for the transmission of
speech.

In April, 1877, Charles Cros deposited a paper
at the Academy oS Science in Paris on 'A process
of recording and roproducing audible pheno-
mena,' in wUch he proposed to obtain tracings of
sound-waves by means of a vibrating membrane.
Then, by going over these tracings with a stylus
attached to another membrane the sounds would
be reproduced. Consequently, to M. Cros belongs
the credit of having suggested a means of mechani-
cally recording and reprododng spoken sounds.

Later in the year, Thomas Alva Edison realised
this idea in his phonograph. It was described in
a report to the " Times " on February 17th, 1878,
and shortly afterwards it was exhibited for the
first time by W, H. Freece, at the Boyal Institu-
tion.

The following description and diagram will
serve to illustrate the prindple of the phonograph.

B is a brass cylinder, through whose centre
passes a metal shaft, the arms of which rest on
upright supports, one of which is shown in the
engraving. The arm of the shaft, obscured from
view, corresponding in length with the part of it
which is visible, is screw-turned, and it works in
a nut bored out of the support. Attached to the
screw-end of the shaft or axle is a crank o, by
turning which a doable movement, viz. a rotatoiy
and a horixontal one, m^ be simultaneously im-
parted to the eylinder. Bound the sur&oe m the
cylinder is cat a spiral groove corresponding in
dimensions with the thrnds of the scrow part of
the shaft. Covering the whole of the cylinder is
a sheet of tin-foil, which Is secured to its edges
by means of shell-lac varnish. In front of the
cylinder, resting on a proper support, is a mouth-
piece, ±, at the Dottom of which (the end nearest
the cylinder) is a very thin plate or diaphragm of
metal, and to this diaphragm is attached a steel
pdnt, or stylus, which when not in oae does not

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PHONOORA^PH

touch the foil. Pievionily to onng the appantos
this iteel point has to be accuratel; adjuited
opposite to that part of the foil Ijing: over the
■piial groove. If now the lip* be applied to the

moath-piece, and any sentence be tpoken, the
crank being at the same time tamed, the vibra-
tions imparted to the metal plate by the Toice
will cause the steel point to come into contact
with that part of the foil overlying the groove in
the cylinder, and to make on the foil a number
of indentations, as it revolves, and is carried for>
ward laterally before the month-piece. Further-
more, these indentations will be found to vary in
depth and sectional outline according to the
nature of the vibrations which have produced
them ; and, as experiment proves, are the specific
and infallible caligraphy of those vibrations.

It might be said that at this point the
machine has already become a complete phono-
graph or sonnd writer, but it yet remains to
translate the remarks made. Now, by much
practice, and the aid of a magnifier, it might be
possible to read phonetically t£e marks made on
the foil (Mr. Edison does not appear to have yet
solved the problem of reading the phonograph
record by nght. He states that, although a

rific form exists for each articnlated sonnd,
chief diAcultiea arise from the varying in-
dentations or marks caused by the same sound.
Amongst the circumstances giving rise to these
results are I the same sound uttered by different
people, the manner in which it is spoken, the dis-
tance of the mouth from the instrument, the
force with which it is spoken, or the speed with
which the barrel is rotated) ; but he saves us that
trouble by literally making it read itself. The
distinction is the same, as if, instead of perusing
a book ourselves, we drop it into a machine, set
the latter in motion, and behold ! the voice of
the author is heard repeating his own composi-

tion. The reading mechanism is nothing but
another diaphragm, held in the tube D, on the'
opposite side of the machine, and a point of
metal, which is arranged against the tin-foil on
the cylinder by a delicate spring.
" It makes no differenoe as to
the vibrations produced, whether
a nail moves over a file or a file
moves over a nail, and, in the
present instance, it is the foil or
indented foil-stri|> which moves,
and the metal point is caused to
vibrate as it is affected by the
passage of the indentatians. The
vibrations, however, of this point
must be precisely the same as
those of the other points which
made the indentations, and these
vibrations transmitted to a second
membrane, must cause the latter
to vibtate similar to the first
membrane, and the result is a
synthesis of the sounds, which in
tlie beginning we saw, as it were,
analysed" ('Scientific American,'
December, 1877).

In later instruments, that sec-
tion of the apparatus shown at o
is dispensed with, and the repro-
duction of the spoken words at
sentences is efiected by bringing
the cylinder back to its original
starting point, opposite to the
little steel projection attached to the metal disc at
the end of the mouthpiece A. The steel pmnt is
then brought by means of a screw into ocmtaet
with the f^il, and as the cylinder move* onward in
its former track, the metal point retraces the
indentations on the foil from beginning to end,
in doing which it communicate* the vibrations it
thus receives to the metal diaphragm in precisely
the same manner, and with the same results as
were shown with B. For the diaphragm, more
particularly when employed as a resonator or re-
producer al the words which have been spoken
into the mouth -piece, other substances than
metal, snch as glass and paper, have been tried,
with, it is said, more satisfaotoiy resnlts.

The crank, O (shown in the fignre), by which
the cylinder is turned is very frequently sup-
planted by an apparatus consisting of weights
and wheels, or dse by clockwork, whereby the
cylinder is put in motion. The advantage of the
working of these arrangements over that of the
crank are, that a regularity of movement of the
cylinder is ensured, and it is thus made to advance
at the same rate whilst the words are being
reproduced as when they are being spoken. This
uniformity tends to preserve the pitch of the
voice of the speaker.

Edison's instrument created a great sensation,
and glowing anticipations were entertained of its
future application, but it was found tJiat it*
articulation was far too imperfect, and its gene-
ral performance too crude, to admit of its being
used for practical purposes ; and the inventor,
himself, gave it up, applying himself to other
work, even allowing his two English patents to
lapse.

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1266

In 1881, ProfeuoT Oraham Bell, the inTentor
of the telephone, with Dr Chichester Bell and
Charles Sumner Tainter, formed the Volta Labor-
atory Association, in Washington, for the purpose
of investigating the art of transmitting, record-
ing, and reproducing sound. They conducted
many elaborate experiments, and, among other
things, sought for and discovered the cause of
the failure of the Edison Phonograph. They
found that tin-foil, as used ki the instrument,
was far too pliable for the purpose, as it always
had a tendency to pucker, and destroy the sym-
metry of the sound-waves. They perceived that
no good result could be obtained by merely in-
denting a pliable material ; it was necessary to
engrave a record in a solid resisting substance ;
and this discovery enabled them to produce a
really practical instrument, which they termed
the Graphophone. Instead of tin-foil, Tainter
emplmred wax, ploughing out, by means of the
vibrating stylus, a narrow nndnlating groove,
which constitutes the sound-record. When this

Mu sharing

groove was retraced by another stylus and dia-
phragm, the original sounds were reproduced
with a fidelity undreamed of by those only ac-
quainted with the tin-foil method.

In the new phonograph, or " graphophone," as
it is called, the gen^ij principle already described
and illustrated is retained: the differences are
difference of detail. The chief feature is the
"recording cylinder," six inches long by an inch-
and-a-qnuter broad, formed of cardboard coated
with wax. This is placed in a small lathe, and
rotated by a treadle in contact with the
"recorder," which consists of a metal frame
supporting a thin mica diaphragm, in the centre
of which is a steel point that cuts a narrow
groove on the surface of the cylinder, according
to the quality and intensity of the sonnd spoken
agunst it.

The " recorder " is then removed, and replaced
by the " reproducer," a light feather of steel that
travels along the grooves made on the cylinder,
and transmits their undulations to a small mica
diaphragm, which in its turn communicates its
vibrations, as sound-waves, to the ears of the
auditor by means of two india-rubber tubes, for
it was found best to reduce the size of the record,
and concentrate the sonnd in this way, on
account of the greator distinctness that was thus
(ecnred.

The manipulation of the graphophone is
simplicity itself. It requires no a4instment, no
electric motor, no galvanic battery. The foot
mppliea the motive power, and the machine
regulates its own speed by means of an in^nious,
hut simple, governor. The secondary sonnd,
bowever, is much less powerful than the original
TOL. n.

one, tiie difference between the two being, as a
writer in ' Nature ' said, " very similar in effect
to the feeling produced when looking upon a
worn print and an early wood engraving."

Amongst the predictions as to the ultimate
capabilities of the phonograph we may notice the
following, that— the phonograph will be able to
record and reproduce at a future time any ur
sung to it, so that the vocal triumphs of some of
our most accomplished singers may be preserved
and resung after their death ; that by its means
may also be conserved and respoken, likewise after
death, a speech delivered by a great statesman or
orator ; that a dying testator by breathing into
it his last wishes may have these securely regis-
tered, to be expressed after his demise, if need be,
in a court of justice ; and that the contents of a
book or novel may be read to us in the very
accents of its author, long after he has passed
away. All these predictions have been practically
realised.

The grooves are cut very closely together, so as
to give a great total length to each inch of
surface — a close calculation gives as the capacity
of each cylinder upon which the record is made
as about 1,000 words.

The practical application of this form of
phonograph for communications is very simple.
A cylinder is placed in the phonc^raph, which is
then set in motion, and the matter dictated into
the mouthpiece, without other effort than when
dictating to a stenographer. It is then removed,
placed in a suitable form of envelope, and sent
through the ordinary channels to the corres-
pondent for whom designed. He, placing it upon
his phonograph, sets it moving, luteiu to what
his correspondent has to say. Inasmuch as it
gives the tone of voice of his correspondent it is
identified. As it may be filed away as other letters
and at any subsequent time reproduced, it is a
perfect record.

The phonograph letters may be dictated at
home or in the ofSce, the pretence of a steno-
grapher not being required. The dictation may
be as rapid as the thoughts can be formed, or the
lips utter them. The recipient may listen to his
letters being read at the rate of 150 to 200 words
per minute, and at the same time busy himself
about other matters. Interjections, explanations,
emphasis, exclamations, &c., may be thrown into
such letters ad libitum.

Journalists and reporters may dictate their
articles and reporte, leaving others to transcribe
them. The principal of a firm can speak his
day's correspondence into the machine, which
wiU repeat it, sentence by sentence, to be written
down in proper form by pen or type writer. All
these applications are now in active operation in
America, where the instrument has achieved great
success.

The advantages of such an innovation upon the
present slow, tedions, and costly methods are
obvious, while there are no disadvantages which
will not disappear coincident with the general
introduction of the new method.

A vast number of patents have been taken out
since the labours of the Volta Electric Associa-
tion ended in success, showing that invention was
stimulated in many quarters. Many of thesa.

80

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PHOSGENE GAS— PHOSPHOKUS

refer to modifications in the nature of the
diaphragm, the recording cylinder, and to detaiU
in the working of the instrument. Mr. Edison,
evidently encouraged by the results obtained with
the grsphopbone, took again to experimenting
with his old phonograph, and after trying wax
covered with tin-foil for indentation, he abandoned
that mode of recording, and also settled upon a
cylinder of wax and the graving-out process, thus
confirming the correctness of Messrs. Bell and
Tainters' conclusions, and as Emile Berliner
states in his interesting paper read before the
Franklin Institute at Philadelphia on the 'Qramo-
phone ' (a modified phonograph). May 16th, 1888,
the new Edison phonograph and the graphophone
appear to be practically the »ame apparatu$,
differittg only inform and motive power.

found in all soils upon which plants will grow. It
is an important constituent of most plants, espe-
cially cereals, while bones largely consist of phos-
phates. These also enter into the composition of
almost every solid and liquid in the animal body.
Phosphorus is likewise found in small quantities
in meteoric stone, a fact which indicates its wide
cosmical distribution.

Prep. This is now only conducted on the large
scale : Bone-ash (in powder), 12 parts, and wat^,
24 parts, are stirred together in a large tab until
the mixture is reduced to a perfectly smooth
paste ; oil of vitriol, 8 parts, is then added in a
slender stream, active stirring being employed
during the whole time, and afterwards until the
combination appears complete. The next day
the mass is thinned with cold water, and, if con-

The lettering refers to a detailed description
which may be consulted on p. 247, ' Engineering,'
September 14th, 1888.

FHOS'QENE 0A8. See Chlobocabbokio

kOVD,

FHOB'FEATE. Syn. Phobphas, L. A salt
of phosphoric acid. See PhobphobiC i.on> and
the respective metals.

FHOS'FHIOE. See Fhobfhubbt.

FHOS'FEITE. Syn. Fhobphib, L. A salt
of phosphorous acid. See Phobpboboitb acid.

FHOS'FHOEDS. P. -30-96.

This substance appears to have been first pre-
pared by the Alchemist Brand from urine, early
in the 17th century. Being a very easily oxidis-
able substance it never exists free in water, but it
is found abundantly in the form of phosphate of
limej it occurs also in coprolites, and in the
minerals apatite, sombrerite, and phosphorite. In
■mall proportions phosphorous compounds are

venient, heated in a leaden pan or boiler until it
has entirely lost its granular character ; it is now
transferred to one or a series of tall casks (accord-
ing to the extent of the batch), and further
diluted with a large quantity of water. After
repose, the clear liquid is decanted, the sediment
washed with water, and the ' washings ' and ' de-
canted liquor ' evaporated in a leaden or copper
boiler until the white calcareous deposit (gypsum)
becomes considerable ; the whole is then allowed
to cool, the clear portion decanted, and the sedi-
ment thoroughly drained on a filter. The liquid
thus obtained is evaporated in an iron pot to the
consistence of a thick syrup (say 4 parts), when
dry charcoal (in powder), 1 part, is added, and
the desiccation continued until the bottom of the
pot becomes nearly red hot, after which it is
covered over and allowed to cool ; the dry mix-
ture, when cold, is put into one or more earthen
retorts well covered with ' lating/ which must be

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PHOSPHORUS

1867

properly dried. Heat is then appUed (sideways
rather than at the bottom) by means of a good
air-furnace ; after a short time the beak of the
retort is connected with a copper tube, the other
end of which is made to dip about one fourth of
an inch beneath the surface of some Inke-warm
water placed in a trough or .wide-mouthed bottle.

Par. The distilled product is purified from
the small quantities of carbon, which are mechani-
cally carried over, by squeezing it through
chamois leather under warm water ; or more fre-
quently by mixing the crude melted material with
solphnric arid and bichromate of potash, 8^ parti
of each being used for every 100 parts of phos-
phorus, when the impurities rise as a scam to the
surface. It is then moulded for sale by melting
it under water heated to about 146° F., and suck-
ing it up to any desired height in slightly taper-
ing, bat perfectly straight, glass tubes, previously
warmed and wetted. Tlie bottom of the tabe
being now closed with the finger, it is withdrawn,
and transferred to apan of cold water to congeal
the phosphorus, which will then commonly fall
out, or may be easily expelled by pressure with a
piece of wire.

frop., i[e. Phosphorus in its normal condi-
tion is a pale yellow, semi-transparent, and highly
combastible solid ; soft and flexible at common
temperatures ; melts at 44-3° C, and boils in an
atmosphere free from oxygen at 290° C. ; it takes
flre in the air when heated slightly above its
melting point, and oxidises at aJl temperatures
above Sie freezing point Exposed to the air, its
surface is slowly oonverted into phosphorous acid.
It u apparently insoluble in water, but it con-
veys its peculiar flavour and odour to that fluid
when agitated with it; it is slightly soluble in
ether, naphtiia, and the fixed and volatile oils, and
more freely so in Insulphide of carbon. It unites
with oxygen, forming oxides, and with oxygen
and hydrogen, forming acids, and with the metals,
forming phospludes. It crystallises in octahedra,
and its sp. gr. at 10° C. is 1-88.

Pliosphorus is remarkable for assuming several
allotropic forms. In one of these forms (amor-
phous phosphorus) its properties are so al-
tered that they might be those of a distinct
element.

Uiei. The principal consumption of phos-
phorus is in the manufacture of Incifer matches.
When swallowed, it acts as a powerful corrosive
poison ; bat small doses of its ethereal and oily
solutions are occasionally administered in cases of
chronic debility, extreme prostration of the
nervous powers, impotency, &c. Its action is
that of a powerful £itarible stimalant and din-
letic] it is also aphrodisiac. Its use requires
great eaotion, and the effects must be narrowly
watched. The treatment of poisoning by phos-
phoms coBiista of the sdministration Si a power-
ful emetic and the copious use of mucilaginous
drinks. The French practitioners recommend
oil of tarpentine as the most effective antidote.
They administer about a teaspoonf ul of the tur-
pentine every four hours.

ConeWding Semarlu, From the great in-
flammability of phosphorus it can only be safely
piewrved nnder water. In commerce, it is always
packed in tin cylinder* filled with water and

soldered up air-tight. The leading points to be
observed in order to ensure success in this manu-
facture are chiefly connected with the firing. The
heat of the furnace should be very slowly raised
at first, but afterwards equably maintained in a
state of bright ignition. After 8 or 4 hours of
steady firing, carbonic and sulphurous anhydrides
are evolved in considerable abundance, prorided
the materials have not been well dried in the iron
pot; then sulphuretted hydrogen makes its
appearance, and next phosphuretted hydrogen,
which last should continue daring the whole of
the distillation. The firing should be regulated
by the escape of this remarkable gas, which
ought to be at the rate of about two babbles per
second. If the discharge becomes interrupted, it
is to be ascribed either to the temperature being
too low, or to the retort getting cracked ; and if,
upon raising the heat sufficiently, no bubbles
appear, it is a proof that the apparatus has be-
come defective^ and that it is needless to continue
the operation. We may infer that the process
approaches its conclusion by the increasing slow-
ness with which the gas is disengaged under a
powerful heat ; and when it ceases to come over
we may cease firing, taking care to prevent refiax
of water into the retort (and consequent explosion)
from condensation of its gaseous contents, by ad-
mitting air into it through a recurved glass tube,
or through the tube of the copper adapter. The
usual period of the operation, upon the urge scale,
is from 84 to SO hours.
Fhosphoru, Amor'pltona. Sjf». Rid fhob-

FHOBUB. AlXOTBOFIO PEOBPHOaUB ; PhOB-

PEOBUB PTTBOUB, P. BUBBB, L. This is non-
crystalline phosphorus in that peculiar condition
to which Benelins has applied the term 'allotro-
pic' The honour of its discovery is doe to Dr
Shrotter, of Vienna.

Frep. The ordinary phosphorus of commerce,
rendered as dry as possible, is placed in a shallow
vessel of hard and well-annealed Bohemian glass,
fitted with a safety tube just dipping beneath the
surface of a little hot water contained in an ad-
jacent vessel ; heat is then applied by means of a
metallic bath (a mixture of lead and tin), the
temperature of which is gradually raised until it
ranges between 464° and 488° F., and bubbles of
gas escape from the end of the safety tube and
catch flre as they come in contact with the air ;
this temperature is maintained until the amor-
phous condition is produced, the length of the
exposore bdng regulated by a miniature operation
with tabes oondacted in the same bath. As soon
as this point is reached, the apparatus is allowed
to cool, and the amorphoos phosphoros, which
still confauns some onoonverted phosphorus, de-
tached from the glass; it is then reduced to
powder by careful trituration nnder water, drained
on a calico filter, and, whilst still moist, spread
thinly on shallow trays of iron or lead ; in this
state it is exposed, with frequent stirring, to heat
in a chloride of calcium bath, at first gentle, and
then gradually increased to its highest limit, the
heat being continued until no more luminous
vapour escapes ; the residuum on the trays is then
cooled, washed with water until the washings
cease to affect test-paper, and is, lastly, drained
and dried. To render it absolutely free from nn-

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PHOSPHORUS

altered phonhonu, it may be washed with bUoI-
phide of carbon.

On the BmaU scale, common phosphorus may be
converted into amorphons phosphorus, by simply
exposing it for 60 or 60 hours to a temperature
of about 473° F., in any suitable vessel from which
the air is kept excluded by a stream of carbonic
add, or any other gas which is unable to act
chemically on the phosphorus.

By keeping common phosphorus fused at a high
temperature, under the above conditions, for fuUy
8 days, compact masses of amorphous phoephoros
may be obtained.

Prop., S^c. A reddish brown, infusible, in-
odorous, solid substance, which is reconverted into
ordinary phosphorus by simply exposing it to a
heat a little above 600° F. It is unaltered by
atmospheric air; is insoluble in bisulphide of
carbon, alcohol, ether, or naphtha ; is non-lumin-
ous in the dark below about 390° F. ; and does not
take fire at a lower temperature than that necessary
for its reconversion into tbe common or crystal-
line form. The sp. gr. ranges between 2-089 to
2'017. Its properties render it an admirable sub-
stitute for the common phosphorus in the com-
position for tipping matches, both as regards
security from spontaneous ignition, and the health
of the manufacturers who, when exposed to the
f nmes of ordinary phosphorus, were very liable to
be attacked with caries of the lower jaw.

Fhosphoms, Ketallic or Ehombohedial. Prep.
By heating ordinary yellow phosphorus in sealed
tabes in contact with metallic lesid for about 12
hours at a red heat a third modification is formed.
When the tube is cooled and broken the lead will
be found to be permeated with small crystals
which can be separated by dissolving the matrix
in dilute nitric acid and purified idn^erwards by
boiling them in strong hydrocliloric acid. This
variety is also formed when red phosphorus is
heated to 680° under pressure.

Prop, Bright, lustrous, dark rhombohedral
crystals which, when in thin plates, possess a red
colour. Sp. gr. 2-84 at 15° C. This form reverts
to yellow phosphorus and takes np the octahedral
form when heated to 858° C.

Fhosphoms, Black. Prep. From melted phos-
phorus which contains foreign matters, especially
mercury and other metals, when cooled down
(Thinard).

PhosphoniB, Trichloride ofl PCI,. Syn. Phob-

9H0BVB TXBOEIiOEIDE, PEOaFHOBUB OHLOBZDB.

By gently heating phosphorus, in excess, in dry
chlorine gas ; or by passing the vapour of phos-
phorus through a stratum of powdered mercuric
chloride, strongly heated in a glass tube. It is
limpid, colourless, and highly pongent liquid
which fumes in the air, and is slowly resolved by
water into phosphorous acid and hydrochloric
acid. Sp. gr. 1-62.

Fhoaphorns, Fentaohloride of. PCIf. Sgn.
Phosfhobio oexobide, Febchiobisb o> Phob-

PHOBUB.

Prep. By tbe spontaneous combustion of phos-
phorus in an excess of dry chlorine ; or by passing
a stream of dry chlorine into the liquid trichloride.
By the first method it is obtained as a white
crystalline sublimate ; by the second, as a solid
oyftalline mass. It is volatile; water resolves it

into phosphoric acid and hydrochloric add; heat
into PCI, and CV It is of great use in effecting
certain transformations in organic substances.

Fhosphoras, Oxychloride of. PCI,0. Sg*.
Phobfbobio oxtchlobide, Phobphobio moh-
oxyohlobisi.

Prep. By heating phosphoric chloride mth
phosphoric anhydride. It is a colourless, fuming
liquid, having tbe sp. gr. 1*7.

Fhoephoms, Hydride of. PH,. Ss*. Fhos-

PHOBBTTES HTSBOaEIT, PbOBPEUBBTTBD HTDBO-

OBir. Three of these are known, viz. PH, gas,
VjEL^ liquid, P^H, solid; the former need only be
noticed here.

Prep. 1. Phosphorous acid is gently heated
in a retort, and the first portion of the gas
collected.

i. From phosphoms (jn small lumps) b(nled in
a Bolutian of hydrate of potassium or milk of lime,
contained in a small retort, as before. Take a
very small thin retort, capable of holding not
more than 1 oz. or lioz. of water; place in this 8
or 4 fragments of the sticks of fused hydrate of
potassium, each being about \ inch in length;
add as mnch water as vrill barely cover them, and
then drop in a small fragment of phosphorus,
about the size of a hone-beui ; apply a very gentle
beat with the small flame of a spirit lamp, agi-
tating the retort contiDually. A pale lambent
flame will first appear in the interior, and when
this reaches the orifice, and bums in the open air,
the retort should be placed on the stand with its
beak about an inch under water. Care must be
taken not to withdraw the flame of the lamp.
When the bubbles of the gas rise to the surface
they spontaneously inflame, forming the well-
known ' smoke- or vortex-rings.'

3. From phosphide of calcium and dilute hy-
drochloric acid, as shove; or simply from the
phosphide thrown into the water.

Ob: The gas obtained by methods 2 and 3 is
contaminated with the vapour of a liquid phos-
phide of hydrogen, PHj, which gives to it the
property of spontaneous inflammability, produc-
ing clouds of phosphorous pentoxide.

Prop., i[c. Colourless; very fetid; slightly
soluble in water ; burns with a white flame; de-.
composed by light, heat, and strong acids; as
commonly prepared, inflames on contact with air,
at ordinary temperatures, but when pure, only at
the heat of boiling water. It is slightly heavier
than air. Sp. gr. 1-19. It is rendered quite dry
by standing over fused chloride of calcium.

Phosphoms, Suboxide of. P4O. {Odling.) A
reddish-brown powder, formed when a stream of
oxygen is forced upon phosphorus, melted beneath
the surface of hot water. To purify it from
phosphoric acid and free phosphorus, it is vraahed
on a filter with water, then dried by bibulous
paper, and finally digested with bisulphide of
carlx>n.

Hypophotphorons Add. H,POi. By cantioosly
decomposing a solution of hypophosphite it
barium with sulphuric acid, filtering from tbe
precipitate (sulphate of barium), and evaporating.
Dissolve hypophosphite of caldum, 480 gr. in
distilled water, 6 fi. ox.; dissolve crystallised
oxalic add, 860 gr., in another portion of distilled
water, 3 fl. oz.; mix the solutions and filter the

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PHOSPHORUS

1269

mixtoM through white fllteriog paper. Add
diitilled water carefully to the filtrate till it
measureB 10 fl. oz., and evaporate thi« to 8^ ft. ox.
He solution thus prepared contains about 10% of
terhydtsted bypophosphorons acid.

Ri>p. A viscid, nncrystallisable liquid having
a strong add reaction. It is a powerful drying
agent, and forms salts called hypophoaphites.

Ammonium, Hypoplioaplilte of. (NH4),P0,.
Prtf. Dissolve hypophosphite of calcium, 6 os.,
in water, 4 pints; and dissolve sesqnicarbonate
of ammonium, 7'28 oz. (barely 7^), in water, 2
pints J mix the solutions; filter, washing out the
solution retained by the carbonate of lime with
water, q. s.; evaporate the filtrate to dryness
with great care; dissolve it in alcohol, q. s.;
filter, evaporate, and aystaUise. Very soluble in
both alcohol and water.

Bariim. Hypophosphite of. BaXLi{VOi)r

iVep. Boil phosphorus in a solution of hydrate
of barium till all the phosphorus disappears and
the vapours have no longer a garlic odour. Filter,
evaporate, and set aside to crystallise.

Calcium, Hypophospliite of. Ca,(PO^i.

Prap. SWa recently burnt lime, 4 lbs., with
water, 1 galL, and mix it with water, 4 galls.,
just brought to the boiling temperature in a deep
open boiler, stirring until a uniform milk of lime
is formed ; then add phosphorus, 1 lb., and keep
up the boiling constantly, adding hot water from
^ne to time, so as to preserve the measure as
nearly as may be until all the phosphorus is
oxidised and combined, and the strong odour of
the gas has disappeared; then filter the solution
through muslin, wash oat that portion retained
by the calcareous residue with water, and evapo-
rate the filtrate to 6 pints; re-filter, to remove
the carbonate of calcium resulting from the
action of the air upon the solution; evaporate
again until a pellicle forms, and set aside to
crystallise — or continue the heat with constant
stirring until the salt granulates.

Ob*. As spontaneously infiammable phos-
phoretted hydrogen is given off during the boil-
ing, the process must be conducted under a hood,
with a strong draught or in the open air. Smaller
proportions than those given may be used.

Prop. Hypophosphite of calcium is a white
salt, with pearly lustre, crystallising in flattened
prisms; soluble in 6 parts of cold water, and
slightly soluble in dilute alcohol. It is the most
important of these compounds, and when intro-
duced into the stomach it is supposed to be con-
verted into phosphate of calcium. It has been
termed ' chemical food.' By decomposition it
readily furnishes the other hypophosphites.

Ynrrie, Hypophosphite. PePO^ Frep. By
preeipits^ing a solution of hypophosphite of
sodium or ammonium, with solution of ferric
sulphate, washing the gelatinous precipitate with
care (it being somewhat soluble) ; and, finally,
drying it into an amorphous white powder. This
is freely soluble in hydrochloric and hypophos-
phorous acids.

Fotassinm, Hypophosphite of. K,POr Frep.
From hypophosphite of calcium, 6 oz., dissolved
in water, 4 pinta ; and granulated carbonate of
potaasinni, Sf oz., dissolved in water, \ pint.
Mix, fllier, and wash the precipitate till the fll<

trate measures 6 pints. Evaporate till a pellicle
forms, then stir constantly, continuing the heat
till the salt granulates. A white, opaque, deli-
quescent body, very soluble in water and alcohol.

(tn^iiiie, ^rpop'oephite of. Dissolve sulphate
of quinine, 1 oz., in very dilute sulphuric add ;
precipitate the alkaloid with ammonia ; wash the
precipitated quinine and digest it in hypo-
phosphorous acid with heat, the quinine being in
excess; after filtering the solution, allow it to
evaporate spontaneously till the required salt
crystallises. It forms elegant tnfto of soft,
feathery crystals, which are soluble in 60 parts of
water.

Sodium, ^ypopho«phlta of. Ka^PO^ Prep.
From hypophosphite of calcium, 6 oz., dissolved
in water, 4 pints ; and crystallised carbonate of
sodium, 10 oz., dissolved in water, li pint. Pro-
ceed as in making hypophosphite of potassium,
but allowing 6 pints as the measure of the
filtrate. If required in crystals, the granulated
salt may be dissolved in alcohol sp. gr. 0-885, eva-
porated till syrupy, and set by in a warm place.
Crystallises in rectanmilar tables, with a pearly
lustre; is very soluble in water and ordinary
alcohol, and deliquesces when exposed to the
air.

Phosph«nu, Triozlde of P,0|. 8g». Peob-

PHOBOUa AITHYSBEDS ; AnETDBOVS PHOSPHOBIO
IlOTD.

Frap. By burning phosphorus in a limited
supply of air. White flaky powder, with an
odour of garlic, and rapidly absorbing water to
form phosphorous acid.

Phosphorous Add. H,PO|. 8$%. Htsbated
PHOBFHOBOVB AOIS. Pure phosphorus is vola-
tilised through a layer of powdered mercuric
chloride, contained in a glass tube; trichloride
of phosphorus comes over, which, on bdng mixed
with water, is resolved into hydrochloric add and
phosphorous add; by evaporating the mixed liquid
to the consistence of a syrup, the first is expelled,
and the residuum forms a crystalline mass of
hydrated phosphorous acid on cooling.

Prop., Ifo. It is a powerful deoxidiaing agent.
Heated in a closed vessel, it is resolved into phos-
phoric anhydride and free phosphorus. With the
bases it forms salta, called phosphites, which
possess little practical importance.

Phosphorous Tetroxide. PjO^. Very little is
known of this substance itself, but from it hypo-
phosphoric add is derived, which has lately been
prepared by Salzer, and has a composition repre-
sented by the formula PjO) (0H)4.

Phosphorous Pentoxlde. P,0,. Sgn. Aket-

SB01T8 PHOSPHOBIO AOID ; PhOBFHOBIO AKHT-

dbisb; Phobphobio oxiss. Obtained by the
vivid combustion of phosphorus in a stream of
dry atmospheric air, or under a bell-jar, copiously
supplied with dry air. The product is pure
anhydrous phosphoric acid in the form of Bnow<
like flakes. It must be immediately collected and
put into a warm, dry, well-stoppered bottie. In
this state it exhibits an intense attraction for
water, and when thrown into it combines with
explosive violence ; exposed to moist air for only
a few seconds, it deliquesces to a syrupy-looking
liquid. It is often used in the taboratory as a
dessicating agent.

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PHOSPHORUS

FhMphoric Add. There btb three distinct siads
vnially grouped under this head, namely, Mbta-

FKOBFSOBIO AOIS, HPOj ; PtBOPHOSPHOHIO

Aon>, H4PgO;; and Obteophosfhosio aoid,
H,P04.
KetaplKMphorlc Add. HPO^ Ss/n. Mono-

BABIO FHOBPEOBIO AOIB i OLA.OU£ PHOBFEOBIO
AOIS.

Prtp. 1. Bones (calcined to whiteness and
powdered), 3 parts, are digested for several days
in oil of vitriol, 2 parts, previoiisly dilated with
water, 6 parts, the miztnre being frequently
stirred daring the time ; a large quantity of watOT
is next added, the whole thrown upon a struner,
and the residnal matter washed with some hot
water; the mixed liquors are then precipitated
with a solution of carbonate of ammonium, in
slight excess, filtered from the insoluble and
flndlly ignited in a platinum crucible.

2. By acting upon the anhydride with cold
water.

When phosphoric acid is added to a strong
solution of phosphate of sodium, and the mix-
ture, after concentration, is exposed to a low
temperature, prismatic crystals are deposited.
These, after being strongly heated to expel their
basic water, are pure metaphosphate of sodium.
Prtmi the solution of this salt in cold water, a
Bolation of pure metapbosphoric acid may be
obtained, as above, by means of nitrate or acetate
of lead and sulphuretted hydrogen.

Obt. This acid precipitates the salts of silver
white, and is distinguished from the other
modifications of phosphoric acid by the property
which its solution possesses of coagulating al-
bumen.

Fyrophosphorie Acid. H4KO7. Syn. Dzbasio
PHO8FHOBIO l.on>. Pnp. By strongly heating
common phosphate of sodium. The water of
crystallisation only is at first expelled, and the
salt becomes anhydrous ; but as the temperature
reaches that of redness the salt loses water and
is decomposed. By solation of the altered salt in
water, crystals of pyrophosphate of sodium may
be obtained. A solution of this last compound,
treated with nitrate of lead, and the resulting
precipitate, suspended in cold water, and decom-
posed by sulphuretted hydrogen, yields a solution
of pure pyrophosphoric acid.

Obt. Heat resolves this into a solation of the
ordinary acid. Pyrophosphoric acid precipitates
the salts of silver of a white colour. The salts
of this acid are called pyrophosphates.

Orthophosphoric Acid. HiPO^. Syn. Tbi-

ETSBIO PHOBFHATB. TBIBASIO FHOSFHOBZO

AOIS. Prep. 1. Ordinary nitric acid is heated
in a tabulated retort connected with a receiver,
and small fragments of phosphorus are dropped
into it, singly and at intervals. As soon as the
oxygenation of the phosphorus is complete, the
heat is increased, the undecomposed acid dis-
tilled off,'and the residuum evaporated to the con-
sistency of a syrup. In this state it forms the
phosphoric acid of the shops.

2. Commercial phosphate of sodium is dissolved
in water and the solation precipitated with
another of acetate of lead; an abundant
white predpitate (phosphate of lead) falls ; this
is collected on a filter, well washed, and, whilst

(till moist, is suspended in distilled water, and
sulphuretted hydrogen gas passed into it, in
excess ; a black insoluble precipitate forms, while
pare tribasio phosphoric acid remains in solution,
and is easily deprived of the residual sulphuretted
hydrogen by a genUe beat. By concentration m
vaauo over sulfuric acid, it may be obtained in
thin crystalline plates.

The solution of this acid may be lx>iled without
change, but when concentrated and heated to
about 400° F. it is converted into pyrophosphoric
acid, and at a red heat into metaphosphoric acid.
Its salts are the ordinary phosphates, or ortho-
phosphates, and they give a yellow precipitate
with nitrate of silver.

Tutt. The following reactions characterise
the orcUnary or ortho-phosphates: — 1. Chloride
of barium produces in aqueous solutions of tiie
neutral and basic phosphates a white predpitate,
which is insoluble in either hydrochloric or nitric
add, and with difficulty soluble in a solation of
chloride of ammonium. — 2. Solation of sulphate
of calcium produces in neutral and alkaline sola-
tions of the phosphates a white precipitate, freely
soluble in adds, even the acetic. — 8. Sulphate of
magnesium produces in solutions of the phos-
phates, to which some chloride of ammonium and
free ammonia has been added, a white, crystalline,
and quickly subsiding precipitate of the phosphate
of ammonium and magnesium, which is insoluble
in a solution of either ammonia or chloride of
ammoniam, but readily soluble in acids, even in
acetic— 4. Nitrate of silver, with neutral and basic
alkaline phosphates, gives a light yellow predpi-
tate. If the Said in which the precipitate is sus-
pended contained a basic phosphate, it does not
affect test-paper ; if it conbuned a neutral phos-
phate, the reaction will be acid. If the phosphate
examined has been heated to redness l>efore solu-
tion, it then, as a metaphosphate, gives a white
precipitate with nitrate of silver. — 6. Hydro-
chloric acid is added to the solution until an acid
reaction is produced, and afterwards 1 or 2 drops
of a concentrated solution of ferric chloride; a
solution of acetate of potaasiom is next added in
excess, when a fioccnient, gelatinous, white pre-
cipitate will be formed if phosphoric add or any
phosphate was present in the original liquid.
This test is highly characteristic, and of general
applicability.

Obt. The insoluble phosphates must be first
treated with diluted hydrochloric or sulphuric
add, and the resulting solation filtered and
neutralised with an alkali, before applying the
reagents. When the substance under examination
consists of a very small quantity of phosphoric
acid or phosphate, with a large quantity of
sesquioxide of iron, it should be fused with some
carbonate of sodium, the residuum of the ignition
exhausted with water, and the tests applied to
the filtered solation. Arsenions acid, if present,
should be removed by sulphuretted hydrogen
before applying the tests. When phosphate of
aluminum is present, the solution in hydrochloric
Rcid is neutralised with carbonate of sodium;
carbonate of barium is next added in excess,
followed by the addition of hydrate of potaasiom,
also in excess, after which the whole is boiled.
An insoluble phosphate of barium is formed.

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PHOSPHORUS, BALDWIN'S— PH08PHURETTED HYDROGEN

1871

which may be decompoied by sulphuric acid, aa
before. Me Moltbdxib ov AmioinirK.

Sttiat. PnreaolutionBof phoaphoric acidmay
be tested by the common metbodi of acidimetry.
When in a state of combination, it may be sepa-
rated and weighed in either of the forms noticed
under Quaho.

Vttt, 4'o. This acid is the common form, and
is the compound alluded to when 'phosphoric
acid' is spoken of. The commercial variety is
osnally contaminated with arsenic acid. It is
extensively employed by the bleacher, dyer, caUco-
printer, and enameller. Unlike snlphuric acid
and the other strong acids, it does not coagulate
albnmen nor injure vegetable fibre, and is not de-
composed by contact with organic matter. In
combination with alumina and a large quantity of
boracic acid, it is said to be capable of producing
a glaze for earthenware of extreme b^uty and
durability, and perfectly innocuous. It iS also
used in medicine.

PH08PH0BI0 AOID, SII.UTSS. (B. Ph.) Put
6 fl. 01. of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1'42), diluted with
8 oz. of distilled water, into a tubulated retort
connected with a Liebis's condenser, and having
added 413 gr. of phosphorus, apply a very gentle
heat until 6 fl. oz. of liquid have distilled over.
Return this to the retort, and renew and continue
the distillation until the phosphorus has entirely
dissolved.

Transfer the contents of the retort to a porcelain
capsule and evaporate the liquid until it is reduced
to 4 fl. oz. Transfer to a platinum vessel and
evaporate to about 2 fl. oz., and until orange
vapours cease to form. Mix when cool in such an
amount of distilled water that the volume shall
become 1 pint. (It contains 10% by weight of
anhydrous acid. Sp. gr. 10S.)—Vot», 10 to SO
minims properly diluted.

FBOSFHOSUS, BALDWDTS. Recently fused
nitrate of calcium. For this purpose it must be
broken into fragments whilst atiU warm, and at
once placed in dry and well-stopped phials.
After exposure for some time to the direct
rays of the sun it emits sufficient light in the
dark to render visible the figures on the dial-plate
of a watch.

PHOSPHORUS, BOLOaBIAir. Sgn. KsB.

CHBK'B FHOBPHOB'aB, BOIXJGNIAN STONB. This

subsftance was accidentally discovered by a shoe-
maker of Bologna, and excited much interest
about the middle of the 17th century. The
following is said to have been the formula
employed by the Logani family, who were par-
ticularly successful in its preparation, and ac-
quired wealth by its sale to the curious throughout
Europe:

Frep. Reduce recently calcined native sul-
phate of barium to powder, make it into a paste
with mucilage of gum tragacanth, and roll the
mass into pieces about i inch thick and 1 to 2
inches long ; dry these slowly by a moderate heat,
and then expose them to ignition in a wind fur-
nace, by placing them loosely among the char-
coal; lastly, allow them to cool slowly, and at
once place tiie pieces in well-stopped phials. Like
the preceding substance, it phosporesces in the
dark after exposure to the sun's rays.

PH08IH0X98,CAXT0H'B. iVsp. From cal-

cined oyster shells, 8 parts ; flowers of sulphur, 1
part; placed in alternate layers in a oovend
crucible, and exposed to a strong heat for about
an hour. It is preserved and used like the above.

PHOSPHORUS, HOKBESO'S. RecenUy ignited
chloride of calcium.

PHOSPHORUS BOTTLES. Frtp. 1. Phos-
phorus, 12 gr. ; olive oil, i oz. ; mix in an oi.
phial, and place the latter, loosely corked, in a
basin of hot water ; as soon as the phosphorus is
melted, remove the phial, cork it securely, and
agitate it until nearly cold. On being uncorked
it emits sufficient light in the dark to see the
time by a watch, and wUl retain this property for
some years if not too frequently employed. Theto
are frequently called ' luminous phiali.'

2. fBUQUBTB PE08FH0BIQUBS.) <l. FrOm

phosphorus, 8 parts ; white wax, 1 part ; cautiously
melted together by the heat of hot water ; as the
mixture begins to oool, the bottles are turned
round so that it may adhere to the sides.

1. (JBendis.) Cork (rasped small, and dry)
and yellow wax, of each, 1 part ; phosphorus, 4
parts ; petroleum, 8 parts ; mixed, by fusion, and
placed in bottles in the same way as in a.
Used as instantaneous-light bottles. A sulphur
match rubbed against the composition immedi-
ately inflames on exposure to the air. They
should be only unstoppered at the instant of in-
troducing the match, and should be handled with
caution.

PHOSPHORUS KATCHRS. See Matoheb, and
aiore,

PHOSPHORUS PASTE. /Syn. Aim-ABaBiriCiX
BAT-FOiBOir, PEOBPHOB-PAflTB. Pr»p. 1. Phos-
phorus, 1 oz. ; warm water, 1 pint ; place them in
a bottle, cork it, and agitate them well together
until the phosphorus is reduced to a minute state
of division, adding towards the end moist sugar,
i lb. ; next add of lard (melted by a gentle heat),
1 lb., and repeat the agitation until the whole is
nearly cold ; when cold, form it into a stiff dough
with oatmeal or barley meal, and make this into
small balls or cakes ; lastly, dry these in the air,
without artificial heat.

2. (Simon.) Phosphorus, 8 parts ; water (luke-
warm), 180 parts ; mix in a mortar, and add of
rye mesl, ISO parts; when cold, further add of
butter or lard, 180 parts ; sugar, 126 paria ; and
mix the whole thoroughly together. This is the
formula authorised by the Prussian Qovemment.

Obt. Rats, mice, &c., eat the above compo-
sition with avidity, after which they soon die. It
is said that the best method of using it is to place
small pieces of it in and about the holes, with
some water in a shallow vessel for them to drink.
It has the advantage of retaining its efficacy for
many years, and is less dangerous to human beings
than compositions containing arsenic, whilst it is
even more efiective for the purpose for which it
is employed. Some persons recommend the addi-
tion of a little oil of rhodium or oil of aniseed.
See Ratb, &c.

FHOSHPHURET. 8gn. Peobpeisb; Phos-
FSCBBTUll, PHOSFEIDTTlt, L. A compound of
phosphorus with a metal or other basic radical.
See the respective Mbtaxb, Ac.

FH08PHURETTED Hy1>R0OEH. Sj/m. Peob-
FKOKnXBO HTSBOSSB. See HzsBoaaiT,

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1878

PHOTOOEAPHY

PHOTOQSAPET. Tbe art of prodndng pic-
torei.l^ the action of light.

HUTOBIOAL.

The action of light upon silver chloride was.
known to the alchemists of the 16th centary but
not understood by them. Scheele, in 1777, in-
vestigated the properties of the body formed,
and Ritter, of Jena, in 1801 carried Scheele's
studies still further by discovering that the rays
of the spectrum beyond the extreme violet dark-
ened the chloride rapidly, Josiah Wedgwood
and Sir Humphry Davy, in 1802, obtained pic-
tures upon leather covered with silver chloride,
and in 1803 Dr Wollaston cUsoovered the action
of light upon gnm gnaiacnm. In 1814 Joseph
Nic^phore de Ni^poe, experimenting with resins,
found that light rendend them insoluble, and
that pictures npon polished metal plates could be
produced in tiiis way. In 1829 Daguerre, a
French painter, went into partnership with
Ni^ce, and discovered the action of light upon a
silver plate which had been exposed to the
vapour of iodine (1889). In the same year Mr
Xalbot read his paper on photogenic drawings
before tbe Royal Society, with which he ex-
hibited prints made npon paper which had been
dipped into a solntion of common salt, then dried,
and brushed over with a solution of silver
nitrate. In this way he obtained a negative
from which positives in any quantity eaSii be
produced. In 1841 Talbot patented the calotype
process by which an invisible image formed by
exposing paper, covered with a film of iodide of
silver, to the light, was developed by a solntion
of gallic acid. In 1889 Hungo Ponton had dis-
covered the action of light npon chromium salts,
and in 1848 Sir J, Herschell succeeded in obtain-
ing a picture of his 40 feet telescope on a plate
of glass covered with silver ch]oride. Ni^pce de
St Victor used albumen as ' a vehicle for the
silver salts, and Le Gray suggested the use of
collodion, though the collodion process in a prac-
tical form was due to Scott- Archer and Dr Hugh
Diamond in 1861. From these beginnings the
whole of our modem photographic processes take
their origin.

The object of this article being practical rather
than theoretical, the reader who desires informa-
tion on the chemistry of the action of light on
various chemical compounds is referred to Ahney,
< A Treatise on Photography ' (Longmans), and
Meldola, 'The Chemistry of Photography'
(Hacmillan's Nature Series).

Tbb Daoubbbbotxpb PsOOBfB.
A plate of copper silvered on one side is cleaned
on the plated snrface with tripoli and alcohol,
using a Canton flannel rubber untU it is quite
free from scratches and fairly smooth ; it is then
polished with a leather buff and jewellers' rouge.
The clean plate is at once placed in a box, at the
bottom of which iodine in crystals is strewn, so
arranged that it can rest face downwards at
some distance above the iodine. After a time
the silvered surface is attacked by the iodine,
and a thin film of silver iodide produced, the
action is allowed to go on nntil a reddish colour
is reached. This accomplished the plate is trans-
ferred to a similar box, at the bottom of which is

placed a mixture of bromine and quickUme, the
Diwnine now attacks tbe silver, and with the
iodide already formed, prodnoea a coating of
bromo-iodide of silver, this is allowed to go on
till the colour is steel-grey or violet, and the
plate is once more transferred to the iodine box
and allowed to remain for one third of the time
of the first operation. The plate is now ready
for exposnre in the camera, and is very sensitive,
the exposnre completed, development is effected
by allowing the vapour of mercury to act on the
plate by placing it face downwards over a tray
of mercury heated to abont 160^ F. The ima^
is fixed by immersion in a 10^ solution of iodio
byposulplute.

Thb Wit Collodior Fboobu.
The cUsoovery that cert^n salts of silver were
sensitive to light, and that pictures could be
produced by exposing a thin film of these salts in
the camera, naturally suggested to workers tbe
desirability of having some method by which the
salts conld be spread over any required surface
as n-anted, and kept in position by some inert
material, which should serve as a carrier, and
above all, some means by which a plate of glass
conld be rendered sensitive to light, so that a
negative being obtained positive pictures conld
be made from it in any required number. The
required conditions are satisfied in a remarkable
degree by the wet collodion process, in which a
plate of glass is first carefully cleaned and then
coated with a solution of nitro-cellolose in a mix-
ture of alcohol and ether, to which small quanti-
ties of certain bromides and iodides have been
added. The film of iodised collodion so formed
is then immersed for a moment in a solution of
stiver nitrate, which is decomposed <« ti« film,
and an exceedingly fine and even deposit of bro-
mide and iodide of silver npon glass is thus ob-
tained, which is exceedingly senutive to light.
After exposnre the plate is developed by a solution
of pyrogallic acid and ferrous sulphate.

Farmula, i^c^im Connection wUk ths Wet Proeeu.

Preparation of Pyrozyline. {Eardmei.) Take
of—

Sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1*842 at 16° C. . 600 cc.
Nitric acid „ 1*466 „ . 166-6 cc
Water 14«-7c.c

Mix tbe nitric acid and water thoroughly in a
porcelun dish, and then add the snlphnric acid,
stirring well all the time ; allow the mixture to
cool to 66° C, and have ready a dozen balls of
cotton wool, weighing about 1*5 grammes escb.
(The wool should first be well steeped in soda and
water and then ihorottgih) washed and eomplefelj/
dried.) Immerse the balls quickly, and assist the
soaking of the wool by pressing with a glass rod
or spatula. Allow them to remun in the mixture
ten minutes to a quarter of an hour, then lift
them out with the spatula, squeezing out aa much
acid as possible against the sides of the dish, and
throw them one by one into a large quantitg of
mater, and continue the process of washing in
abundance of clean water nntil a piece of blue lit-
mus paper is no longer affected 1^ the wet cotton.
The strength of the acids and the temperature is
of the utmost importance, and should be accurately
determined, otherwise failure will result.

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1273

Another f onnnla :
Snlphnrie scid, ap. gr. 1-842 . 170 e.c
iMfdpotaannm nitrate (pure) 110 gnus.

Water 28'8c.c.

Best dried cotton wool . 4 gnni.

Proceed as before.
CdUodiona (Abntg):
No. 1 for cold weather.
FVrozyline(Hardwich's formula) 12tol4grmi.
Aleohol, ip. gr. -820 . . . 460 c.c.
Etber „ -726 . . . 660 „
No. 2 for warm weather.

I^TTOxyline (Hardwich'a formnla) 12tol4gTm8.
Alcohol, sp. gr. -820 . . . 600 c.c
Ether „ '726 . . . 600 „
lodo-Bromide Collodion (Abneg), 1. Ammoninm
iodide, 7 grma.; oadminm bromide, 4 grms.;
plain collodion, 1000 cc

2. Ammoninm iodide, 8 grms.; oadminm
bromide, 2'6 ; plain collodion, 1000 cc.

8. Cadmium iodide, 9 grms. ; cadmium
bromide, 4 grms. ; plain collodion, 1000 c.c.

Noi. 1 and 2 are soon ripe enough for use, and
with a little alcoholic tincture of iodine added, they
may be used immediately. No. 8 requires
keeping.
< Iodised Collodion (for VegatirM) :

Ether, sp. gr. '726 . . . 10 fl. oz.
Alcohol „ -806 . . . 8 „
Fyroxyline . . . 120 grs.

Ammoninm iodide . . . 12 „
Cadmium » • • . 20 „
Broma-iodlsed Collodion (fw HegatiTot) :
Ether, sp. gr. -726 . . . 10 fl. os.
Alcohol „ -805 . . . 10 „
FjTozyline .... 120 grs.
Ammoi^um iodide . . 40 „

Cadmium „ . . . 40 „
„ bnmiide . . 20 „

Bromo-lodiaed Collodion (for PosltiTes or Parro-
typw). Ether, 10 fl. oz.; alcohol. 10 fl. oz. ;
pyroxyline, 100 grs. ; cadmium iodide, 60 grs. j
ammoninm bromide, 20 grs.

Thb NlTlUTi Bate (for Kegativea).

1. Nitrate of silver (pore recryst.), 6 oz. ; dis-
tilled water, 80 fl. oz.; nitrio acid (pure), 12
minims. Saturate witii iodide of rilver and
Alter.

2. Nitrate of sUver recyat., 80 grms. ; potas-
sium iodide, -25 grm.; water, 1000 cc. Dissolve
the silver nitrate in 250 c.c. of the water, and the
iodide in as small a quantity as possible. Uix,
shake well, add the remaining water, Alter, and
acidify with a few drops of a 5% solution of
nitric acid (Abneg).

{For Foiitites or Ftrroiypet.)
Nitrate of silver (recryst.), 5 oz. ; distilled
water, 80 fl. oz. ; nitric acid (pure), 12- minims.
Satniate with silver iodide and filter.
DZTBlOPaB.

Tor VegatlTea. 1. Protosnlphate of iron,
i oz. ; glacial acetic acid, ^ ot. ; alcohol, i oz. ;
water, 8 oz. ('British Journal Photographic
Almanac,' 1891).

2. Ammonio-snlphate ot iron, 76 gr. j glacial
acetic acid, 76 gr. ; sulphate of copper, 7 gr. ;
water, 8 oz. ('British Journal Photographic
• s,'1891).

?or Collodion Poritives or ferrotypes. Fro<
tosnlphate of iron, 1^ oz.; nitrate of baryta,
1 oz. ; water, 1 pint; alcohol, 1 oz. ; nitric acid,
40 drops ('British Journal Photographic Al-
manac,' 1891).

For Collodion Transfers. Pyrogallic acid, 6 gr. j
eitric acid, 3 gr. ; acetic acid, 46 minims; water,
1 oz.; alcohol, q. s. ('British Journal Photo-
graphic Almanac,' 1891).

Developers. (Abneg.) 1. Pyrogallic acid,
1 grm. ; glacial acetic acid, 90 cc ; ucohol, q. a.;
water, 600 c.c.

2. (Weak.) Ferrous sulphate, 10 gnns. j
glacial acetic acid, 80 to 40 c.c.j aI,cohol, q. s.;
water, 1000 c.c.

8. (Strong.) Perrons sulphate, 100 grms. t
glacial acetic acid, 40 c.c. ; alcohol, q. s. ; water,
1000 c.c.

iKTUHBlylOATIOir.

Any method by which the apparent density or
blackness of the image when viewed by reflected
light may be increased, or by which its power of
transmitting light may be diminished, is termed
intensification. There are many methods, of in-
tensification ; the simplest, perhaps, is to flood the
plate with a solution of mercuric chloride, then
thoroughly wash for some time and treat with a
weak solution of ammonia, or we may use a
solution of bromide of copper ; wash, and
again treat with a solution of silver nitrate, by
which the silver forming the image is very greatly
increased; or, after development with iron and
thorot^h wathimff, take of —

(a) Pyrogallic acid . . 4 grms. . . 2 grs.
Citric acid . . 4 to 8 „ . . 2 „
Water . . . 1000 cc. . . . 1 oi.
and whilst the plate is still wet, flood it with
either of the above solutions, to which a few
drops of a solution of silver nitrate, 4%, has
been added immediately before ose. Or (i)
ferrons sulphate, 10 grms. ; citric acid, 20^nns. ;
water, 1000 cc; using the silver solution as
before. The following can be used after fix-
ing:

(1) Iodine .... -Igrm.orlOpartsbywMght.
Fotassic iodide . '2 „ 20 „ „
Water . . . 60c.c.or600 „ „

(2) Mercuric chloride -2 grm. or 2 „ „
Water . . . 760c.c.or7600 „ „

and

Potassic iodide . -1 grm. or 1 „ „

Water . . . 60 c.c. or 60 „ »

Add the latter solution to the former until the

precipitate begins to become permanent, then

flood the negative with the filtered solution.

FDcnra thb Imasi.
After thorough removal of developer by wash-
ing, place the negative in either —
(o) Sodium hyposulphite 100 grms. or 1 part.

Water 600 cc. or 6 „

or—
(i) Potassium cyanide . 80 grms. or 6 „

Water 600 cc or 100 ,,

and wash very thoroughly. The cyanide is objec-
tionable because of its great activity and the
possibility of destmction of the image by the use
of too strong a solution, and further because it is
eteurivtly poiionout.

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PHOTOGRAPHY

VlSingHIKa IHX FiLK.

Captain Abney recommends —
Unbleached lac ... . 65 grms.

Sandan(^ 66 „

Canada baliam 4 „

Oil of thyme or lac acetic . 32 ce.

Alcohol -830 500 .,

or —

Seed lac 120 grms.

Methylated spirit .... 1000 cc.
PoarnTBS bt thv Wbt Pboobbb.
The process is essentially the same as for nega-
tiyes, bnt the silver bath should be of the strength
of 65 grms. to the litre (65 parts per 1000 by
weight), silver iodide added as for the negative
bath, and slightly acidified with nitric acid.

Captun Abney recommends as developer —
Perrons nitrate, 7 grms.; terrons sulphate, S
grms. ; nitric acid, 1*46, 1-25 e.e. ; alooMl, q. s. ;
water, 1000 cc.

See also above, under DktbiiOpsb, Collodion,
Ac

Dbt Platb Psocsssbs with thb Bath.
A collodion film on glass if allowed to dry will
not bear subsequent wetting without leaving the
support and peeling off. The apparatus neces-
sary for the wet process renders it cumbrous and
unsuitable under many circumstances, and a
method by which a sensitive collodion film, dry
and ready for use at any time, could be prepared
was an obvious step in advance of the wet pro-
cess requiring all the apparatus to be taken into
the field.

The process is in principle briefly as follows : —
A clean glass plate is coated with some material
which will canse the collodion to adhere firmly to
it. Gelatin, india-rubber, and albumen solutions
are those most generally used. The plate is then
covered with collodion as for the wet process, all
excess of the bath solution is washed oft by the
liberal use of distilled water, and the plate is then
coated vrith some material which shall serve as a
protection to the coUocUon film against atmo-
spheric or other influences withont at the same
time interfering with the sensitiveness of the
plate of the action of the developers. Innumer-
able ' preservatives ' or organifiers have been used ;
the following are among the most approved :

1. Tannic acid, 6 to 10 gr. j sugar, 1 gr. ; water,
1 oz.

2. A strong infusion of tea or coffee.

8. A decoction of malt, 4 oz., to 1 pint of
water.

* (From the ' British Journal Photographic Al-
manac,' 1891 :)

For Landteapt Work.

4. Tannin, i oz. ; gallic add, 60 gr. ; water,
20 fl. oz.

5. Tannin, 300 gr. j water, 20 fl. oz.

For Zandtcapet or Trantpartncies {warm broum
tone).

6. Freahly ground coffee, 1 oz. ; boiling water,
1 pint.

For Trarupareneiet (bromniih-blaei tone),

7. Tannin, 80 gr.;pyrogallie acid, 60 gr.; water,
80 fl. oz.

Developers for Collodion Dry Flatet {Mnej/),
1. (a) Ferrous sulphate, 2 grms.; water,
20 cc.

(i) Gelatin, 4 grms.; glacial acetic acid, 60
cc. ; water, 400 cc.

IMssolve the gelatin in the water and add the
glacial acetic acid, then mix the solution in the
proportion of 3 parts by measure of a to 1 part by
measure of i ; filter, and the developer is ready
for use. To every 4 cc. of the mixed developer
add 1 drop of a 60% solution of silver nitrate, uid
nse at once.

2. (a) Fyngallic acid, 10 gnns.; alcohol,
60 cc

(S) Silver nitrate, 4 grms. ; dtrie add, 4 grms. ;
water, 85 cc

1 part by measure of a is mixed with \ part 6f
b, and 30 parte of water added.

3. (a) Fyrogallic add, 1 grm.; water, 40 cc
(i) Ammoniom hydrate ('880). 1 part; water,

4 parte.

(c) Citric add, 4 grms. ; acetic add (gladal),
2 cc ; water, 80 cc
(<i) Silver nitrate, 1 grm. ; water, 20 cc
This is specially useful for albumen beer plates.
To each 50 cc. of a add 10 drops of b, mix well
and flood the plate with the mixture. When the
image begins to appear pour off the developer
and add 7 more drops of b, and fiood the plate
again. Then pour off and add 20 drops of e, and
repeat the process. Rinse the plate once more
with solution a, and intensify with a few drops of
d. Lastly, wash and fix.

COLLODIOir EKUIAIOK PBO0B88B8.

In the processes just described the plate was sen-
sitized ttfter coating with collodion. It is possible,
however, to prepare excellent dry plates for many
purposes by impregnating the eoUodion in bulk
with the sensitive silver salts, and then coating the
plates ; the use of the bath is thus dispensed with.
Collodion emulsions are of two kinds, viz.
washed and unwashed according as they are or are
not submitted to a process of washing with pure
distilled water previous to coating the plates.
The washing may be accomplished itfter coating,
bnt the process is more tedions'and the plates more
liable to def ecte than when the washing is effected
before costing.

Collodion dry plates are not by any means so
rapid as gelatin plates, though for many pur-
poses this is a distinct advantage. Some recent
experimente by Mr Wellington lead to the belief
that it may be possible to prepare such plates of a
sensitiveness equal to that of certain gelatin
emulsion plates.

The object of the washing is to remove excess
of soluble salts, which would otherwise crystellise
out and crack the silver, rendering it useless.

Formulffi for pyroxyline for dry collodion pro-
cesses. ('British Journal Photographic Al-
manac,' 1891.)
For CoUodio-Sromide or Unwatied jffmabtbii.

Nitric acid, sp. gr. 1*45, 2 fl. oz. ; suphuric
acid, sp. gr, 1'845, 4 fl. oz. ; water, 1 fl. oz. ; cot-
ton (cleasned and carded), 100 grms. ; tempera-
ture, 150° F. ; time of immersion, 10 minnta.
For Wathed Bmuleion.

1. Nitric add, sp. gr. 1-45, 2 fl. oz. ; sulphnric
acid, sp. gr., 1-845, 6 fl. oz. ; water, 1 ft. oz.;
cotton (cleaned and carded), 100 gr.; tempenture,
140'' F. : time of immersion, 10 minutes.

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PHOTOORAPHT

1276

2. Nitric add, Bp. gr. 1-46, 2 fl. os. ; inlpharic
Mid, ip. gr., 1.846, 3 fl. oz. ; white blotUng VV^t
146 grs. ; temperature, 100° ¥. ; time of immer-
■ioD, 80 minotot.

OtUodio-Sromide Bmmltien,

Etlier, sp. gr. *780, 6 fl. os. ; alcohol, ip. gr.,
.820, 8 fl. 01. ; pjTOzyline, 60 grs. ; bromide at
eadmimn and ammoninm, 80 gn. j or bromide of
^nc, 76 gn.

Senaitiae by adding to each oi. 15 gr. of silver
nitrate dissolved in a few drops of water and 1 dr.
of boiling alcohol. This is suitable for glow
landscape work or for traaaparencies.

W(a%ad Smulsion (for LandteaptM).

1. Ether, sp. gr. '720, 4 fl, oz. s alcohol, sp. gr.,
■820, 2} fl. oz. i pyroxyline, 40 grs. ; Castile soap
(dissolved in alcohol), 30 grs. ; bromide of am-
monium and cadmium, 84 grs.

Sensitiae with 100 gr. silver nitnte dissolved in
1 OE. of boiling alcohol ; and after standing ten
davs, add a further 20 gr. (tf silver diaaolved aa
before in 2 dr. of alcohoL

2. B^>id. Ether, sp. gr., -720, 4 fl. oz.; alco-
hol, sp. gr., -820, 2i fl. oz. ; pyroxyline, 40 grs. :
Castile aoap, 80 grs. j bromide of cadminm and
ammoninm, 66 grs.

Sensitise with 125 gr. silver nitrate, dissolved
as befon in 1 oz. of alcohol with the aid of heat.
In 12 hours' time add 30. gr. more of the double
bromide of ammoninm ami cadminm dissolved
in i oz. of alcohol.

I'or Washed Em»Uio» (for Tramparmeia).

Ether, 5 fl. oz. ; alcohol, 8 fl. oz. ; pyroxyline or
papyrozyline, 60 gr.; bromide of cadmium and
ammoninm, 100 gr. ; or, bromide of zinc, 06 gr. ;
hydrochloric acid, sp. gr. 1'2, 8 minims.

Sensitise with 20 gr. of silver nitrate to each
oz., dissolved in a minimum of water, with 2 dr.
of boiling alcohol. Allow to stand two or three
days.

If.S. — In the last three formulae, the emulsion,
after lieing allowed to ripen for the time stated,
should be poured into a dish and allowed to be-
come thoroughly dry. The mass of dry emulsion
is then washed to remove all solable salts, and is
then again dried and redissolved in equal parts of
ether and alcohol, at the rate of 20 to 24 gr. to
each oz. of the solvents.

Detelofing SoUitionifor Collodion Smultion.
A. Pyrogallio acid, 96 gr. ; alcohol, 1 fl. oz. j

B. Fotaaainm bromide, 10 gr, ; water, 1 fl. oz. ;

C. Uqaor ammoniac, sp. gr. '880, 1 fl. dr.; water,
16 fl. dr. ; or D. Ammonium carbonate^ 2 gr. ;
water, 1 fl. oz.

For each drachm of developer take, for a
normal ezpoanre, 6 minims of A., 1 or 2 minims
of B., and 1 or 2 minims of C, or if D. be used,
add the above quantities of A, 6, and C to 1 dr.
of D. When the details of the image are out add
double the quantities of B. and C.

Inttnnfyiug Solution for Collodion UnuiUion.
Silver nitrate, 60 gr. ; citric acid, 30 gr. ;
nitric acid, 80 minims; water, 2 fl. oz. To each
dr. of aS-dr. solution of pyrogallic acid add 2 or
5 minima of the above, and apply until sufficient
dendi^ is attained.

OtXLkns DsT FiiAxu.

In these a film of gelatin is used to can^ the
sensitive salts instead of collodion. The commer-
cial dry plates of the present day are almost all
prepared with gelatin, and being made in enor-
mous quantities are of wonderfully uniform
quality, easy to develope, and with proper treat*
ment can be made to serve almost any purpose,
though aa will be aeen later thero are still aome
branchea of photography in which the old wet
collodion process holds its own. The use of gela-
tin in the preparation of plates has of late years
ravolutionised photography, reducing the cost and
the tronble and skill required for picture taking
to a minimum ; while the relative cheapness of
the neceasary apparatua haa put the art within
the reach of all. The processes are cleanly in
the extreme, and " photographer's fingers " are
nnknown except to the professionals, who are stiU
obliged to use the wet process. Photography can
now no longer be said to be a " black art."
OBLATnr Dbt Flats PBOosaaxa.

OelatinoSromo-Iodido Snmltion (Abneg),

1. Potassium iodide, 6 gr.

2. Potasaium bromide, 135 gr.

3. Nelaon'a No. 1 photographic gelatin, SO gr.

4. Silver nitrate, 176 gr.

6. Autotype gelatin, 240 gr.

Or the same quantity of a mixture of Nelson's
No. 1, 8 parts, with a hard gelatin, such aa Hein-
rich'a, 1 part.

Cover Nos. 3 and 5 with water, stir well, and
pour off to get rid of dust ; dissolve 1 and 2 in 1
dr., and 1^ oz. of water reapectively. To the solu«
tion of No. 2 add 1 minim of strong hydrochloric
acid, and enough of a solution of iodme in alco-
hol to make it a deep sherry colour. No. 3 is
swelled for 10 minutes in 1 oz. of water, and then
dissolved by heat. No. 4 is dissolved in ) oz. of
water and heated to about 120° F.
In the Dark Room.

No. 8 and No. 4 are mixed and shaken in a
bottle till a perfect mixture is aecured; three
quartera of the solution of No. 2 ia then dropped
in little by little and ahaken well, and then No. 1
is added to the remuning quarter of the solution
of No. 2, and the mixture added as before. The
emulsion should appear of a ruby colour, when a
thin film of it is examined by a gas-light.
Boiling the Smulnon,

The bottle containing the emulsion is set in a
saucepan of water, which is brought to the boil-
ing-point, and kept there for 45 minutes, and
shaken occasionally during the process.
Cooling and Waihing,

The gelatin No. 6 having been washed to get
rid of dust, swelled in 2 oz. of cold water, and
then melted at a temperature of 100° F.; the
emuUion in the bottle and the gelatin No. 6 are
cooled to 70° or 80° F., and then well shaken and
mixed ; the mixture, after the froth haa subsided,
is poured into a flat porcelain dish, and allowed to
set. A piece of very coarse canvas or mosquito
netting is now prepared by washing and Iwiling,
so as to be perfectly clean, and the emulsion is
scraped out of the dish by means of a piece of
clean glass, placed in the canvas, and squeezed
through it by twisting under water; the shreds

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PHOTOGEAPHT

are then agun put on the canvai, stretched over a
■iere or jar, and washed by poarin^ a conple of
gallons of water over the mass ; it is then again
squeezed tbroagh the canTas, and again washed
as before. The operation is repeated once more,
and the whole is then left for a short time in a
jar of water, which is changed a few times. Cap-
tain Abney regards the repetition of the sqneez-
ing as equivalent to 12 hoars' washing.
Draining ih» JBmuUiim.

Allow the shreds to drain for 2 or 8 hours on
the canvas throogh which it has been squeezed.
Dittohing iht Emultion.

Melt in a clean jar or pot at about 120°, and
add i gr. of chrome alum dissolved in 1 dr. of
water, and stir well during the addition. Now
add 6 dr. of absolute alcohol, and filter through
wet chamois leather or two thicknesses of swans-
down calico previously well boiled and washed.
The Altered material should be received into a
glass flaslc which will bear heat, and is then ready
for coating the plates. The above ritumi of
Captain Abney's account of the method of making
a washed gelatin emulsion will serve as a general
ontline of the processes necessary. Those who
wish to make their own plates are strongly re-
commended to consult hu work, ' Photography
with Emulsions.' The plates will require to be
carefully dried in a light and dust-tight appa-
ratus, such as that described in 'Burton's ABC
of Photography.'

The object of the washing is to remove the
soluble salts and to increase the sensitiveness of
theproduct.

Captain Abney found that regarding the un-
washed emulsion as 1, the first squeezing and
washing increased the sensitiveness to 11, the
second to 2\, and that the third gave the same
result, I. e. two squeesings and washings are
sufBcient.

tormkUt for Oelatin Smultiom (JBnneei).

Ammonium bromide, 70 gr. ; pure silver nitrate,
110 gr. ; gelatb, 200 gr. ; distilled water, 6 oz.
Pageft Priu JEmultion,

Pare hydrochloric acid, 1 dr.j distilled water,
12i oz. Put into a 20 oz. bottle ; of the above,
dilute acid, 20 minims; distilled water, 3fl. oz. ;
ammonium bromide, 210 gr. ; Nelson's No. 1
gelatin, 80 gr. Dissolve 880 gr. pure silver
nitrate in 8 oz. of distilled water. Four about
2 dr. of this solution into another vessel and
dilute with an equal bulk of water. Heat the
20 OS. bottle and contents graduallg until the
gelatin is dissolved; pour in the i dr. dilute
silver solution, and shake well for half a minute,
adding the other i oz. at a time, shaking well
after each addition. Now bring the whole to a
high temperature by immersion in boiling water
for fifty-five minutes, and then cool as quickly as
possible to 90° F. Now take 1 oz. of Nelson's
No. 1 gelatin and soak in 10 oz. of clean water
till 4 oz. are absorbed ; this should be done pre-
viously. Pour off the unabsorbed 6 oz. of water
and add the rest after melting to the contents of
the 20 oz. bottle; shake well and mix thoroughly,
then pour into a clean beaker, and wash and
squeeze as before, but using 3 oz. of a saturated
solution of potetsiom Ucbiomate to S pints of cold

water ; in this the shreds are left for one hour, it
is next squeezed again twice into clean cold water.
Then stitun and put cloth and all into a clean
beaker, immersed in hot water till all is melted.
With a clean hand takeout the cloth and sqneeze
again ; now add 2 oz. of alcohol and make up to
20 OS. with clean water. Filter and ooat the
plates.

V. K. Burton'* Oelatin ^nwlritm (' British
Journal Photographic Almanac,' 1891.)

a. Potassium bromide, 260 gr. ; potaasinm
iodide, 20 gr. ; gelatin (Nelson's No. 1), 80 gr. ;
distilled water, 10 oz.

i. Fused silver nitrate, 200 gr.

c. Silver nitrate, 200 gr. ; distilled water, 1 oi.
Converted to ammonio-nitrate.

d. Oelatin, hard (dry), 600 gr.

Bwrha*V» Oelatin Hmuliion.

Water, 1 oz,; ammonium bromide, 16 to 20

gr., or potassium bromide, 18 to 26 gr. ; silver

nitrate (proportioned to the amount of bromide),

26 to 80 g^. ; gelatin, 80 to 40 gr.

Developing Formula for Oelatin Dry Plate*.

Almost every maker of dry plates in the pre-
sent day sends out with each box a formula or
fonnulcB for their development, by which it may
be supposed the best possible results may be
obtained, and it is not altogether fair to complain
of a certain brand of plate until the maker's
formula for development has been thoroughly
tried. The number and variety of these
special developers is so great that it is quite
impossible to give them in detail. llioae
who wish information on these developers
should consult a table prepared by Messrs
Lyonel Clark and E. Ferrero, in the 'British
Journal Photographic Almanac,' 1891, in which
65 different developers are analysed and presented
in a tabular form, so that the composition of any
given developer may be seen at a glance.

Those who practise photography on a large
scale and as a business, confine themselves as a
rule to one make of plate and one developer.
Experience acquired in this way generally givea
better results than constant change of plates and
developing solutions.

Oeneral Principle* of Development, A sensi-
tised plate which has beisn exposed in the camera
under proper conditions exhibits to the eye no
change whatever, but that some change has taken
place, profoundly modifying the silver salts in the
film in those parts of it on which the light has
acted, becomes evident at once on the application
of certun chemical reagents which, as they result
in the production of an image or picture wher«
there was none before, are called developers. We
may therefore define a developer as a substance
which acta upon those portions of a compound,
sensitive to light, which have been exposed to the
action of light, in a manner different from it*
action upon the same body wluch has not been so
exposed.

The simplest case is the action of light on
ferric salts. A piece of paper which has been
coated with a solution of ferric chloride and sub-
sequently exposed to light, one portion of it being
covered by some opaque object of definite form
such as a coin, will be found to be slightly altered.

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PHOTOOEAPHT

1277

sufficiently at all eventa for the ontline ot the coin
to be joit visible, the salts on the parts of the
paper exposed to light being converted into the
iertont state, that protected by the coin remaining
in the ferric condition. If now the paper be
washed with a solation of potassium f erricyanidck
the area exposed to the light becomes blue, the
are* protected by the coin remaining white and
an image in white on a bine gronnd is thns pro-
duced or dmtoped by the ferricyanide thus :

3Fe,Cl< + 2K,Fe,Cy,j= 2P^Pe,Cyo) + 12Ka.
similarly paper treated with a nranto salt will
yield a brown print.
_ The chemistry of the reactions is more or less
simple and comprehensible. What exactly occnrs
in the case of the silver bromide is by no means
so clear, hut in the resnlt the silver compounds in
the plate are so acted on by light that upon the
application of the developer reduction takes place
and metallic silver is deposited, and this in pro-
portion to the amount of action which has tuen
place. The highest lights in the original are repre-
sented in the developed plate by the greatest
amount of rednction, t. «. the darkest shadows and
ti>c« verti, i. «. the developed plate is a negative
from which the original or poniive picture has to
be obtained by a repetition of the process, viz. the
exposure of a sensitive film u»der the n^;ative to
the action of light.

Two general methods of development are in
nnivegrsal nse, (1) acid and (2) alkaline, a reducing
agent in add solution in the first case and in
ukaline solution in the second.

Amd Development, This is usually effected by
means of a solution of ferrous oxalate prepared as
follows :

1. Saturated solution of ferrous sulphate.

2. Saturated solution of potassio oxalate
(neutral), add a trace of oxalic acid to the oxalate
solution to prevent possible alkalinity and pour
the femut eulphate into the oxalate in the pro-
portion of 3 parts of the latter to 1 of the former.
Less of the sulphate may and often will suffice, and
it will be found tiiat ii much more be added a
precipitate will form which will cause great
trouble.

This developer requires care in use, as it is very
energetic and not very easily controlled in its
action. The addition of a drop or two of a 2%
solation of potassium bromide slows the action and
enables the operator to watch the process and, if
necessary, remove the plate and wash it before the
action has gone too far and resulted in "fog,"
t. e. the general reduction of the silver all over the
plate. It is a good plan to begin by fiooding the
plate with a strong developer dUuted witii its own
bnlk or rather less of water, condocting deveh^
ment with this till all detail appears and then
finishing the operation with some fresh undiluted
ferrous oxalate to which a few drops of the bromide
solution have been added to give density. The
development should be continued until the image
is visible on the back of the plate, which is then
to be well washed in water and transferred to a
saturated solution of alum which hardens the^lm
and decomposes any calcium oxalate which might
have been formed on the plate by the action of
the developer on the wash water. After two or
three minutes' immersion it is again well washed

and placed in the fixing bath (hyposnlphite of
soda). As soon as all traces of the white film
have disappeared the plate may be removed and
thoroughly rinsed under the tip to get rid of
excess of hyposulphite; it should then be soaked
for several hours iu water which is froquenUy
changed to remove the last traces of hyposulphite,
and lastiy set on its edge to dry in a current <rf
air, but protected from dust. If required in a
hurry, the n^^ative, after removal from the flxing-
bath, may be well rinsed, allowed to drain, and
then put into a dish fall of clean methylated
spirit, five or ten minutes' immersion will
suffice to remove the water from the film, and, on
draining the plate, will be found to dry very
rapidly and will be ready for printing from in a
few minutes, especially if it be gently warmed.
Negatives so treated should as soon as possible he
soaked in water for several hours, so as to ensure
the complete removal of the hyposulphite.

Any well-made gelatin plate should bear ferrons
oxalate development if due care be used. "The
resulting negatives are exceedingly dean and
bright, if the exposure has been correct, and are
specially suited for platinum printing on account
of their vigour and density. In unskilled hands
they are apt to be a litUe hard and to show too
great contrasts. The process is still very largely
used on the Continent, though other developers
have taken the place of iron in England and
America almost entirely.

Captain Abney recommends a ferroos-dtro-
oxalate developer made as follows ;

1. Potassium citrate, 700 gr, ; potassium oxa>
late, 200 gr. ; water, 31 oz. 2. Ferrous sulphate,
800 gr. ; water, 8^ oz. Mix in equal proportions.
Alkaline Developer! for Gelatin Platei.

The variety of formnis published for these de-
velopers is so great, eveiy maker and almost every
user having some modification of his own, that a
few general examples must suffice.

PraOQ-AIXOL DXTXLOFBRS.

The editor has found the following to work
exceedingly well :

1. Fyrogallol, 1 dr. ; water, 10 oz. 2. Potas-
sium bromide, 1 dr. ; liquor ammonisB, 1 dr. ;
water, 10 oz. Mix in equal proportions.

The addition of a little sodic sulphite is advan-
tageous, preventing stains, and tiding to pre-
serve the pyrogallic acid solution.

The Britannia Works Co. recommend for thdr
nf ord plates :

1. Pyrogallic acid, 1 oz. ; ammonium bromide,
600 gr. ; water, 6 oz. ; puro nitric acid, 20 drops.

2. liiqaor ammonits ('880), S dr.; water, 1
put.

8. No. 1 solution, 1 oz. ; water, 19 oi.

For developing, mix No. 2 and 8 in equal pro-
portions just befora using.

The ' British Journal Photographic Almanac,'
1891, gives the following :

1. (a) Sulphite of soda, 6oz.; hot water, 82
OS. ; pyrogallic acid, 1 oz. ; citric acid to acid
reaction.

(i) Carbonate of soda, 3 oz.j carbonate of
potash, 1 oz. ; water, 32 oz.

Mix just hefora using in equal proportions, and
then add water to twice the bulk of the mixture.

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PHOTOGRAPHY

2. (a) Sodinm anlphite, 4 os. ; warm diatUIed
water, 4 oz. ; when cooled to 70° F. add sulphnr-
ona acid (itrongest obtunable), 8i oz. ; pyro-
gallol, 1 oz.

(i) Potaaaium carbonate, 8 oz. ; water, 4 oz. ;
Bodiom Bnlpbite, 2 oz. f water, 4 oz.

DisaoWe aeparately and then mix in one sola-
tion.

For 2 oz. of developer, take 1 dr. of a (e- 6
gr. pyro.), and 20 minims of b, add water to 2 oz.
If derelopment has to be poshed, add 20 minims
more trf o, bat the total of b nsed should not
exceed H dr. in 2 oz.

After using pyrogallic add deTelopen it is well
to immerse the plate in a strong solation of alum
containing a small quantity of citric acid. This
hardens the film and also greatly tends to prevent
staining of the plate. After a thorough rinsing
onder the tap, the plate should be soaked for a
while (10 minutes) in clean water, and then
placed in the fixing bath. The object of the soaking
is to remove the last trace of acid in the plate,
which would otherwise decompose the hyposul-
phite, cause the formation of sulphuretted hydro-
gen, and consequent sfauning of the negative.
Sufficient ammonia added to the fixing bath to
make it smell perceptibly is an advantage, as de-
composition is thereby effectually prevented.

JE^droquinont Dnelopan.

The editor has found the following very re-
liable and uniform in its action :

Hydroquinone, 2) dr. j potassium carbonate, 7i
dr. ; sodium sulphite, 10 dr. ; wster to 80 oz.

A dilate solution of potassium bromide (2% )
should be kept at hand for use when a restrainer
is necessary.

The following are from the ' British Joomal
Phot<wnphic Almanac,' 1891 :

1. Hydroqoinone, 1 parti sodium sulphite, 2
parts; sodium carbonate^ 10 parts; water, 67
parts.

2. (a) Hydroquinone, 4 gr. ; meta-bisnlphite of
potash, 4 gr. ; potassium bromide, 1 gr, ; distilled
water, 1 oz.

(i) FOtassiam hydrate, 10 gr.j distilled water,
1 oz.

Of each equal parts.

8. (a) Hydroquinone, 80 gr. ; citric acid, 10
gr.; sodium sulphite (recryst), 80 gr. ; distilled
water, 80 oz.

(b) Caustic potash (fused), 160 gr.; sodiinu
sulphite, 160 gr.; distilled water, 20 oz.

(o) Potassium bromide, 24 gr.; distilled water,
1 oz.

((i) Caustic potMh, 160 gr. ; distilled water,
20 oz.

For normal exposures use equal parts of a and
b, adding 6 minims of o to every ounce of solu-
tion. For over exposed plates use d instead of b,
with an extra quantity of o. For under exposed
plates omit e, and in extreme cases add 6 or 8 gr.
more of sulphite of soda to each ounce of the de-
veloper. The object of increasing or decreasing
the quantity of solphite is to g^ve greater or
lesser density.

4. (a) Hydroquinone^ 160 gr.; sodium sulphite,
2oz. J citric acid, 60 gr.; ammonium bromide,
20 gr.; wster to 20 01.

(i) Potassium carbonate, 2 oz.; sodium car-
bonate (cryst), 2 oz. ; water to 20 oz.

Of each equal parts.

6. (a) Hydroquinone, 15 gr. ; sodium sulphite,
76 gr. ; water, 6 oz.

(b) Potassium carbonate, 90 gr.; water, 6 oz.

(e) A 10% solution of potassium bromide.

Use equal parts of a and i, with 2 or 3 drops of e.

6. Potaaaium bitartarate, 90 gr.; potassium
sulphite, 46 gr. ; potassium carbonate, 4 oz.;
water, 16 oz. Filter, and add hydroquinone, ) oz.

For use, one part diluted with sixteen of water.

For Chloride Platei.

7. Hydroquinone, 2 gr.; sodic sulphite, 10 gr.;
potassium or ammonia carbonate, 10 gr. ; potas-
sium bromide, ^ gr. ; water, 1 oz.

Maker'! Formula for Ilford Plate*.

a. Hydroquinone, 160 gr. ; potassium bromide,
80 gr. ; sodic sulphite, 2 oz. avoir.; water, 80 oi.

b. Sodic hydrate, 100 gr.; water, 20oz.; for
use take equal parts of each and mix.

Hydroquinone is a trifle slower in its action
than pyrogallic acid, bnt does not require such
constant rocking during development. The
negatives have a characteristio black colour, are
very dean, and print well. Hose devdopers
containing caustic alkali are apt to give nther
gfrey negatives, and require more attention in use
than those made with alkaline carbonates.
Silc<moge» Developer*.

Eikonogen is an amido-/3-naphthol-/3-mouoaaI>
phonate of sodium, introduced about three years
ago by Dr Andriessen as a developer for dry.
plates. Be claims for it that it gives a greata
range of half-tone than other devdopers, and that
the negatives are softer and more delicate.
Maker'* Formula.

1. a. Sodic sulphite (ciystaHised), 40 gnat. ;
dkonogen, 3 grma. ; distilled water, BOO cc

b. Potassium carbonate or caldned soda, 60 to
76 grms. ; distilled water, 600 cc For use of
each, equal parts ; mix.

2. a. Sodic sulphite, 4 parts ; eikonogen, 1
part ; water, 10 parte. Boil and stir till solution
is effected, then pour into a flask containing 60
parte cold water.

b. Sodic carbonate, 8 parts ; water, 80 parts.
Mix 8 parte of a with one of i immediately before
use.

Fixing Sath for Negative* Developed with
Sikouoge».

Sodium hyixMulphite, 4 parts ; sodium bisnl-
phito, 1 part ; water, 20 parts.

Fixitig Bath for Oelati» Dry Plato*.

Sodium hyposnlphitek 1 oz. ; water, 10 oz.
Wa*hing Negative*.

Where one or two only have to be washed it
will be sufficient to rinse thoroughly after re-
moval from the hyposulphite, and then place in a
large basin Tnll of water for 8 or 10 hours, chang-
ing the water two or three timea during this
period. When a large number of negatives are
to be washed it is bat to employ a tank with a
moveable frame innde to hold the plates and an
arrangement by which a constant stream of water
ahsll pass in at the bottom and overflow at the
top. A great number of contrivanoea are sold

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PHOTOQEAPHT

1279

by the dealers in photographic apparatni for
washing negatives, some of which sr^ very in-
genious and eflectiTe. Before setting a plate in
the rack to 'dry after removal from the washing
tank it is well to examine its surface for deposit
of lime salts from the water, which if allowed to
dry on the plate would damage it serionsly by
cansing minnte holes in the film. A good flood-
ing with water under the tap (or better a rose)
should be given, and if necessary the film should
be lightly rubbed with a tuft of cotton wool, and
again flooded before setting aside to dry. Dust
should be carefully excluded from places in which
plates are drying, or irremediable damage may re-
sult. Artificial heat, beyond that ofa warm room,
should not be employed unless the plates have
been previously treated with alcohol.
iHUmiffimff Negaiiveti

It frequently happens that a plate is sufiiciently
over exposed to give a poor, thin negative want-
ing in contrast, or it may not be up to the standard
of density required for printing in quantity, t, ».
it requires too much looking after during the
process. In these cases intensification is resorted
to in order to strengthen the image and give the
required density. There are many methods in
nse, hut the simplest, and one of the best is to
immerse the plate, afUr tAorouffh wtuhing, in a
solution of bichloride of mercury, 20 gr. ; am-
monium chloride, 20 gr. ; water, 1 oz. (J.
SnglanS). The surface gradually becomes
greyish white, and when the deposit is judged
to be sufficient the plate is again tAorcmghlg
v<uhtd, placed in a clean dish and treated with a
solution of ammonia, 10 drops to the ounce of
water; the film first turns brown and then black,
it is again thoroughlj/ toothed and set aside to dry.

Mr B. J. Edwiurds uses the following :

a. Mercuric chloride, 60 gr. ; water, 6 OS.

h. Potassium iodide, 90 gr. ; water, 2 oz.

e. Sodium hyposulphite, 120 gr. ; water, 2 oi.

Add i to a, and then add o to the mixture,
immerse the plate and wash. Captain Abney
says that negatives thus intensified turn ydlow
after a time.

Dr JSder't InttiuiJUr.

Uranium nitrate, 15 gr. ; potassium ferricy-
anide, IS gr. ; water, 4 oz. ; immerse the plate.
Allow the action te proceed aa far as necessary,
then remove from the solution and wash. Every
trace of hyposulphite must be removed before
applying we intensifler or the shadows will be
veUra. Simple and permanent.

Over intensiflcation with mercury can be re-
duced or entirely removed by immersing the
plate in a solution of sodium hyposulphite.

To Stduee ovtr Dents NegaHvet. Immerse
in a solution of potassium ferricyanide, 8 gr.;
B% solution of sodium hyposulphite, 1 oz.; use
as soon as prepared and with caution. A very
weak solution of ferric chloride may also be used
for the same purpose, but the g^reate'st care
must be used to prevent the disappearance of the
picture. In some cases it is best to allow the
redaction to go on to a considerable extent j wash
thoroughly and intensify to the desired pitch.
Local redaction may be effected by the cautions
use of a weak solution of ferric diloride, but it
must be home in mind tb»t this is a very active

reagent, and Taluable negatives should not be
tampered with ezceiit by persons skilled in ite
use.

VABirigH VOB NEaATIYBS.

1. A saturated solution of seed-lac in methy-
lated spirit, thinned down to a proper consistency,
makes an excellent negative varnish.

2. Sandarac, 4 oz.; alcohol, 28 oi.; oil of
lavender, 8 oz. ; chloroform, 6 dr.

8. (Cheap.) White hard varmsh, 15 oz.;
methylated spirit, 25 oz.

4. Shellac, 1^ oz. ; mastic, i oz.; oil of tux-
pentine, } oz. ; sandsrac, li oz. ; Venice turpen-
tine, \ oz. ; camphor, 10 gr. ; alcohol, 20 fl. oz.

6. Sandarac, 90 oz. ; turpentine, 36 oz. ; oil of
lavender, 10 oz. ; alcohol, 600 oz.

6. Sandarac, 2 oz. ; seed-lac, 1 to li oz. ; castor
oil, 3 dr.; oil of lavender, 1| dr.; alcohol, 18
fl. oz.

NKOATiTii NBTOBiCHnra VABinaR.

7. Sandarac, 1 oz. ; castor oil, 80 gr. ; alcohol,
6oz.

IMssolve the gum in the alcohol, then add the
<nl.

QBovss-aLAaa Vabrisk.

8. Sandarac 90 gr. ; mastic, 80 gr. ; ether, 2
oz. ; benzol, i to 1} oz.

The benzol determines the character of the
surface. Nos. 2 to 8 are from the ' British Journal
Photographic Almanac'

EXPOBUBB OP PlATBB.

Elaborate tables have been constructed by
which the exact duration of the exposure with a
given lena, stop, and plate under all conditions
of time, place, weather, and season of the year
may be calculated. These tables are interesting,
and may he. of use to the beginner, but the judg-
ment which comes of experience is a far more
reliable guide. It is well to note the stop used
and the exposure given under certain conditions
for reference in case the same object has to be
photographed again.

SxoBura NBaAims.
All manner of contrivances have been devised
for this purpose — cupboards fitted with racks,
grooved boxes, envelopes, files, &c. The simplest
plan i8 to place the negatives carefully uUhovt
paper or other packing, one on the top of the
other in the empty plate boxes. If these are la-
helled, and the plates numbered and a catalogue
kept, there is no difficulty in finding a negative
required, nor is there any risk of damage if ordi-
nary care be used in handling them. Specially
valuable negatives should be kept in grooved
boxes. It is sometimes forgotten by photogra-
phers that glass is a heavy article, and that the
weight of some hundreds of large negatives
packed closely tog^ether is not menly consider-
able but enormous. Studios are often on the
upper floors of houses, not perhaps too well built,
and never intended to bear a ton weight concen-
trated on a very small surface.' Old negatives,
especially if of small size below ' whole plate,' are
almost ^ueless ; the larger siiea can sometimes
be got rid of for glazing greenhouses if there be
a nursery near the studio. If not, the cost of
carriage is greater than that of new glass spe-
cially made for the purpose.

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Tbb Calotte b Fboobss.

This is a process by which negatives may be
obtained npon paper, and in spite of the intro-
duction of sach materials as Eastman's negative
paper, celluloid films, and other excellent means
of securing lightness and portability, the calo-
type process is so simple and the results so satis-
factory that it is worthy of l>eing better known
and more used than is actually the case. It is
one of the oldest negative processes, and lias been
bat little improved since its introduction by Fox
Talbot.

The Paper. — Any good, hand made, white
paper, free from grit and chalk will answer. What
IS known as medium Saxe is recommended by
Captain Abney, If this cannot be obtained it is
wdl to treat an untried paper with dilute hydro-
chloric add, brushing it over the surface, and then
thoroughly washing and drying, teking care that
it driea perfeotlg flat. Wnen dry and ready for
coating, silver iodide is prepared as follows :
Tt^ke of (a) Silver nitrate, 3 grms. j distilled
water, 20 c.c. (i) Potassium iodide, 3 grms. ;
distilled water, 20 c.c. ; and dissolve each
separately. Four b into a ; allow the precipitate
to settle and pour off the snpematent liquid. Wash
the precipitate thoroughly with several lote of
distilled water by stirring, allowing to settle and
decanting, and dissolve it in the following :
Potassium iodide, 80 grms. ; water, 60 c.c. ; this
will not completely dissolve the iodide, and
crystals of potassium iodide must be added till
after much stirring a semi-transparent and milky
solution is obtuned.

The paper is cut to a proper size and pinned on
a flat board. Next prepare a br\uh by taking a
tuft of clean cotton wool, putting a loop of thread
round it and drawing it through a piece of glass
tube, leaving enough of the wool outside to form a
brush. The paper on the board is now evenly
coated with the iodide and allowed to partially
dry, it is then immersed in three changes of dis-
tilled water in a dish, and after two or three
hours' washing, to remove potassium iodide, it
is hung up to dry in a dark room. When dry it
may be stored between the leaves of a clean copy-
ing-book for future use.

When required for use, pin on the board as
before, and with another cotton-wool brush cover
the surface with:

1. Silver nitrate, 6 grms. ; glacial acetic acid,
8 c.c. J water, 50 c.c.

2. Saturated solution of gallic acid in distilled
water.

To every cub. cent, of No. 1 add 60 c.c. of dis-
tilled water, next 1 c.c. of No. 2, and Anally
80 C.C. of distilled water. Apply the mixture
plentifully but lightly to the iodised paper with a
cotton-wool brush, and take up all excess with
the best filtering paper. Two sheets are placed
back to back, witi^ blotting-paper between, between
two sheete of glass in the dark slide of the camera.
The paper is most sensitive when moist.

To develop, pin out the paper as before, and
apply equal parts of Nos. 1 and 2 as before.
When the mixture begins to fail in its action use
No. 2 alone until the deep shadows begin to get
dim by transmitted light, the sheet should then
be at once immened in a 6% solution of ■odium

hyposulphite and washed for several hours in
running watbr. When thoroughly washed and
dried, tiie whole of the paper except the sky, if
there be any, should be impregnated and rendered
translucent by wax worked into it by a moderately
hot iron.

Captain Abney advises beginners to use the
process for making prints from negatives at first,
and to try it in the camera when some experience
of manipulation has been obtained. He strongly
recommends the process to travellers, as the ^para-
tns required is very small. " A few dozen sheets
of iodised paper, and a chest containing silver
nitrate, gallic acid, and a bottle of acetic acid and
sodium hyposulphate being all the chemicals re-
quired ; scales and weights, the camera and its
legs, a couple of pieces of clean glass the siie
of the slides, a few drawing pins, a folding dish,
a cotton-wool brush-holder, and a candle-shad^
complete theappaiatns,"

Photoobaphio kxtLRunn.

We have thus far discussed only the vaiions
processes by which sensitive media may be pre-
pared on which a photograph may be taken, and
the means by which the action of the light may
be made apparent, and the negative fixed and
preserved. Without entering into great detail
it will be well to point out some of the essential
features of the apparatus required for various
kinds of photography, but excluding the photo-
mechanic^ processes which will be treated sepa-
rately.

Thb Dabk Boom,

The construction and arrangement of the dark
room will very greatly depend upon the natun
and amount of tiie work done in it. The aooom-
modHtion required for the mere development of
dry plates is small, and the applianoea required
exceedingly simple ; but if emulsions are to be
mixed, plates coated, and several different pro-
cesses worked side by side ; in fact, if the dark
room is to be what it should be, a photographic
laboratory, the conditions to be satisfied are
much more complicated, and the need for
plenty of space with properly constructed work-
ing benches, and an ample supply of water, with
corresponding sinks and appliances for heating,
drying cupboards, abundant shelf space for
chemicals and apparatus ; in fact, a chemical labo-
ratory arranged for photographic work, and
lighted in sudi a way that the sensitive materials
used may be manipnlated therein without risk.
The plan and arrangement of such a laboratory
hardly comes within the scope of this work, but
some general instructions as to the oouTeraion of
existing premises may be of service.

Lighting. — The best light for any stodio, labo-
ratory, or workshop is u^oubtedly a north light,
and in a photographic laboratory this is perhkps
of more importenee than in others, as the direct
rays of the sun are often difficult to oontarol, and
unless the control is practically perfect it is use-
less. The whole of the light admitted to the
dark room must be made to pass through aome
coloured medium which is capable of aba<n'bing
or cutting off as much as possible of the actinic
rays ; for this purpose, deep orange stuned glass
or flashed ruby glass or a combinrtioD of tlie two

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1881

■honid be nsed, and in order to aroid riak there
should be no more glazing in the room than is
required to give a ^)od light for conducting the
operations, and even then no glass, or other
material, paper, cloth, stained varnishes, &c.,
liould be trtuted *ntil it hat hem thorougiU/
tried by leaving a sensitive plate exposed for a
reasonable time, e.g. ten minntes, to its action.
This plate, a portion of which should be covered
with some opaque material, is then to be deve-
loped as if it were a negative, and if after fixing
it should be possible to detect the boundary of
the covered part, it is proof that the light is
onsafe, and the glass should be rejected or some
additional precautions taken. There is hardly
any medium which can be trnsted implicitly for
emulsion making where the exposure to light is
of necessity prolonged, and accordingly it is best
to employ arti6cial illumination for this purpose.
Instead of glazing a window sash with ruby glass,
the existing panes may be covered with ruby or
canary fabric, orange or ruby tissue-paper, or
even varnished with some coloured medium ; the
last plan is not to be recommended, as no varnish
will long stand exposure to light without fading,
and the light then slowly becomes unsafe, the
oanse perhaps remaining unsuspected until some
▼alaable negative is spoiled. It is a great mis-
take to work in the dark, as with care it is pos-
sible to have an abundance of a perfectly safe and
comfortable light. Where artificial light is
nsed care should be taken to secure proper venti-
lation, and the free escape of the products of
combustion, especially where gas is nsed, as the
snlphnric acid produced by the traces of sulphur
in the gas will find its way into everything kept
in the room ; and if there be an open water tank,
the addition of a little barium chloride to a
sample of the water from it, after the gas has
been bnming for a short time, will yield a heavy
precipitate of barium sulphate, showing the pre-
sence in the water of eitiier free sulphuric acid
or sulphates, in this case probably sulphate of
ammonia. The water tank should therefore be
tmttide the dark room if the supply cannot be
obtained direct from the mains. Every imagin-
able form of lamp which ingenuity can devise is
in the market. A biscuit tin with a gas elbow
soldered into the lid and a hole at one end with a
small stove elbow set on it to carry off the hot
air and prevent the escape of light, the bottom
being cut out and replaced by two folds of canary
fabric, makes a most excellent lamp. If gas is
not to be had, a small paraffin lamp or a carriage
candle set inside will answer every purpose. A
cylinder made of two thicknesses of canary
fabric set over a lamp or candle makes a good
portable light for developing. The light which
streams out of the top may be neglected if the
plates be quickly immersed in the solution. The
dark slides should be filled by the operator tam-
ing his back on the light in the furthest comer
of the room. Very sensitive plates may be
changed in this way toith eare. Experience and
obse^tion alone will show what precautions are

It is desirable that the walls of the dark room
be covered with a varnished paper or be painted,
or otherwise rendered smooth, sO that as little
TOI.. II.

dust tts possible may be deposited — to descend in
a cloud, when some unusual vibration occurs, upon
a plate. The dust of a laboratory is always che-
mical, I. e. contains particles of salts, Ice, which,
if they fall on a plate, are capable of producing
minute spots, pin-holes, and other troubles. Re-
ference has already been made to the arrange-
ment of the water-supply where tanks are used.
The tap of the developing sink should have a
rose attached to it by a piece of flexible tubing, a
fine spray of water washing far more effectually
and quickly than a heavy stream.

Bottles attdjan containing chemicals and solu-
tions should be well closed by good stoppers and
corks, and should be very dietinetljf labelled, and
they should, if possible, always be kept in the
same place, so that in the obscure light no mis-
takes may be made. The same applies to the
dishes and other vessels used for the development,
fixing, and washing of plates ; every care should
be taken to prevent their being interchanged ; for
this reason it is well to use dishes of different
materials for each purpose. There is, perhaps,
nothing of so much consequence in photography
as cleanliness, and it is well to acquire the habit
of washing the hands after dipping them in any
of the solutions used, especially the hyposulphite
bath. Common yellow soap, plentifully used, will
remove the "hypo" as effectually as anything.
It is a mistake to use any other dishes for de-
velopment than those made for the purpose to the
size of the plates employed. The initial cost of
a dish may be saved, it is true, but the waste of
developer will more than compensate for this in a
vei^ short time.

Portable Dark Tents. These, which are an
absolute necessity when the wet process is worked
in the field, may be obtained in many different
patterns from the dealers in photographic appa-
ratus. It is not difficult to construct a folding
frame large enough to admit the head and shoul-
ders, and covered with some opaque material, e. g.
two thicknesses of Turkey red calico and one of
black, with a window of ruby or canary fabric to
admit light, is easily constructed. The base
should be about 21 inches by 13, and there should
be enough material in the cover that when the
frame rests on a table the operator may nt down
with the cover tied round his wsist, thus exclud-
ing all light. By developing at night all necessity
for a tent is done away wiu, but the changing of
plates in the field requires some such device.
Changing boxes and bags, of every imaginable
design, may be obtained of the makers, and re-
quire no notice here beyond the >emark that a
little ingenuity will save much expense.

l%e choice qf a camera and lenses is a matter
which calls for remark. The number of types and
patterns in the market and the great range of
price are such as to bewilder the inexperienced.
The best advice that can be given to the would-
be purchaser is first of all to make up his mind
clearly the purpose for which he requires the ap-
paratus, field, or studio, and the size of the pic-
ture for field work, and whether the apparatus has
to be carried constantly. A i-plate, B x 4, or
I- plate apparatus will be the most convenient, as
the weight increases rapidly beyond these sizes.
The modem amateur photographer will not appa*

81

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1282

PHOTOGEAPHY

rently entertain the purchase of a camera where
weight (even whole plate) may not he reckoned hy
ouncet i and the gkill and ingenuity of the makers
haa proved equal to the task of providing cameras
of extraordinary lightness — some of them mar-
vels of workmanship. Much depends on the uses
to which the instrument is to be put. For hard
rough work and constant exposure to the weather
in all climates the old, albeit somewhat heavy,
pattern, made by Hare and Meagher, with rigid
front, solid base board, and folding tail-piece,
brass-bound, is still unsurpassed ; and the amount
of rough usage which one of these cameras will
stand is simply utonishing. The modem type
with taper bellows and folding front, in which
every particle of material, which is not absolutely
necessary, has been removed, are, as before said, won-
derful examples of cabinet and brass work.bnt abso-
lute rigidity cannot be secured without a certain
amount of weight, and the folding front, which car-
ries the lens, is, to practical workers, a serious ob-
jection, as any unsteadiness of the lens is fatal to
the production of a picture. Price is another very
important consideration. Beally good work, either
light or heavy, is always expensive ; and though
machinery has done much to lessen the cost of
production, and cameras and lenses are to be had
at very low prices, and not by any means to be
despised on that account, it should be remem-
bered that the camera is an optical instrument as
much as the microscope, and that there is a cer-
tain necessary relation between price and quality.
The Lent. — The choice of a lens must be en-
tirely governed by the use to which it is to be put,
as the variety in photographic work is very great,
and there is no such thing as a really universal
lens, though there is one form which makes a
considerable approach to this desideratum.

If we arrange the first simple lens which
comes to hand in such a way that we can obtain
an image on the ground glass of the camera its
defects are at once apparent. The image will
probably be very ill-defined excepting just at the
centre. It will only occupy a small portion of
the screen, will exhibit great distortion at the
margins of the picture which will be very nne-
equ^ly illuminated, and there will be a distinct
tendency to fringes of colour at the edges.
For photographic as for any other purposes we
require a lens, corrected as far as possible for
spherical and chromatic aberration, and which
shall at the same time cover the whole of the
plate sharply to the comers. In certain cases,
*.g. in portraiture, an additional quality is re-
quired in an extreme degree, viz. depth of focus
as it is called, 1. 1. the capacity for bringing into
one plane the various parts of a solid object.

The simplest form of photographic lens is the
laitdteapt Un$ (Fig. a) which is practically a
simple meniscus, made of two or more pieces of
glass cemented together for the purpose of correct-
ing aberration ; such a lens will define sharply dis-
tant objects in very different planes, and according
to the angle of the lens will yield a sharp image of
objects lying at a considerable angle to its axis ;
near objects, however, will appear blurred and
distorted to a greater or less extent, and though
it is possible to construct a lens of this kind of
such an angle as to define near objects, the effect

produced is apt to be strained and unnatural, and
the use of these wide angle lenses requires consi-

Fio. A.

Ltndscape Lena.

derable discretion, though in cramped situations
they are often the only means of securing a pic-
ture of any kind.

The Rectilinear Lent (Fig. B) is a combina-
tion or doublet, i. e. a pair of compound lenses
separated from one another by a considerable in-
terval ; each combination consists of a compound
meniscus, and the two are mounted with their con-

Fio

Rectilineu Lena.

cave surfaces facing one another with a slit in the
mount between them for the introduction of the
diaphragm. These lenses, if properly constructed,
may be used for almost any purpose. They are, as
their name implies, rectilinear, i, e. the pictures
produced show no distortion, and they may be
used for landscape, architecture, or copying.

The Portrait Lent (Fig. c) resembles the recti-
linear in general construction, but the curves are
worked specially for portraiture, and the combina-
tions separated by a considerable interval in order
to secure the depth of focus required. This reduces
the field very greatly, so much so, that a good
portrait lens will not produce a picture much
larger than the area of its own surface, hence the
great size and cost of portrait combinations in-
tended for taking large pictures, one such, 6i

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PHOTOGRAPHY

1288

inches in diameter, by a maker of repute, costing
between £70 and £100.

Fia. 0.

Portrait liena.

The TripletrLeiu. Tbis is a form of lens con-
taining three sets of combinations for the purpose
of preventing distortion. These lenses ore now
obsolete, but those made by Ross and Dallmeyer
still command a good price second hand, as for
cerfa^ purposes, especially copying drawings,
maps, letterpress. Sec, they can hardly be sur-
passed. The increase in the nnmber of surfaces,
and consequent loss of light, render them slow in
action, but in many cases this is a distinct advan-
tage.

The Diaphragm. The chief use of the dia-
phragm is to cut off the oblique rays of light
passing through the lens and thus further correct
the spherical aberration and increase the sharpness
of the picture. This sharpness is, however, ob-
tained at the obvious expense of the illumination,
and in order that the exposure necessary for a
given make of plate with diaphragms of different
•26. -6, 1. 2. 4,

sizes may be known with some degree of accuracy,
the size and position of the diaphragm must be
ac^nsted according to certain rules. In a doublet
lens, if the combinations have the same focal
length, the diaphragm should be exactly midway
between them in order to diminish distortion in
the highest degree. In some of the older lenses
a circular patch of light always made its appear-
ance in the centre of the picture called a " flare
spot ; " this wasMne to the snrface of the lens
reflecting the image of the aperture in the
diaphragm. By altering the position of the stop
very slightly, the defect may be overcome, but tlw
remedy may result in the reappearance of dis-
tortion. Something further may be done by alter-
ing the distance between the combinations, but
there is reason to believe that the defect is only
distributed over the whole plate, and may in
some cases result in general "fog" over the
developed negative.

Relative Size* of Dit^hragmt. In order that
the aperture of the diaphragms to be used with a
given lens many have some numerical value, Mr
Dallmeyer has proposed that they shonld bear a
definite relation to the focal length ; thus if the
focal length of the lens be twelve inches, a dia-
phragm with an aperture two inches in diameter
would be marked ^th, i. e. one sixth of the focal
length, and so on with other apertures generally
expressed ys.

The Photographic Society of Great Britain has
established a uniform system of diaphragms for
which a lens with an aperture one quu^r its focal
length has been taken as the unit of measurement
and is marked " 1," a stop of half the area which,
when used, will require double the exposure to be
given is marked 2, the next requiring double this
exposure agun is marked 4, and so on, 1, 2, 4, 8,
16, 32, 64, 128, 266, the last being the smaUest
stop in general use. Lenses with apertures
greater than one fourth of their focal length are
not common, when such exist, the apertures are
marked by decimal fractions thns '6 '26, &c The
latter is the largest aperture obtainable in lens
construction. These numbers in terms of the focal
length of the lens may be written —

8, 16, 82, 64, 128, 266,
/ / f f f f

2-828 4 6-667 8 11-314 16 22-627 82 44-26 64

It may happen that the stops supplied with
a particular lens are not the society standard
sb^s. In this case it will not be difficult to de-
termine approximately the relation of the given
set of stops to the standard. The focal length
of the lens being known, a table can readily be
calculated, showing what the exact diameters of
a series of standard stops should be, and by com-
paring these figures with those obtained by
measuring caref dly the unknown stops, the rela-
Uve values of these may be known with sufficient
accoracy for most purposes.

B«;ginnen in photography would do well to
master this question of stops thoroughly, as
saeceis greatly depends upon it. A very clear
explanation of the system, with tables to facilitate
judgment of exposure, will be found in Burton's
' Modem Photography ' (' Piper and Carter's
Photographic Handy Books,' No. viii).

Focal Lenffth of Letuet. For making small
pictures flrom which enlargements are intended
to be made there is a distinct optical advantage
in the nse of a lens of short focus, the picture
being theoretically sharper than if taken the
same size direct. In practice this will be found
to be of but limited application, and it is now
recognised that in order to obtain true artistic
effect the focal length of the lens must be suited
to the subject, and lenses of long focus are now
being largely used for landscape work as giving
a more truthful j^cture. This is especially the
case in hilly or moimtainons country. A lens of
focal length exactly equal to the longest edge of
the plate nsed wiU be found generally useful,
but where distant views of mountain tops are re-
quired a focus equivalent to two, or even three
times the length of the long edge of the plate
will be required.

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1884

PHOTOGRAPHY

To find the Focus of a Lent. The foUonr-
ing simple method is given by Mr T. B. Dalle-
meyer, F.B.A.S., in the ' British Jodmal Photo-
graphic Almanac ' for 1890 :

Having marked on the faaie-board of the
camera the position of the screen when the given
lens is focussed on some very distant object,
"mount the camera on a board covered with
white paper ; mark two fine vertical lines on the
ground glass at a definite known and accurately
measured distance apart; place a naked candle
flame a considerable distance ofE in the room, and
as nearly as possible in a line with the plane of
the axis of the lens. First focus the flame in the
centre of the ground glass, and mark a pendl line
by the side of the camera on the paper on the
board below ; then, without using the board below,
turn the camera on its axis nntil the candle flame
is on the other vertical line, and make a second
line by the side of the camera ; remove the
camera now, and find the angle included between
these lines; also mark the position of the camera
back on the base. We have now all the data for
finding the focus for parallel rays.

" Let the distsnce between the lines on the
ground glass B C— a inches, the angle BAC=^ ;
tiie difference in the positions of the camera back

B

D

for the focus for the candle flame, and that regis-
tered from parallel ravs (i. «. distant object)
pF = J inches, and the focus for parallel rays AF
(to be found) » cinches. Then —

tani

BD or CD ., -^
AD

a
or 8*

m + b

from which « is easily found."

The foetutinff icrtmt should be made of the
finest ground glass. A piece of patent plate is best,
set m its frame with die ground surface towards
the lens. For very delicate work, e.g. micro-
photography, it is better to use plain glass, and
focus with a suitable lens. Accurate focussing
can only be accomplished in this way. Substi-
tutes for focussing screens, in case of accident,
may be made from an undeveloped plate or other
piece of glass, using a lens for focussing as before.
Care should be taken that the glass is close up
against the rebate of the frame, and, if plain
glass be used, a few very fine scratches should be
made on the surface next the lens, there to be
brought into focus with the picture, which will

then be sharp. For micro-photographic work
fine parallel lines crossing one another Uf form
small squares is the best marking.

Speed of Lemet. — There is considerable con-
fusion in the text-books as to what constitutes a
rapid lens, and why. Technically one lens is said
to be more rapid than another, if wiUi the same
stop and the same plate, turned upon the same
object at the same time ; the exposure necessary
to obtain a normal result is shorter in the one case
than the other. This may arise from several
causes. A badly-corrected lens will require a
great deal of stopping down in order to obtain
a picture free from distortion ; consequently there
will be great loss of light and longer exposure
will be necessary. The quality of the glass of
which lenses are made varies somewhat in its
power of absorbing light, hence another cause of
difference; but the chief effect is produced in
doublet lenses by the arrangement of the com-
binations. This is best illustrated by the por-
trait lens, in which the combinations are widely
separated. These are carefully corrected for dis-
tortion, so as to give a good picture without any
diaphragm if necessary, and, as the image pro-
duced is only a little larger than the surface of
the lens, it follows that more light reaches a given
point on the plate than would be the case 3 the
combinations were brought closer together, and
the image spread over a larger area.

Iiuta»tanaoiu Photograph. — The extreme
sensitiveness of modern gelatin emulsions, and the
skill of the makers in the construction of lenses,
have led to an enormous development of the photo-
graphy of moving objects. Hundreds of different
makes of so-called "detective cameras" are in
the market, with the result that in the majority
of hands vast quantities of inartistic and techni-
cally poor negatives are produced. In portraiture, .
especially chUdren's portraits, good lenses and
rapid plates are invaluable, and when put to its
proper use instantaneous photography is of great
service. We have learned from it the details of
the movements of men and animals, and the work
of Marey and Muybridge in this direction has
not been without its effect upon art and painters,
teaching them that the conventional method of
representing animals in motion, especially horses,
was entirely wrong, and affording a curious ex-
ample of how the constant uncritical use of some-
thing which is in itself wrong and purely con-
ventional, may lead to its being regarded as
correct.

There is no doubt that many of our greatest
artists who paint subjects in motion study in-
stantaneous photographs of these subjects with
great care, and are thus enabled to avoid absurdi-
ties, in the representation of such subjects, as
breaking waves, moving animals, &c., 4c. The
great French artist, lately dead, II. Meissonnier,
paid i^reat attention to the results of photo-
graphing animals in motion, and embodied the
results of his studies in his painting.

Under the head of instantaneous photography,
the question of thuttert requires some mention.
By this term is implied an apparatus by which the
lens may be uncovered and covered again in a
shorter period of time than is possible by unMp-
ping and capping the lens with the hand. The

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1285

nnmber and variety of shatters in the market at
the present time ii literally legion, and it is quite
impoesible to enter here into a discassion as to
which is the best form or type. A shutter con-
■tmcted to work between the combinations of a
lens, and which during the greater part of the
exposure allows the lens to be fully open is, in
the opinion of Professor Barton, the best form to
use. But excellent work may be done with very
simple apparatus, and a "drop shutter," con-
stmcted on the plan given in his manual already
referred to, will be found, at first at all events, to
■erve most purposes, and the experience gained
with it will assist the choice of a better instru-
ment.

SuMitutet for Glass as the Support. Space
will not permit a detailed notice of all the various
spplUutces which have been introduced for
diminishing the weight of the sensitive plates,
Negative paper is now an article of commerce, and
Tanons contrivances for using it either in single
sheets or as a continuous roll are sold which will
be fonnd figured in the catalogues of most dealers
in photographic apparatus. Films of celluloid,
coated with emulsion, are now mannfactnred and
are rapidly coming into use as substitutes for the
heavy glass plates, and possess the additional ad-
Tantages that they occupy far less space and are
not liable to breakage.

Stereoieopie Photography. In order to obtain
a stereoscopic negative, twin lenses of exactly equal
focal length are used in the camera which is
generally divided by a moveable partition, the axis
ot the lenses being set at abont 2i inches apart, in
this way a doable negative is obtained from which
a print is made by any suitable process. This
must be cut in two and mounted on a card, the
riffht-hand print on the left of the card, and the
left-hand on the right. Thus mounted and placed
in the stereoscope the well-known effect of
solidity is obtained. Stereoscopic photography
is deservedly becoming popular again after some
years of neglect.

Punrmra PBOCBSSBe.

The production of a negative is, though perhaps
the most important, only the first stage in any
photographic process, which cannot be said to be
complete untU a positive print in some form or
other has been obtuned.

It will be obvious that a direct photograph of
a ntgatita taken in the camera will yield a post'
five, and this process is frequently resorted to
especially where enlargement or redoction is
required. These processes will be described
Uter.

Fox Talbot's calofype process has already been
mentioned as applicable to the production of
positive prints on paper, and some of the earliest
paper pontives in existence actually produced by
Fox Talbot were made upon a paper treated with
silver chloride. Prints so made were dull and
wanting in detail, and it was found better to coat
the paper with albumen before sensitising in
order to keep the image as near the surface as
possible, and thus the modem silver print and
alltnmenised paper originated.

Silv»r Printing, For this purpose a good
paper is required which will bear soaking in water

and return afterwards to its original size without
puckering. The papers known as Saxe and
Rives are generally used for preparing sensitised
paper, as tiiey possess these qualities in a high

Plain Salted Paper. Make a solution of
Nelson's No. 1 gelatin in water (1 gr. to the
ounce) by soaking and the subsequent use of heat,
then add 8 gr. of ammonium chloride to every oz.
of the solution, good Saxe paper is soaked in
this solution, teking care to avoid ur bubbles,
and is then carefully dried. When dry it is
floated on a solution of silver nitrate containing
50 to 60 gr. to the ounce of water, or it may be
coated iy means of a brush with a solution of
ammonio-nitrate of silver made as follows : " Dis-
solve 60 gr. of silver nitrate in i oz. of water, and
drop in ammonia nntil the precipitated oxide is
exactly redissolved. Then divide this solution of
ammonio-nitrate of silver into two equal jiarts,
to one of which add nitric acid cautiously until a
piece of immersed litmus paper is reddened by
the excess of the acid ; then mix the two together,
fill up to 1 oz. with water, and filter from the
milky depodt of chloride or carbonate of silver,
if any be found" (Hardwick). The solution must
be kept in the dark. Paper coated with this
ammonio-nitrate of silver solution keeps badly
and should be used soon after it is made. It
prints much more quickly than paper sensitised
with silver nitrate aJone.

Plain paper may be fixed, washed, and toned
in the nsuu way, but a more dilate toning bath
is required, about 1 gr. of gold to 16 oz. of water
is sufficient.

Albummising Paper. According to the size
and quantity of the paper to be albumenised eggs
are taken and the yolks very carefully separated
from the whites (each egg will coat about two
sheets of paper, 22 k 17 in.). The whites are then
mixed and measured and 8 gr. of ammonium
chloride dissolved in the smallest possible quantity
of water, added to each ounce. After " salting "
the albumen is beaten into a very fine froth and
set aside for 24 or 48 hours, it is then filtered
through two thicknesses of fine muslin. The filtered
albumen is poured into a flat dish and the paper
is floated on it, every care being taken to avoid
air babbles. As soon as the paper has ceased to
curl and lies flat on the surface of the albumen
it is drawn off by one end and hung up to dry
over a roller of wood 2 or 2) in. in diameter.
This operation may be performed twice, the paper
after the first drying being passed through a bath
of methylated spirits 4 parts, water 1 part, to
coagulate the first layer of albumen ; it is then
dried again and floated once more ; when dry it is
ready for use.

The Sensitising Bath. A 50 gr. to the ounce
solution of silver nitrate. As each sheet sensi-
tised takes away silver from the bath it gets
weaker and must be replenished, this is best done
by addUng i oz. of a solution of silver nitrate
100 gr. to the oz., after each sheet if the bath be
a small one ; 2 oz. tetter every eight sheets will
sufice if the hath oontun a gallon or more of
solution.

floating the Paper. The albumenised and
salted paper is flrst damped and made limp by

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PHOTOGBAPHT

keeping for a few hours in a damp cellar, or "by
careful exposure in a lx>x or cupboard to the action
of steam from a bowl of boiling water. The paper
is floated on the bath in just the same way as on
the albumen, but for a longer time, viz. about
half an hour ; the time varies with the strength
of the bath, temperature, and other conditions.
Burton recommends as a test to brush a little
solution of potassium chromate on ihabaek of the
sheet in one corner or on a separate piece of the
same paper, and to continue the floating until this
spot has become of a deep orange colour. The
paper is then removed carefully from the bath,
dndned a little and hung over a roller to drv in
the dark in a warm, well ventilated room. Care
should be taken to provide for catching the solu-
tion which drips from the comers i a small piece
of good white blotting-paper is perhaps the best,
as it attaches itself readily and can be afterwards
burned and the silver recovered.

Fuming the Paper. — If the sensitised paper
be exposed to the action of the fumes of am-
monia for from three to twenty minutes before
printing, the resulting prints will be more bril-
liant, the paper will print moi« quickly and wiU
tone to a purple colour much more easily. Ex-
periment alone will determine the amount of
fuming desirable.

Printing on Albumenised Paper. The ' print-
ing frame ' is an apparatus so familiar nowa-
days as hardly to require description. It resem-
bles an ordinary picture-frame with a hinged
back, kept in its place by springs. The negative
takes the place of the glass in the picture-frame
(film inwards), on this Ues the sheet of sensitised
paper, and is kept in its place by the hinged back,
' wmch is usually padded with cloth or felt. By
releasing one of the springs one half of the back
can be lifted np, and the progress of the printing
examined without shifting the paper. For sizes
larger than whole plate it is better to use a deep
and heavy frame with a plate-glass front, against
which the negative lies, and is thus saved from a
strain which might otherwise cause its fracture.
As a general rule the printing is continued tivice
as long as is necessary to produce a pleasing
picture in the frame j it is then ready for the
next process. The printing should rarely, if ever,
be done in direct sunlight, and if the negatives
are very thin it is well to cover them with a sheet
of tissue paper. Cracked negatives may be
printed from by attaching the frame to an ordi-
nary "bottle jack," and allowing it to spin during
the exposure, or by printing at the bottom of a
deep lx>x not much larger than the frame.

Wathing Print* J^om tht li-amet. The prints
after removal from the frames are placed in water
which is constantly changed until it is no longer
rendered milky. It is then advisable to let them
lie in a bath consisting of i oz. of common salt
to the pint of water for five minutes. They are
then again washed in several changes of water,
and are ready for toning.

Toning the Printi. This consists in the sub-
stitution of gold for silver on the surface of the
print, thereby giving it a much richer tone, and
adding considerably to its permanency.

Various formnlffi for toning baths are in use;
some of the following will be found reliable ;

1. Chloride of gold, 1 gr. ; borax, 60 gr. ;
water, 10 oz.

2. Chloride of gold, 1 gr. ; acetate of soda, SO
to 80 gr. : water, 12 oz.

Dissolve the acetate in the water, and add the
gold. Keep a week before use.

8. Gtdd chloride, 1 gr. ; phosphate of soda,
20 gr. j water, 12 Oz.

To be made as wanted ; will not keep.

4. Qold chloride, 1 gr. ; aoim bicarb., 6 gr. ;
water, 12 oz.

To be made as wanted ; will not keep.

6. Take a solution of gold chlorate, 1 gr. to the
ounce, shake with a little prepared chalk, and
allow to settle ; pour off the clear liquid. Take
of this clear liquid, 10 dr. ; calcium acetate, 20
gr.; chloride of lime, 1 gt.; tepid water, 20 oz.

For use, take 2 oz. of this mixture and make
up to 10 oz. with tepid water ; this will suffice
for one full-sized sheet of paper,

6. Toning and fixing in one bath, 'British
Journal Photographic Almanac' Gold chloride,
1 gr. ; Bodlc phosphate, 16 gr. ; ammonium snl-
phocyanide, 25 gr.; sodium hyposulphite, 240 gr.;
vrater, 2 oz.

Dissolve the gold separately and add it last.
Not in general use.

Experience alone can determine the extent to
which the toning should be carried. A good
purple colour is desirable if the paper will bear
it. A rich deep brown is as much as most papers
can be made to give without general degradmon
of the prints.

Wathing the Toned Prinie. The prints are
taken out of the toning bath one by one and
placed in clean water, and then washed in several
changes of water to get rid of all traces of the
toning bath. They are then ready for

Fixing. A bath of sodium hyposulphite, 2 oz.
to the pint of water, is made up, and the prints
carefully immersed in this. The fixing bath
should be made to smell slightly of ammonia,
decomposition is thereby avoided, and a double
hyposiidphite of silver and sodium, which is not
very soluble in the hyposulphite alone, is thereby
removed from the prints, greatly increasing their
permanency. Immersion for twenty minutes
face downwards is sufficient to remove all the
soluble silver salts. Kfreth hath shoold be made
for each batch of prints, and the old bath saved
for recovery of the silver it contuns (^ oz. or
more of metallic silver for each quire of paper
fixed).

Wathing the Print*. The prints are taken out
of the fixing bath one by one and put into a por-
celain dish full of water, in which they lie for a
moment to get rid of the bulk of the hyposul-
phite. This preliminary washing may be repeated
once or twice. The whole batch is then trans-
ferred to a 'washer,' in which they are kept
constantly moving by a stream of water for
several hours. If a washer be not at hand, let
the prints lie in a clean tub of water changed
frequently for three or four hours, then take each
separately, lay it face downwards on a clean piece
of glass, and allow a stream of water (from a
rose, if possible) to play on it for a few minutes ;
then turn it face upwards and repeat the
process.

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1287

Drgittg tie Printt. Take them from the wash
water, aUow to drain as mach aa possible, then
lay them face downwards on a thick pad of cUa»
• blotting paper (or blotting boards), cover with
more paper, then a layer of prints, then more
blottiiw, and so on, till all have been treated ; put
a boaidon the top and load with a weight for an
hour or more, and an: ready for mounting.

Mo*KH»g Madia. 1. X^n starch paste care-
fally made as required from pnre starch (without
blue) and laid on with the finger.

2, One oz. of hard gelatin dissolved in 10 oz.
of water.

8. ('British Journal Photographic Almanac.')
Nelson's gelatin (No. 1), 4 oz. ; water, 16 oz.;
glycerine, 1 oz. ; methylated spirit. 6 oz. Dis-
solve the gelatin in water, add the glycerine, and
lastly, the sjorit.

RiooTiBT 07 BBSisrsa raa*. Sixtbb
FBiKmra Pbocebses.

Paper Oitttiiiff*, Spoiled Print*, ^o. These
shonld be carefully kept and burned in a crucible
or pipkin, the ashes being preserved.

WatUnff*. The first washings of silver prints
should be kept and poured into a large vessel, a
little potassium chromate solution is added, and
then common salt, till the red colour changes
to white; allow to settle, pour ofF the clear
liquor and repeat the process In the same vessel
tiU enough silver chloride is obtained to be worth
removing.

lUeinff Bathe for plates or paper should be set
aside and treated with a solution of potassium
sulphide ' liver of sulphur.' This conv^s all the
silver into sulphide. All residues may thus be
converted into ashes, chlorides or sulphides.

Treat the ashes with nitric acid and precipitate
the solution with common salt, adding this to the
chloride residues. Digest the residue, after wash-
ing, with a little hyposulphite of soda, and add
to the fixing bath residues. We thus reduce
all the lesidaes to two forms, chloride and sul-
phide.

Now take a Stonrbridge clay crucible w!th a
cover and put into it the dried chloride thoroughly
mixed wi4^ twice its weight of sodium carbonate
and heat slowly to bright redness; in a short
time the chloride of silver is reduced to the
metallic state. Now add the dry sulphide and
continue the heating, pushing it to a full white-
ness ; in 20 minutes after this is obtained the
whole process will be complete, and the molten
silver may be poured out into a mould or allowed
to run into water to form granulated silver.

Cabbon PBOOBSaSB.

These are all based npon the fact that organic
matter in the presence of a bichromate when ex-
posed to light is rendered more or less incapable
of absorbing water. The simplest of these pro-
cesses is that known as

ne Powder or JDtuting-<m Proee**, in which a
plate of glass or other material is coated with a
suitable mixture, exposed to light under a nega-
tive, and then dusted over with a very fine black
powder which adheres to those parts protected
from the light by the negative.

The following formuls are given by Burton :

1. Dextrine, 4 dr. ; grape sugar, 4 dr.; ammo-
nium bichromate, 4 dr. ; water, 10 oz.

2. Oum-arabic, 7 dr. ; grape sugar, 8 dr. ; potas-
sium bichromate, 6 dr. ; water, 10 oz.

8. Honey, 90 gr. ; albumen (filtered), 90 min. ;
ammonia bichromate (saturated solution), 160
min. ; water, 10 oz.

4. Honey, 2 dr.; glucose, 4 dr.; albumen,
(filtered), 8 dr.; dextrine, 90 gr.; potassium
bichromate, 4 dr. ; water, 10 oz.

A little consideration will show that by this
process a negative yields a negative, and a posi-
tive a positive, so that for the production of
positives a positive on glass will be required.

r plates are generally used, the roughened
is cleaned with whitening and water, and
then well washed under a tap ; whilst still wet
the mixture is poured over it from one edge,
driving the water l>efore it. When coated the
plate may be dried in a hot oven or before a
fire. As the plate is very sensitive when dry, the
oven is best ; in brilliant sunshine an exposure of
a quarter of a minute suffices, a little longer in
diffused light, but as the plate cannot be examined
during the printing, the method of trial and
error, or comparison with a scrap of sensitised
paper exposed at the same time, must be adopted ;
before development warm plate, transparency and
frame together before afire. Open the frame when
warm by gas or candle light, and put a small
quantity of fine black-lead or lamp-black in the
middle of the plate, and with a large round camel's-
hair brush about 11 in. diameter, spreading it as
quickly and as lightly as possible all over the
surface ; if the image is not fully out at the end
of a minute, gently blow on the plate and con-
tinue to rub in the powder. Breathing on it is
apt to make it take the colour all over and foul
the high lights. When finished fiood the plate
with methylated spirit 8 parts, water 4 parts,
sulphuric acid 1 part; this should remove all
the yellowness due to the bichromate in five
minutes, if not add a little more water and flood
again ; the extra water should be added cautiously.
When the colour is quite gone, soak the plate for
some time in spirit and set on edge to dry;
mount under a glass cover or coat with plun
collodion and varnish. The process is useful for
the production of reversed negatives,

Thb ArroTYPE Pboobss.
Oelatin contuning bichromate of potash or
ammonia (or any of several other salts) remains
soluble so long as it is kept in the dark, but
becomes insoluble when exposed to light. So
that if a mixture of gelatin, pigment, and the
bichromate be spread on glass or paper and
exposed to light under a negative, and the
film be then soaked in warm water, a print
would be produced by the water, dissolving
away those parts on which the light had not
acted. But a little consideration will show
that in the case assumed the picture could not
be developed, because the surface acted npon by
the light would be the outer one, and as eome
action probably takes place all over it, no pert of
a negative being absolutely opaque, the warm
water would be met by a layer of insoluble
gelatin. This was the first difficulty encoun-

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1288

PHOTOGRAPHY

tered, and it hu been met in a Tery ingfenioos
manner.

The paper on which the seniitive material is
spread is of tough quality, and retains its tough-
ness when wet. The sheet which has been
printed is taken ont of the frame and soaked in
cold water until it is qnite flat and limp, and is
then squeezed on to a plate of glass or metal or a
sheet of prepared paper, which ia pat under the
print (upside down) in the water. The two are
drawn out together, and with a few strokes of
the squeegee are brought into hermetic contact.
The two are then allowed to rest awhile between
sheets of blotting paper to absorb superfluous
moisture. When somewhat dry the transfer
paper as it is called and the print are put into
water at KXf F. or 110* F., and kept under the
snrface until the pigmented gelatin begins to
ooze out between the two sheets of paper. In a
short time it will be found that the original
paper support can be stripped off with ease, and
the surface of the pigmented gelatin exposed,
i. e. the hack of it to which the light htu »ot
penetrated, and which contequentljf remaiut
toluble. The warm water is now diligently
splashed on to the film until the lighter parts of
the picture begin to appear, and the process is
continued carefully until the whole of the detul
is out. The picture is then transferred to a dish
of cold water and well rinsed, and from this to a
saturated solution of common alum where it
remains until every trace of the yellow colour
produced by the bichromate has disappeared. It
IS then well washed in water and hung up to dry.
A print so produced will obriooaly be reversed
unless a reversed negative be used (e.g. one made
by the powder process described above). This
reversal is especially objectionable in portraiture,
and the method of ' double transfer ' as it is
called is used to overcome the difficulty. The
print is developed upon maxed paper, and to this
it will adhere when wet ; whilst wet it is squeegeed
again on bo a paper to which it will adhere when
dry. The two are allowed to dry together when
the waxed sheet {or temporary tupport) peels off,
leaving the finished picture no longer reversed,
but correct as regards right and left upon the
permanent support, which may be then treated
as a finished print and mounted or otherwise as
required.

The temporary support may be a sheet of zinc
finely ground and coated with a mixture of bees-
wax, 8 dr. ; yellow resin, 6 dr. ; oil of turpentine,
1 pint.

The Autotype Company prepare a fiezible sup-
port of prepared paper coated first with insoluble
gelatin, and then with a mixture of various lacs
so as to present a smooth surface quite imper-
vious to water. The autotype final support con-
sists of paper coated with gelatin which is
rendered insoluble just before use by soaking in
alum. In order to produce good carbon prints
only vigorous, brilliant negatives should be used.

Oelatin mixture for coating paper (Burton).
Kelson's fiake gelatin, 2i lbs.; Coignet's gold
medal gelatin, i lb.; liquor ammoniss -880, i
oz. ; 6% solution of phenol, 2 oz. ; sugar (white
loaf), H lbs. ; water, 6 pints. Soak the gelatin
in the water, then melt with heat, and add the '

other ingredients, stirring briskly all the time
with an egg beater.

For colour use Indian ink broken into small
pieces, soaked for 24 hours in water and then-
rubbed smooth in a porcelain or glass mortar.
Enough is to be added to the jelly to give a
eertun opacity. A drop of the lelly and ink al-
lowed to set on a piece of glass should be almost
opaque for prints, quite opaque for tnnspar-
endes. To sensitise the above quantity of jelly,
6 oz. of potassium bichromate should be used, and
added just before coating the paper; either dis-
solved in the smallest possible quantity of Ixnl-
ing water, or better incoiporated with the mass
in fine powder, and dissolved by constant agita-
tion, llie tissue when sensitised will not keep
for long especially in warm weather, and it ia
best to buy nnsensitised tissue, and when re-
quired immerse it in a bath consisting of potas-
sium bichromate, 3 oz. ; strongest liquor am-
monis, i oz. ; water, 80 oz. After sensitising it
must be dried rapidly in a warm well ventilated
room in which no gas is burned.

Carbon prints may be intensified by flooding
with a strong solution of potassium perman-
ganate.

Thb PiAinroTTPB Psooebb.

This beautiful process depends upon the follow-
ing chemical facts :

Ferrto oxalate is reduced to ferroiw oxalate by
the action of light. FerroiM oxalate in solution
reduces chloro-platinate of potassium to metallic
platinum. Ferrous oxalate is soluble in oxalate
of potassium. If then a sheet of paper be
coated with a mixture of ferric oxalate and
potassium chloro-platinate allowed to dry in the
dark, and then exposed to light under a negative,
the first of the above reactions takes place, and
on floating the paper upon a hot solution of
neutral potassie oxalate, the second, which results
in the production of a picture in metallic platinum.
All that is required is to wash this in several
changes of dilute hydrochloric acid, then in plenty
of water, and dry, and the print is ready for use,
and is so far as is known absolutely permanent.

The sensitised paper is difficult to prepare, and
must be kept perfeetlj/ dry. Special tin cases are
constructed for holding it with a false bottom in
which fused calcium chloride is placed to absorb

1. Thb Blttb Pbocbss.

Prepare the following solutions separatelg t—
a. Potassium ferricyanide, 6 oz. ; water, 20 oz.

I. Ammonio-citrate of iron, 5 oz.; water,
20 oz.

When required mix equal parts of the above and
coat good white paper with the mixture, using
a clean sponge. Expose under a negative (or
architectural, or other drawing, on tracing paper
or cloth) to a good light till the picture appears
bronzed, then wash in plenty of cold water. Blue
picture on a white ground if a negative be used,
white on a blue ground if a plan be used as a
negative.

2. PlZZiaHBI,Ll'8 PBOCB88.

Pretare— a. Oum-arabic, 3 oz. ; water, 16 oz.
h. Citrate of iron and ammonia, 1^ oz. ; water,
8oz.

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1289

o. Ferric chloride, 1 oz. ; water, 2 oz.

d. Fotaniam f erricyauide, 2 oz. j water, 20 oz.
Mix a, h, and c, and coat the paper as aoon as

poraible and expose as before, bat for only one half
or one third the time reqxiired for sensitised albn-
menised paper. When exposure is complete apply
d with a bmah till the image appears blue on a
white or blaish gronnd, then dip in

«. Hydrochloric add, 2 oz. ; water, 20 oz.

This clears the gronnd and darkens the lines ;
then wash and dry.

8. Pkukc'8 Pboobsb.

a. Oxalic acid, 6 grms. ; ferric chloride, 10
grms.; water, 100 c.c.

b. Potassinm ferricyanide, 3} oz. ; water,
20 oz.

e. Hydrochloric acid, 2 oz. ; water, 1 pint.
Sensitise with a, develop with b, clear in «,

then wash and dry.

OKumro-BROKCDi PBnrmra Psocsbbbb.

Theseconsist essentially in the nse of paper coated
with athin film of aslowgelatino-bromide emulsion,
exposed behind a negative in the usual way, but
to a gas or lamp flame. The prints are developed
with a weak solution of ferrous oxalate. There
are several Arms who make these papers, and as
the fullest possible instructions are issued with
them they do not requite repetition here. Pro-
fessor Burton gives the following developer as one
which will yield good results with almost any
Inand of paper :— Saturated solution of ferrous
•nlphate^ 1 oz, ; saturated solution of potassic
oxiUat^ 4 oz. ; water, 6 oz. ; citric acid, 40 gr.
NMatives for this process should be rather thin
and full of detail, with a short exposure and slow
development. Such negatives yield beautiful
prints.

Enlargements from negatives can be made on
this paper by the aid of a magic lantern. Details
of the process will be found in most of the works
referred to in this article.

OelaHno- CUoride Paptr. This is paper coated
with a gelatin emulsion of bromide and chloride
of silver. It is by no means so sensitive as the
gelotino-bromide paper and possesses this curious
property, that if an exposure several hundred
time longer than that necessary to give all the
detuls of the picture be given, and if the paper
be developed with a very weak developer conbun-
ing excess of bromide, red prints are obtained
wMch may be toned with gold to produce all the
ettectiofalbnmenised paper. Full Erections are
seat out by the makers.

CMatmlheUro-chlorida Paper for PrinUng
out. In this paper the sensitive surface is oom-
poeed of an emulsion containing citnte and chlo-
ride of silver. The paper known as ' Aristotype '
is a good example. The advantages of this class
of sensitised paper are considerable, and with thin
weak negatives, vigorous prints, full of detail can
be obtained. The necessary exposure is much
shorter than with the ordinary albnmenised paper.
The toning can be carried to a much greater
extent, and thus the permanency of the print is

The fouowing toning-hath is recommended : —
Chloride of gold, 1 gr.j hyposulphite of soda,
1 gr. ; ammonium aulphocyanide, 20 gr. ; water.

2 oz. Dissolve the sulphocyanide and hyposul-
phite in 2 oz. of the water, the gold chloride in
1 oz., and pour the latter into the former, stirring
well the while.

PHOTO-KBOEAKICAI. V-RVSTTSGt Pboobbsbb.

There is probably no department of photo-
graphy which has made such rapid advances as
the reprodnction of pictures originally taken in
the camera by purely mechanical means, and the
enormous number of cheap and well-illustrated
papers which are now published almost owe their
existence to one or other of the numerous
photo-mechanical processes. To attempt to give
anything approaching a complete account of even
the more important would far exceed the limits
allowed by this work, bat it may be well to indi-
cate briefly the general principles upon which
some of the best known of these processes are
based, and to make clear to the reader who is not
technically informed the meaning of certun
terms which are cgnstantly met with, and which
relate to these processes.

Ths Woodbubt Pboobsb.

From the description given of the method of
development of a carbon print it will be clear
that the film of hichromated gelatin yields a
picture in which the shadows are represented by
elevations, and the lights by depressions, the
amount of colour being dependent upon the thick-
ness of the film. It is conceivable that a cast
might be made from such a developed film from
which a metal mould could be made and the
pictmw thus reproduced indefinitely. This in
principle is the Woodbury process, carried out in
practice somewhat as follows :

A thick film of slightly pigmented or unpig*
mented gelatin is prepared from a suitable mix-
ture of gelatin and bichromate of potassium and
dried very rapidly in a special stove. This film
is exposed to light under a good negative, full of
contrast ; the exposed film is then attached by a
solution of rubber to a glass plate, and is then
immersed for several honrs in water at about
105° F. to devdop, t. e. dissolve any of the gela-
tin which has not been acted on by light. The
film is then rinsed in 'Cold water and soaked for
ten minutes in a 4% solution of chrome alum ;
again washed in cola water, allowed to drain, then
set in a dish of methylated spirit for an hour,
druned and set on edge to dry like any other
negative. The film is then removed from the
glass by inserting a penknife blade under it and
stripping. After this it is kept for some hours in
a d^ place, so that it may contract as far as it will
and become thoroughly hard. The next process
is the production direct of a mould in lead by
forcing this dry gelatin film into the metal,
under a pretmre of nearly fow toiu on the
tquare inoh, in an hydraulic press. It seems won-
derful that any result whatever should be obtained
beyond a crushed film of gelatin and an indented
plate, but as a matter of fact the finest lines are
accurately reproduced in the metal, and a number
of moulds may be made from one film. The
moulds are then set in special screw presses, a
proper quantity of pigmented gelatin is spread
over them, and a sheet of prepared paper laid on the
top. The lever or screw of the press is now

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PHOTOflEAPHY

worked, and the ink ia crushed between the pre-
pared paper and the mould, fillin^^ all the inter-
itices ; it ia allowed to aet, the presa ia opened,
and the caat removed iu the form of a thin pellicle
of varying thickness, giving all the lighte and
■hadea of the original picture. The films are
(oaked in alum, trimmed and mounted. There
ia only one objection to the proceu, vix. that

Srints more than 8 in. square cannot well be pro-
nced ; the difficulty being the conatmction of a
press which shall exert the enormona preaaore
required evenly over a large surface.

SlAlTNOTrPB.

This is a modiBcation of the Woodbury process,
in which the use of the hydraulic press is dis-
pensed with. A print on thick gelatin ia prepared
ji-om a pontive, the film is attached to glass,
developed as before, and dried. It is then covered
with a special steel-faced tinfoil by painting the
film with mbber varnish, laying the foil on it,
and passing both through a pair of rubber rollers ;
the foil-covered film is then printed from in a
press as before described.

Photo-lithoobapht.

A subject in line or one without any half-tone
may be reproduced by photo-lithography as
follows :

1. A very good negative is prepared, preferably
by the wet process.

2. A print on photographic transfer paper
(paper coated with bichromated gelatin) is made
and inked up with lithographic ink ; a thin, even
coating is required.

8. The inked print is floated on water heated to
100° F. till the lines show a depression.

4. It is removed to a atone or other level sur-
face, and developed by the aid of warm water and
a sponge. The ink leaves all parta excepting the
linea of the drawing, and the gelatin which has
not been acted on by light is dissolved and
removed.

6. The print is well washed in cold water and
dried. It may then be laid upon the stone and
passed through the press; the ink lines are thns
transferred to the stone, and the process of print-
ing proceeds in the ordinary way. There are a
number of detuls which require attention in
order to obtain good results, but the above is an
outline of the principles of the process.
Photo-zincosbapht.

A similar transfer ia laid don-n on a sheet of
zinc, which is then etched with the following : —
Decoction of nut-galls, } pint ; solution of gum
(consistence of cream), i pint; solution of phoa-
phoric acid, 3 dr. After the etching, printing
proceeds in the ordinary way.

CottOTTPB.

When a film of bichromated gelatine is deve-
loped after exposure under a negative, those parts
on which the light has acted reme to take water,
and if such a plate be rolled up with a greasy
ink, it will be found that the ink follows the
lines of the action of light, and that the parts
which are still soluble and take up water refuse
the ink. It will be obvious that an impression in
ink may be obtained by setting such a plate on
the bed of an ordinary press and working it as
type. Collotype printing, though so exceedingly

simple in theory, is much more complicated in
practice. The preparation of the plates require*
skill and judgment on the part of the operator.
The ' machining ' mnst be conducted with care in
order to obtain good impressions and prevent the
destruction of the plate. The best work can
only be done on hand-presses, though for ordi-
nary purposes, advertisements, trade lists, kc,
power preaaes are naed, and the resnlta are fairly-
satisfactory. Ckillotype is a process which tends
to produce excess of contrast in the resnlting
prints, the negatives for reproduction should
therefore be thin and full of detail, i.e. somewhat
ov«r-exposed.

HXLIOTTPB.
This process resembles collotype in prindple,
but the sensitised gelatin is treated as a film
stripped from the glass plate on which it was
poxLred and allowed to set, and after exposure is
cemented to a metal plate and treated as a collo-
type plate.

Photo. Znro Blocks tob PKSTOia with
Tctb.

Blocks for this purpose must be so prepared
that the picture is represented by raised lines,
and the method of production is theoretically
exceedingly simple. If a design be drawn upon
sine with some medium or varnish which is not
acted on by acids, and the whole plate be then
dipped in some etching fluid, the part not pro-
tected by the varnish will be dissolved awa^ ,
leaving the design in relief. The varnish la
cleaned off, the plate mounted on wood 'type
high,' and the block is then ready for setting np
with type and printing from in the ordinary way.
In practice the process is by no means so simple,
as there is great difficulty in preventing the
undermining of the lines by the lateral action of
the etching flnid.

Three principal methods ate employed for
obtaining an image on the zinc plate in a mate-
rial not acted on by acids.

1. By laying a lithographic transfer on the
plate and passing the two through the press.

2. By coating the plate with bitumen and ex-
posing to light under a negative, and then deve-
loping with turpentine and benzol. This process
has already been described under BiTUHXir.

S. By coating the plate with Uchromated gehi-
tine or albumen, exposing under a negative, and
developing with water, i. a. removing tiie soluble
gelatine or albumen and then etching as before,
or by inking np the whole plate before develop-
ment, and then proceeding as in photo-litho-
graphy, the ink forming a stronger ' resist,' as it
is called, than the albomen or gelatin.

To prevent the undercutting of the lines by the
etching fluid, the plate is slightiy etched, then
inked up and dusted over with powdered as-
phalte J this adheres to the ink, and on warming
the plate melts with it and runs down the side of
the Une. By repeating this process with care and
skill the line is etch^ in steps, thus ^ instead
of Y which would result in a line so undermined
and rotten that it would be destroyed in the press.

One other process is that of casting from gela-
tin reliefs, obtained as already described ; the
plaster cast is dried and dipped in water at 120°

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1291

F., and a cast made from it in stoarine 1 incli
thick. This is allowed to harden, rubbed over
with bronae powder, and an electrotype made
from It which is backed np with type metal, and
mounted on a block of wood as before. Sharp
and delicate lines cannot be obtained by thu
procees.

PbOSUCTIOK' 07 IkIAOLIO PIiAIES.

In these pistes the lines to be reproduced are
engraved instead of being in relief, and the plate
resembles an etching. It has the advantage over
a ' process block ' that much finer lines can be
represented accorately, bnt it cannot be printed
with type, bnt must be treated as an etching or
engraving. The process is in principle much the
same as those above described, a positive being
nsed instead of a negative.

Pbocbbsss fob Ubchahicix Rbfboditciiok
OP Haiv-tonbs.
Careful consideration of the conditions under
which the various mechanical processes already
described are conducted will show that In photo-
lithography, in photo-zincography, and in ^1 the
processes for the preparation of metal blocks for

rinting with type, the production of half-tones,
«. the degrees of light and shade which exist in
an ordinary negative, is, by the methods described,
an impossibility; and that only in the case of line
drawings, or drawings done in stipple, can re-

rlnctions be made in which the half-tone will
faithfully represented. This involves a very
serious restriction of the application of these pro-
cesses, and one which the ingenuity of experi-
menters has been sorely taxed to remove. For-
tunately their efforts have not been unattended
with success, bnt there is still great room for im-
provement. The case of photo-lithography will
serve as an illustration. Wherever the stone takes
the ink it does so all over alike, and not in varying
shades or degrees, and the effect of half-tone can
only be produced by drawing on the stone in
Unes or dots of varying sin or nnmbers. Each
point or dot prints absolutely black (if black ink
be nsed), but the total effect is half-tone. In
copying plans, engravings, or even some kinds of
pencil drawings, the difficulty does not exist, as
the originals are produced in such a way as to give
the necessary lines or dots ; bnt in a photograph
of i say, a piece of machinery, or a sepia drawing,
or a landscape from nature, it is possible that
there may be no absolutely white parts, and the
. result would be that the stone wonld take ink
everywhere. The problem, therefore, resolves itself
into the introduction of some sort of grain into
the transfer, or the production of a negative
which shall be itself grained or broken up into
dots.

The methods actually in nse are very numerous,
and are, in their detail at all events, for the most
part trade secrets. A brief account of two methods
must therefore suffice.

Ajuei'* Proettt, A sheet of unsized paper is
coated with starch, and floated (when dry)
coated side upwards, on a solution of potais-
•inm bichromate ; it is then dried in the
dark. This paper is now sensitive to light,
and a print from tiie required negative is

made upon it, thoroughly washed in cold water to
remove the bichromate, and then dried between
blotting-paper and finished in the open air. When
dry the print is heated evenly by placing it on a
slab of hot stone or ironing with a hot iron ; this
canses the starch which has been acted on by light
to take up lithographic ink greedily, in addition
to which the surface of the paper is nused into a
number of granular points. By careful inking of
this print a transfer may be prepared and laid
upon the stone.

Collotype prints have a grain which is due to
reticulation of the gelatin, and it is possible so to
prepare and ink up a gelatin film that a grained
impression may be taken from it and transferred
to stone, Sprague and Co. use this process suc-
cessfully. The same grain may be transferred to
zinc and etched in the usual way.

Um of 0rt$ined Scnent. In 1866 Messrs E.
and J. Bullock patented a process for obtaining
half-tone by exposing a sensitive plate under a
positive with a grained screen superposed, the re-
sulting negative when developed showing the
grain of the screen as well as the picture. These
grained screens are obtained by photographing
fine netting or muslin, and preparing a positive
with great care.

The process is worked at present somewhat as
follows for the reprodoction of a picture, e. g, ivt
such an illustratM book as ' Academy liotes.' A
negative of the desired size is made, and from this
a transparency by contact. The transparency and
grained screen are placed film to film, and a nega-
tive reproduced from the two in the camera. The
grained negative is then used for printing with
bitumen on a zinc plate by the usual process.
The modification of the method known as the
Meisenbach process consists in giving the grtuned
screen a slight movement once or twice during
the process of making the negative.

Zeef* Proeas. A relief in bichromated gela-
tin is made from a transparency, and from
this a plaster cast. On this a rubber sur-
face, or plate of rubber which is covered
with fine V-shaped grooves and ridges, is
(after inking) pressed. The rubber does not
touch the hollows, but is quite flattened where it
touches the highest part of the relief. A stipple
of varying degree is thus produced all over the
relief. The image so obtained is transferred to
zinc and etched.

The above sketch of the photo-mechanical pro^
cesses is, of necessity, very brief and incomplete..
The reader who wishes further information should
consult —

' Practical Guide to Photographic and Photo-
mechanical Printing Processes,' by W. E. Burton
(Marion and Co.) ; papers in the ' Photographic
News,' 1888-4 J 'British Journal of Photo-
graphy,' 1884 ; ' Instruction in Photography,' by
Captam Abney (Piper and Carter) ; ' The Gram-
mar of Lithography,' by W. D. Richmond
(VVyman and Sons) ; ' Der Licht Druck und die
Fhotolithographie,' von Dr Julius Schnauss
(Diisseldorf : Ed. Liesegang's Verlag) ; Bolas,
' Cantor Lectures ; ' ' The Application of Photo-
g^phy to the Production of Printing Surfaces
and Pictures in Pigment,' 1878 ; ' Modern
Methods of Illustrating Books,' by H. Trueman

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PHOTOGBAPHT

Wood; 'Photo-engi»vingM»d Photo-lithography,'
by W. T. \^lkinBon.

Pbspaiution o> Tkakspasbkoisb tob
TEE Idi.srsus.
■ The aize of an English lantern slide is 8i in.
square, and as a negative is rarely or ever taken
upon a plate so small, althoDgn cameras are
made for this special purpose, it follows that
some process of reduction must be resorted to in
order to obtain the picture on an ordinary lan-
tern plate. Quarter-plate negatives, being the
same size in one direction as the lantern plate,
may be and usually are printed from by diiect
contact in a frame, the important parte of the

Sictnre generally falling within the required
mits. With larger negatives the process of
copying in the camera must be resorted to. The
simplest way of effecting this is to have a table
of sufficient length set with one end against a
window having a north aspect; this window
should either be glazed with gfround glass or
have a sheet of tissue-paper stretched over it in
order to diffuse the light. The negative to be
copied is set up, dther in a printing frame or
some contrivance made for the purpose, with its
film side towards the camera which is set on the
table ; great care should be taken that the nega-
tive is perfectly parallel with the front of the
camera, and where much of this kind of work is
to be done it will be found advisable to secure
this by some permanent mechanical arrangement.
A framework, temporary or otherwise, is ar-
ranged in such a way that it may be covered
with cloth or paper so as to secure that no light
shaU reach the lens except that passing through
the negative ; but, as this is not desirable in all
cases, it is well to make the cover moveable. A
carrier is fitted to the dark slide of the camera of
the proper size to take a lantern plate, and the
picture accurately f ocussed on the centre of the
screen. It will be found convenient to mark the
space to be occupied by the image on the glass
by means of strips of gummed paper, and if the
slide and carrier are in perfect register, the pic-
ture will be found when the plate is developed to
be properly placed upon it. Attention to these
details is very necessary, as otherwise great an-
noyance is caused by the picture being askew.
There is a great variety of lantern plates in the
market, all equally good if the makers' instruc-
tions for development are carefully followed ;
they therefore require no further consideration
here. Lantern slides made by the wet collodion
process are perhaps «tiU to be regarded as the
best, but almost equally good results may be
obtained on dry plates. Slides and transpa-
rencies made by the Woodbury and carbon pro-
cesses are exceedingly beautiful, and in some
cases, especially when the negatives are not very
vigorous, better results can De obtained. The
lens used for making a transparency in the
camera should be of the rectilinear or portrait
type, and capable of covering a very much larger
plate than that used for the transparency ; with
such a lens and the use of a comparatively small
stop, the most minute detail is accurately repro-
duced.

For lecture purposes the optictd lantern is

rapidly taking the place of diagrams ; the latter
are cumbrous and costly compared with the
lantern slide, and necessarily indifferent repre-
sentations of the subjects in most cases. It is a
matter of every-day occurrence with lecturers
who nse the lantern and make their own slides,
to require a copy of a drawing or engraving — in
some both ; and, though at first sight this might
seem to be a simple matter, there are difficulnes
in its execution which have to be overcome, and
which to the inexperienced often prove very
serious.

To Copy a Draviing or Engraving. Use a
lens of toe rectilinear type, and one capable of
covering a much larger plate than the one to be
used for the negative. Take every possible care
that the sheet to be copied and the sensitive
plate shall be absolutely parallel, and use a rather
small stop. Before making the experiment take
care that every part of the sheet to be copied is
tftiallg iUtmUnated, and this by a light coming
mm the side and not from the front, otherwise
reflected light will pass through the lens and fog
the picture. In copying silver prints or others
having an equally glazed and bright surface the
lighting is of great consequence, also when there
is much grain in the paper. In this latter case a
compromise must be effected, and a top light
used with discretion. The exposure for a line
subject should be long enough to give a rather
thin negative ; indeed, it is often very difScult to
obtain anything else, and should err on the side
of under-exposure rather than over. Experi-
ence alone will teach the exact point. The
negative so obtained from a map or other subject
f nU of fine lines will be found to be so thin that
it is almost impossible to obtain from it a lan-
tern slide showing dense black lines on a clear
ground, and for such subjects the wet collodion
process has many advantages. If, however, the
negative be very aarefHUg intemified with bi-
chloride of mercury, so that none of the deposit
falls on the lines, a negative of sufficient denuty
to yield a good lantern slide by contact may be
obtained. For line subjects hydroquinone is an
excellent developer both for negative and trans-
parency, especially if the alkaline carbonates be
used with a liberal allowance of potassium bro-
mide.

Care should be taken in handling the trans-
parencies during development, fixing, washing,
and drying, to avoid dust and scratches, as almost
invisible markings on the plate become very pro-
minent on the screen.

SFICIAL MSTHOSB rOB THB PHOTOOSAf ht ov
COLOXTBBD OBJBOTB.

The plates prepared by any of the processes
given above are almost insensitive to the colours
red and yellow, so much so that the presence of
these colours to any considerable extent in the
original constitutes a serious obstacle to its cor-
rect rendering in the photograph. If an attempt
be made to photograph a bunch of flowers of
varied colours ranging over the whole spectrum,
and the print be compared with the original, this
defect of the plates will come out very markedly,
the yellows and reds of the flowers, perhaps the
brightest and most prominent of them all, being

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1293

represented by almost perfect black. The defect
is even more marked in photographs of certain
paintings, e.g. a rosy sunset will appear more like
a gathering storm. The correct representation of
an illuminated manuscript is rendered very diffi-
cult for the same reason. Various devices have
been adopted in order to overcome this difficulty ;
and though it cannot yet be said that the relative
tones of a coloured subject are correctly rendered,
some considerable approach to nature has been
made.

The simplest plan, and one which for certain
purposes yields a result not altogether to be de-
spised, is to prolong the exposure to such a degree
^at the xe&s and yellows shall affect the pUte.
A certain equalisation of tone it brought about in
this way, but the method is unscientific, and is
only of real use in a certain very limited number
of cases. The second plan is to use coloured
screens, e.g. a film of tinted collodion placed in
front of the lens ; here, again, the conditions are
■o altered that the result is but little nearer the
truth than if nothing of the kind were used. The
third and best plan is to what is called " isochro-
matise " the plates. An ortho- or iso-chromatic
plate is one whose sensitiveness to yellow, and
possibly red, has been greatly increased. This
increase, great though it is, does not make the
plate by any means equally sensitive to all colours,
■o that there is still much to be done before a
perfect plate can be prepared; nevertheless the
Improvement in the direction named is great and
imdeniable. The method of their preparation is
the snljject of several patents, and depends upon
the &ct that certain dyes and colouring matters
possess the power — why is not altogether known —
of increasing the sensitiveness of we silver salts to
yellow and red light. Ammoniacal solutions of
eosin, erythrosin, rose Bengal, cyanin, and others
are generally used. Prof. W. K. Burton gives
the following formula :

Erythrosin, 1 part ; water, 1000 parts. Take of
this solution, 1 part; ammonia (10%), 1 part;
and water, 8 parts ; bathe the plate for two minutes
in liquor ammoniie, 1 part ; water, 100 parts ; and
then, without washing, immerse in the alkaline so-
lution of the dye, and dry in absolute darkness.

These plates, however prepared, are excessively
sensitive to light and to every sort of noxious
vapour, and must, therefore, be manipulated in
the smallest amount of deep ruby light. The
best results are obtained when the exposure is
made through a yellow screen.

FHOTOeBAPET -VnXH THE MiOBOSCOPB.

The great complexity of microscopic structures
and the difficulty of making accurate and re-
liable drawings of them, even by the aid of the
camera lucida and similar appliances, render the
application of photography peculiarly valuable,
especially as many very competent microscopists
are not equally good draughtsmen, and knowledge
of the particular structure under investigation is
absolutely essential to the production of a really
reliable drawing. Unfortunately it is not quite
so easT as might at first sight appear to obtain
a gooa negative of an object as seen under the
microscope.

The apparatus required is comparatively simple.

and consists of a camera body without the lens,
a dark slide, the microscope and its objectives,
and a source of light.

The first essential is that the apparatus should
be so mounted that the source of light may be
in the axis of the objective, and that the sensitive
plate should be in a plane perfectly perpendicular
to the axis, as very slight deviations will lead to
failure in the result. This is best accomplished
by mounting the whole upon one stout and rigid
board, determining the proper position by actual
experiment, and so arranging the different parts
of the apparatus that if removed they may 1w re-
placed in exactly the same position at some future
time.

Unless a specially constructed " projection eye-
piece " be employed it is best to dispense with
this part of the microscope altogether, and to place
the instrument in a horizontal position with its
body projecting slightly into the lens opening, or
into a brass tube screwed on to the front of the
camera in the place of the lens ; this tube should
be carefully blacked inside, and the junction be-
tween it and the microscope body covered with a
bag of velvet to prevent the entrance of light into
the camera between the two. The best source of
light is a very broad-wicked paraffin lamp (li in.).
Having placed these in position and a low-power
objective on the microscope, the light is arranged
so as to give an evenly illuminated disc on the
focussing screen. Some simple olgect, such as
the tongue of a blowfly, is now placed on the
stage and very . carefully f ocussed, first by the
eye and then by the use of a lens mounted in a
tube. A simple shutter may be arranged in the
tube which takes the place of the lens of the
camera. If a dry plate be now placed in the slide,
an exposure given, to be determined by experi-
ment, and the plate developed, a negative of the
object conuderably magnified will be obtained.
Simple though these manipulatious may appear,
the results will at first be, in all probability, highly
unsatisfactory, and the following will be among
the causes of failure : — Unequal illumination, due
to wrong position of the light ; too near to or too
far from the object, or not in the axis of the ob-
jective. Failure to use the proper size of dia-
phragm beneath the object; this leads to loss of
definition. Incorrect focussing; this is a very
common cause of trouble, and occurs in this way.
The finest ground glass is much too coarse for
focussing such delicate lines as those of micro-
scopic objects, and being so delicate, unless they
are accurately f ocussed on the sensitive film, the
blurring which results is very serious ; it is there-
fore of great importance that the lens used for
focussing should be of such a focal length that
when the lens mount is placed close against the
back of the focussing screen the image on the
ground surface shoiUd be accurately in focus.
Even this precaution will give unreliable results,
and in practice it is found best to focus roughly
on the ground glass, and then to insert in its place
a piece of plain glass with a few very fine lines
ruled on one side of it. The image should now be
focussed as before, until it and these fine lines
appear sharp at the same time. A dark slide of
the American pattern answers well for carrying
this second screen, which must of course be in

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1294

PHOTOGRAPHY

perfect register. It will be necessary to armnge
a brass rod parallel with the camera and project-
ing beyond it to the level of the fine adjustment
screw of the microscope. By means of a milled
palley fixed to the board and a thick rubber ring
slipped over the end of the rods so as to bite on this
pulley and turn it when the rod is turned on its
axis, the fine adjustment of the microscope may
he moved from the rear end of the camera by
tying a silk thread round the pulley and fine ad-
justment screw as a driving band. Having taken
all these precantions, the result may still appear
blurred and out of focus. This is due to an
optical defect in the objective, the chemical and
visnal foci not being coincident. This can be
corrected by trial and error, throwing the object
very slightly ont of focos by means of the rod
acting on the fine s(\jn8tment ; or it may be done
away with by the use of specially constructed
" apochromatic " objectives, snch as those of
Professor Abb^, of Jena. If these are not used,
and objectives for micro-photography are to be
bought, the purchaser should go to some respect-
able maker, explain the uses to which the objec-
tives are to be put, and ask him to select those
whose chemical and visnal foci are practically
coincident. This the makers are generally willing
to do for a small extra charge. For low powers
the paraffin lamp mentioned will answer very well,
but if an objective of higher power than J in. be
nsed it will be found necessary to use a sub-stage
condenser, and further to collect the light by
means of another condenser, and focus it upon the
diaphragm. Again, the greatest care must be
taken to secure the accurate centring of all these
parts.

A further difficulty arises when still higher
powers are used ; a more powerful light, e. g. the
oxyhydrogen light, is required, and great patience
is often necessary to secure even illumination of
the object without projecting an image of the sur-
face of the lime cyHnderupon the lens. An alum
trough must also be interposed between the light
and the object, in order to prevent dislocation of
the mounting material by the great heat evolved.
These are difficulties which can only be properly
understood and appreciated by those who have
actually attempted to take a photograph with the
microscope.

Yet another difficulty, and that a serious one,
will present itself in the coloration of the objects.
Staining with logwood, though most useful for
simple examination under the microscope, is not
suited to photographic reproduction ; blurred and
foggy images seem almost always to result. Blue
stuns are still more unsuitable; the reds, blacks,
and browns, which can be obtained with carmine
and some of the aniline dyes, appear to be the best,
and on the whole it is desirable to use ortbochro-
matised plat«s.

The above necessarily brief outline of the ar-
rangements desirable for successful micro- photo-
graphy will perhaps be made more clear to the
reader by a careful study of the annexed drawing
of one of the largest and most complete pieces of
apparatus for the purpose which has ever been
constructed. It was recently msde by Messrs
Swift & Son, of Iiondon,f rom the designs of Andrew
Ptingle, Esq., for the laboratory of the Royal

Veterinary College. The whole instrument is
of excee<ungly solid construction, and supported
on heavy metal eastings, so as to ensure great
rigidity and freedom from vibration, a most
essential quality. The oxyhydrogen light is col-
lected by an achromatic hull's eye u}>on a sub-stage
condenser, which is provided with focussing screws
and a fine a4jnstment. The stage of the micro-
scope has rectangular movements actuated by
micrometer screws which are fitted with verniers,
and the fine adjustment of the microscope itself
is so constructed that one whole turn of the screw
head only moves the tube -^jj ai an inch. The
microscope is arranged on a massive revolving
table for convenience in arranging the object
before photographing it, and the whole constitntei
an optical instrument of the very first quality.
It is possible to produce most excellent work
without these complicated and costly appliances,
but where money is no object they undoubtedly
present great advantages, and effect a very
material saving of time and trouble.

Peotoobapht in NATTTBXIi C!olovbs.

It is impossible to close this article without
some reference to the reproduction of the colours
of nature by photographic processes. Ortho-
chromatic plates have enabled us to obtain accu-
rate representations of the variations in tout
present in nature, but thus far all attempts to
reproduce the varieties of colour have entirely
failed.

In 1802 Sir Humphry Davy found that if
the image of the spectrum were allowed to fall
on paper coated with silver cliloride, a coloured
image corresponding in some degree to the spec-
trum was obtained, but it could not be fixed. In
1810 Dr. Seebeck, of Jena, obtained variously
coloured images in the same way. In 1889 Sir
J. Herschel described similar experiments, and
Fox Talbot recorded the observation that the red
portions of a coloured print copied of a red colour
on paper prepared with silver chloride.

Between 1840 and 1843 Robert Hunt obtained
a coloured image of certain parts of the spectrum
on paper coated with silver fluoride, and in 1843,
on a paper prepared with silver bromide and
gallic acid, he obtained by prolonged exposure a
picture in which the sky was crimson, the houses
slaty blue, and the green fields of a brick-red tint.

In 1848 M. Brcquerel (died May, 1891), by
using silver plates on which a layer of chloride
was deposited electrolytically, obtained images of
brightly dressed dolls in colour* bearing some
relation to the originals.

The failure of all these attempts was caused by
the fact that no means has ever been found of
fixing the imagea.

Ni£pce de St. Victor sent to the Exhibition of
1862 a nnmber of photographs in colour obtained
by a modification of Becquerel's method.

In 1868 Poiterin repeated Herscbel's experi-
ments. Chloride of silver paper was exposed to
light, then dipped into a solution of potassium
bichromate and copper sulphate, and dried j such
paper exposed under coloured glaaa yielded
coloured prints. In 1874 St. Florent described
a process by which similar results might be
obtained.

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PHOTOGRAPHT

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1296

PHOTOMETBY

Seeent Stported I>iicoveriet of Photograpkg
in CoUmr*. From time to time reports are
spread abroad that the means of obtaining photo-
graphs in colours hare been discovered. Most of
tiiese are impudent frauds intended to mislead the
ignorant, and may be at once dismissed. The rest
are unfortunately only exaggerated and distorted
accounts of experiments by competent persons,
written by newspaper reporters. Some recent
investigations by M. Lippmann which yielded
curious results were announced in this way. The
theoretical difficulties in the way of the produc-
tion of a plate which shall reproduce the colours
of nature or their complements are very great,
and beyond the observed facts mentaoned above
we appear to have made no nearer approach to
its accomplishment than the point reached nearly
eighty years ago.

PHOTOKITST. The art of determining the
relative intensities of different lights. Various
methods have been adopted, at different times, for
this purpose, among which, however, a few only
are sufficiently simple for general application.
The principle adopted by Bongner and Lambert
depends on the fact that, though the eye cannot
judge correctly of the proportional intensity of
different lights, it can generally distinguish with
g^reat precision when two similar surfaces or
objects presented together are equally illuminated
or when the shadows of an opaque object pro-
duced by different lights are equally dark. Now,
as light travels in straight lines, and is equally
diffused, it is evident that its intensity will pro-
gressively lessen as the distance of it» source in-
creases. This diminution is found to be in the
duplicate ratio of the distance. To apply this
principle to candles, lamps, gaslights, &c., we
have only to arrange two of them so that the light
or shadow resulting from both shall be of equal
intensity, after which we must carefully measure
the distance of each of them from the snrface on
which the light or shadow falls. The squares of

these distances give their relative intenriiy. In
genera] some known light, such as that from s
wax candle (4 to the lb.}, is taken as the stan-
dard of comparison.

In London the standard is a sperm candle of
6 to the lb., and burning 120 gp:«. in an hour ;
Harcourt adapts as a unit the Ught obtained on
burning a mixture of 7 volumes of pentane gas
and 20 volumes of air at the rate of i c. ft. per
hoar in a specially constructed burner, which
yields a flame of a certain height. The absolute
unit of light adopted by the International Con-
gress of Electricians is that given out by a square
centimetre of melted platinum at jthe moment of
its solidification. This light is equivalent to that
emitted by IS standard candles.

Dr Ritchie's ' photometer ' consists of a rect-
angular box, about 2 inches square, open at both
ends, and blackened inside to absorb extraneons
light. In this, inclined at angles of 45° to its
axis, are placed two precisely similar rectangular
plates of plain nlvered glass, which are fastened
so as to meet at the top, in the middle of a narrow
slit about an inch long and the eight of an inch
broad, and which is covered with a strip of tissue
or oiled paper. In employing this instrument,
the "lights must be placed at such a distance
from each other, and from the instrument be-
tween them, that the light from each shall fall
on the reflector next it, and be reflected to the
corresponding portion of the oiled paper. The
photometer is then to be moved nearer to the
one or the other, until the two portions of the
oiled paper corresponding to the two mirrors are
equally illaminat«l, of which the eye can judge
with considerable accuracy."

In Bunsen's photometer, a circular spot is
made on a paper screen with a solution of sper-
maceti in naphtha ; on one side of the screen b
placed the standard light. The light, the inten-
sity of which is to be examined, is then so arranged
that it can be moved in a straight line to such a

distance on the other side of the screen that the
eye is unable to detect any difference in bright-
ness between the greased spot and the rest of the
paper. The distance of the lights from this
screen is then measured, and then their relative
illuminating powers are respectively as the squares
of their distance from the screen. This method
is the most generally resorted to, and it answers
exceedingly well for all ordinary practical pur-
poses.

In Prof Wheatstone's photometer the relative
intensity of the two lights is determined by the
relative brightness of the opposite sides of a re-
volving silvered ball illuminated by them.

In the method of photometeiy usually, but
erroneonsly, ascribed to Count Bnmford, the
shadows of an opaque object formed by different
lights, and allowed to fall on a white wall
or screen, are contrasted. A wire about -^ of an
inch thick, and about a foot in length, with the
one end bent so as to form a handle, is commonly
used to form the shadows. The method of pro-
ceeding is similar to that first noticed above.

It is supposed by some that the equality of two
shadows can be appreciated with greater cer-
tainty than that of two lights, hence several
methods involving this principle has been pro-
posed.

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PHOTOXYLIN— PHTLLOTBETA KEMORUM

1297

PHOTO'XmV. A Turiety of mtro-ceUnloae
nude from wood pulp, and used in making collo-
dion. Ih^. Nitrooa acid (43° Banme), Si lbs. ;
sulphuric acid, ii lbs. ; potasainm nitrate (gran-
olar), 8 oz. ; wood pnlp, 4 oz. Mix the acids in
ftn ratrthenware jar, and when the temperature of
tbe miztnre hag fallen to 90° F. add the potaninm
nitrate, stirring well all the time ; then immerse
the wood pulp in the mixture and allow it to
■oak for 12 hours. At the end of the period re-
more the pulp and wash it well with water, to
which a few drops of ammonia solution have been
added. Dry carafoUy in the same way as gnn-
ootton is dried. The resulting photoxylin is
■olnble in equal parts of ether (s.g. '725) and
alcohol (s.g. -820). Three parts of the j^otozylin
to 100 ptuts of this mixture make a collodion
■tifficiently thick for all practical purposes, and 5
drops of castor oil to 1 oz. make it flexible.

PH&ATOBA TTTELLIBf. Thb Willow
Bkitelx. a box full of specimens of this beetle
was received in May, with a report that the leaves
and young shoots were being nst eaten off in ex-
tensive willow, or osier, beds. It was stated that
for two or three years past this beetle had been
fearfully destructive in willow beds in the whole
of the districts in which willows are extensively
cnltivated and form a most profitable and labour-
employing industry. A little later on other
•cconnts to the same effect were forwarded from
Iiancashire. No beetles were forwarded in these
cases, but from the descriptions of the mischief
done there could be no doubt that it was the work
of the willow beetle. The owners of the willow
beds remarked that they were in despair, that
they had tried many remedies without any miti-
gation of the evil.

These beetles, together with their larvn, not
only clear off the leaves from the willows, or so
riddle them that they can serve the plants in no
way, but they also eat the shoots and the rind of
the willows, and completely ruin a valuable
crop.

I4f'» Siitoty. The beetle is rather more than
a sixth of an inch in length. It is somewhat
variable in colour, from blue to green, with me-
tallic lustre, having funt spots upon the wing-
cases. The body beneath is of a reddish hue ; the
antennn are black. It is most tenacious of life,
and difficult to kill with water, and pungent and
poisonous solutions and fumes. It comes forth
m May from its winter retreats in the earth, in
rubbish, under the bark of trees, in the chinks
and crannies of buildings, posts, and rails. Fences,
ospedaUy "made" fences of "brush" woven be-
tween slakes, form admirable shelters for it. In
short, any refuge near the willow beds seems to
be suitable to keep the beetles from birds and
from weather, for they are not affected by cold.
Having strong wings, they can fly considerable
distances.

The eggs are placed under the leaves in groups,
and without any regular arrangement. They are
white, long, and cylindrical. Many eggs were
laid in the boxes in which the beetles were put.
Larvss, however, were not hatched out in these
artificial conditions. In ordinary circumstances
they are found on the willow plants towards the
end of June. These lame are abont half an inch
VOL. n.

long, dirty-white in colour, having black heads
and rows of black spots along their bodies ; they
have six feet. Westwood says : " I have also
traced the transformation of the Chrgiomela
vitellina, the larvie of which feed on the willow,
arranged in a single row six or seven abreast,
eating only the surface of the leaf, and leaving
their exuvies attached to its surface. They were
found at the beginning of September, shortly
after which they descended into the earth and
assumed the pnpa state, and appeared in the per-
fect state in the beginning of October" ("An In>
troduction to the Modem Classification of Insects,'
by J. O. Westwood, P.L.8., vol. i, p. 889). Kal-
tenberg says that the larva attack both sides of
the leaves.

In this country, as in Qermany, and according
to the reports received during the year, there are
two attacks, one in the spring, and the other in
September and October.

Mtthodt <if Prevtittion. These consist in
flooding the willow beds where this can be done
artiflciuly. Though they require a deal of drown-
ing this tends to decrease them, or at least those
below the water-level. Many are ensconced under
the bark of trees, in posts, and hedges above the
water-mark. Upon some sewage farms willow
beds have been made. Flooding with sewage has
been found to be far more effectual than flooding
with water.

As far as possible rubbish, and any other pos-
sible refuges for the beetles, should be removed
from the willow beds and their neighbourhood.

£»mediM. Many things have been tried to
dislodge these insects, sndi as soot, sulphur, and
other unpleasant materials. Those who have
seen willow plants growing luxuriantly in beds
will appreciate the difficulties of applying insecti-
cides or insectifnges, either in dry or liquid form.

Paris green and London pnrple have been ex-
perimented with, and found of some benefit.
This requires to be done early, upon the first ap-
pearance of the beetles, and before the plants have
made too much headway. The wash can be put
on with the Vermorel machines strapped upon
the backs of workmen. Care must be taken not
to make the arsenical washes too strong, as the
willow leaves are tender. Not more than one
ounce to twenty gallons of water should be used
at first

In despair some willow planters have taken to
picking the insects off by hand, and shaking the
beeUes into vessels held beneath the plants C ^'
ports on Insects Ii\inrions to Crops,' by Chas.
Whitehead, Esq., P.Z.S.).

PETUiOTKETA HSKOBTTII, Chevrolat ; HAL-
TICA HrEKOBUlI, Linn, (from ^v\X6v, a leaf ;
and TiTpalm, to bore). Thx Turnip Biitlb
(the turnip fiea, or 'fly'). This insect, known
generally as the ' fly,' is by far the most destruc-
tive to turnip and swede crops of any in the long
list of their enemies. Every farmer has had
painful experiences of its evil influences which
have entailed losses that can hardly be estimated.
Large breadths of land have been sown and re-
sown in the same season and all the sncceseive
plants have been cleared off as fast as they ap-
peared. As all practical persons know full well
this entuls not only the expense of seed and of

8S

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1298

PHTLLOTBETA NEMOBUM

cultivation, bat tbe Iocs of a valuable crop euen-
tial in rotation, and upon which the maintenance
of the sheep and cattle upon the farm depends.
The fMlure of turnips and swedes throws the
whole system out of gear. The full extent of the
inconvenience and loss can only be recognised by
those who live in a turnip-growing district, or by
those who have large flocks of breeding ewes de-
pendent upon the turnip crop.

The turnip flea has been known as destructive
to tarnips almost from the time when they were
first cultivated. In the ' Annals of AgriciUture,'
edited by Arthur Young, published 100 vears ago,
there are many references to the baneful effects
of this insect, snd remedies prescribed to counter-
act them. The loss in Devonshire alone, in 1786,
was estimated by Arthur Young at £100,000.
Marshall speaks of great ravages committed by
this insect in various coonties, whose agriculture
be described towards the end of the last century
in his ' Practice of Agriculture and Rural
Economy in the Six Agrimltural Departments of
England.'

Curtis states that it was not known in Scotland
until 1826.

During the last 20 years the depredations of
this insect from time to time have been seriously
intensified, particularly in hot and dry seasons,
and appear to have culminated in 1881, in which
year in many of the most important turnip-grow-
ing districts this crop was completely ruined. On
account of this unprecedented calamity an inquiry
was instituted by the Council of the Boyal Agri-
cultural Society and conducted by Miss E.
Ormerod, the Consulting Entomologist, as to the
extent of the injury, the circumstances connected
with it, and as to means of prevention and
remedies that have been found in any way
effectual.

In very many cases in England and Scotland
it was ascertained by this inquiry that turnips
and swedes were sown three times over, without
any crop after all. The estimated loss for seed,
expenses of sowing and re-sowing, in 22 English
and 11 Scotch counties, in this season of 1881,
amounted to over half a million of money, quite
independent of the enormous losses and inconve-
niences sustained from the failure of the crop
entirely in many parts of this area.

A typical instance, given in a graphic manner
by a practical Kentish farmer, of the far-spread-
ing results of the pertinacious onslaughts of the
turnip beetle may be cited from this inquiry.
" Mainly owing to the fly, the turnip crops were
a complete failure. On the observer's own ground
the plants no sooner showed than the fly attacked
them and cleared them off. A second sowing,
part swedes and part turnips, was swept away ; a
third sowing was made as soon as practicable, but
it was too late for turnips, and the only substitute,
rape and mustard, did not have time to produce
half a crop. The fact that our turnip crops were
ruined had the effect of lowering the prices of
store sheep and lambs from 5t. to 10*. each at the
sheep fairs and sales. Many of the large buyers
from Essex, Surrey, Ac, did not put in an appear-
ance at all, and those who did come only made
limited purchases, and this owing to the failure of
the root crops. The bearings of the question are

so extensive that one hardly knows what interest
is affected and what not."

A farmer having a flock of 1000 breeding ewes
in Wiltshire found himself in November, 1881,
with not nearly a quarter of his usual supply of
turnips and swedes from the pertinacious attack
of this insect. His ewes were due to lamb down
at the end of January, and his 250 ewe tegs bad
to be kept well during the winter and spring.
Thero was a breadth of short mustard and rape
sown ]«te in August, but no good pieces of tur-
nips, swedes, and rape to ' hold ' the ewes and
lambs, and to keep the tegs upon in February,
March, and April. It was calculated that the
extra coat of keeping these sheep until the water
meadows were fit, and the trif olium was ready, of
which he was provident enough to have a good
supply, was £480.

Thu beetle is not only destructive to turnips,
swedes, rape, and mustard, but to cabbages and
Kohl labi also.

Its main and most dangerous attack is un-
doubtedly when the plants have just started, and
until they are fairly established. At this time it
oonstantiy happens that the plants are eaten
completely up in a day or two, or are so crippled
and despoiled of leaf surface that they cannot
grow, while there is a continuous supply of
beetles ready to take any vegetation that
struggles out. But it is by no means unusual to
find, if the plants manage to get away from the
first onslaughts of the enemy, that they are so
steadily beset by them and their leaves so riddled
that they never make good roots. Even when the
roots are formed and are of some sixe the late
generation of beetles pertinaciously stick to them,
so that even in September sportunen notice the
sound made by the insects disturbed by theb feet
as they alight upon other leaves.

Life Siitorv. The PhgUotreta nemorum, liter-
ally the leaf-fretter of the' groves, is a CoUop-
taroua insect of the great family ffalaraeida
and the genus PhgUoireta, according to Chevrolat.
It is very small, only shout li lines long, but it
has Isrge wings expanding more than the fourth
of an inch, which enable it to take extensive
flights and convey it to congenial food. Accord-
ing to some it scents it afar off, and flies forth-
with to it. The shape of the beetle is somewhat
oval. In colour it is black, having a broad sul-
phurous band upon each elytra. Its thighs, or,
rather, its binder thighs, are very stout and made
for leaping. Curtis states that it can jump 18
inches, or about 216 times its own length ('Farm
Insects,' by J. Curtis). It passes the winter in
the perfect shape under clods and tufts of g^raaa,
and under weeds, on the outskirts of woods, by
the sides of fields, hedgerows, and ditches, and
under clods in the ground. It is thus sheltered,
and it is sustuned during the early days of spring
until the turnips have sprouted, upon the wild
cruciferous plants, such as charlodt, the wild
radish, hedge mustard, and others. When the
turnip plants are in ' rough leaf,' this beetie lays
eggs upon the under sides of these leaves, dis-
tinguished from the seed leaves by having hairs
or bristles upon them.

A female lays only a few eggs, and only one
daily, as Curtis says. In about 10 days y«Uow

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PHTLLOTBETA NEMOBUM

1299

lame come forth, and piercing the leaves, make
borrows in them, living upon their tissnea. Thejare
Si lines long, having 6 feet and a caadal prol^,
with dark marks upon the anterior and the poste-
rior joints of their bodies. In the course of a few
days, from 6 to 7 days, they leave the leaves and
tall to the groand, in which they ensconce them-
selves close to the tnmip plants, and change to
chrysalides. From these the perfect beetles come
in 11 or 12 days, and make fnrious raids npon the
seed leaves. Not mnch injury is done to the
leaves by the larvie, at least compared with that
done by the beetles. These arrive in a rapid snc-
cesoon of generations thronghoat the snmmer, if
it is hot and dry, and if other circnmstances are
favoorable, when it is believed that there are as
many as 6 generations.

J^ntniion. A ' stale farrow ' is calcnlated to
prevent the attacks of this beetle. One reason
for this is that a stale farrow implies in most
cases what is known as a ' good season,' or a fine
tilth ; whereas land freshly ploughed up does not,
as a rale, work down well, bnt is 'knnbby' or
cloddy. Besides this the moisture evaporates
much more quickly from fresh ploughed land
that barrows down cloddy, than nom land stale
plooghed. Beetles object to moistnre^ and moisture
natnrally helps the young plants to grow away
quickly tiom their foes.

If it is not convenient to provide antomn-
plongfaed land for the turnip crop, or if it is
necessary to move antomn-ploughed laud that may
have been beaten down by heavy rains and snow,
it is fkr better to work the land with cultivators
rather than to bring up wet, unkind, and sticky
furrows, which it would be difficult to pulverise,
and from which the moisture would quicklydepart.

Boiling down the land immediately after the
drill sho^d be adopted, as it tends to keep in the
moisture and to level the earth in the drills, so
that the seed may come away as rapidly as
possible.

Finely comminuted manure, mixed with fine
ashes or monld, should be drilled in with the
seed, in order that it may be close to the plants
to help them along out of the way of the earliest
onslaughts of the beetle. Snperphosphate is a
good manure for this, at about 5 cwts. per acre ;
or guano at 2 cwts. per acre. Care must be taken
that the ashes and monld should not be too dry so
as to hinder vegetation. The ashes or mould may
be advantageously moistened with paraffin oil, at
the rate of 2 pints to a cwt. of material.

A water drill is of certain advantage upon some
soils, and should be used where it is not too costly,
and where the beetles are usually troublesome.
One objection to the water drill is that the small
amount of moisture from it is very soon evapo-
rated in a dry season, and though it starts the
germination of the seed rapidly, ^is is liable to be
checked, and the vitalify of the seed destroyed
unless rain comes soon.

Plenty of seed of tbe preceding year's harvest
should be ased, carefully examined as to its ger-
minating powers, and as to its freedom from other
and worthless seeds. From 3 to 4 lbs. per acre
may be put in. The great importance of having
seed of full germinating power cannot be too
strongly innsted upon.

The growth of cruciferous weeds, such as char-
lock, encourages the beetles and furnishes them
with food until the turnip plants are ready for
them. After the fearfully wet season of 1879, all
kinds of weeds were rampant, especially charlock,
which encouraged the beetles. In Miss Ormerod's
report, alluded to before, the clear connection
between a prolific charlock crop and a fatal ' fly
attack' succeeding it next year, is abundantly
shown. One correspondent remarks tliat it has
often been noticed, when charlock was abundant
on any part of a field, that it was on ttiis spot
that ny-attack began, and also that hedges and
other surroundings where weeds of this and
similar kinds are allowed to grow neglected and
anchecked, are spots from which the fly comes
forth and spreads over the crop.

Therefore, all endeavours must be made to
keep charlock down on farms, and to have the
ontsides of flelds brushed and free from weeds as
far as possible.

If it can be managed land that is intended for
turnips or swedes should be allowed to lie a few
days after it has been stirred and before it is
sown, that the charlock seeds may germinate and
be dragged up by the harrows when the sowing
takes place.

Stmediei. Dressings of soot are frequently of
great service when the beeties are numerous and
thick upon the young plants. Soot should be put
on before the dew has gone. Wood ashes, and
ashes from burnt earth, tiuf , and rubbish, and peat
moss, all well powdered, have been moistened with
paraffin oil at the rate of 2^ pints to a cwt. and
have been found valuable dressings. A mixture
of wood ashes with a little flnely powdered sul-
phur has been tried with considerable benefit.
Lime is useful as a dressing, but it must be put
on very hot and while dew a on the leaves. Boil-
ing the land with a light roller very frequently
proves serviceable, espedally if it is rough. This
operation disturbs the beetles and presses the soil
round the plants, keeping in the moisture.

Drawing a light wide fi^mework of tarred
boards upon wheels just over the plants is a
means of catching many beeties, as they jump
instinctively as the machine goes over them and
alight in the tar. Many acres can be got over in
a day by a man pushing this machine. The tar
requires renewing occasionally, and the beeties
which accumulate in masses must be scraped ofi^.
Driving flocks of sheep over beetle-infested plants
has been tried. This does not appear to be any
more efficacious than rolling, unless it is done very
early in the morning, that the dust may remain
ou the plants, and it is not beneficial by any means
to the riieep. Still some practical farmers adopt
it. A Kentish hop planter tried washing the

Slants with soft soap and quassia, employing his
op washing machines for this purpose. Ho con-
sidered that this saved the plant, though it was a
somewhat cosUy process.

Horse-hoeing should be done early and often,
and side hoeing also, directiy the plants are at all
out of the way. It is important to keep on dis-
turbing the beetles, and the roller may bia applied
at once, or soon after, to dose the ground again
(' Reports on Insects linurion* to Crops,' by Chas.
Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.SO.

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1800

PHTLLOXEEA VASTATEK

PETLLOZEBA YASTATSIX. In 1866 M.
Delorme, of Arle«> in the South of France, was
the first to suggest that a peculiar disease which
had manifested itself the previous year amongst
the vines growing in the plateau of Pojant on
the west bank of the river Rhone, in the De-
partment of the Qard, was of a new and specific
character.

Shortly afterwards a commission appointed by
the Heranlt Agriculture Society visited one of
the infested localities, and one of its members,
M. Planchon, confirmed M. Delorme's conjectures
by discovering the cause of the vine malady.
This he conclusively showed was due to the pre-
sence of a peculiar and hitherto unknown
description of Aphu, belonging to the genus
Phylloxera, which, as illustrative of its devas-
tating qualities, he named P. vastatrix.

A full-grown Phjflloxara veutatrix does not
exceed more than the 33rd or 40th of an inch in
length. Examined under a microscope, in addi-
tion to short pointed legs, it is soen to be fur-
nished with a proboscis nearly half as long as its
body. Upon examination this proboscis seems to
be composed of three tongues, of which the
centre one is the longest, and these are united at
their base into a kind of flat, sharp-pointed
blade, which is the boring or puncturing appara-
tus, by the aid of which the insect pierces into
the roots, from which it sucks the juices that
constitutes its food. About half the proboscis
or sucker is inserted into the bark of the root,
and the creature can not only attach itself to the
root by meeins of it, but can also turn on it, as
on a pivot, when engaged in the depredations.

These are continued firom April to October, by
which month the insect has lost the yellow colour
that distinguishes it in the summer months, and
assumed a copper-brown shade.

From October to April the Phylloxera hyber-
nate, or rather, such of them do as have laid no
eggs during the period of their active existence,
for the egg-laying females die, and young
phylloxera only ore preserved during the winter
months.

With the return of April they awake from
their winter sleep, and recommence their devas-
tating career. I'hey then increase rapidly in size
and begin to lay unimpregnated eggs, for there
are at that time no males. " These bring forth
females, which in their turn develop and lay un-
impregnated eggs, and the virginal reproduction
continues for five or six generations, the develop-
ment increasing in rapidity with the heat, bnt
the prolificacy or the number of the eggs
decreases.

" In July some of the individnals show little
wing-pads at the sides, and begin to issne from
the ground and acquire wings. These winged in-
dividuals become very numerous in Augnst, and
continne to appear in diminishing numbers there-
after till the leaves have all fallen. They are
all females and carry in their abdomen from
three to eight eggs of two sizes, the larger ones
about tS^^^^ °^ '^ >"ch long and half as wide ;
the smaller iths as long. These eggs are also
unimpregnated and are laid by preference on the
under side of the more tender leaves, attached by
one end, amid the natural down. They increase
somewhat in size, and g^ve birth in abont ten

Male PbyUoxera ; dut iu circle
showing UBtttral siu.

Tme female Phylloxere; a, Tentnl Tiew.ibowingobMdetamontli
and solitary e|tg, oorapying nearly the entire body ; >, dorsal
view ; c, tarsus ; d, contracted anal joints after the egg is
laid; dot in circle showing natural size.

days to the tme sexual individnals, the larger
producing females, the smaller, males.

"Anomalous as it may seem these creatures
are bom perfect, though without mouth, and
with no other than the reproductive function.

"A most remarkable fact, discovered by
Babiani, is that some of the females never ac-
quire wings, but always remain on the roots, also
produce the few different sized eggs from which
these tme, monthless males and females hatch.
The sexes pair soon after hatching, and the

female is delivered on the 3rd or 4th day of a
solitary egg, and then perishes. This egg is
never laid on the leaf, but always on the wood,
either imder the bark, or in sheltered situations
above ground, or on the roots nndei^onnd. The
young hatching from it is the normal agamous
mother, which, with increased vigour and fer-
tility, lays a large number of eggs, and recom-
mences the virginal reproduction and the cycle of
the species' curious life. The impregnated eggs
hud early in the season donbtleas hatdi the nme

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PHYLLOXERA VASTATBIX

1801

y«ar, though some of the later deposited ones
may pass the winter before hatching." (Silty.) .

The parts of the vine attacked by
tlie Phylloxera are the rootlets, which,
in a diseased plant, may be seen more
or less covered with what appears to
the naked eye a yellowish powder, but
upon a microscopic examination re-
veals itself as a mixture of phylloxerte
of different sizes, and of their eggs.

Daring Angnst and Septemlwr, the
PhylloxersB invest the rootleta in count-
leas numbers, and are so abundant as
to entirely obscure the colour of the
roots, and to cause them to appear
yelloir from the enormous number of
tbeir minute organisms.

The effect of the attacks of the pa-
nrite upon the rootlets is to give rise
in it to the formation of a number of
little tumefactions or enlargements.
These in course of time decay, and
their destruction results in the death
of the plant.

Exposure to air and sunlight acts
fatallv to the Phylloxera, shrivelling
and drying it up. Hence its instinct
of self-preservation, no less than its
search after its food, leads it to bury
itaelf beneath the surface of the soiL
But, as the insect does not possess an
organisation that fits it for burrow-
ing, the character of the soil has a
great deal to do in affording facilities
or the reverse favorable to its exist-
ence.

If the soil be of such a nature that
it splits easily into fissures or cracks,
which better lead to or serve to expose
the vine roots, it will, of course, afford
a much more easy means of access to
the parasite than if it be compact and
close.

Hence it is that clayey and chalk soils, from
their liability to split up on the surface, afford
much more congenial habitats for the Phylloxera
than sandy ones, which, being dry and closely-
knit, afford a much more impenetrable barrier to
the entrance of the insect, or to its subterranean
movements.

These statements are borne out by the fact
that where the disease has shown itself, it has
been found to vary in extent and intensity
in proportion as the soil of the vineyard is
more or less clayey; and many instances are
known in which patches of a vineyard have
continued unaffected amidst the surrounding
devastation, owing to the absence in those par-
ticular parts of the soil of the argillaceous ele-
ment.

A forcible illostration of this malign influ-
ence of clay in the soil is afforded by the
following analysis of two specimens of earth
taken from the same vineyard. The speci-
men marked • healthy ' was from a small plot
of ground in which the vines were perfectly
sound ; that distinguished as < unhealthy '
formed by fiv the greater portion of the soil
of the vineyard, the plants growing in which

were all suffering from the ravages of the pa-
rasite:

a, healthy root; >, toot on which the lice ere working:, ihowini the knots
and iwellinti eaneed by their pnacturee ; <, root deserted by them,
on which the lootleti have begun to decay ; i, d, d, lice on the larger
roots, natural size ; «. female papa, doraal new; /, winged female,
dorial riew, greatly enlarged.

Healthy.

Water 2-26

Nitrogen 0-11

Sulphate of calcium
Chloride of sodium .
Carbonate of calcium
Siliceous sand . .

Clay

Organic substances audi
error of analysis . . J

0-62

116

49O0

28-60

17-76

6-61

Dnhesltby

8-20

0-12

0-42

018

4200

10-20

87-60

6-88

100-00 lOOOO

From the locality already indicated, where it
had first developed itself in 1865, the vino
disease gradually extended until, in the year
1873, it was ravaging the vineyards of the G^d,
Vaucluse, IsSre, Heranlt, DrOme, Benches du
Rhone, Ard^he, Basses-Alpes, Var, the Oironde,
and tiie Charentes, since which time it has
gradually continued to spread into the adjacent
districts.

" We may gain a more precise idea than can
be afforded by a mere observation of the geogra-
phical extension of the disease, of the disastrous
nature of the ravages of the Phylloxera, by the
examination of some of the statistics of the
grape- crop in successive years, in some of the

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1302

PHTSIC BALLS— PHTSOSTIQHINE

departments kttacked. Tbtu, in the Department
of Vaudose, where the disease showed itself in
1866, there were in 1866, according to the results
ohtained by the departmental commission insti-
tated at Avignon to observe on the new vine-
disease, 6000 hectares absolutely dead or dying,
and a mnch larger nnmber already attacked,
which have since snccomhed to the parasite. Out
of the 80,000 hectares of vineyards comprised in
this department, 25,000, or five sixths of the total
area, have been destroyed. In the Qard, where
the vine floarishes better than in the above-
mentioned department, the ravages of the disease
are yet most terrible ; for in 1871, in the Arron-
dissement of Uses, but one half of the average
crop was produced, and in the Arrondissement
of Nismes a tenth jnrt of the crop was destroyed.
These proportions, moreover, have increased since
that year.

" If we examine the mischief done in the less
extended areas of the commnnes, we shall obtain
a still dearer idea of the rapid spread of the
disease: —

"CoxmnrB ov aa&TMOX.
186&-66-67 mean crop 10,000 hectolitres.

1868

>I

5,600

1869

99

2,200

1870

9»

400

1871

tt

205

1872

9f

100

1878

f»

60

" In the Commune of Maillanne the crop in
1868 WIS only 40 per cent, of the average of the
three preceding years, while in 1869 it was only
10 per cent. In the Commune of Eyragnes the
crop in 1868 was about 88 per cent, of the average
of the three preceding years, and in 1869 there
was a further falling off of about 10 per cent.
In 1870 the crop in Uie three above-named com-
mnnes was almost entirely destroyed. From
instances such as these, fairly selected from many
others equally tragic in their stern figures, we may
form some idea of the magnitude of the disaster.
Indeed, it is difficult to see, so rapid is the exten-
sion of the disease, how, unless some potent and
effective remedy can be soon applied, any vine-
bearing district in Fiance, can escape the visitation
of the Phylloxera." (' Nature,' vol. x.)

The French Qovemment, fully alive to the peril
threatening the staple product of their oountra,
shortly after the appearance of the Ptj/Uoxara in
the Tineyaida of France, offered thioogh their
Minister of Commerce and Agriculture a reward
of 800,000 francs for the discovery of a means
of arresting and stopping its ravages; and in
1871 the Academy of Sciences at Paris appointed
a commission, presided over by the celebrated
chemist H. Dumas, to investigate the biology,
habits, Ac., of the parasite, together with the
nature of the iiguries it inflicted upon the vine,
the area of its depredations, &c. From amongst
the members of this commission three gentlemen
were chosen to visit the infected districts, so as to
be afforded an opportunity of studying the PhgU
loxera at its destructive work, and its environ-
ments of soil, situation, temperature, ke.

The delegates selected by the Commission were

MM. Balbiam, Comn, and Dnelanx, respeetirdy
amongst the most distinguished living representa-
tives of zoology, botany, and chemistry in Fiaaoe,
and the resolts of their labours was the issue,
some few years back, of a most exhaustive and
valuable report to the Academy of Seienoea on tlie
subject of the Phj/lloxtra.

The vines of other eoontries besides those of
France have also suffered from the attacks of the
Phglloxera. Thus it has made its appearance in
the vineyards of Algiers, Italy, Qermany, Spain,
Portugal, Switierluid, Austoilia, and North
America, on all of which it has bean prodnctive
of more or less serious injury to the vintage.

Amongst the numberless remedies that have
been suggested and tried, with varying but by
no means uniform or satisfactory results, for the
destruction of the PijfUorera, may be mentioned
sulphur, the sulphites, tobacco, eaostie soda, and
potash, bisulphide of carbon, coal-tar, soft soap,
ume, the immersion of the vine in sulpho'carbonate
of potasuam, and the application aconnd the foots
of sand.

A certain amount of success, it has been said,
has attended the employment of the snlpho-ear-
honate of potassium and sand.

An American botanist, Mr. Biley, recommends
the importation into French vineyards of the
American vines, which he suggests should he
employed as stocks on which to graft the French
ones.

The American plant being of a hardy nature
he helieres ite incorporation with the more sus-
ceptible French ones, would give rise to a vine
sufflcientiy vigorous to resist, or at any rate not
to be injured by the ravages of the parasite.

PHTBIC BALLS. See VmsDriXT HXBI-
onras.

PETSOSTXGKATIB FABA. See Cauxab
Bai.v.

FHTSOSTiaxm. Sgn. PEXBomeimrA,
EaisnrA. CuHsN,Or An alkaloid obtained from
Calabar bean. To prepare it an alcoholic extract
of Calabar bean is dissolved in water, tncarbonaie
of sodium added in excess, the freed alkaloid
shaken out with ether, and the ethereal liquid
removed and evaporated.

Charaeieri. It is colourless when fresh and
carefully made, by exposure to the air it becomes
pink. The ciystals dissolved in water soon darkens
to red, which change is fadlitated by adding soln-
tion of potash. It causes contraction of the pnpU
of the eye.

Both sulphate and salicylate of phyiostignune
are used in medicine, and prepared by neotnuisiog
pnre physostigmine with sulphuric or MUcyUe
add, evaporating, and setting •asida to form
crystals.

UiM. In eye diseases, as ulcers of the oonuaj
it removes dilatation of the pupil after the use of
atropine. Internally it has been given in chorea,
tetanus, and hysteria. Don, fg gr,

Physostigmlji«,HevtntlEydrohTOmateof. This
body is prepared with colourless hydrobromio acid
in the same man ner as the sulphate. The solution
evaporated to a syrupy consistence, crystallises
in the course of a few days in fibrous masses,
rarely colourless and non-deliquescent.

The neutral hydrobromate of physostigmine is

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FHYTOMTZA NIGRICOBNIS— PHTTOFTHOBA INFESTANS.

1303

emplojed like the sulphate and in the Mme doiea,
altboogh it contains a little leas physostigfmine.
(From * Formula for New Medicaments,' adopted
by the Paris Fharmaoeatical Society.) See
CAI.ABAB Bbait.

Fhytoitlgmine, Ventral Sulphate of. The salt
is obtained by saturating directly and exactly a
known quantity of physoatigmine with dilute
snlphnric acid (1 in 10) ; or bett«r still, by shaking
a solution of the physostigmine with a titrated
solution of sulphuric add so as not to exceed the
point of saturation. The filtered solntion of
■nlphate of physostigmine is evaporated rapidly
to dryness by tiie aid of a gentle heat.

Sulphate of physostigmine can be crystallised
in long prismatic needles, combined in radiating
gnmps, but it is very difficult. It is preferable
to preserve it in tfae amorphous state, and in well-
stoppered bottles, as it is very deliquescent.

Sulphate of physostigmine is employed like
physostigmine internally under the form of
granules containing up to 1 milligram, li is
employed also for the eyes as a solution, containing
8 to 6 centigrams of the salt to 10 grams of
distilled water.

Solntions containing physostigmine, pure or
combined, alter rajndly in contact with the air,
becoming red ; they should only he prepured in
small quantities as required. (From 'Formnlte
for Sew Medicaments,' adopted by the Paris
Pharmaceutical Society.) See CaIiABAK Bbak.

Phytfllacolii. A powdered extract obtained from
poke-root, Pij/iolacca deeandra. It acts as an
alterative, cathartic, and emetic ; given in syphilis
and rheumatism. Do**, 1 to 6 gr. in pill.

PHTTOHYZA BIOBICOBHIS, Macqnart
(trom 4vTov a plant, and itvfw, to suck). Tbb
BuoE-HOBiTBD TuBinp-LBAi MiNiit. In somc
seasons the leaves of swedes and turnip plants are
seen to be much punctured on their under sides.
Upon examination it will be found that there are
maggots under the cuticle, which have mined in
the parenchyma, and have made long burrows
therein. Though they do not cause a great
amount of iigury to the plants they eifect them
in a degree, and tend to make them unhealthy.
Upon one swede plant as many as 80 maggots, or
larvn, of this insect have been counted. This
attack is very often overlooked, and its conse-
quences are attributed to other causes, because
the maggots are always on the under side of the
leaf, and cannot be seen at all under the cuticle
of tjie upper part of the leaf. A larg^ farmer
in Oxfordshire remarked that some swede plants
did not get on as they should ; but nothing could
be discovered until by chance he pulled oS a leaf
of a plant that was specinlly flagging, and saw
the mines made by tiie maggots of the Fiffto-
mgta between the ribs or veins. It was dis-
covered by further examination that many of the
plants in a field of considerable extent were more
or less affected by this leaf miner.

An accoant was sent of a somewliat mysterious
and important change in the appearance of the
tnmip plants in a ^ece of white Tanlatrds, to-
wards the latter part of July. The weather had
been hot and dry, and the turnips had been put in
very early for feeding at the beginning of Sep-
tember, The leaves that were sent were full of

mines or borrows, and several pupie of the Phjfio-
myta were found within these. It was reported
that a large quantity of the leaves were in this
condition.

German entomologists do not speak of this in>
sect as iqjnring turnip plants, but Kaltenbach
says that it mines the leaves of Monkshood
(' Die Pflanzenfeinde,' von J. H. Kaltenbach,
page 16). Americsn writers do not allude to it.
Meigen states that it is known in the northern
part of France ('Systematische Beschreibnng der
bekannter Europaiischen Zweiflugeligen Insekten,'
von J. W. Meigen, vol. vii).

Ltfa Sutoty. As a two-winged fly, the black-
homed turnip-leaf miner is naturally of the'
order Dipttra, and belongs to its family Mutoidm,
and is a species of the section P^/tontytide: It
is dusky grey, or dark slate coloured, being rather
more than a line, the twelfth of an inch in
length, with a wing expanse of from two to two
and a half lines. The head is yellowish, while
its poisers and parts of its legs are white, and
the wings translucent. The fly lays eggs on the
under side of the leaf of the turnip plant, as well
as of other plants, in May. From these eggs
maggots are hatched, and make burrows invari-
ably in the cuticle of the lower part of the leaf,
va, this respect differing entirely from the I>ro*o-
pkilaflava, feed upon the soft substances of the
leaf, turning into pupa) in about three weeks.
The pnpn are dark brown. It is supposed that
the pupa) pass the winter in the ground, as well
as in the decayed leaves, if these by any -chance
remun.

Prmention. . Turnip plants attacked by this
fly should be fed off by sheep, or care should be
taken to clear away the tops that are cut off
when swedes or turnips are stored. These should
not be put in heaps to rot on the outside of
fields, but spread on the land and ploughed
deeply in, or taken away and burnt (' Reports on
Insects Injurious to Crops,' by Chas. Whitehead,
Esq., F.Z.S.).

PHTTOFTHOSA IHFE8TAS8. Thb Potato
DiSBAsi, or Blight. The disorder affecting
potatoes, commonly known as the potato disease,
or potato blight, and as potato ' rot ' in the United
States, is caused by a fungns named by De Bary,
the distinguished Qerman mycologist, PJa/top-
thora iitfettan*. This disorder first appeared in
Qreat Britain in 1S44, and simultaneously in other
parts of Europe. It spread rapidly in that year
from the south of England, through the Midland
Counties, to Scotland and Ireland. In 1844, and
in succeeding years, very much loss was sustained
by potato-growers, particularly in Ireland where
the distress consequent upon the potato disease
was most calamitous.

Outbreaks of this disease have occurred with
varying frequency since it first came to these
shores. In 1870 it was specially considered by
the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and
experiments were made to determine whether
there were varieties of potatoes proof against
disease. The elaborate report of these experi-
ments written by Mr Carruthers, the Society's
Consulting Botanist, showed that no varieties that
had been tried were disease-proof. Incidentally
it was shown that no special manures nor mode of

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1804

PHTTOPTHOBA INFKSTANS

coltivation teemed to have any influence npon the
conne of the disorder.

In 1880 a select committee of the House of
Commons was appointed to inquire into the best
means of diminishing the frequency and the ex-
tent of failures in the potato crop, and made a
report founded on the interesting evidence of
scientiBc and practical witness^ including Mr
Carmthers, Mr Thistleton Oyer, Mr Worthlngton
Smith, Dr Voelcker, and Professor Baldwin. This
report indicated that the failures in the potato
crop were due to the action of a fungus, and that
all soils and climates were pretty nearly alike
liable to be attacked by it. The results of the
Boyal Agricultural Society's experiments as to
manures and cultivation were generally confirmed,
though it was adduced that there were certain
varieties of potatoes which were better able to
resist the fungus than others, yet none able to
resist it altogether.

During a few years previous to 1800, the attack
of this fungus had not been of a very serious
nature, but it then showed itself in very many
parts of England and Scotland, and it was feared
that it would cause much loss.

The Board of Agriculture made special inquiry
into the position and prospects of the potato crop
in the autumn of 1890, when a summary of the
reports received from inspectors under the Drain-
age and Improvement Acts showed that no serious
loss of the potato crop in Oreat Britain was to be
apprehended from disease, as the late, or main
crop, was regarded as comparatively sound.

It is curious to note that the early sorts of
potatoes were more affected by the disease in 1890
than those of later habit which constitute the
most important part of the crop, and are mainly
relied on for storing purposes. The reverse has
usually been the case. Early sorts have escaped,
the tubers having been fit to dig before the fungus
had spread in an important degree, and generslly
consumed before it could show itself within them.
Thus the main crop has generally suffered in
previous years, the latest sorts being most
affected.

It is considered that the reason for this is that
the weather in June, 1890, was eminently suited
for the development and rapid increase of the
fungus. It was wet and warm, with much elec-
trical disturbance and occasional fitful periods of
scorching sun-heat — in short, typical potato-blight
meteorological conditions. Later on, in July and
part of August, the downpour of wet and the low
temperature were not favourable for the dis-
semination of the spores of the fungus. At the
end of August brilliant hot d^ weather set in
and continued for six weeks. This was fatal to
this special fungoid growth, and at the same time
gave healthful vigour to the plants.

Both in England and Scotland the potato plants
were much more affected by the disease in gardens
and small holdings than those in fields, and those
cultivated upon a large scale. This has been
noticed in former years of potato blight, and is
due to potatoes being grown more frequently npon
the same land in the former case, so that infection
is carried on.

The continual cropping of the same land with
potatoes in Ireland would seem to account for the

greater prevalence of disease in that part of the
United kingdom, together with the less care that
is there exercised in changing and selecting seed
potatoes.

Lift Hiitorg. This fungus belongs to a g»na>
of the family FiBoirogpoBBX named br De Baiy
Pijftopthora (plant devourer), to distutgoish it
from other PBBOKOBPOBiLai, as it differs from these
in respect of peculiarities in the form of its
conidia, or spores.

Propagation of this fungus is carried on in two
ways, first by means of oospores, termed ' resting
spores,' because they rest through the winter;
and, secondly, by the mycelium, or centre, in the .
tabers, which is supposed to be passive until
influences of moisture, raised temperature, or ex-
posure to ail render it active. In an active oon-
dition it extends filaments — hypha — which pro-
ceed to destroy the cells of the tubers and to set
up decay within them so that they rot in the
clamps, or stores. If the mycelium remuns
dormant within the tubers until they are planted,
it may be taken up in the plants, and by the
plants as they grow, and produce oonidia in due
time to infect neighbouring plants.

De Bary has shown that the mycelium of this
fungus when in the tubers and in the ground, is
able to send forth conidiophores bearing oonidia
or spores directly from the tubers, which might
be conveyed with the growing plants, or by
insects ; though he thinks there should be but
little weight attached to this source of infection.

The same writer observes that tubers infected
and containing the mycelium of the PkgiopUora
may infect tubers in the same damp, or store, by
means of the conidiophores bursting their way
through the skin, or eyes, and the oonidia finding
their way to sound tubcurs and attaching them-
selves to them. " If these quite healthy tubers
should then be planted in the ground, the conidia
will germinate, the germs penetrate some of the
tubers, and the mycelium develop itself in them.
All this is obvious from simple experiments whieb
have been well known for a long time."

The oospores, or 'resting spores,' which alto
carry on the life of the fungus through the
winter, as discovered by Mr Worthington Smith,
remain in the haulm, foliage, and decaying tubers
left on the earth, or lie upon the earth, or upon
weeds and rubbish. Mr WorUiington Smith
states, " We have secured potato oospores direct
from the ground by observing water filtered
through earth on which diseased potato material
has b«en allowed to decay " (' Disesses of Field
and Ghurden Crops,' by J. Worthington Smith,
F.L.S.). Mr Smith adds that these 'resting
spores' can renuun dormant for three years.
Swarms of conidia — spores — oome from the
oospores in the early summer, and are conveyed to
the potato plants by the wind, insects, and other
agencies. These spores, ovoid in shape, and not
more than the eight-hundredth part of an inch
in length, fall on the leaves and send out tube-
shaped shoots, if there is moisture present and
other conditions are suitable, which find thdr
way into the tissues. From these are formed
mycelia, serving as the centres of the fungus, as
it were, and putting forth many branches or fila-
ments, called hypbs, which run between the cells

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PHTTOFTHOBA INFKSTANS

1806

of the leaves and affect the formation of starch in
tiie leaves, and its ultimate supply to the tnhen.
It is not qoite clear how this is done, whether
by breaking down the walls of the cells and so
preventing the manufactore of starch, or by the
direct absorption of starch by the fungus, bat
Uie staroh, or the starch manufactory, as pat by
Mr Marshall Ward (< Diseases of PUtnts.' by H.
Marshall Ward, F.R.S.). is the object of the in-
vader. Upon fllamenti sent up from the myoelia
through the stomata or pores of the leaves,
oonidu are generated, by means of which the in-
fection is conveyed to neighbouring plants.

In conditions favourable to the progress of the
ftmgns within the leaf tissues it proceeds from
the leaves to the stems, and finally descends to
the tubers.

^revemHon. It is almost obvious from the life
history of the cause of the potato disease that the
greateBt possible care should be taken to destroy
every particle of haulm and leafage from in-
fected fields and gardens, as well as every in-
fected tuber that may he left decaying, or de-
cayed, in or upon the ground.

It would also follow that potatoes should not be
grown npon the same land for sometime after an
infected crop. If Hr Worthington Smith's
theory, that the resting spores can retain vitality
for three years, is correct, thongh it must be said
that it has not been proved, potatoes should not
be taken again for three years. In any case it
would be right to plough infected land deeply,
and to treat it with a good dressing of qTdcklhne,
or gas lime. Garden land and allotment land
which must be cropped frequently with potatoes
should be dug deeply, and idso should be dressed
with lime or gas lime. With regard to allot-
ments it is, of course, highly important that there
should be unity of action. Where there has been
potato disease in any part of an allotment, it
should be the duty of all the holders to insist
npon the carrying out of the simple precautionary
measures of burning, or otherwise destroying, in-
fected haulm and tubers.

There are other precautions that should he
taken, snch as keeping outsides, and ditches, and
comers of fleUU and gardens free from weeds and
rubbish which might harbour the oospores.

Above all things it is essential that the seed
potatoes should be free from infection. k» I have
shown, the mycelium of the fungus may be in a
dormant state witliin the tubers planted for seed,
and assume virulent activity when moisture is
given, and the tuber begins to shoot. Seed pota-
toes should therefore not be planted if disease has
been prevalent in the crop from which they were
selected.

Potato-growers who save their own seed can
well arrange this. Those who buy seed potatoes
must examine them, cutting whole seed through
occasionally to see if there are traces of the dis-
ease within (hem, and examining the portions
where cut seed potatoes are employed. By the
time seed potatoes are planted the mycelium will
show pretty plain indications of its presence, in
the fbrm of brown patches scattered irregularly
throDghont the tubcnrs.

Spieial Imatigatton of Diteated Potatoei.
In November last potatoes wera sent to the Board

of Agriculture for examination as to the occasion
of brown patches pervading their internal tissues.
The tubers externally were particularly clear
skinned and healthy-looking, and would have
been accepted by anyone as first-rate sound seed.
Upon catting them open the brown patches were
clearly seen ; they were small and by no means
continuous, and in all cases unconnected with the
outside of the tubers. For some time it was
difficult to make out their nature, bat by expos-
ing pieces of tuber to moisture under glass in a
warm temperature it was seen that the brown
spots wera the mycelia of the potato fhngns, as
ita filaments were sent forth. Portions of unin-
fected tubers were infected by placing mycelium
upon them. Had these tubers been planted as
seed they would assuredly have been most dan-
gerous sources of infection ; yet ninety-nine
growers out of one hundred would have planted
tiiem without the slightest suspicion.

Stmadiet. It has not yet been demonstrated
that there is any remedy for this disorder. Sul-
phur has been tried, bat not systematically. A
grower in Kent, knowing that powdered sulphur
is largely nsed for hop mildew, pat some on a
number of rows of potato plants showing signs of
infection, leaving other rows near without any
solphur. At digging time the sulphared rows
were certainly more free from disease than those
onsnlphured, and at this stage the record ceased,
as the potatoes were all sold.

In the United States experiments have been
made with the sulphate of copper washes, such as
the BoviUit bordeloue aud Sa» etlMle, used ex-
tensively and most advantageously in France
against the vine mildew.

Mr Qalloway, the Chief of the section of Vege-
table Pathology of the United States Department
of Agriculture, reports npon trials made with the
BouilUs bordelaita in the Beport of the Secre-
tary of Agriculture for 1889. He says, " It is
well known that a very small quantity of sul-
phate of copper will prevent the spores from
germinating and consequently from infecting
healthy plants, and the treatment was made with
this fact in mind. Bordeaux mixture contuning
6 lbs. of copper sulphate and 4 lbs. of lime to 22
gallons of water, was used for the experiment.
The first application was made when t^e plants
were a foot high, there being no signs of blight
at the time, and the sprayings were repeated
eveiy two weeks until the 10th of September.
The variety treated was the Peach Blow, and for
convenience the field was divided into three plats
of 75 hills each. On November 6th the potatoes
wera dog, the yield of each plat being as follows :

Plat.

Treatment.

Bordeaux mixture
No application
Bordeaux mixtnra

Yield.

Ibi.
846
164
283

"Diameter of the largest taber on treated
plats, 6 inches. Diameter of largest tuber from
untreated plat, 8 inches. The treated vines

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1806

PHTT0PTU8 EIBIS

kept green until kUIad by frost, November Sth,
while the untreated were killed by the blight a
month previonily. Plat three grew alongride a
row of trees, which prohftbly aceonnta for the
falling off of its yield.

" The resolts in this case are certainly very
satisfactory, and it is hoped that another year
more extended experiments can be undertaken,
from which further and more important deduc-
tions can be made. To those wishing to test the
remedy we will say that it is of the utmost im-
portance the mixture be applied early. The fact
that the treatment is entirely preventive most
constantly be kept in mind, as on this hinges the
whole secret of success."

In the course of last summer attention was
drawn to the interesting series of experiments
carried on by M . Aim£ Oirard, in France, on the
nse of sulphate of copper «s a remedy for potato
disease in 1888 and 1889. These showed that
much benefit had been derived by the application
of this substance. The experiments were brought
in August last to the notice of the Irish Qovem-
ment, and the feasibility of making similar ex-
periments in Ireland was suggested.

It is to be hoped that the solphate of copper
washes will he (aried in Oreat Britain and Ireland,
not in a half-hearted manner and when the dis-
ease is established, bat as a werentive measore
adopted as the C!ontinental wme prodncers adopt
it, and as the English hop-growers adopt sulphur,
as almost a necessary part of cultivation. The
washes are inexpensive. They can be put on in
the fields with the Strawsonizer. In gardens and
allotments the cheap ' Knapsack ' form of engine
as used in the United States and in the smaller
vineyards on the Continent would serve admirably
to distribute them.

Witb regard to disease-proof varieties of pota-
toes, the experiments instigated by Earl Cathcart,
and conducted fa; the Royal Agricultural Society
of England, through the Seeds and Plants Dis-
eases Committee, showed that there were no
disease-proof varieties. It is hardly reasonable
that there should be, considering the cause and
nature of the disease. Some varieties, however,
are better able to resist it than others, as the
Champion, for example, whose stems are stout
and high, and the Magnum Bonnm, thongh
neither the Champion nor any other- potato is
disease-proof (' Beporta on Fnngi,' by Chas.
Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

PETT0FTU8 RIBI8. Thb Cvbramt Mits.
This mito gets more troublesome year by year
in black currant plantations. Many complaints
were made last year from all parts of the country,
both in England and Sootland. A large black
cnrrant grower in Kent especially commented
upon the heavy losses he had sustained for some
seasons, stating that the infested area steadily
incressed, and young bushes were as badly
attacked as those of mature age.

Many fruit-growers are quite unconscious of
the origin of tiiis injury, and set down the dis-
order of the bushes to unsuitable soil or to other
causes. The mites are so tiny, being only about
the two-hundredth part of an inch long, that they
cannot be distinguished without a good pocket
lens, and even with this their characteristics are

not detected. They affect the buds by feeding
upon them and snoking up their sap, beginning
directiy there is the least sign of swelling in the
bnds, snd probably even before this. On account
of their action many of the leaves and blossoms
within the whorls of leaves do not come out atall
or do not come out properiy.

There are mites of this family peculiar to pear
ixeet, birch trees, nnt trees, peach trees, lime
trees, and many others, each differing in some
characteristics and being distinct species, as this
P^optat riiit is a distinct species.

Upon examining the infested twigs of currant
bushes in April it was noticed that some of the
buds were partiy out on one side, and the part on
the other side was evidently unable to get out at
all, and much of the iVuit blossom within the
leaves was nipped in the bud. Upon stripping off
the outer bracts of the buds little white specks
were discernible With a strong pocket glass.

Many have certainly remarked that after tiie
tiny currants have been formed and have jnst
grown out from the leaf whorls which suzronnd
them they fail suddenly, shrivel up, and fall off.
This is the resnlt of tiie ii^nry oocasioned to
the buds by the continuous action of the mites,
which begin to work directiy there is any indica-
tion of swelling in the buds. It is indeed quite
probable, though it lias not been and can hardly
be ascertained, that they are feeding upon the
bnds in the winter, even before they swell at all.
They are present in them throughout the winter,
as Mr. Andrew Murray relates (' Economic Ento-
mology,' by Andrew Murray).

Zi^e RittoTjf, This mite is of the order
Araehnoidea, and belongs to the family Phgtop-
tida. It is not so large as the point of a pin,
and of a whitish colonr, not milky white, but
translucent. In form it is long, and has four
legs close to the thorax. At its extremity near
the end s^^ent there are two bristles, which it
is supposed aid the mite in moving about. The
egg is nearly oval and is tiansparent. It is laid
towards ttie end of the summer, and the mite is
soon afterwards hatched ont and remains in the
bnd during the winter, bnt it is not' clear whether
it feeds during this season or remains in a state
of torpor.

PrmeHtion. Black currants in well-maaaged
plantations and gardens are cut very chaely back
in the autumn, as the fmit comes on young shoots.
Where infestation exists they should be cut
harder than nsuil and all the cuttings removed at
once and bnmt. In a very bad case I advised the
grower to cut the bushes down dose to the ground,
to bum every fragment and to give a good dress-
ing of lime, thrown over the stocks and dug in
close round them. Directiy after infested biuhes
have been cut in the antamn, and it is best to
cut such early, the stems left should be brushed
over with solutions of soft soap and paraffin oil,
or quassia, well worked in. A painter's brush
would answer for this. It will be seen that there
must be a considerable amount of soap in tlus
mixtnre to make it hang well to the brush and .
the stems. A little Paris green paste, or London
pnrple fluid might safely be employed mixed with
the soft soap.

Dead leaves and all the mbbiBh round the

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nCA— PICKLBS

1807

•tocki (hoald be raked np and burnt wben the
boahesaie cot. A mix tore of soft soap and sul-
phur has been osed with effect.

With regard to remedies it woold be diflScolt
to apply these in the snmmer when the attack was
bad and the boshes foil of leafage. In the early
spring where infestation was noted, early syring-
ing with soft soap and qoassa, panffin oil, or Paris
green might be nsef ol. This coold be put on with
the Vermorel machine, or other 'Knapsack'
maehines for distriboting liqoids (' Bepwts on
Insects Injnrions to Crops,' by Charles White-
head. F.Z.&).

FI'CA. I)eprared appetite.

FIC'AXAll. One «l the peenliar principles
discovered by Bachenbach m beech-tar, and
dcaicribed by him as a viscid, ooloorless, cnly
liquid, only feebly odorons, bnt intensely bitter ;
inaolnble in water ; freely soluble in alcohol, ether,
and (^b; boiling pmnt 680° F.; sp. gr. 1-095.
See Kuuson.

nCAULU. See Pioxlbb.

nCXIiE. The Uqoor in which substances osed
as food are preserved. That for flesh is commonly
hrine; that for vegetables, vinegar) both m
which are commonly Bavoored with spices. See.

Frtp. 1. (Fob xxat.)— a. From bay salt,
8 lbs.; saltpetre^ 2| oi. ; moist sngar, lib.;
allspioe and Uack pepper, of each (bndsed), 1 os.;
water, 9 pints ; simmer them together in a clean
covered iron or enamelled vessel for 7 or 8
minutes : when the whole has cooled, remove the
acnm, and poor it over the articles to be preserved.
Used for hams, tongoea, beef, Ac, to which it
imparts a fine red colour and a superior flavour.

i. From bay salt and common salt, of each
2 lbs. ; moist sugar, 1 lb. j saltpetre i lb. ; allspice
(bruised), i oi. ; water, 1 gall. ; as before. Used
chiefly for pork and hams. Common salt may be
■abatitnted for bay salt, hot it is less powernilly
•ntianitic, and the flavour is less gisteftal.

2. (Fob TBOXTABm.) — o. Strong distilled
Tinegar, to each qnart of which li ox. of good
salt has been added.

h. Qood distilled vinegar, 4 pints; common
salt, 81 oz.; black pepper, i oz. ; unbleached
Jamaica ginger, 2| ox. (the last two braised but
not dusty) ; mace (shredded), i oz. ; simmer in an
enamelled iron or stoneware vessel, as above, and
strain through flannel. Sometimes a little cap-
sicum is added. Used either hot or cold,
according to the vegetable it is intended to pre-
serve.

Pickle, Lemon. See Saucbb.

PICKLSB. These well-known articles are
easily prepared of the finest qnality. The vege-
tables and fmit, selected of the proper quality
and at the proper season, after being well cleansed
with cold spring water, are steeped for some time
in strong mine ; they are then drained and dried
and transferred to the bottles or jars ; the spice
(if any) is then added, the bottles filled np with
hot, s^ng, iHckling vinegar, and at once securely
corked down and tied over with bladder. As
■oon as the bottles are cold the corks are dipped
into melted wax, the more sorely to preserve them
air-tight. Good wood or distilled vinegar is com-
monly used for this purpose; but the best malt or
white wine vinegar of the strength known as No.

28 or 24 is ezdusivdy enployed for the finer
pickles which are noticed. In those for early
use the ' steep ' may be made in hot or boiling
brine, by which the product will be ready for the
table in a much shorter period ; but with sub-
stances of a succulent and flabby nature, as cab-
bage, cauliflower, some fruit, oc, or in which
crispness is esteemed a mark of excellence, this
is inadmissible. To such articles the vinegar
should also be added cold, or, at the furthest,
should only be slightly warmed. As a general
rule, the softer or more delicata articles do not
require so long soaking in brine as the harder and
coarser kinds ; and uiey may be often advan-
tageoasly pickled by simply pouring very strong
pickling vinegar over ^em without applying
heat. It most also be observed that beetroot, and
other like substances which are sliced, as well as
certain delicate fruits, must not be steeped at all.
The spice is commonly added whole to the bottles,
but a more economical plan is to steep it (bruised)
tor some time, or to simmer it in the vinegar be-
fore using the latter, as in the forms given under
PlOXLB (Mov).

The spices and flavouring ingredients empl9yed
for pickles are — allspioe, black and white pepper,
capsicums or red pods, cloves, garlic, ginger,
horseradish, lemon peel, mace, mustard, shallots,
and tormeric. These are chosen with reference
to the particular variety of the pickle, or the
taste of the consumer.

A good gPioiD TnrieAB for pickles generally
is the following : — Bnuae in a mortar 8 oz. of
black pepper, 1 oz. of ginger, f oz. of allspice,
and 1 OK. of salt. If a hotter pickle is desired,
add i dr. of cayenne, or a few capsicums. For
walnuts, add uso 1 oz. of shallote. Put these
into a stone jar, with a quart of vinegar, and
and cover them with a bladder wetted with the
pickle, and over this pUce a piece of leather. Set
the jar on a trivet near the Are for three days,
shaking it 8 times a dav, then pour it on the
walnuts or other vegetables. For walnuts it is
used hot, but for cabbage, Ac., cold. To save
time it is osnal to simmer the vinegar gently with
the spices; which is best done in an enamelled
saucepan.

In the preparation of pickles it is highly neces-
sary to avoid the use of metallic vessels, as both
vinegar and brine rapidly corrode brass, copper,
lead, &c., and thus become poisonous. These
liquids may be best heated or boiled in a stone-
ware jar by the heat of a water-bath or a stove.
Common gbaed earthenware should be avcnded,
either for making or keeping the pickles in, as tiie
glazing usually contains lead. Kckles should also
be kept from the air as much as passible, and
should only be 'touched with wooden or bone
spoons. They are also better prepared in small
jars, or bottles, than in large ones, as the more
freqnent opening of the latter exposes them too
much. Copper or verdigris is frequently added
to pickles to impart a green colour, or the vinegar
is boiled in a copper vessel until sofflciently
'greened' before pouring it on the vegetables.
This poisonous addition may be readily detected
by any of the teats mentioned under Coppsb. If
a g^reen colour be desired, it may be imparted to
the vinegar, and ultimately to the pickles, by

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1808

PICKLES

steeping viae leaves, or the leaves of parsley or
spiuachi in it. A teaspoonful of olive oil may be
advantageously added to each bottle to keep
the pickles white, and to promote their preserva-
tion.

*,* The following list includes the leading
pickles of the shops, and some others :

Barberries. From the ripe fruit without heat.

Beans. From the young green pods of the
scarlet bean, and the Frendi or kidney bean, with
heat.

Beetroot. From the sliced root, without steep-
ing in brine, and with cold spiced vinegar. When
wanted for Immediate use the vinegar may be
used boiling hot.

Broccoli. As CAirixnowBBS.

Cabbage. This, either red or white, is cut into
thin slices, and steeped in strong brine or
sprinkled with common salt, and allowed to lie
for one or two days ; after which it is drained for
10 or 12 hours in a warm room, and then put
into jars or bottles, with or without a little mace
and white peppercorns, and at once covered with
cold strong white vinegar. Another plan is to
steep the sliced cabbage in alum water for 10 or
12 hours, and, after draining and c^ng it, to
pour the vinegar upon it as before. The product
of the last formula eats very fresh and crisp, but
takes longer to mature thw that of the other.
Some persons add a Uttle salt with the vinegar ;
and others mix slices of red beet with the
cabbage.

Capslcnms. As asxsKon.

Caullilowers. As oabbasb (nearly). Or, they
may be steeped in hot brine for 1 or 2 hours
before pouring the vinegar over them.

Cherries. From the scarcely ripe fruit, bottled,
and covered with strong and colourless pickling
vinegar.

Codllsa. As BBAH8.

CneumberB. As aHsiiKiini.

Elderflowers. From the clusters, just before
they open, as Ris cabbaqb. A beautiful pickle.

KigUsh Bamboo. From the yonng shoots of
elder, denuded of the outer skiu, pickled in brine
for 12 or 14 hours; then bottled with a little
white pepper, ginger, mace, and allspice, and
pckled with boiling vinegar. Excellent with
boiled mutton,

Eschalots. With boiling s^ced vinegar, or
spices added to each bottle.

Piench Beans. See abo9t.

OarliC. Ag B80HALOT8.

Gherkins. From small cucumbers (not too
young), steeped for a week in very strong brine ;
this last is then poured off, heated to the boiling
point, and again poured on the fruit; the next
day the gherkins are drained on a sieve, wiped
dry, put into bottled or jars with some spice (gin-
ger, pepper, or cayenne), and at once covered
with strong pieUing vinegar, boiling hot.
Several other pickles may be prepared in the
same way.

Gooseberries. From the green f mit, as either

CABBAOB or OAUIXFLOWBBS.

Indian Hango. From green peaches (see
below),

Indian Piekle. Sj/n. Picoaliuj. This is a
mixed pickle which is characterised by being

highly flavonred vrith cnrry-powder, or tnimeric,
mustard, and garlic. The following form is oom-
monly used : — Take 1 hard white cabbage (sliced).
2 cauliflowers (pulled to pieces), some French
beans, 1 stick of horseradish (sliced), aboat S
dozen small white onions, and 1 dosen gherkins ;
cover them with boiling brine; the next dsy
drain the whole on a sieve, put into a jar, and
add, of curry-powder or turmeric, 2 oz. ; garlic,
ginger, and mustard seed, of each, 1 oz.; capn-
cnms, i oz. ; fill up the vessel with hot pickling'
vinegar, bung it up close, and let it stand for a
month, with occasional agitation. See MrxKD
FIOKIiBS (jkilow).

Lemom. From the traits slit half way down
into quarters, and cored, put into a dish, and
sprinkled with a little salt ; in about a week ^ba
whole is placed in jars or bottles with a little
turmeric and capsicums, and covered with hot
vinegar.

Lbnes. As the last.

Kangoea. As ijucokb, adding mustard seed
and a little garlic, with spices at will. Saauaa
KAiraois are made from cucumbers or small
melons, split and deprived of their seeds.

Melons. As UKOHS (nearly).

Mixed FidUes. From white cabbage, canli-
flowers, French beans, cucnml>ers, onions, or any
other of the ordinary pickling vegetables, at will
(except red cabbage or walnuts), Seated as skbb-
EIKS ; with raw ginger, capsicum, mustard seed,
and long pepper, for spioe, added to each bottle.
A little coarsely bmiseid turmeric improves both
the colour and flavour.

Mushrooms. From the small button mnsh-
rooms, cleansed with cold spring water, and
gently wiped dry with a towel, then placed in
bottles, with a blade or two of mace, and covered
with the strongest white pioUing vinegar, boiling
hot.

Myrobalana. The yellow myrobalan preserved
in strong brine. Qently aperient.

Hastiutlnms. From the unripe or scarcely ripe
fruit, simply covered with cold strong vinegar;
or, as CABBAO-i or aHiBxnrg.

Onions. From the small button or filbert
onion, deprived of the outer coloured skin, and
either at once put into bottles and covered with
strong white pickling vinegar, or previously
steeped for a day or two in sbttng brine or alnm
water. When required for early use, the vinegar
should be poured on boiling hot.

Peaches. From the scarcely ripe fmit, as
aHBBxniB.

Peas. As BBAira or oavliflowbbs.

Piccalilli. See Ikduk fioxlb.

Badish Pods. As bbakb or aHXBXim.

Samphire. From the perennial samphire
{Srytkmmm marUimmm), covered with strong
vinegar, to each pint of which i oz. of salt has
been added, and poured on boiling hot. Said to
excite the appetice.

Tomatoes. From the common tomato or love
apple, as oebbeisb.

Walnnts. From the yonng fmit of JmffUmt
regia, or common walnut: — 1. Steep them in
sfarong brine for a week, then bottle them, add
spice, and pour on the vinegar boiling hot.

2. On each pint of the nuts, spread on a dish.

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PICOLINE— PICKOTOXIN

1809

tprinkle 1 oz. of common nit ; expose thom to
the sun or a f nil light for 10 or 12 days, fre-
qaently basting them with their own liqaor;
Uatly, bottle them, and pour on the vinegar,
boiling hot.

8. (Dr Kitchener.) Oently simmer the fmit
in brine, then expose it on a cloth for a day or
two, or nntil it tomi black; next pat it into
bottle* or jars, poor hot spiced vinegar over it,
and cork down immediately. In this way the
pickle becomes snfficiently matnre for the table
in half the time required for that prepared by
the common method. Dr Kitchener also recom-
mends this parboiling process for several other
{tickles. Some persons pierce the fmit with an
awl or stocking-needle in several places, in order
to induce early maturation. The spices usually
employed are mustard seed, allspice, and ginger,
wiui a little mace and garlic.

FXCOUHE. C,H,N. An oily substance dis-
covered by Dr Anderson, associated with aniline,
clunoline, and some other volatile bases, in cer-
tain varieties of coal-tar naphtha. It is isomeric
with aniline, and similar in properties to pyri-
dine.

ncaic Acm. c,Hj(no,)jOH. Sgn. cab-

BAZOnO ACID, NriBOFHBKISIO ACID, TbIITITBO-

PHiirOL. A peculiar compound formed by the
action of strong nitric acid on indigc^ aloes, wool,
phenol, and several other substances.

■Prsp. 1. Add, cautiously and gradually, 1
part of ^wdered indigo to 10 or 12 parts of hot
nitric acid of the sp. gr. 1*43 ; when the reaction
has moderated and the scum has fallen, add an
additional quantity of nitric acid, and boil the
whole until red fuflies are no longer evolved ; re-
dissolve the crystals of impure picric acid that
are deposited in boiling distilled water, and re-
move any oily matter found floating on the
surface of the solution by means of bibulous
paper; a second time redissolve in boiling water
the ciystals which form as the liquid coob, satu-
rate the new solution with carbonate of potash,
and set it aside to crystallise; the crystals of
picrate of potassium thus obtained must be puri-
fied by several re-solntions and re-crystallisations,
and next decomposed by nitric acid; the crystals
deposited as the liquid cools yield pure picric
acid, when they are again dissolved in boiling
water, and re-ciystallised.

2. Dissolve the yellow resin of J[atUhorrh<xa
tatHU* (Botany Bay Gum) in a sufficient quan-
tify of strong nibic acid. Red vapours are
evolved, accompanied by violent frothing, and a
deep red solution is produced, which turns yellow
after boiling. Evaporate this solution over a
water-bath. A yellow crystalline mass is de-
posited, which consists of picric acid with small
quantities of oxalic and nitrobenzoic acids. The
picric acid is purified by neutralising the yellow
mass with potash, and crystallising twice out of
water. The pure picrate of potassium thus ob-
tained is decomposied by hydrochloric acid, and
the liberated picric acid is purified by two crys-
tallisations. This process, devised by Stenhouse,
is one of the best, and yields a quantity of the
odd amounting to 60% of the resiu employed.

Tt« Mmmfaetnre ami Storage of Picric Aoid.
In consequence, doubtless, of the serious explo-

sion at the works of Messrs Roberts and Dale,
Combrook, Manchester, picric acid and the
picrates are now, by an Order in Council, declared
to be explosives coming within the provisions of
the Explosives Act. Hitherto they have been
regarded as explosives only when manufactured
for military or engineering purposes, bnt not
when for use in dyeing or printing. This distinction
was not ver}' logical, since they were equally dan-
gerous whatever the purpose for which it or they
were ultimately design^. The only exceptions
are picric acid wholly in solution ana picric acid
maou&etnred or stored within a place exclusively
devoted to such storage and in such a manner as
to prevent it from coming in contact with any
basic metallic oxide or oxidising agent, or with
any detonator or other article capable of explod-
ing picric acid, or with any fire or light capable
of igniting it. We may add that the use of
picric acid in dyeing has much declined.

Prop, Brilliant yellow scales, sparingly solu-
ble in cold water, but very soluble in boiling
water, alcohol, and ether; fusible at 122° C.j
volatile; taste insupportably bitter, and very
permanent. It forms salts with the bases (pic-
rates, carbazotates), moatiy possessing a yellow
colour, and exploding when heated.

Prep, The picrate of lead has been proposed
as a fulminating powder for percussion caps. A
solution of picric add in alcohol ia an excellent
test for potash, if there be not too much water
present, as it throws down a yellow crystalline
precipitate vrith that alkali, but forms a very
soluble salt with soda. Most of the picrates
may be made by the direct solution of the car-
bonate, hydrate, or oxide of the metal, in a solu-
tion of the acid in hot water. The picrate of
silver forms beautiful stany groups of acicular
crystals, having the colour and lustre of gold.

The principal use of crude picric acid is for
dyeing silk and wool yellow. It is said to be
largely employed as a hop-substitute in beer. It
u, however, highly poisonous. According to
I^f . Rapp, it acts deleterionsly both when swal-
lowed and applied to the unsound skin. Five
grains seriously affected a large dog, and killed
it within 24 hours. It mdnces vomiting,
feebleness, and general loss of nervous tone.
The tissues of animals poisoned by it (even the
white of the eye) were tinged of a yellow colour.
The picrate of potassium has been given with
advantage in intermittent fevers. See Fobtxb,
&c.

FICBOTOZ'DrE. Professor E. Schmidt has
definitely settled the chemical composition of
picrotoxine, the active and poisonous principle of
CoeoulMe tndiciu. Pure picrotoxine may be repre-
sented by the formula CnHifOj,. It crystallises
in stellate groups of needles, which have an in-
tensely bitter taste and are very poisonous. They
melt at 190° C— 200° C. By means of sundry
reaeents, picrotoxine may be split up into picro-
toxmine (CuHigOg) and picrotine (CijHijO,).

PICBOTOZ'nr. CijH„Oj. %». Piobotoxikb,
PlOBOTOXiA, PlOBOToxiiTA. A poisonous prin-
ciple discovered by Boullay in the fruit of Ana-
mirta panicnlata, or Coeenhu indicue. It is a
vegetable principle which strongly resembles the
glucosides.

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1810

PICTUBKS, Oil/— PISBIS BKASSICiE

Frtp. 1. Precipitate a decoction of Cooouhu
indieu* with a solation of acetate of lead, gently
evaporate to dryness, redissolve the residuum in
alcohol of 0-817. and crystallise by evaporation;
repeat the solation and crystallisation a second
and a third time. Any adhering colour may he
removed by agitating it with a very little water ;
or by animal charcoal, in the usual manner.

8. {Kane.) Alcoholic extract of Coeeultt
indunu is exhausted with the smallest possible
quantity of water, and the mixed liquors filtered;
to the filtrate hydrochloric acid is added, and the
whole set aside to crystallite. The product may
be purified as before.

Prop., 4*0. It forms small, colourless, stellated
needles; soluble in alcohol, ether, and acetic
acid, and feebly so in water ; boiling water dis-
solves it £reely; taste of solutions inexpressibly
hitter; reaction neutral. It does not combine
with acids, as formerly asserted, but it forms
feeble combinations with some of the bases. It
is a powerful intoxicant and narcotico-acrid
poison. It acta powerfully on the spinal cord
and nervous system genemlly, occasioning an in-
crease of temperature, and peculiar movements,
similar to thorn described by Flourens as resulting
from sections of the cerebellum. It is frequently
present in malt liquors, owing to their common
adulteration with Coee»Uu indicm*.

PICTTJKES, OIL. To clean. See FAHTTiKfiB,
Oil.

PIXBIS BSASSICf, Linnnus; FOHTIA
BBASSICX, Latrdlle. Although the mischief of
the caterpillars of this large butterfly is more
noticed in gardens than in t£e fields, it is impor-
tant that the economy of the insect should be
known to agricnltoriste, as all crops of the species
of Snutiea grown by them are liable to be at-
tacked by it. Occasionally it happens that field
cabbages, which are now extensively cultivated
and thousand-headed kale, a most invaluable farm
plant, and turnips of all descriptions, mustard,
aud rape, are much damaged, especially in small
fields, and fields surrounded with hedge-rows,
shawB, or shaves and spinneys.

The most important harm, however, is occa-
sioned by it when plants of mustard, rape, tnr-
nipa, kale, and cabbage are in seed. In some dis-
tricts, as in Bomney Marsh in Kent, in Essex,
Lincolnshire, and other places where seed grow-
ing is largely adopted by farmers and market-
garden farmers, the caterpillars attack the seed
pods jost after they are formed, and soon clear
them off the plants.

A large seed grower in BEssex wrote of this kind
of injury in 1%0 as follows : " The caterpillars
of the Dart moth, Agrotit ttgetmm, much damaged
the plants in my seed beds, and now the Is^ge
green caterpillars of the white hatterfly are
devouring the seed pods of my white mustard,
rape, and turnips."

gorions complaints were received in 1882, 1883,
and 1884 of swedes having been stripped of their
leaves by large gr«en caterpillars in small fields
in East SoMex, abo in fields near the chalk cliffs
that abound the coast between Hastings and
Brighton. These proved to be the caterpillars of
tlie lai^ white bntterfly, whose chrysaUdes had
most probably passed the winter in the mblnsh

near the hedge-rows, and in the chalk clifb wUdi
are very harbours and refuge for them, as it
appears that generally these insects are abundant
ill localities where there are chalk cliffs, chalk
pits, sand banks, and railway cuttings, all of
which afford admirable refuges for thechiyMlides
during the winter.

There are stories told of large fiights of these
butterflies having apparently come from France,
bnt it is most likely that these had come from the
chalk cliffs fringing the south-eastern shores of
England.

Curtis relates that " the caterpillars of the
white cabbage bntterfly greatly injured some
Swedish turnips in 1841, and no donbt frequently
assist in reducing the foliage very considwaUy"
('Farm Insects,' by J. Curtis). Kirby also speaks
of it as destructive to turnips (' An Introduction
to Entomology,' by Kirby and Spence).

Westwood states that this butterfly ia very
common throughout Europe, and is {oand in
^Syptj Barbary, Siberia, and Nepaal (' British
Bnttei^ies and their Transformations,' by J. O.
Westwood, Esq., F.L.S), KSIlar, Tasehenberg,
Kaltenbach, and Nordinger describe it as rery in-
jurious to the Braniea in Germany.

There is a butterfly somewhat similar in
America, called Pierit olaraeaa, by Harris. Its
habits of destruction are the same as those ct
Pierit brtutiea in England, bnt it is not exactly
the same, as it does not have Mack spots upon ita
wings.

2^« Bittory. This butterfly belongs to the
family of Papilionida, and the sub-family
PierideM.

It is rather more than 2i in. acroas the wings in
the male, and nearly 8 in. in the female, and its
body is about an inch in length, and black. The
ground colour of the wings is white. At the ends
of the fore wings there are broad Vbxk bands,
wider in the case of the female. In both sexes
there is a small dark patch in each comer of the
anterior, or hind, wings. The females have two
black spots on each fore wing.

'fbe perfect insect appears first between the 7th
and the 80th of May, according to the weather.
In 1880 it was first seen on the 8th of May, while
in 1886 it was not noticed until the 15th. It lays
numerous eggs after a few days npon the under
sides of the leaves of various plants of the Brat-
eiea tribe. The egg is yellow sldttle-ahaped, aa
Buckler has it, and is fastened in cluster*
of from 60 to 109 with a glntinons sub-
stance. Under the microscope it u seen that the
egg has many longitudinal and traosrerse lines
upon it, and forms an interesting micrasco|»eal
object. The caterpillars are hatched in six or
seven d^s. Their first step is to devour the egg
shells. Curtis and Westwood both note this as a
peculiarity of these creatures. They feed in com-
panies for three or four weeks, the time being re-
gulated by the food supply and the we^ier,
changing flnally to chrysalides.

The caterpillar is greenish yellow, having three
yellow lines upon its body and black spots with
pale hairs. It has 16 feet. When foil grown it
is as thick as a small goose quill, being 1^ in. in

n the flnt genemtiMi, for there are at kait

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PIEBI8 SXPl

1811

two generkUons during the summer, the cater-
pilUn, M has been said, won become cbiyaalides.
Before this change they crawl away to sheltered
places npon palings, trunks of trees, stems of
plants, and weeds, to assame the chrysalis stage
from which they emerge in imago form in the
course of ten days, and commence again the cycle
of their life changes. Sometimes the transfor-
mation is accomplished upon the plants on which
the caterpillars are feeding, at Inst in the first
(feneration. The chrysalides of the last generation,
it should be obserred, do not change to bntter-
flies until the following Hay, remaining in their
retreats during the winter in pale green oo-
ooona.

Cortis has it that there is a succession of broods
during the summer. Probably there are more
than two if the weather is suitable. NSrdlinger
remarks that in Qermany young caterpillars are
found upon Brastiea plants even so late as Novem-
ber (' IKe Kleinen Feinde der Landwirthschaff ).

Mr. Buckler notes that he found eggs of this
butterfly on the 16th of September, which pro-
duced lurvtB on the 86th of September, but many
of these were killed by the frost and rain (' The
iMrvm of the British Butteries and Hoths,' by
W. Buckler, edited by H. T. Staintou, F.B.S.)

.Breve»lio». Attention to plants that are in-
fested with the caterpillars of the first generation,
in Jnne, may prevent a much more serious and
general attack upon them, as well as upon others
near. When it is possible in these circumstances
the leaves with caterpillars on them should be
pulled off, or cut off by women and children. It
mmld certainly pay to do this where plants of
(oritips, mustard, rape, and cabbage were intended
tor seed. Though a cosUy process it would, it is
believed, pay well in the case of these valuable
seed crop*.

Outrides of fields should be kept clear of weeds,
and hedge-sides and hedge-row sides brushed from
time to time. Cmriferons weeds particularly
should be extirpated. In market gardens and
market-garden faima all open lodges, sheds, and
OQt-buildings should be periodically cleansed, as
(he walls of these are favourite resorts of the
caterpillars for pupation.

Frost unfortunately does not kill the chrysa-
lides. Miss Ormerod states that "during the
aevere winter of 1878-79, chrysalides of the large
white buttOTfly, which I had the opportunity of
eiMniDing, appeared ]>erfectly nninjnred by cold,
whicli ragged at various temperatures betwerai
10° F. aiid80° F." (' Manual of Injurious Insects,'
hw H. A. Ormerod, Consulting Entomologist,
B.AJ3.E.)

One bears frequently, " Sjdendid frost! it has
got deep into Uie ground, it will kill the insects."
It is a common error to imagine that frost in-
variable kills insects either in the perfect, the egg,
the larval, or the pupa state. Very many insects
are so constituted «s to be frost-proof. This is a
provision of nature. Many are overtaken and
killed by abnormally early or abnormally late
frosts before they can assume the form in which
tiiej can naturally resist them ; but as a rule in-
sects are unharmed by the ordinary winter frosts.
As a fact, chrysalides which have been exposed to
sharp frosts, and froien so hard that they would

snap asunder like pieces of stick, nevertheless
have preserved vitality.

Bemediei. From the nature of this attack it
is most difficult to apply remedial measures.

I have seen some good done by broad-casting
lime, and soot, and guano over swedes very early
in the morning, while the dew was on the leaves,
or after a shower.

An application of either of these dressings has
been found beneficial when plants intended for
seed have been attacked. A few pounds of
powdered black sulphur — sulphur vivum — mixed
with the dressing will be useful if put on when
the plants are wet.

In gardens, small plots, and market gardens,
syringing the plants with quassia infusion and
soft soap and water, in the proportion of 7 lbs. of
quassia snd 6 lbs. of soft soap to 100 gallons of
water is very efficacious.

Ifatmral E»emi»t. Several parasites feed upon
this insect, keeping its numbers down as a rule.
Sometimes circumstances transpire in which the
butterfiies get the upper hand.

The principal among tiiese parasites is one
shown in the illustration (Nos. S and 6) — a fly be-
longing to the Ckaloidiet Pttromabu hrattiea,
which places from 200 to 800 eggs in the chrysa-
lide. From these eggs larvn come and quickly
eat up the interior of the oocoons. Another deadly
parasite is the Mierogatter glomarattu, a very
tiny fly, which deposits quantities of eggt within
the boidies of the caterpillars. In course of time
the larvB of the Microgoittr, when they have
literally "cleaned out their victims," turn to
chrysalides enirrapped in yellow silken cocoons.
Curtis gave a graphic account of these, and Miss
Ormerod says that they should not be destroyed.

It need hardly be reiterated that it is of the
utmost importance that agriculturists should
know their insect friends and be able to distin-
guish them from their foes, in order that they
may be preserved and encouraged ('Bepqrts on
InsecU Injurious to Crops,' by Charles Whitehead,
Esq., F.Z.S.)

FIESISVAPI. Latreille. Thb Gbibit-vbinrs
Whitb ButtbbfIiT. Yet another species of
Pieri* has to be described, which is common
enough everywhere, and in a degree mischievous
in turnip, rape, and cabbage fields. It is kuown
throughout England and on the Continent,
KOllar speaks of it as living on the leaves of
tnrnips, cabbages, and mignonette in Germany.
Taschenberg says it is the least common of the
three white cabbage butterflies, but even then it
is quite common enough.

Life Sutorg. The green-veined butterfly is of
the family Pajnlionida, and the sub-ilamily
Pieridt*. The wings of the butterfly are white,
with black or dusky tips, and it has a black ba<^.
The male has one black spot on each of its fore
wings. The female has two spots. It is distin-
guished from Pieru rapa, as the ribs or nervnres
on the under aide of its bind wings are of a
green colour. The wing expanse is from 1^ to 2
inches.

The egg is flask-shaped, of a pale green hue,
deeply furrowed with longitudinal and transverse
lines, and is laid singly towards the flnt week in
May. From thisin about six days the caterpillar

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1812

PIEBIS EAPJB-PIO

comes. It ii an inch in length, dark green, with
yellow lines on either side, and escapes observa-
tion ■■ it lies under the leaves from heing so like
them in colour. There are at least two genera-
tions of this insect during the summer. In the
earlier generations the chrysalis frequently re-
mains and is transformed on the phmt ; hut in
the later generations the caterpillar seeks shelter
under leaves, on walls, palings, the trunks and
stems of trees, the sides of cliffs, and cuttings.

Prmention. The method of preventing the
attacks of this butterfly and remedies for them
are the same as those recommended in respect of
Pier'u bratnca and Fieri* rapte.

Natural Snemiet. This butterfly has a veiy
formidable enemy in the shape of an Ichuenmon
fly described as Hemiiela* melauarw, a black
four-winged fly, about the fifth of an inch long,
which lays its eggs in the chrysalis. Curtis relates
that he found the pups of the PierU »api with
largish holes in them, from which this parasite
bad issued, and that he bred an incredible number
of male and female parasites from one pupa
(' Farm Insects,' by J. Curtis). (' Reports on In-
sects Injurious to Crops,' by Charles Whitehead,
Esq., F.Z.S.)

FISBISBJ^X. Latreille. TesShaliWhitb
BuiTUBVliT. Westwood says that this butterfly
is sometimes mistaken by persons ignorant of
entomology for the young of the large white
bntterfly. Pier it braeeiea. It is as distinct from
this as a wren is from a sparrow. There is some
resemblance between the two species in point of
colour and markings, and in their modes of
attacking crops. In other respects they differ
extremely.

It is known in many of the southern and south-
eastern and western counties as the 'turnip
butterfly,' on account of the harm which it does
to turnips and swedes. Some also call it the
' cabbage ' butterfly, and the * heart ' butterfly,
because its caterpillars get into the hearts of
cabbages and between the rings of their leafage,
and on this account it is considered a great pest
by farmers who grow cabbages for stock.

This butterfly is well known in Germany and
France; in the latter country its caterpillar is
called var de eaenr.

I/^e Sittorjf. This small white butterfly
belongs to the family Papilinides, and the sub-
fiimily Pieride*. In measurement of its wing
expanse it is close upon two inches, and of its
body three parts of an inch. The colour of the
body is dark. That of the wings is white, or
faint creamy white. Upon the fore wings of the
male there is a small black spot, while there are
two black spots on each wing of the female.

This bntterfly comes out earlier than Pierit
brattiea, generally towards the 27th of April,
and lays its eggs singly, fastening them on the
under surface of the leaves of branica, or other
cmciferons plants. The egg is light yellow,
getting deeper yellow in time. It is skittle-
shaped, as Mr. Buckler says (* Larvse of British
ButterBies and Moths,' by W. Buckler, edited
by H. T. Stainton, F.B.8.) In six to eight days
the caterpillars emerge from the eggs and eat the
shells. The full grown caterpillar is about one
inch and a quarter in length, dull green in oolonr.

and therefore very difficult to distingnish wlien
upon leaves. It has two faint yellow lines down
its body, with yellow spots upon the lines. There
are two or more generations or broods, and the
winter is passed in the chrysalis state in pretty
much the same conditions as those of the Pitru
bramiete,

PreveiUion. The same precaution mnst be
adopted in respect of this bntterfly as in the case
of its congener, the large white bntterfly, JPitrU
brauiea.

Semediet. These also are similar to those re-
commended for the large white butterfly. I may
add that when field cabbages are attacked, agri-
cultural salt may be advantageously broadcasted
over them before they have become too ' heari^.'
This dressing must be applied very judiciously.

PISKBS DIvniX. ^n. Cvfkvx Aj-jnast.-
TviL See Lapib siTortrB.

PISS. Alexis Soyer gives the following in-
structions for making pies : —

To make a pie to perfection — when your paste
(balf-puft or short) is carefully made, and your
dish or form properly full, throw a little flour on
your paste-board, take about a ^ lb. of your paste,
which roll with your hand until (say) an inch in
circumference ; then moisten the rim of your pie-
dish, and fix the paste equally on it with your
thumb. When you have rolled your paste for
the covering or upper crust, of an equal thickness
throughout, and m proportion to the contents of
your pie {i inch is about the average), fold the
cover in two, lay it over one half of your pie, and
turn the other half over the remaining parti
next press it slightly with your thumb ronnd the
rim, cut neatly the rim of the paste, form rather
a thick edge, and mark this with a knife about
every quarter of an inch apart; observing to
hold your knife in a slanting direction, which
gives it a neat appearance; lastly, make two
small holes on the top, and ^g-over the whole
with a paste-brush, or else use a little milk or
water. Any small portion of paste remaining
may be shapiad to fanciful designs, and placed as
omsments on the top.

For meat pies, observe that, if your paste is
either too thick or too thin, the covering too nar-
row or too short, and requires pulling one way or
the other, to make it fit, your pie is sure to be
imperfect, the covering no longer protecting the
contents. It is the same with fruit ; and if the
paste happens to be rather rich, it pulls the rim
of the pie to the dish, soddens the paste, makes
it heavy, and, therefore, indigestible, as well as
unpalatable.

Meat pies require the addition of either
cayenne, or black pepper, or allspice ; and fruit
pies, of enough sugar to sweeten, with mace, gin-
ger, cloves, or lemon peel, according to taste and
the substance operated on. See Pabtbt, &c.

PIG. The pig or hog (Sue terqfa — Linn.), one
of the common pachydermata, is now domesti-
cated in all the temperate climates of the world.
Its flesh constitutes pork, bacon, ham, &c; its
fat (lard) is officinal in the Pharmacopoeias. The
skin, bristles, and even the blood and intestines
of this animal, are either eaten as food or turned
to some useful purpose in the arts. See PoBX,
Lbathxb, &c.

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PIGMENTS— PILLS

1818

FIG'KESTS. Tbeee are noticed under the
retpeeiive eolour*.

FIQ-STTE. In order that a pig->t;e may not
become a naisaiice and a danger to health it ia
esaential that the liqaid excrement of the pig
should he carried off hy means of an efFective
and well-covered drain, and that the solid matters
should he frequently removed.

Should it come to the knowledge of the sani-
tary inspector of the district that a pig-stye is
deficient in this particular, the inspector has
povret to compel the owner of the stye to con-
struct proper drainage.

XTrban authorities have full powers in the mat-
ter of pig-styes, since under section 26 of the
Public Health Act it is enacted " that the owner
of any sinne or pig-stye kept in a dwelling-house,
or so as to be a nuisance to any person, is liable
to a penalty of 40«. or less, and to a farther
penalty (if the offence is continued) of 6*. a day.
The authority can also, if they choose, abate the
nuisance themselves, and recover the expenses of
such action from the occupier of the premises in
a summary manner.

A rural authority has power to deal with the
matter under provision 8, section 91, of the
Public Health Act, which defines as a nuisance
"any animal so kept as to be a nuisance or
injurious to health."

TIKE. The Stox luciut (Linn.), a fresh-water
fish. It is remarkable for its voracity, but is
highly esteemed by epicures. Various parts of
it were formerly oaed in medicine. The fat
(OLBUH Ltroil PiBOis) was one of the simples of
Uie Ph. L. of 1618, and was esteemed as a fric-
tion in catarrhs. It is even now used in some
parts of Europe to disperse opacities of the
cornea.

pn'CHABD. The Clupea pileitu-thu, a fish
closely resembling the common herring, than
which, however, it is smaller, but thicker and
rounder and more oily. It abounds on the coasts
of Devon and Cornwall, where it is not only con-
sumed as food, but pressed for its oil.

FILBS. S^n. Hbkobbhoidb ; Hskob-
BHOISBS, L. A painful disease occasioned by the
morbid ^latation of the veins at the lower part
of the rectum and surrounding the anus.

I^es are principally occasioned by costiveness
and cold ; and, occasionally, by the use of acrid
food, liiey have been distinguished into —
BLIHS PILBB, or a varicose state of the veins
without bleeding, — ^uvooirg piles, when the
tumours are excoriated, and mucus or pus is dis-
charged,— BLBBDiNa PILES, whctt accompanied
with loss of blood, and— exobbscbittial filbb,
when there are loose fleshy exprescences about
the verge of the anus and within the rectum.

The treatment of piles consists in the adminis-
tration of mild aperients, as castor oil, or an
electuary of sulphur and cream of tartar. When
there is much inflammation or bleeding, cold and
astringent lotions, as those of sulphate of zinc or
alum, should be applied; and when the pain is
considerable, fomentations of decoction of poppy
heads may be used with advantage. To arrest
the bleeding, ice is also frequently applied, but
continued pressure is more certain. When the
tumours are 'large and flaccid, the compound
VOL. II.

ointment of galls is an excellent application ; and
if there is a tendency to inflammation, a little
liquor of diacetate of lead may be added. In
confirmed piles the internal use of copaiba, or,
still better, of the confection of black pepper,
should be persevered in for some time, together
with local applications. In the early stages ex-
ternal piles may be very effectually treated by
the local application of tincture of hamamelis.
In severe cases the protruded tumours are re-
moved by surgeons, by the knife or ligature. See
OiirTMBirra, Elbotvabies, Ac.

FILL OOCHIA. See CoKromro Colooykth
Pills (btlow).

PILL BITTI. See Pills of Alobs with
Mybbe (belov).

FILLS. Sign. FiLTTLX (Ph. E. & D.), PanLA
Ph. L.; PiLULBS, Saoohabol£s bolisbs. Ft.
Pills are little balls, of a semi-solid consistence,
composed of various medicinal substances, and
intended to be taken whole. The facility with
which they are made and administered, their
comparatively little taste, their power of pre-
serving their properties for a considerable length
of time, and, lastly, their portability and inex-
pensiveness, have long rendered them the most
frequently employed and the most popular form
of medicine.

The rapid and skilful preparation of piIlB,from all
the numerous substances of which they are com-
posed, is justly considered to demand the highest
qualifications in the practical dispenser. The
medicinals employed must be made into a con-
sistent and moderately firm mass, sufficiently
plastic to be rolled or moulded into any shape,
without adhering to the fingers, knife, or (dab, and
yet sufficiently solid to retain the globular form
when divided into pills. A few substances, as
certain extracts, &c., are already in this condi-
tion; but the others require the use of an exci-
pient to give them the requisite bulk or consist-
ence. As a general rule, all the constituents of
a pill that can be pulverised should be reduced to
fine powder before mixing them with the soft in-
gredients which enter into its composition ; and
these last, or the excipient, should next be
gradually added, and the mixture triturated and
beaten until the whole forms a perfectly homo-
geneous mass. It is then ready to be divided into
pills. This is effected by rolling it on a slab, with
a pill or bolus knife, into small pipes or cylinders,
then dividing these into pieces, of the requisite
weight; and, lastly, rolling them between the
thumb and finger to give them a globular form.
A little powdered liquorice-root or starch is com-
monly employed to prevent the pills adhering to
the fingers, or to each other, after they are made.
Magrneeia, so frequenUy used for this purpose, is
unsuited for pills containing metallic salts or the
alkaloids, or other remedies, which are exhibited
in very small doses.

Instead of forming the mass into pills by hand,
in the manner just referred to, a convenient and
simple instrument called a ' pill-machine,' is now
generally used by the druggists for the purpose.
This consists of two pieces. The first (see fig. 1)
is divided into three compartments : — o is a vacant
space to receive the divided mass, which is to be
rolled into pills ; 6 is a grooved brass plate, which

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PILLS

asaista in dividing the mass into pilla ; and a is a
box for containing the powder for covering the
pills, and to receive them as they are formed.
The second (see flg. 2) consists of a brass plate (a),
grooved to match the plate i in fig. 1, and bounded

Fio. I.

Fio. 1.

at both ends by movable projecting plates (6 b),
containing each two wheels under the ledge of
the plate (b) ; and a wooden back (a), with two
handles (d d), to which this plate is afSxcd. In
nsing this machine, the pill-mass is rolled into a
cylindrical form on the front part of it, by means
of flg. 2 inverted ; the small roll is then laid on
the cutting port of the instrument (1, b), and
divided by passing fig. 2 over it, the Utile wheels
enabling the latter to rnn easily on the brass
plate which forms the margin of the bed of the
machine. The pills, thus formed, are then drawn
forward on to the smooth bed on which the mass
was first rolled, and receiving a finishing turn or
two with the smooth side of the 'cotter,' by
which they are rendered more nearly spherical.
They are, lastly, thrown over into 1, e, ready to
be transferred to the pill-box.

The nature of the excipient should be suited to
that of the active ingredients in pills, as well as
in all other forms of medicine. Furthermore, it
should be of such a nature " that," to quote Dr
Bedwood, " it will modify as little as possible the
action of the pills, either by causing them to
become hard, or in any other way, and will not
unnecessarily or inconveniently increase their
size." Soft extracts, and other substances of a
like character, may be rendered more consistent
by the addition of any simple powder, as that of
liquorice or sugar. Vegetable powders are gene-
rally beaten up with syrup or treacle, and heavy
powders with conserve of roses or extract of
liquorice. Castile soap (made of olive oil and
soda) and medicinal soft soap (made of olive oil
and potash) are commonly employed for fattyand
resinous matters, as well as for many others which
arc not decomposed by alkalies. When the chief
ingredient of the mass is resin rectified spirit is
frequently used to soften it, either with or without
.the addition of soap to increase its solubility in
the stomach. For many substances no excipient
is required. Thus, most of the gum-resins and
stiff extracts may be at once made into pills, or,
at all events, after being slightly softened by heat.
Mucilage, formerly so much used in the prepara-
tion of pills, is now only employed for those which

are to be taken within a day or two after being'
made ; as pills containing it become so hard and
inaolnble when kept for some time as to resist the
action of the stomach, and frequently to pass
through the bowels without even losing their form.
Qlycerin as well as tragacanth are also employed
as pill-excipients.

The use of glycerin as a pill-excipient has been
advocated on account of its generally neutral
properties, and also because its substitution for
B^np, the conserves of roses, treacle, and such
hke substances, results in the production of a pill
of smaller bulk. It seems to be suited for pills
coutaining chemical substances, such as quinine,
tannic acid, &c. It is said, however, to poaaeas
the disadvantage of attracting moiature, making
the pills damp on their surfaces.

Quinine, 8 parts, with 1 of the glycerin mass,
P. B. strength, works well. Compound powder
of ipecacuanha, 5 gr., with } gr. of the mass,
makes a good pill. Oxide of zinc, too, 4 gr. with
1, makes a good mass.

But for most mineral and inaolnble powders it
is too moist, and will not form with them a firm
mass ; some additional absorbent is neceaaary, and
for this purpose I found nothing better than flour;
equal parts of the glycerin mass and flour form a
tolerably firm, solid, adhesive paste, somewhat re-
sembling dough, but it is not so elastic ; this I
call bread mass. It possesses great capacity for
the absorption of insoluble powders, such, for
example, as calomel (3 gr. with H gr. of thiamaas
makes a good pill), nitrate and carbonate of bis-
mnth, arsenic, &c. Of reduced iron, 8 parts with
2 of it, form a good mass, in which the iron is not
liable to oxidation. Carbolic acid, too, of which
it is a good solvent, ia readily made into a pill with
the bread mass, a little additional flour being
necessary for this substance. Then again, sub-
stances which are given in minute doses, as the
salts of morphia, resin of podophyllum, and other
active principles to partially dilute thmr action,
or where an excipient is needed to partially in-
crease the bulk of the pill, it is well adapted for
use. And among the official pill masses an equal
quantity of it can with great advantage be used
to supplant confection <n roses in all these, with
the exception of pilula aloes cum f erro, for which
the glycerin masses is needed, and pilula ferri
carbonatis. This, too, requires the glycerin mass,
with which it mixes well, but after a time the pills
have a tendency to become moist. Mercurial pill
I have not tried with it. The same quantity of
this bread mass will replace the treacle in pilula
scillsB composita. Equal parts of it and powdered
soap, in place of powdered soap alone (if tbia
might be permitted), form a much better mass
than the official one of pilula aaponis compoaita.

This pill mass, made atrictly accor^ng to the
Pharmacopoeia, soon becomes set into a condition
resembling a piece of soap, in which state much
beating is necessary to make it again plastic.

Of the glycerin mass to be added to the Phar-
macopceia quantities of —

Pil. cambogiffi comp. (vice syrup), 1 oz., makes
a good mass.

Pil. colocynth comp. (vice water), 8 dr., makes
a good mass, and does not get so hard.

Pil. hydrarg. subchlor. comp. (viae castor oil).

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1816

H oz., makes a good mass, bnt becomes slightly
moist.

Fil. ipecac, com scilla(e»)« treacle), 1 oi., makes
a good mass, which does not crumble.

Pil. rhei comp. (etM 4 oi. of treacle), 8 oz.,
makes a good mass, and keeps tolerabl; plastic.

Among the other official pill masses which I
haye not tried with these exciplents are pilola
colocynthidis et hyoscyami and pilula conii com-
posita. These I find do not generally require
any ezcipient, and pilula f erri iodidi, the starch
contained in the flour, with that would not form
an elegant preparation.

Nitrate of rilvtr is generally recommended in
works on materia medica to be made into a pill
with bread crumb, but this contains common salt,
with which it is incompatible. I recommend the
following formula, which is a modification of the
bread mass:

$1 Nitrate of silver . . 6 gr.

Distilled water . . 6 minims.
Dissolve, and add —

Glycerin mass . 12 gr.

Flour . . . 24gr.

Mix to form a mass which may be divided into
8-grr. pills, each containing i gr. of nitrate of
■ilver. The mass rolls oat well. Keep them from
exposure to the air and light.

For Ferehloride of Mercmy Pills :
jl Perchloride of mercury . 6 gr.

Distilled water . 48 minims.

Heat in a test-tube till dissolved, and add to
it-
Glycerin mass . 48 gr.
Flour . . 96 gr.

Mix well, and divide into 96 8-gr. pills, each of
which will contain a sixteenth of a grun of per-
chloride of mercury.

Substances like nitrate of silver and perchloride
of mercury may form different combinations with
the albuminoid principles contained in the flour,
bat in such state they will probably be quite as
readily assimilated, and have a similar medicinal
action, as physiologists affirm that most metallic
substances enter into the blood as albuminates. I
have liad some fear lest the gluten contained in
the floor might favour some decomposition similar
to fermentation, but such, i^m nearly two
years' use of them, I have never yet seen take
place ; the glycerin seems to check anything of
the kind.

The crude gluten obtuned in the moist condition
from flour I And is nearly entirely soluble in gly-
cerin, the solution does not appear to undergo any
change when kept.

A mixture of glycerin and tragacanth is often
nsed, and produces very similar results to those I
have obtained from the glycerin mass. I have
not had much experience with such a mixture,
bat I And that it makes a more elastic paste,
which is often a disadvantage, as it causes the
pills to have a certain amount of springiness,
and renders them difficult to form perfectly
globular.

For dry sulphate of iron, of which a large
quantity is sometimes ordered in a pill, I find

rp the best excipient. By this means 6 gr. of
can be thus made into a pill (' Pharmaceutical
Tear Book ').

It may be further remarked that no deli-
qneacent salt should enter into the composition
of pills not intended for immediate use; and
that when efflorescent salts are so employed they
should be first freed from their water of crystal-
lisation.

When the mixed ingredients are made into a
mass (pill-mass), which it ia not intended at once
to divide into pills, it should be preserved in a
piece of bladder or gut-skin placed in a covered
stoneware or earthenware pot. In this state it
may be occasionally moistened with a little weak
spirit to prevent ite getting hard.

The weight (size) of pills varies from ( gr. to
6 gr. If heavier than this, they are called
' boluses.' Formerly, as a general rale, they were
made of 6 gr. each ; but pills of this weight are,
in general, so large that some persons find a
difficulty in swallowing them. Another disadvan-
tage of large pills is <£e trouble of nicely appor-
tioning the dose,— one pill being, perphaps, too
small a quantity, and two pills the reverse. Hence,
2 to 8-gr. pilla are now the favourite size with
both pill-tsjcers and dispensers, notwithstanding
that 5-gr. pills are still ordered in one of the
authorised Pharmacopoeias.

Pills are occasionally coated with gold, silver,
gelatin, and other substances, to render them
more agreeable to the eye, or to prevent the taste
of nauseous ingredients affecting the palate during
deglutition. They are gilded and silvered by
placing them, in the moist state, on a leaf or two
of the metal in a small gallipot, and covering
tiiem in a similar manner with another leaf of
metal; over the mouth of the gallipot u laid a
piece of smooth writing paper, and on this the
palm of the hand ; a sudden and rapid cinmlar
motion is then given to the whole. If the pills
are not sufficiently moist or sticky, they should be
rendered so by rubbing them between the fingers
very slightly moistened with mucilage, before
proceeding to silver them. Another method is to
shake them in a similar manner with a little gold
or silver dust.

Mr Haseldeu recommends a varnish composed
as follows : — Resin (this is the substance which is
left in the preparation of syrup of tolu) of tolu, S
parts; rectified spirit, 6 parts ; methylated ether,
2 parts. Well shake until all that will is dis-
solved. Use the clear solution. Mr Haselden
says iodide of iron pills are well preserved by
this coating, and also granules of secale cor-
nutnm.

When pills are to be covered with gelatin, each
pill, being stuck on the point of a very thin wire
4 or 5 inches in length, is dipped into a solution
of gelatin, so as to coat it completely, and the
wire is then inserted into a pin-cushion, or a
vessel containing fine sand, and left until the
gelatin is firm, which occurs in about a quarter of
an hour ; the pins may then be easily removed by
simply warming them, by placing the centre of
each wire for a second or two in the flame of a
spirit lamp or candle. ' Sugar-coated pills ' are
prepared in nearly the same way, but substituting
hot and highly concentrated syrup, to which a
little gelatin has been added, for a simple aolation
of gelatin.

The following detiuls for coating pills with sngar

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PILLS

are taken from the ' Chemist and Druggist,' Dec.
15th, 1871 :— "The pills are first varnished with
the follon'ing liquids —

Ether .... 100 parts.

Bala, toln . . . . 10 „
Colophoninm , , . 1 „
Absolute alcohol . . . 10 „
By first rolling them in a mortar with tiiis ethe-
rotl solution, and then transferring to a sheet of
writing paper with the sides bent upwards, shaking
being continued tUl the; are perfectly dry. Then
to a small quantity of the saccharated albumen
(see next receipe) add a few drops of water, at
the same time beating for a short while, so that
a thick paste will be formed. Into this mass
the pills are stirred, and when moistened on all
sides, quickly poured into a wooden pill-box,
which has previously been filled abont one third
with the finest powdered sugar obtainable, and
immediately shaken, or rather rolled in a lively
way with great force, separating from time to
time those cohering. When no more sugar will
adhere they are dried over a gentle fire, taking
care not to bring them too near the stove lect
they shonld crack. Shaking, of coarse, most be
continued till dryness is effected."

Albumen com Saccharo. Take the white of
an egg, and in an evaporating dish beat with it
as much powdered sngar, passed through a sieve,
as will make rather a thick fluid. Then place it
in a water-bath and evaporate to dryness, stirring
constantly that no sngar may be deposited. Pul-
verise and set aside for further use.

The following notes on pill-coating are by Dr
Hoghes Davies, ' Pharm. Joum.,' Januaiy, 1891 :
" There are various ways of coating pilli, bat
the first I was ever able to perform was the tolut.
and Crete gall., which consists in dissolving 3iij
of residue from making syrup tolut. in Jiss of
ether, varnish the pills with this solution, and
when dry rab over with a litUe powdered French
chalk; there are, however, improvements npon
that process which I will try and define.

1. The Oelaline Procen. I will not make any
comments upon the many methods of gelatin
coating I have tried, but will simply define the
one with which I have obtained by far the best
results, vi;c. make the solution from gelatin, 1 oz.;
water, 8 oz. Dissolve at a gentle heat, then add
the white of an egg, and heat until the albumen
coagulates, strain through flannel into a water
bath kept at a low temperature, add 2 dr. gly-
cerin, 2 dr. S.y.B., and acid, boric, gr. vi.

A beautifully clear solution is thus obtained ;
the clearer the solution the better the polish.
When gelatin coating is carried out on a small
scale, it is the usual custom to coat the pills
singly, but I have adopted another plan and find
it answer equally well and occupy considerably
less time.

I have a rounded piece of thin wood with a
thick layer of cork stuck round the edge, and in
the centre a small hole, through which I have a
little ferrule, which enables me to place the con-
cern on a small iron p^ fastened in a wooden
stand.

The cost of making the whole apparatus would
amount to about 9d. It is convenient to have
three or four boards at hand ; the stand, of course.

would be adaptable to any of them. I have the
boards with good needles firmly fastened in the
cork to the number of 6, 12, 24, and 48. Now
attach the pills to be coated to the points of tiie
needles and dip in the solution, taking caie not to
keep them in too long, as a thick coating is on-
desirable. Place the hoard with the pills on \mA
on the peg, revolve in a gentle manner to render
the coating even, and give it an occasional torn
ronnd. By doing the coating in the evening tlie
pills are ready to be taken off the needles and
stored away in bottles the next morning.

2. Pearl Coating. To do this succeasfolly
several conditions are of great importance, with-
out attention to which the French chalk will fiul
to shine. Care mnst be taken in the seledaon of
a proper excipient for working the maaa, for
although pills when pearl coated are not within
view of the naked eye, they nevertheless most be
properly made to be properly coated.

Glycerin being hygroscopic is not an excipient
that should be used.

The pills ought to be as nearly round as posuble
and moderately hard and dry ; it is best to ke^
them exposed on trays for at least a day before the
coating is proceeded with. Should the mass be
crumbly tiie condition may be considered to be
one of the most bitter enemies of successful coat-
ing ; the operation will necessarily be a fiulote,
as the pills will most likely crack, and whrai that
takes place the attempt may be given np.
Another difficulty that has to be overcome is
with pills containing essential oils. Unless these
are varnished previous to the coating the oil will
work through and spoil the appearance. It is beat
to dilate the pill varnish in common use to half
strength and allow the pills a day's rest brfore
clothing in white.

I use two covered gallipots and a round tin box
in the process. The pots should be perfectly
smooth, and have well-fitting lids, and should
be large enongh to hold double the quantity of
pills for coating. The tin corresponds in siae to
thepotn.

Place some French chalk in the tin aad the
pills in one of the pots, damp with a solntioa.
The ono I use is equal parts of mucUago, acacin,
syr. simp, and aqua ; too much solntion shonld
not be used. A 2 dr. measure is convenient for
the purpose. The pills should all be damped, bat
if too much solution be used too mnch chalk ia
taken up. Now turn them out of the pot into
the tin containing the chalk, shake sharply and
empty out on to a proper receptacle (I use the lid
of a cardboard box), keep moving and separate
the loose chalk. They are now ready for the
polishing pot, being the second gallipot, which
should be kept as a polisher only.

Bepeat the operation, but this time removing
as much of the loose chalk as possible befixe
using the polisher, never forgetting that theM
small things are the tedious puzzles of pill ooat-
ing. Bepeat the operation once again and it ia
complete. It is necessary to give particular at*
tention to the washing of the pots between each
coarse, and to keep the polisher porfectly dry.
I generally after washing and wiping the pot
hold it over a qiirit lamp and polish oat with a
soft cloth."

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i8ir

Aa ptll-maases are likely to get luurd and brittle
I>y keeping, an excellent plan is to keep the dry
ingredienta powdered and mixed together in well-
oorked bottles or janr, when a portion may at any
time be beaten up with symp, conserve, soap, dec.,
according to the f ormnla, and as wanted tor use.
The mixed ingredients in this state are technically
known as ' spe<aes ' or ' powder ' for the respecttve
pills.

puis. Abemethy's. See ABiBintTET kbdi-
aima (page 6).

PiUs of Ac'etata of lead. St/n. PrLViiB
PXUlCBi A0BTAT18, L. Prep. 1. Acetate of
lead, 20 gr. ; powdered camphor, 16 gr. ; oon-
■erve of roses, q. s. ; mix and divide into 12
pills.

2. {Badiut.) Acetate of lead and powdered
msdlow or liquorice root, of each, i dr. ; simple
•yrap.q. s.; divide into 18 pills.— 2>o(«, lto6
cuily, washed down with water soured with vin-
egax ; as a powerful astringent in htsmorrhages,
diarrhoea, the night-sweats in phthisis, &c. See

OPIATMD LbAS FIIiU.

PQls of Acetate of Kerenry. Sjfn. Pilttui

KTDKUtaTSI AC1ITAII8, L. Prep. 1. Sub-
■oetate of mercury, 18 gr.; sugar of milk (or
manna), 1 dr.; mucilage, q. s.; divide into 24
pills. — Dote. As an iterative, 1 daily; as a
■ialogogne, one every f onr or five hours, or oftener
in fyphilis, &c. See Kxyseb'b pills.

8. (Oinated — Carmichael.) Acetate of mer-
OOTJ, camphor, and opium, of each 30 gr. ; syrup
of poppies to mix. For 80 pills. Less apt to
affect the stomach and bowels than the last.

Fllla of Acetate of Kor'phlne. S!f». Pilulb
JCOBFHIX AOBTATis. L. Prep. 1. Acetate of
morphine, 2 gr. ; sugar of milk, 16 gr. ; conserve
of rOMS, 80 gr.; for 12 pills. Anodyne, sedative,
and aoporiSc. — Dote, 1, as required.

2. (Dr A. T. Thornton.) Acetate of morphine,
1 gr. ; powdered foxgloves, 6 gr. ; powdered cam-
phor, 10 gr.; powdered gum arabic, 8 gr. ; syrup
of tolu, q. 8. ; to be divided into 6 p^. Seda-
tive and antispasmodic. — Dote. One every 8 or
4 hours ; in phthisis, palpitation, spasms, &c. The
* bydrochlorate of morphine may be used instead of
the acetate, with advantage.

Pill* of Ac'onite. Syn. ViLVhx aoohiti, P.
■XTKAOTiA., L. Prep. (Dr Tumbull.) Alco-
holic extract of aconite, 1 gr. ; liquorice powder,
ligr.; simple syrup, q. s.; mix, and divide the
maM into 6 pills. — Doee, 1 pill every 8 or 4
hours ; as a powerful anodyne and sedative in ex-
cessive action of the heart, acute rheumatism,
p>nt, neuralgia, &c. The utmost care should be
taken both in their preparation and administration.

Pint, AUbert's. See Pills, Apskiikt.

Pilli of Aloea. Sgn. Pilitla aloeb Sooo-
TBnrs (B. P.), PiLUL* aloitiojb, PiLirLffi
Alois (Ph. E.). L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Sooo-
trine aloes (in powder) and Castile soap, equal
parts ; conserve of red roses, q. s. to form a pill-

8. (B. P.) Socotrine aloes, 16 parts; hard
•0^ 8 parts ; oil of nutmeg, 1 part j confection
of rose, 8 parts. Form into a mass.

3. (B. P.) Pilitla aloes Babbadinbib. Prep.
Barbadoes aloes (in powder), 2 oz. ; hsrd soap,
in powder, 1 oz. ; oil of caraway, 1 fluid dr. ;

confection of roses, 1 oz. Beat all together
until thoroughly mixed.

Obt. " This pill may be also correctly made
with the finer qualities of East Indian aloes, as
the (true) Socotrine variety ia very scarce ; and
many, not without reason, prefer (pure) Barbadoes
aloes." (Ph. £.) The dose, as a laxative, is 6 to
10 gr. ; as a purgative, 12 to 20 gr., or more. See

PlU.8 OP ALOKB AKD SOAP.

puis of Aloes and Assafbetida. %n. Pilitla
A10B8 BT ABBATCETiDA (B. P.). Prep. Socotrioe
aloes, in powder, Ij asaafcetida, 1; powdered
hard soap, 1 ; confection of roses, 1 (i confection
sufficient — Squire). Mix. Cathartic and anti-
spasmodic.— Dote, 6 to 10 gr.

PiUa of Aloes (Compound.) Syn. Pilules
Alobtios ookposits, Pilitla aloeb ook-

POBITA (Ph. L.), PiLULB A. C0HP08IT.B (Ph. D.),

L. Prtp. 1. (Ph. L.). Socotrine (does (in
powder), 1 oz.; extract of gentian, i oz. ; oil ot
caraway, 40 drops ; treacle, q. s. ; the whole to be
beaten together until they form a mass proper for
making pills.

2. (Ph. D.). Hepatic aloes (in powder), 2 oz. ;
extract of gentian and treacle, of each 1 oz. ; oil
of caraway, 1 fl. dr. ; as the last.

Obt. The above is a very valuable purgative
in habitual costiveness and indigestion, in all
cases in which the use of aloes is not contra-
indicated. The dose is from 5 to 16 gr., or more.

PlUa of AIom (Diluted.) Syn. Pilvlb ALOicB
DlLnT.B, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Marshall Hall.)
Barbadoes aloes, Castile soap, extract of liquorice
and treacle, equal parts ; water, q. s. ; dissolve,
with heat, strain, and evaporate to the consistence
of a pill-mass. Resembles the PILULA ALOiis otm
BAPOM— Ph. L.

Pills of Aloes and Assafceti'da. Sy». Pilvlb
ALOia BT Absap<btida (Fh. E.), L. iVsp.
CPh. E.). Aloes (Socotrine or- East Indian, pew>
dered), assafoetida and Castile soap, equal parts ;
beat them with conserve of red rosea to a proper
pill-mass. — Dote, 6 to 10 gr., once or twice daily,
as a stomachic tonic and laxative, in dyspepsia,
flatulence, &c. ; and 12 to 20 gr., as a purgative in
similar cases. It is extremely useful in costive-
ness, with flatulency, occurring in hysterical and
hypochrondriacal subjects. The B. P. prepara-
tion is the same as this, except that hard soap is
used instead of Castile soap.

PiUs «f Aloes and Oin'ger. Syn. Pilulji
AL0B8 BT KIirOIBEBIB, L. Ptep. (Ph. D.
1826.) Aloes, 1 oz. ; Castile soap, 4 oz. ; ginger,
1 dr. ; oil of peppermint, i dr. ; beaten to a mass.
A useful laxative in cold habits. — Dote. As the
last.

Fills of Aloes and Ipecacuanha, ^fn. Db
Bailie's dinveb Pills; Filuls aloks bt
iPBCAOUAlTHf, L. Prep. (Dr Bailie.) Pow-
dered aloes, 80 gr. ; powdered ginger (finest), 45
gr. ; ipecacuanha, 12 gr. ; syrup of orange peel
q. 8. to mix. For 24 pills. — i>ofa. One, about an
hour before dinner.

Pills of Aloes and I'ron. Si/n. Pilvlb
ALOBS BT PBBBI (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Barbadoes aloes, 2 ; sulphate of iron, 1) ; com-
pound powder of cinnamon, 8 ; confection of
roses, 4; mix (6 of confection required — Squire).
—Dote, 6 to 10 gr.

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1818

PILLS

2. (Pb. E.) Sulphate of iron, 8 parti; Barba-
doos aloes, 2 parts; aromatic powder, 6 parts;
oonierve of red roses, 8 parts ; powder the aloes
and sulphate of Iron separately, beat the whole to
a mass, and divide this into 6-gr. pills. An excel-
lent medicine in chlorosis, hysteria, and atonic
amenorrhoea. — Dote, 1 to 3 pills daily.

FillB of Aloes and Kai'tlc. See Fills,
DnrNEB.

Pills of Aloes and Karcnry. ^j/n. PrvirLm
AXOBS CVM HrDK&BOTBO, L. See Piua, API-

BIBNI (8).

Pills of Aloes and Xyrrli. Sg». Butub's

FILLS; PiLULA ALOJcB CUM MTBBHA (Ph. L.
& D.), PlLTTLS RUFI or OOmtUITES (Pb. L.

1720), P. ALOES EI mntBiLB (B. p.. Ph. E),
L. Prep. 1. (Pb. L.) Socotiine or hepatic
aloes (in powder, ( oz. ; saffron, myrrh powdered),
and soft soap (Pb. L.),of each 2 u. ; treacle q. s.
to form a pill-mass.

2. (Pb. D.) Hepatic aloea, 2 os.; myrrh,
loz.; dried saffron, i oz. ; all in powder; treacle,
2ioz.

3. (Ph. E.) Aloes (Soootrine or East In^an),
4 parts; myrrh, 2 parts; saffron, 1 part; beat
them to a pill-mass with conserve of red rosea,
q. 8.

4. (Pb. L. 1886 and Pb. D. 1826.) Aloes
(in powder), 2 oz. ; saffion and powdered myrrh,
of each 1 oz. ; symp, q. s. to form a pill-mass.

6. (B. P.) Socotrinea]oe8,2; myrrh,!; dried
safron, i ; treacle, 1 ; glycerine, a sufficiency.
Mix. Stimnlant and cathartic. — Dote, 6 to
10 gr.

Ob*. This compound is a most excellent
stomachic purgative and emmenagoguc, when
there are no febrile symptoms present. It is said
to have been employed ever since the time of
Bhazes, and is still in extensive use. — Dott,
10 to 20 gr.

Fills of Aloes and Bbnbarb. Sg». Piluue

ALOKS ET BHBI, P. B. OUIC . BHBO, L. /Vop.

Powdered Socotrinc or hepatic aloes, powdered
rbnbard, and soft soap (Pb. L.), of each, i dr. ;
oil of chamomile, 10 drops ; for 80 pills. — Dote,
1 to 6, cither as a stomach tonic or laxative;
especially in dyspepsia, with loss of apjwtite.
Fills of Aloes and Bose-Jnice. <^. Pilvls

AIAiiB BOBATS, L. ; PlLULBS AHORLIQUEB,

Obaiks SB 8Ast£, Fr. I'ttp. Take aloes and
rose-jnice, of each 4 oz. ; juice of borage and
chicory, of each 2 oz. ; dissolve with beat,
evaporate to an extract ; add, of rhubarb, 2 dr. ;
agaric, 1 dr. ; and divide the mass into li-gr.
pills. — Dote, 4 to 12, as a purge.

Fills of Aloes with Soap. i^s. Pii.X7lx aloes
CUM BAPONB (Ph. L.), L. I>rep. (Pb. L.) Pow-
dered extract of Barbadoes aloes, soft soap, and
extract of liquorice, equal parts ; treacle, q. s. to
form a pill-mass. — Dote, 10 to 20 gr.; in the
nsnal cases in which aloes is administered. It is
more readily soluble in the juices of the primse
viae, and is milder than most of the aloetic pills
without soap. See Fills o> Alobs (Diluted).

Fills, Aloes and Turpentine. (Boit.) Sgn.
FiLULS ALOES BT TBBBBiVTHiirx. iV«p. Boiled
turpentine, 2 dr.; aloes, } dr. Divide into 40
pills.

Pills, Al'terative. Sj^. Favut altbbaktbs.

L. See Fills, Caioxxl, Meboubial, and
Pluicmbb's, Ac.

Pills of Al'niii. 8f». PiLVLS ALUiuinB, P.
A. COMPOBITA, L. Prep. 1. (Auffuttm.) Alum,
20 gr.; benzoic acid, 6gr.; powdered gum and
white sugar, of each 10 gr. ; water, q. s. to form
a mass. For 86 pills. In phthisis and atonic
mucous discharges. The whole to be taken in
the course of 2 or 8 days.

2. {Capuron.) Catccbn, 1 dr.; alum, |dr.;
opium, 10 gr. ; syrup of red roses, q. s. ; divide
into 6-gr. pills.— Do«e, 1 to 8; in chronic diair-
hcsa and leucorrboea.

3. {Sadiut.) Alum and catechu, oqnal parte:
extract of gentian, q. s. to mix ; divide into 8 or
8-gr. pills. — Dote, 2 to 4, every four hours ; in
passive heamorrhages, mucous discbarges, and
chronic diarrhoea.

Fills of Ammoai'aeam. Syn. Pilttlb axxo-
NIACI, L. iV«p. 1. Onm ammoniacnm, 1 dr.;
powdered sngar, 4 dr. ; conserve of bipe, q. i.
In old oooghs and hysterical affections.

2. (Compound.) — a. (Aiuilie.) Ammoniacnm,

1 dr. ; mercurial pill, IB gr. ; powdered squills,
6 or 8 gr. ; simple syrup, q. s. For 16 pills. In
asthmatic coughs, with deranged action of the
liver. — Dote, 1, two or three times a day.

h. (V. Cooleg.) Ammoniacum and sagape-
num, of each 1 dr. ; dried sulphate of iron, { 6i.i
conserve of hips, q. a. In obstructed men-
struation, and in the chronic diarrbcea of bystffli-
cal subjects.

Fills of Amino"niated Cop'per. Syn. Pilulx

ODPBI AKUOiriATI (Ph. E.), P. O. AintOMITrBBTl,

L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Ammoniated copper (in
fine powder), 1 part ; bread-crumb, 6 parts ; solu-
tion of carbonate of ammonia, q. s. to make a
mass, which is to be divided so that each pill
may contain i gr. of ammoniated copper. In
epilepsy, and in some other spasmodic diseases.—
Dote, 1 pill, night and morning, gradually itt>
creased to 6 or 6.

Fills of Ammoniated I'ron. Sgn. Filuls
bbbbi ahkokiati, P. r. amkonio-chlobisi, L.
Prep. 1. (Z>r Copland.) Ammoniated iron, 1
dr.; aloes and extract of gentian, of each i dr.; ■
for 80 pills. In scrofula, chlorosis, amenorrb(Ba,
&c.

2. (Radiut.) Ammoniated iron and galbannm,
of each 1 dr.; assafoetida, 2 dr.; castor, 20 gr.;
tincture of valerian, q. s. For 8-gr. pills. — Dote,

2 pills, night and morning; in atonic nervona
disorders, epilepsy, &c.

Fills of Ammo'^nio-cit'rate of Iron. Sf». Pi-
WLS pbbbi akkovio-oitbatib, L. Prep. (.Ba-
ral.) Ammonia-citrate of iron, 1 dr. ; white
sugar, 8 dr. ; mucilage, q. s. to mix. For 8-gT.
pills. — Dote, 1 to 3, or more ; as a mild chaly-
beate tonic

Pills, Analep'tic. See Pills, Jambs', Ajta-

LBPTIC, Ac.

Fills, Anderson's Soot's. Varioos f ormolta for
these pills are extant, the products of which
differ widely from the genuine article. Dr Paris,
some years since, declared that they consisted of
Barbadoes aloes, jalap, and oil of aniseed. "A
careful examination of the proprietary article,
with other facts that have come to our know-
ledge, leads OS to believe that the first of the

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1319

following formulee is the one now employed in
the preparation of the 'Qrana Angelica,' or
' Anderson's True Scot's Pills,' of the present
day." (Oool^.)

Prtp. 1. From Barbadoes aloes, 7 Ihs.; jalap
(in fine powder), 2^ lbs.; treacle, 1 Ib.j soap,
6 oz. ; melted together by the heat of a warm
bath, and, when partly cold, aromatised by stir-
ring in oil of aniseed, 1 oa. The mass is dirided
into about 8i-gr. piHs, of which 26 or 27 are
placed in each 1«. \^d. box. A mild and nsefal
aperient. — Dou, 5 to 15 gr., or more.

2. (Original formala.) Socotrine aloes, 1 oz. ;
best myrrh, i oz.; saffron, 1 dr. j separately
pounded very fine ; mix them in an earthen pip-
kin, with a spoonful each of water and sweet oil,
by the heat of a slow fire, and form the mass into
" common-sized pills." From a copy of the
original document in the Chapel of the Bolls.

3. (P. Ofxi.) Aloes and gamboge, of each
6dr. ; oil of aniseed, 1 dr.; syrup, q. s. ; mix,
and divide into 4-gr. pills. Much more powerful
than the preceding, and closely resembling Mori-
son's ' No. 2 pills.'

4. (Phil. ColL of Pharm.) Barbadoes aloes
(in powder), 3 lbs. ; Castile soap, \ lb. ; colocynth
and gamboge (both in fine powder), 2 oz.; oil of
anis^, 1 oz. ; beat to a mass with water, q. s.,
and divide it into S-gr. pills. Less active tiian
the last, bat more so than the "True Scot's
KUs.'

Pilla, An'odyne. Sj/n. Vilttlm aitodtka, L.
Prep. 1. (Hosp. F.) Opium (in powder), 6 gr.;
camphor, 16 gr. ; conserve of roses, q. s. ; divide
into 12 pills. — Vote, 1 to 3, as required.

2. {A. T. Thonuon.) Calomel, potassio-tar-
trate of antimony, and opium, equal parts; syrup
of saffron, q s. ; divided in Sl-gr. pills. In acute
rheumatism and neuralgia. — Dote, 1 pill, at bed-
time.

Pills, Antibil'iouB. All the ordinary aperient
and stomachic pills may be classed under this
head. See the names of their proprietors or
reputed inventors, or those of their leading in-
gredients.

Fills, Antlchlorot'ic 1^. Pilulb anhi-
CRLOBITICA, L. Prep. (Sadiut.) Aloes and
carbonate of iron, of each, 4 dr. ; gum ammoni-
acum, 1 dr.; extract of taraxacum, q. s. For
S-gr. pills. — Dote, 2 to 6, night and morning; in
cUorosis, amenorrhcsa, tc.

Fills, Antimonial (Componnd). iS^ PuviiX

A]m]IOIIIAI.IB COMPOBITX, P, XVTOtOSn CO., L.

Prep. Antimonial powder, | dr. ; calomel, cam-
phor, and powdered opium, of each, 6 gr. ; con-
serve of roses, q. s. ; divide into 4-gr. pilIs.^Z>OM,
2, at night; in acute rheumatism, neuralgia,
chronic coughs, &c.

Fills, Antineuralgie. Prep. Snlphato of qui-
nine, 2 gr. ; sulphate of morphine, -^ gr. ; strych-
nine (alkaloid), ^j; gr.; arscnious acid, ^ gr. ;
extract of aconite leaves (Ph. U. S. 1870), i gr.

Ifote. When • Antineuralgie Pills,' or • Neu-
ralgia Pills,' without other specification, are pre-
scribed, it is recommended that the above prepa-
ration be dispensed. Sometimes the snlphato of
morphine is directed to be omitted (N. F.).

puis, Antispasmod'ic. Sgn. 'Ptlvzm ahti-
BPASMODICX, L. Prep. 1. {Dr A. T. Thomson.)

Opium, 1 gr. ; Russian castor, 18 gr. ; powdered
digitalis, 2 gr. ; syrup, to mix; divide into 4 pills.
— Dote, 1 or 2, two or three times a day; in
spasmodic asthma, difficulty of breathing, &c.
Several other formulee for antispasmodic pills will
be found both above and below.

2. {Troutteau and Seveil.) Musk, 16 gr. ; ex-
tract of valerian, | dr. ; liquorice powder, q. s.
For 20 pills. — Dote, 1 every 2 hours, nntil there
is a marked improvement in the symptoms; in
pneumonia, accompanied by delirium, especially
in drunkards; in spasms of the nterus, and in
various other spasmodic affections.

Pilla, Ape"rient. ^n. Pavui afbbibntbs,
L. Prep. 1. Hepatic aloes, 2 dr. ; rhubarb and
Castile soap, of each, 1 dr. ; scammony, i dr. (all
in powder) ; essential oil (at will), 10 or 12 drops;
beaten to a smooth mass, and divided into pilla.

2. Compound extract of colocynth (Ph. L.
1836), H dr. ; extract of gentian, i dr. ; pow-
dered ipecacuanha, 80 gr.; oil of cloves, caraway,
or cassia, a few drops. In dyspepsia, loss of
appetite, &c.

3. (Abemet^t.) See page 6.

4. (AMerft.) From calomel, resin of jalap,
and Castile soap, of each, 1 dr.; oil of orange
peel or citron, 6 or 8 drops. For 60 pills. As an
occasional mild purgative, especially in bilious
habits and worms.

6. (Sir B. Brodie.) Compound extract of
colocynth and mercurial pill, of each, i dr. ;
scammony and Castile soap, of each, 16 gr. ; oil
of caraway, 6 or 7 drops. For 24 pills. As tb«
hut.

6. {W. Cooley.) Aloes, li dr.; jalap and
Castile soap, of each, 1 dr. ; rhubarb and carda-
moms, of each, \ dr. (all in powder) ; oil of juniper,
12 drops. For 3-gr. pills. A useful mild aperient,
for either frequent or occasional nse.

7. (Dr Copland.) Componnd extract of colo-
cynth (Ph. L. 1836), 40 gr. ; extract of henbane,
30 gr. ; Castile soap, 12 gr. ; ipecacuanha, 6 or 7
gr. For two dozen pills. — Dote, 2, on retiring to
rest. As an aperient in nervous affections and
irritable habits.

8. {Karvey.) Mercurial ptU and powdered
aloes, of each, 1 dr. ; ginger, 20 gr. For 24 pills.
In constipation, attended with a deficiency of
bile.

9. {Dr Neligan.) Componnd colocynth pill
and soap of jalap, equal parts; either with or
without a few drops of some aromatic essential
oil. For 4 or 6-gr. pills. As an aperient for
general use.

10. (Sir C. Seudamore.) Componnd extract
of colocynth, 40 gr. ; extract of rhubarb, 1 dr. ;
scammony and soap, of each, 12 gr. ; oil of cara-
way, 6 or 6 drops. For 20 or 24 pills.

11. (StaJkFt : PUATLM APBKIBKTK8 STAHUI —

Ph. Hannov.) Powdered aloes, 1 oz. ; compound
extract of colocynth, i oz. ; iron filings, 2 dr. ;
mucilage, q. s. In amenorrhoca, low habite, and
worms.

12. ( Vance.) Compound extract of colocynth,
80 gr. ; extract of rhubarb, 12 gr. ; Castile soap,
6 or 8 gr. ; oil of cinnamon, 4 or 6 drops.

Oit. 'The products of the above formule may
be divided into pills of any size deemed most
agreeable to the patient, and they may be aroma-

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PILLS

tUed by the addition of any essential oil at will.
The dose varies, according to circumstances, from
6 to 10 or 12 gr., or more. Those containing
aloes or mercurials are beet taken at bedtime. For
other formnlee see the various officinal and other
pills containing aloes, colocynth, gamboge, rhu-
barb, Bcammony, Sus.

puis of ArBe"niate of Iron. 8g». Pilttls
XBBBI AB8INIATIB, L, Prep. {Biett.) Arseniate
of iron, 3 gr.; extract of hops, 2 dr. ; powdered
mallow-root, i dr. j syrup, q. s. For 48 pills. —
Dot», 1 to 2, daily ; in cancerous, scrofulous, and
herpetic affections. See PiliiB, Axaxsioui.

Filla of Arseniate of Bo'da. Sgn. Pilcls
BODJB ABBSNUTis, L. Prep. {lEratmut Wilton.)
Arseniate of soda, 2 gr. ; distilled water, the
smallest possible quantity to dissolve it ; powdered
gum guaiacum, i dr. ; ozysulphuret of antimony,
20 gr.; mucilage, q. a. For 24 pills. — Dote, 1
pill, as the last ; in herpes, &c. See Piilb, Absb-
KIOAIi.

Pills, Arsen'ical. 8^- Asiatic pilu, Cas-
HATic p.. East Indiah p., Tahjobb p. ; PiLin.s

AB8BNI0I, P. ABSENICAUB, P. ASIATIOJt, P. ACIDI

AB8BHI0BI, L. Frep. (P. Cod.) Arsenions acid,
1 gr. ; black pepper (in fine powder), 12 gr.; rub
them together for some (considerable) time in an
iron mortar, then add, of powdered gum, 2 gr. ;
water, q. s. to make a mass ; which is to be accu-
rately divided into 12 pills. Each pill contuns
•ff gr. of white arsenic.

Obt. This compound is commonly employed
in the East Indies in syphilis, elephantiasis, in-
termittents, the bites of venomous snakes, &c. ;
and as a preventive of hydrophobia. The com-
mon practice in England is to employ 16 gr. of
pepper to 1 gr. of arsenions acid, and to divide
the mass into 16 instead of 12 pills. The dose
is 1 or 2 pills daily, taken after a meal. The use
of all compounds containing arsenic demands
g^reat caution.

Pills, Arsenical (Opiated). 8^. Piluub absx-
Mioi CUM OPio, L. Prep. {A. T. Thornton.)
Arsenions acid, 2 gr. ; powdered opium, 8 gr. ;
Castile soap, 20 gr. ; simple syrup, q. s. For 34
pills. Dote, as the last j in intermittents, herpes,
lepra, psoriasis, periodical headaches, neuralgia,
&c. (See above.)

Pills, Asiat'ic. See Pills, Abbbkical.

Pills of Assafiafida. 8gn. Piluls abba-
KBTIDA (Ph. E. and U. 8.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
E.) AssafoBtida, galbannm, and myrrh, of each
3 parts ; conserve of red roses, 4 parts, or q. s. ;
mix, and beat them to a proper pill-mass.

2. (Ph. U. S.) Aasafcetida, 11 oz.; CastUe
soap, i oz. ; water, q. a. ; divide into 240 pills.

Obt. The above (particularly the last) are
stimulant and antispasmodic. — Dote, 6 to 10 gr.;
twice or thrice daily ; in hysterical affections, &c.
(See below.)

Pills of Assafostida (Componnd). ^». Pilv-

LX ABBAnETISA C0MF08ITX (B. P., Ph. D.)

Prep. 1. (Ph. D.) Assafostida, 2 oz. ; galhanum,

Xh, and treacle, of each 1 oz. ; mix in a cap-
by the heat of steam or a water bath, and
stir until it becomes a uniform mass. — Dote,
ifo. As the last The B. P. directs the quantity
of galbannm to be double the above.
8. (Uosp. F.) Assafoetida, 1 dr.; soft soap

(Ph. L.), 20 gr. ; ipecacuanha and squills, of each
(in povrder), 12 gr. ; syrup, q. s. — Dote, 6 to 10
gr. ; in chronic asthmas, coughs, &c.
Pills of AssaftBtida with rron. Syn. Pilttub

ABBAP<BTII>£ CVX PBBBO, L. Prep. {V. Cooltg.)

Assafostida, 1 dr. ; extract of chamomile, 1 dr. ;
mix with a slight heat; add, of dried protosnl-
phate of iron, 16 gr. ; oil of cajeput, 10 drops ;
and divide into 86 pills. In hypochrondrians,
hysteria, amenorrhoea, chlorosis, &c., after an
aperient.

Pills, Asthma. Sgn. PiLn>s avtabthva-
Tios, L. Prep. 1. (Expectorant.) From com-
pound squill pill, 20 gr.; calomel, 6 gr. ; pow-
dered opium, 8 gr. ; made into 6 pills. — Dote, 1
or 2, at bedtime. Expectorant, and sometimes
laxative.

Pills, Astringent. 8g». Pilttls abtbw-
OBITTBB, L. See Pills op Acbtatb op Lbas,
Aluk, Gallic acid, Nitbatb op Siltkb, Sttl-
PBAiB OP Ibon, Sulphaxb OP CoFPEB, TAinmr,
&c.

Pills of AtropiM. (P. Co4.) Sgn. Pavza
ATBOPIA. Prep. Atropia, 1^ gr. ; sugar of milk,

1 dr. ; gum Arabic, 12 gr. ; syrup of honey, q. s.
Triturate the atropia for a long time with the
sugar of milk, and make into 100 grannies and
silver them. Granules of arsenions acid, digi-
talin, and strychnia, are prepared in the same
way.

Pills, Br. Baillie's. Prep. {Cooleg). Aqneons
extract of aloes and compound extract of colo-
cynth, of each, 8 dr. ; Castile soap, 1 dr. ; oil of
cloves, 16 drops. For 4-gr. pills. A good occa-
sional aperient. — Dote, 1 to 8, at bedtime, or
early in the morning. See Pills, DnniBB.

Pills, Barbaroasa's. These are supposed to
have been the first mercurial preparation em-
ployed in medicine. They consisted of quick-
silver, rhubarb, musk and amber.

puis, Sev. D. Barclay's. Prep. (Cbotty.) Re.
sinons extract of jalap, 1 dr. ; almond or Castile
soap, 1^ dr.; extract of oolocyntb, 2 dr. (or
powdered colocynth, 8 dr.); gnm guaiacum, 3
dr. ; potassio-tartratc of antimony, 10 gr. ; oil of
juniper, 8 or 10 drops; oils of caraway and rose-
mary, of each 4 drops ; make a mass with syrup
of buckthorn (the smallest possible quantity), and
divide into 4-gTain pills. A diaphoretic apment.
— Dote, 1 to 3, at bedtime.

Pills, Dr. Baron's. Prep. From compound
rhubarh pills, 30 gr. ; compound extract of colo-
cynth, 20 gr. ; powdered ipecacuanha, 6 gr. For
S-gr. pills. An excellent stomachic aperient. —
Dote, 1 to 3 pills, at bedtime; in dyspepsia, loss
of appetite, &c.

PiUs, Barthez's. Prep. From myrrti, Idr.s
aloes, i dr. ; mask, 16 gr.; camphor, 12 gr. ; bal-
sam of Peru, q. s. to form a mass. For 8i-gr.
pills. — Dote, 2, thrice daily; in hysteria, ame-
norrhoea, chlorosis, &c.

Pills, Bath Digestive. Prep. (Cboley.) Bhn-
barb, 2 oz.; ipecacuanha and Castile soap, of
each i oz. ; capsicum, ginger, and gamboge, of
each i oz. (all in powder) ; syrup of buckthorn,
q. s. For 4-gr. pills. — Dote, 1, as a dinner pill ;

2 or 8 as an aperient.

Pills of Belieeiine. Sg». Pilvljb bbbbbbiha,
L. Prtji. From snlphate of bebeeiine, i dr. :

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PILLS

1821

aromatie confection, q. a. ; oil of cajepnt, 6 or 6
drops. For 18 pills. — Dote, 1 to 3, eterj fonr
hours; as an antiperiodic, instead of Ixirk or
quinine,

pais, Ba'ehle. Thvcz^ biohkui, L. Prtp.
^Tromneau and Seveil.) Extract of digitalu,
16 gr. ; white oxide of antimony, 80 p. j extract
of liqnorioe, 40 gr. ; mix carefnlly, and divide
into 40 pills. Expectorant and sedative. — Vote,
2 to 18, or more ; in cases of irritating coughs,
catarrh of the pulmonary capillaries or bronchia,
Ac See Pills, Cottsh.

PUIb, Beddoe's. Prep. From dried (efflo-
resced) carbonate of soda, 1 dr.j soap, li dr.;
oil of jnniper, 12 drops ; sugar of ginger, q. s. ;
divide into 30 pills. In gravel, stone, kc. — J>ote,
Sto5.

nil's of BeUados'na (Compound). Sgn. Pilv-

Ut BBLLiSONKf OOHPOBITS, L. Prep. 1.

{Ainilie.) Extract of belladoima, mercurial pill,
and powdered ipecacuanha, equal parts. For
S-gr. pills. — Dote, 1 night and morning, in can-
oerooB and glandnlar a&ctions.

2. {VtAreyne.) Camphor and assafoetida, of
each, 1 dr. ; extract of belladonna, 20 gr. ; extract
of opium, 6 gr. ; syrup, q. s. For 48 pills. — Vote,
1 inU, gradually increased to 6, didly. In hysteria,
amenorrhcoa, &c.

PUa, Balloste's. See Pills JCbbotbiai..

Pills, Bennefs. See Pills Fi7llxb'8.

puis, Banioie. {Vr Parte.) Sfu, PiluIlB
BmzOBS. Prep. Benzoic acid, 12 gr. ; extract
of poppies, 18 gr. Mix, for 6 pWa.—Vote, 1 pilL
Expectorant.

Pills of Blchlo"ride of Kerenry. Pills of
carronve sublimate.

pais of Biehlo"ride of Plaf iniun. Sgn. Pilv-
■LM 7LAXDII BiOHLOBisi, L. Prep. {Vr Soefer.)
Bichloride of platinum, 7i gr.; extract of gnaia-
cum, 1 dr.; liqaorice powder, q. s. For 24 {nils.
— Xfoie, 1 pill, twice or thrice daily ; as an altera-
tive in syphilis, &c.

Pills, Bicker's. Prep. From rnst (carbonate)
of iron, 2 dr. ; aloes, myrrh, and sulphur, of each,
1 dr.; ox-gall, q. s. to mix. For 4-gr. pills. —
Vote, 1 to G, morning and evening ; in debility,
cUoi<»is,&c.

Pills of Bif tersweet. <S^ Pain^ duloa-
K&BX, L. Prep. {Sadiiu.) Extract of bitter-
sweet (dulcamara), 1 dr.; crude antimony and
Uttersweet (in powder), of each | dr. For 8-gr.
pUIsu — Vote, 6 to 12, twice or thrice a day ; in
olatinate akin diseases.

PUIS, Bland's (ra. Ferri B. P.) /Ss*. Puv-
i<a AXTiCBLOBOTicx, L. Prep. (Sn^otuteau
Stveil.) Sulphate of protoxide of iron, 2 parts ;
redoce it to powder, and dry it in a stove at 104°
F. ; add to this dry carbonate of potassa, 2 parts ;
bofiex, 1 part ; and form the mass into 60 pills.
Tonic and emmenagogue. — Vote, 1 to 10 daily ;
in debility chlorosis, &c.

2. Pure ferrous sulphate (dried and powdered),
80 grms.; pure potassic carbonate (dried), 30
gims. ; powdered gam arabic, 6 grms. ; distilled
water, 80 gnus. ; simple syrup, IS grms.

3. (B. p. additions, 1890.) Sulphate of iron,
120 parts; carbonate of potassiom, 72 parts;
sugar, 24 parts; tragacanth powder, 8 parts;
glycerine, 4i parts; water, a sufficiency. Mix

the iron in powder with the sngar and tragacanth
in a mortar. Mix the potash with the glycerine
in another mortar, transfer this to the first mor>
tar, heat into a mass suitable to form jnlls. — Vote,
1 to 4 pills of 6 gr. each.

Pills, Bine. See Pillb, MBBomoAL.

Fllla, Bontins's. Syn. Pilttlm hydboooox,
P. H. BoKTll, L. Prep. (B. Cod.) Socotrine
aloes, gamboge, and gum ammoniacnm, of each,
1 dr. ; white-wine vinegar, 6 dr. ; dissolve by heat
at twice, press out the liquor, evaporate to a piln-
lar consistence, and divide into 4-gr. pills. — Vote,
1 to 3 ; as astrong cathartic, in dropsy.

Pills, Brigg's Govt and Bhenmatie. This
nostrum closely resembles in appearance, odonr,
and properties, the Pltticiibb's Pill of the
Pharmacopoeia; the two are probably identical
(CooUg).

Pill of Bro'mide of I'ttn. 8fn. Pilvls
ISBBI BBOKISI, L. Prep. {lUagendie). Bromide
of iron and powdered gum-arabic, of each, 12 gr. ;
conserve of roses, 20 gr. ; mix, and divide into 20
pills. They should be kept in a dry, corked phiah
Tonic and alterative. — Vote, 1 to 2, night and
morning ; in debility, especially that of acrof ulons
habits, in chlorosis. Sue.

Pills of Bra'dne. %». Pildls bbvcix,
L. Prep. (Magendie.) Bmcine, 12 gr. ; con-
fection of rosea, i dr. ; carefully mixed and
divided into 24 pills, which are recommended to
be silvered. The quantity of the confection may
be advantageously doubled. — Vote, 1 pill night
and morning ; In the aame affections as those for
which strychnine is administered. The acetate
hydrochlorate, or sulphate of brucine may be sub-
stituted for the alkaloid in the above formula, in
a slightly larger quantity,

puis of Ci^nnd. %«. Piluls calomklahob,

P. B OALOIIBLASB, P. HTSRABOYBI BUBCELO-
BISI, P. H. OLOBIDlf, P. H. 0. HITIB (Ph. U. S.),
L. Prep. 1. Calomel, 24 dr. ; powdered gum-
arabic, 1 dr. ; simple syrup, q. s. ; mix and divide
into 240 pills. Each pill contains 1 gr. of calo-
mel. A convenient form of exhibiting this drug
when uncombined with other remedies. — Vote,

1 to 6 pills, according to the indication.

Pills of Calomel (Compound). Syn. Pluk-
xbb'b pillb, Rbd p.; Fildla htdbabgysi
8ub0hl0bioi compobita, piluls oalomb-
LAiros coMPOsiTiB (Ph. £. and D.), Pilvls
Pldmmbbi, Filula btdbabgtbi oblobidi
0OMPO8IIA, li. (Ph. L.). Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Chloride of mercury (calomel) and oxysulphide
of antimony, of each, 2 dr. ; rub them together,
add of guaiacnm (in powder) and treacle, of each,
4 dr., and form the whole into a pill-mass.

2. (Ph. E.) Calomel and golden sulphide of
antimony, of each, 1 part; guaiacnm (in powder)
and treacle, of each, 2 parts ; beat the whole to a
pill-mass, and divide it into 6-gT. pills.

3. (Ph.D.) Calomel and precipitated sulphide
of antimony, of each, 1 dr. ; triturate them toge-
ther, then add, of guaiacnm resin (in powder),

2 dr. ; castor oil, 1 fl. dr. ; and beat the whole to
a oniform mass.

4. (B. P.) Calomel, 1 ; sulphurated antimony,
1 ; guaiac resin (in powder), 2 ; castor oil, 1 ;
mix. — Vote, 6 to 10 gr.

Obt. An excellent alterative pill ; very useful

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1322

PILLS

in lepra, in socondary syphilis affecting the skin,
and in various other chronic cataneons diseases ;
also in dyspepsia and liver complaints. — Dote,
8 to 10 gr., night and morning,

Pilla of Calomel and Opinm. Sgn. Pilvlx
CALOilSLAiroB BT OPii (Ph. E.), L. Prap.
Ph. E.) Calomel, 3 parts ; opium, 1 part ; con-
serve of red roses, q. s. ; divide the mass so that
each pill may contain 2 gr. of calomel. — Dote, 1
or 2 pills, in rheumatism, facial nentalgia, and
varions inflammatory affections. They offer a
convenient form for gradually introducing mer-
cury into the system, and, if continned, induce
salivation.

PiUs of Cam'phor. 5y». Pilitlb oakpboba,
P. CAVFHOBATA, L. Prep. Camphor and sngar,
of each (in powder), 2 parts; conserve of hips,
1 part. For 3-gr. pills. Anaphrodisiac, sedative,
diaphoretic, and nervine. — Dote, 1 to 5, twice or
thrice a day.

Fills of Camphor (Componnd). Sgn. Vtlvlx

OAKFHOBS OOXFOSITS, P. OAMPHOIUTS 0., L.

Prep. 1. {Dupugtren.) Camphor, 24 gr. ; pure
musk, 8 gr. ; opium, 2 gr.; lymp, q. s.; divide
into 12 pills. — Dote, 1 to 4^ three or four times
daily; in putrescent sores, hospital gangrene, &c.

2. (Fr. Hosp.) Gam ammoniacum. 40 gr.;
camphor, 30 gr. ; musk, 10 gr. ; opinm, 6 gr. ;
tinctnre of valerian, q. s. ; divide into 4-gr. pills.
—Dote, 2 to 6 pills, daily ; in nervous and hyste-
rical affections, &c.

8. (^Ricord.) Camphor and laetncaiium (or
extract of lettuce), equal parts; divide into4.gT.
piUs.— Z>0M, 3 to 6 pills daily; as an anaphro-
disiac.

Pills of Caathar'ides. Syn. PilttIiS cah-
THABims, P. 0. OOHPOSITX, L. Prep. 1. Can-
tharides (in very fine powder), 8 gr. ; extract of
gentian, J dr.; liquorice powder, 10 gr. For
12 pills. — Dote, 1 to 4 daily; as a diuretic,
emmenagogne, tus,

2. iJSUit.) Cantharides (in very fine powder),
18 gr. ; opium and camphor, 86 gr. ; mix, and
divide into 36 pills.— i)ow, 1 pill, at bedtime ; as
an aphrodisiac in parties labouring under general
debility. They should be used with extreme
caution, and but seldom.

Pills of Capsienm. Sj/n. Catbhub pbpfbb
PlliS; PiLUL« CAPflioi, L. Prep. 1. (Qn/s
Hosp.) Capsicum, 1 piirt; rhabarb, 2 parts,
(both in powder) j treacle, q. s.j mix, and divide
into 3i-gr. pills. — Dote, 1 to 3, an hour before
dinner, to create an appetite and promote diges-
tion.

2. (UadUu.) Powdered capsicnm, 20 gr.;
extract of gentian, 1 dr.; powdered gentian,
■q. 8. to form a mass. For 60 pills. — Dote, 2 to 4
pills, thrice daily ; in chronic dyspepsia, especially
|n the loss of tone of the stomach arising from
intemperance.

PiJla of Carbolic Acid. Sg». Pilttijb acidi
OABBOLICI. Prep. Carbolic acid, 3 drops ; soap
powder, -60 grm. j lycopodium, -06 grm. ; pow-
dered tragacanth, q. s. For 6 pills. The two first
ingredients form a semi-fluid mass, which the
lycopodium does not absorb, bat which is solidified
by means of the tragacanth.

Pills of CarlMnate of I'ron. 8yn. Vallbt's

rtUM; VlLJTLM ITBBBI 0ABBONATI8 (Ph. E), L.

Prep, (B. P., Ph. E.) Saccharated carbonate of
iron, 4 parts; conserve of red roses, 1 part; mix,
and divide the mass into 6-gr. pills. — Dote, 1
to 3, or more; as a mild chalybeate and anti-
chlorotic. 5 to 20 gr.., B. P. For another
formula, see Pills, Blatts's (above).

Fills, Carbolic Acid. {Mr Morton.) Sfm.
PlIAJLM ACIDI OABBOKICI. Prep. Mix i dr. of
bicarbonate of soda and 25 gr. of tartaric acid,
coarsely powdered, with the smallest possible
quantity of syrup and mucilage to form a mass.
Divide into 12 pills.

Fills, Catarrh'. Sgn. ViiMua asticatab-
BHALEB, L. Prep. 1. {Trouttea» and Seeeil.)
Turpentine, 4 dr. ; ammoniacum, 1 dr. ; balsam
of tolu, i dr. ; aqueous extract of opium, 5 gr. ;
liquorice powder, q. s. ; mix, and divide into 80
pills. — Dote, 6 or 6 daily; in chronic catarrh of
the bronchi and bladder.

2. {Troutteau and £«Mti.) Alcoholic extract
of aconite, 80 gr. ; sulphuret of calcium, 16 gr. ;
powdered sugar, q. s. For 24 pills. — Dose, 1 pill,
three or four times daily ; in chronic pulmonary
catarrh.

Fills, Cathartie. i^n. PilvIlS OAinABTtcs,
L. Prep. 1. {Dr Collier.) Calomel, 10 gr.;
powder^ jalap and prepared chalk, of each i dr. ;
oil of caraway, 10 drops ; syrup of buckthorn, to
mix ; divide into 5-gr. pills, — Dote, 1 to 4.

2. (Dr A. T. T%ofluo«.) Scammony, 4 gr.;
extract of taraxacum, 16 gr. ; divide into 6 pills.
Dote, 3 pills, twice daily ; in hypochondriasis and
chronic inflammation of the liver.

3. (A. T. Thomto*.) Calomel, 15 gr. ; pow-
dered jalap, 46 gr. ; mucilage, q. s. to mix. For
18 piUs. — Dote, 1 to 8, at night, to empty the
bowels, in bilious affections. Other formole
for cathartic pills will be found both above and
helow.

Pills, Cathartic (Componnd). %m. Piluijb

OATEABTIOX 001CP08IMI, L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.)
Componnd extract of colocynth, 4 dr. ; powdered
extract of jalap and calomel, of each, 3 dr. ;
powdered gambogpe, 40 gr. ; water, q. s. ; mix,
and divide into 180 pills. An excellent purga-
tive, especially in bilious affections, dyspepsia,
&c — Dote, 1 to 3 pills.

Fills of Cetrarine. (Dr IfeUga*.) Sy». Pi-
lule OBTKABIMJB. Cetrarine, 24 gr. ; extract
of calumba, \ dr. ; make into 12 pills ; one every
four hours as a febrifuge.

Fills, Chamberlain's Bestor'ative. A nostrum
composed of cinnabar and milk of sulphur, equal
parts ; beaten up with conserve of hips.

Fills of Cham'omile. 8y%. Pilcl^ Avthb-
xiDia, P. pLOBirx ohaxxhbu, L. Prep. Ex-
tract of gentian, 1 dr. ; powdered aloes, \ dr. ;
powdered rhubarb, 20 gr. ; oil of chamomile, 10
drops. A tonic and stomachic aperient. — Dote,
6 to 16 gr. This forms the ' chamomile pills ' of
the shops. They should be kept in a corked
phial. (See ftefov.)

Fills of Chamomile (Componnd). Sg». PrLVLX
AtrrEBMiDiB COICPOBITS, L. Prep. 1. (AintU»^
Extract of chamomile, 1 dr.; asssfoetida, idr.;
powdered rhubarb, 20 gr.; divided into 30 or,
better, 36 pills. — Dote, 1, as a dinner pill; or 2
to 3, twice a day, in flatulent dyspepsia.

2. (Beatles.) Aqueous extract of aloes, 18 gr.;

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PILLS

1828

extract of chamomile, 36 gr. ; oil of duunomlle.

3 diope. For 12 pills. — Dote, 2 at night, or
twice a day ; in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, &e.
See Puui, NoBTON'g Cramomilb.

Fills, Chapman's. iVep. Mastic, 12 gr. ;
aloes, 16 gr. ; rhabarb, 24 gr. For 12 pills.
An excellent stomachic aperient. — Dote, 2 to 4.

Fills of CUiat'ta. Sgn. Dr Bbbcx'b villb ;
VavLX OHIBATTS, L. Prep, From chiratta,
2 dr. ; dried carbonate of soda, 20 gr. ; powdered
ginger (beat), 15 gr. j divided into 36 pills. —
Dote, 2, twice a day. In acidity, flatulence, and
dyspepsia, especially when compUcated with gout
or debility.

Fills of Chlo"ride of Ba"rinm. Sj/n. Pilttlx
BABii OHLOBIDI, h. Prep. 1. {Pierquin.)
Chloride of barium, 1 dr. ; resin of guaiacnm,

4 dr. ; conserves of fumitory, q. s. j divided into
188 pills. — Dose, 1 pill, morning and evening,
afterwards increased to 2; in tapeworm, and in
the rheumatism of scrofulous subjects.

2. (VaUh.) Chloride of barium, 16 gr. ;
powdered marshmallow or liquorice root and
mncilage of tragacanth, of each, q. s. to make
200 pilla.—Dote, 3, gradually increased to 10
or 12, daily ; in cancer, scrofula, gOitre, syphilis,
&c.

Oht. The above are very poisonous, and their
exhibition demands great caution.

Fills of Chloride of Cal'dnm. Sg: FilviuB
CALOil CHLOBIDI, L. Prq;>. 1. As the last.

2. {Oriife.) Chloride of calcium, 1 dr. ; extract
of opium, 10 gr. ; mucilage, q. s. For 64 pills. —
Dote, 1, every two or three hours, gradually in-
creased until 10, or even 12, are taken every
hour; in gonorrhoea, more especially when
occurring in scrofulous subjects.

Fills of Chloride of Qold. Syn. Pilula aubi
CHLOBIDI, L. Prep. From torchloride of gold,
8 gr.; powdered liquorice, 1 dr. ; syrup, q. s.
For 48 pills. — Dose, 1 pill, twice or t^ce
daily.

Fills of Chloride of Gold and So'divm. S^.

PnVIiA ATTBI BT 80DI CHLOBISI, P. A. SODIO-

OHLOBIDI, L. Prep. {MagetwUe.) Soda-chlo-
ride of gold, 1 gr. ; extract of mezereon, 2 dr.;
divide into 60 pills.

Fills of Chloride of Lime. Sj/n. Picia ov
ohlobhtatbd likx; Pilule calois htpo-
OEMBITIB, L. Prep. 1. Chloride of lime, 12
gr.; starch powder, 24 gr.; conserve of hips,
q. s. ; divide into 36 pills.

2. (Dr Copland.) Chloride of lime, 15 gr. ;
compound powder of tragacanth, 90 gr. ; symp,
q. s. For 24 pills. — Dote, 1 to 3, twice or tiurico
daily ; in various putrid affections, fevers, &c.

Pills of Chloride of Kercnry. Pills of
calomel.

FUla, Chol'eia. Sg»- PiLULiS aiitioboi.b-
Biox, £. Prep. 1. Powdered camphor, 16 gr.;
powdered capsicum (pure), ) dr. ; bicarbonate of
soda, 1 dr. ; conserve of roses, q. s. For 86 pills.
— Dote, 2 to 4, every fifteeii minutes, washed
down with a wine-glassful of cold water con-
tuning half a tea-spoonful of ether; repeated
every fifteen or twenty minutes until reaction
ensues. They should be freshly made.

2. (PtLrXA ANTICBOLBBIOA Ababica.) Prep.
Assafoetida, asclcpias gigantea, and opium, of

each, H gr. in each pill. One every half or three
quarters of an hour, broken down in a spoonful
of brandy and water, till the symptoms yield.
After vomiting and puiging have ceased, if
prostration and spasms are urgent, give i or
i doses. Black pepper is substituted for asclepias
in this country.

3. (PlI.ITI<£ CkKBOaiX 0OKPO8ITS, B. P.)
Prsp. Gamboge, aloes bads, and compound cin-
namon powder, of each, 1 part ; soap, 2 parts ;
syrup, q. s. — Dose, 5 gr. to 10 gr.

Fills of Ci'trate of I'ron and Quinine'. 8jt».

PlLUIuB FEBBI CITBATI8 CVU QTTINA, L. Prep.
From citrate of iron and quinine, 1 dr.; pow-
dered citric acid, 20 gr. ; conserve of hips, q. s.
For 36 pills. An excellent tonic in debility,
chlorosis, &c. — Dote, 1 to 3, twice or thrice
daily.

Fills, Sir C. Clark's. See DnruBE Pills.

Fills, Coindet's. See Pills of Iosidb o»
Mebouby.

Fills of Col'chicnm. See Pills, Goto.

Fills of Col'ocynth. 8gn. FiLVLX i suoBtTB,

P. BX OOLOCYKTHIDB BIHPLICIOBES, L. Prep.

(Ph. L. 1746.) Colocynth and scammony, of
each, 2 ox. ; oil of doves, 2 dr. ; syrup of buck-
thorn, q. 8. An active hydragogue cathartic. —
Dote, 2 to 12 gr.

Fills of Colo«y nth (Compound). 8yn. Plixos

OOOHIA; PlLUIoB OOCOIJB, P. OOOHIX, PiLULA.
OOLOOTNTHIDIB OOUPOBITA (B. P.), P. OOM)-

0TNTEIDI8 coKPoaiTA (Ph. L. and D.), p. OOLO-
0TKIHIDI8 (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Ex-
tract of colocynth (simple), 1 dr. ; powdered ex-
tract of aloes, 6 dr.; powdered scammony, 2 dr.;
powdered caridamoms, i dr. ; soft soap (Ph. L.),
li dr. ; mix, and beat them altogether, so that a
mass may be formed. This is intended as a sub-
stitute for the compound extract of colocynth of
the Ph. L. 1836.

2. (Ph. F.) Socotrine or East Indian aloes
and scammony, of each, 8 parts; sulphate of
potassa, 1 part; beat them together; add of colo-
cynth (in fine powder), 4 parts ; next add of oil of
cloves, 1 part ; and with the aid of a little recti-
fied spirit, beat the whole to a mass, and divide
this into 6-gr. pills,

3. (Ph. D.) Colocynth pulp, scammony, and
Castile soap, of each (in powder), 1 oz. ; hepatic
aloes, 2 oz. ; treacle, 10 dr. ; oil of cloves, 1 fl.
dr. ; mix, and beat them into a mass of uniform
consistence.

4. (Ph. L. 1746.) Socotrine aloes and scam-
mony, of each, 2 oz. ; pulp of colocynth, 1 oz. ; (dl
of cloves, 2 dr. ; syrup of buckthorn, q. s. to form
a pill-mass. This is the original formula pub-
lished by Galen for ' pilules cochim minores,' and
under various slight modifications, it has con-
tinued in use ever since.

5. Aloes, H lbs.; colocynth, f lb. ; jalap, 6 oz.
(all in powder) i oil of cloves, H oz. ; syrup or
treacle, q. s. to mix. — Prod. About 4| lbs. This
forms the common ' pil.oochio ' of the druggists.
A few, more conscientious than the rest, add to
the above, scammony, 6 oz. It is greatly inferior
to the Ph. pill.

6. (B. P.) Colocynth (in powder), 1 part; Bar-
badoes aloes (in powder), 2 parts ; scammony (in
powder), 2 parts; sulphate of potash (in powder).

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13S4

PILLS

} part ; oil of clovea, i part ; distilled water, a
sufficiency (alraut i part); mix. Dr Qregoiy's
favourite pill. — Dose, 6 to 10 gr.

Ob*. Compound colocjnth pill is a cheap and
excellent cathartic, more powennl than the other
officinal aloetic pills, and well adapted to cases of
habitual costiveness. It has long been extensively
used by the poorer classes, and in domestic medi-
cine generally. — Dote, 6 to 15 gr.

Pills of Colocynth and Een'baae. Syn. Pil-

UIiB COIACYNiniSIS BT HTOBCTrAXI (B. P., Ph.

E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Colocynth pill-mass,
2 parts ; extract of henbane, 1 part; beat them np
• with a few drops of rectified spirit (if necessary),
and divide them into 5-gr. pills. — Dote, 1 to S
pills ; as an anodyne pnr^tive, in irritable bowels.

Pills of Copai'ba. Sgn. PrLTrioB covjubm, L.
JPrej). (Ph. U. S.) Pure balsam of copwba, 2
oz. ; recently prepared calcined magnesia, 1 dr. ;
mix thoroughly, then set the mixture aside until
it acquires a pillular consistence, and lastly,
divide it into 200 pills.

Obt. Unless the magnesia has been very re-
cently calcined, the copuba hardens very slowly
or not at all. It is said that " lime produces the
flifect more completely and uniformly than mag-
nesia," and that " specimens of copaiba which arc
old and contain the most resin harden quickest "
(Sedtoood). For present use, the quantity of
magnesia may be at least doubled. Dr Pereira
orders copuba, 1 oz. ; magnesia, 6 or 6 dr. — Dote,
10 to 30 gr., frequently ; in diseases of the mucous
membranes of the urinary oi^ns. Cnbebs are
often added.

Pills, Dr Copland's. See Pins, Ambibnt and
Pbotokai,.

Pills of Corro'sive STibllmate. Si/*. Pilib op

OBLOBLDB OF MBECUBT, P. OP BIOHLOBIBE OF M.f,

Hoffmann's p. ; PiLin^ bublikatis ooebosivi,

P. HTSBABOYBI BICRLOBIDit, P. MAJOBBB HOFF-

KANHi, L. Prep. 1. Corrosive sublimate, 3 gr. ;
white sugar, 1 dr. ; triturate together in a glass
mortar for some time, then ^d of powdered
gum-arabic, 20 gr., and beat the whole to a
mass with dilute hydrochloric acid, q. s. For
36 pills, each containing -^ gr. of corrosive subli-
mate.

2. (Brera.) Corrosive sublimate, 8 gr. j recti-
fied spirit, the smallest possible quantity to dis-
solve it J bread-crumb, q. s. to form a mass. For
24 pills, each containing -^ gr. of the corrosive
sublimate.

3. (Dr Pari*.) Corrosive sublimate and sal-
ammoniac, of each, 6 gr. ; water, i fl. dr. ; tritu-
rate together until solution is complete, then add
of honey, J dr.; liquorice powder, 1 dr. (or q. s.),
and divide into 40 pills. Each pill contains -J gr.
of corrosive sublimate.

4. (Ph. Hannov.) Corrosive sublimate, 15
gr.; distilled water, J fl. dr.; crumb of bread,
q. s. to form a mass. For 120 pills, each contain-
ing i gr.

6. (PlLFIS HTDBABOTBI BICHLOBIDI CUM

QVAIA.CO— Dupuyiren.) Prep. Pcrchlorido of
mercury in subtle powder, 8 gr. ; extract of opium,
6 gr. ; extract of guaiacum, 12 gr. Make into
20 pills.

Obt. The above formulte are among those most
usually employed. Other authorities order pills

containing -i^ of a gr. Dzondi orders ^ gr.,
and Htifeland only -^ gr., in each pill. The
commencing dose should not exceed 1 pill con-
taining the -^ of a gr., twice or thrice a day. It
may afterwards be safely kept at ^ of a gr. They
are chiefly employed in syphilis, but are also occa-
sionally exhibited with great advantage in glan-
dnlar indurations and eiilargements,and in cancer;
due caution being observed.
Pills, Cough. See Pills, Pectoral, Expbc-

TOBAITT, &c.

Pills of Cre'aaote. Sgn. Piiitls ckxaboti,
L. Prep. 1. (Pittehafl.) Creasote, 6 gr.;
powdered henbane, 24 gr. ; conserve of hips, q. s.
For 24 pills. — Dote, 1 three times daily ; in
sea-sickness, the vomiting dnring pregnancy, Ac.

2. (Mieche.) Creasote, I dr.; extract of
liquorice and gum galbanum, of each, i dr.;
powdered mallow-root, 2 dr. ; to be divided into
2-gr. pills. — Dote, 8 to 6, fonr times a day ; in
acute rheumatism, bronchitis, neuralgia, phthisis,
&c.

Pins, Crsapigny's. See Pills, Dumiut.

Pills of Cro'ton Oil. Sf». Pilvls cbotovis,
P. TiaLn, L. Prep. 1. Croton oil, 3 drops;
oil of cloves, 4 drops ; bread-crumb, q. s. For
8 pills, one of which is a dose.

2. (Dr Copland.) Croton oil, 6 drops ; piU
of aloes and myrrh, 1^ dr. ; soap, 20 gr. ; liquorice
powder, q. s. For 30 pills. — Dote, 2 to 4.

3. (Dr Beeee.) Croton oil, 6 drops; Castile
soap, i dr. ; oil of caraway, 8 drops; liquorice
powder, q. s. For 12 pills. — Dote, 1 to 8. In
dropsy, visceral obstructions, &c. See Cboton
oil.

4. (With Mbboitby — Dr Neligan.) Croton
oil soap, 3 gr. ; extract of henbane and mercurial
pill, of each, 24 gr. ; oil of pimento, 12 drops ;
divide into 12 pills. — Dote, 2 at bedtime (see
above).

Pills of Py'anide of Ker'cnry. Syn. Pilitlx

HTDBABQTBI CTASIDI, P. H. CTAKirBBTI, L.

Prep. (Ouibourt^ Cyanide of mercnry, 6gr. ;
opium, 12 gr.; bread-crum, 60 gr. ; honey or
syrup, q. s. For 96 pills. — Dote, 1 night and
morning; in syphilis, chronic inflammation of
the viscera, &c.

Pills of Cyanide of Potas'sinm. ^n. Pilttle
FOTASaii CYAHIDI, L. Prep. (Oolding Sird.)
Cyanide of potassium, 2 gr. ; arrowroot, 20 gr. ;
simple syrup, q. s. For 18 pills. — Dote, 1 twice
or thrice a day ; as a sedative in hysteria, gastro-
dynia, extreme nervous excitability, &c. See
DBAiraHT and Mixtubb, Hydbocyanic.

Pills of Dandelion. See Pills, Tabaxa-
oux.

Pills, De Hasn's. Prep. (St Marie.) Onm
ammoniacum and .pill aloes with myrrh, of each,
1 dr. ; extracts of hemlock and Castile soap, of
each, H dr. For 2-gr. piOs.—Dote, 3 to 6
daily; in painful or obstructed menstruation,
chlorosis, Ac.

Pills of Sd'phine. Sgn. Pilvub Del-
FHINIS, L. iVsp. (Dr Tumbull.) Delphine,
1 gr. ; extracts of henbane and liquorice, of each,
12 gr. For 12 pills. — Dote, 1 to 3 twice a day;
in dropsy, gont, rheumatism, &c., instead of vera-
trine.

Pills, Deobstrnent. (L. Ph., 1746.) Sgn.

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PILLS

1326

PiLuuB BOPBRAonoA. Prep. Aromatic pill,
3 oz. ; rhubarb, 1 oz. ; extnct of gentian, 1 os. s
anlphate of iron, 1 oz.; carbonate of potash,
i oz. ; syrnp of roaea, q. i.
PiUa of Sento-iodlde (Biniodide) of Kereory.

Slf*. VUXTLX E1SBABOTSI DBUTO - lODIDI.

{Mag«»i»».) Prep. Dento-iodide (biniodide) of
mercniy, 1\ gr. ; extract of juniper, 76 gr. ;
powdend liquorice, q. s. for 100 pills.

PUli, DUphera'tie. Sg*. PtLVLX siapho-
BITICA, L. Frep. 1. Antimonial powder, ) dr. ;
opiom, 10 gr. ; calomel, 6 gr.; confection of
opium, q. a. to mix ; divide into 10 pills. — Dote,
1 at bedtime ; in coaghs and bronchial irritability
after an aperient.

2. Qnuacnm, 19 gr. ; emetic tartar and opium,
of each, 1 gr. ; simple syrup, q. s. to mix ; divide
into 8 ^la. — Doie, 1 to 8, in acnte rheumatism,
Ac^

8. Camphor and antimonial powder, of each,
i dr. ; ojniim, 10 gr. ; aromatic confection, q. s.
to mix. For 12 pills. Li feven, and in some
■paamodic diseases. — Doie, 1 pill.

4, Powdered guaiacnm, 10 gr.; compound
powder of ipecacuanha, 6 gr. ; confection of roses,
q. s. to mix ; for a dose. As a diaphoretic, in
inflammatory affections and rheumatism.

puis, OiarrliiB'a. %i>. Pilttla axtidi-
ASKH<BAUi8, L. jPrsp. (2V(Mu««(ni and Seveil.)
Soft extract of opium, 1^ gr.; calomel and
powdered ipecacuanha, of each, S gr. ; conserve
of hips, q. s. ; divide into 10 pills. — Dote, 1, two
or tiuree times daily; in chronic and choleraic
diarrhom.

Pills, DIgea'tiTe. Under this head are generally
classed all the stomachic and milder aperient
pills. See PrLM, Bath ; Pols, DiirinB, kc

puis of Sigltaliiw. Syn. PtLvut dioi-
TAiaxx, L. Prep. DigitiUine, 1 gr. ; powdered
sogar, i dr. ; thick mucilage, q. s. For 24 pills.
— J)Me, 1 to 4 daily, watohing the effects ; as a
sedative to reduce the force of the circulation, in
phthisis, enlargement of heart, Ac See Pliu,

FOXOIiOTl.

Pills, Oin'ner. Sgn. PiLtfuB DUjtM axtb-
oiBinf, L.; OsAnra db baht*. Fr. Prep. 1.
Aloes, 1 dr. ; rhubarb and extract of gentian, of
each, i dr. ; ipecacuanha and capsicum, of each,
12 gr. ; syrup of {^ger, q. s. to mix. For 8i-gr.

2. (Dr Bailli^*.) See above.

3. (Bath disistivb filui.) See above.

4. (PlTJ-B OP ALOBB AND KABTIO ; LAOY

CBBBPiaMX'B taus. Lady Hbbkbte'b v., Ladt

WXBSmt'B p., DiOBBTITB P., StOKAOH P.,
PlLrXX AlOBB BT KABTICHB8, P. A. CTTX
KABTIOBB, P. BTOKAOHIOS KBSTTBB ; OKAINB

SB TIB, QBAiirB SB MBSVBB.) From aloes (pow-
dered), 6 dr. ; powdered mastic and petals of red
roses, of each, 2 dr.; syrup of wormwood, q. s. to
form a pill-mass. For 3-gr. pills. In small doses
they exdto the appetite ; in larger ones they pro-
duce a bulky and copious evacuation. This is
the formula of the old Paris Codex. Rhubarb is
now frequentiy substituted for the rose petals.

6. (Sir C. Belize.) From sulphate of quinine,
4 gr.; mastic, 6 gr.; rhubarb, 60 gr. ; syrup of
orange peel, q. s. to mix. For 12 or, preferably,
IS^ls.

6. (Sir Chat. ClarMt.) From extract of
chamomile, \ dr. ; myrrh and rhubarb (in pow-
der), of each, 20 gr. ; powdered Socotrine ^oeg,
10 gr. ; <nl of chamomile, 8 drops ; mucilage, q. s.
to form 20 pills. "These pills, which were
originally prescribed by Sir Chas. Clarke, are
much used in London " (Bedieood).

Extract of Socotrine aloes, 1 gr. ; mastiche,
{ gr.; spirits of wine, q. s. One at dinner.

Socotrine aloes, 1 gr. ; powdered rhubarb, 1
gr. ; mastiche, 1 gr. ; spirits of wine, q. s. One
at dinner.

Pills, IMaret'Ie. 8^. Puajlx DirBBriox,
L. Ptep. 1. From powdered foxglove, 12 gr. ;
calomel, powdered squills, and opium, of each, 4
gr. ; conserve of hips, q. s. For 12 pUls.

2. (DrA. T. Thompton.) Mercurial pill, 1 dr.;
powdered squills, 20 gr.; confection of roses,
q. 8. ; divided into 20 pills. The dose of either
of the above is 1 pill, twice or thrice daily ; in
dropsy, Ac.

8. (St. Mary's Hospital.) Blue pUl, I'gr.;
powd^^d digitalis, 1 gr. ; powdered squill, 2 gr.
One or two for a dose in dropsy.

Pills, Dixon's. According to Dr Paris these
pills consist of aloes, scammony, rhubarb and a
Uttle tartar emetic, beaten up with syrup.
" The following formula produces a pill precisely
nmilar to this nostrum : — Take of compound ex-
tnct of colocynth (Ph. L. 1836), 4 dr. ; powdered
rhubarb, 2 dr.; potassio-tartrate of antimony,
8 gr. ; syrup of buckthorn, q. a. ; mix, and divide
into 120 pills. Aperient and diaphoretic. — Dote,

2 or 3 at bedtime." (Cooley.) Although a
nostrum it is really an excellent medicine, adapted
for numerous cases.

Pills, Duchesne's. Prep. From aloes and gum
ammoniacum, of each, 30 gr. ; mastic and myrrh,
10 gr. ; carbonate of potassa and saffron, of each,

3 gr. ; syrup, q. s. In the dyspepsia of hysterical
patients, in engorgements of the abdominal
viscera, following intermittent fevers, Ac.

PUJs, Dya'sntaiy. Sgn. PiLtms stbbhtb-
BIOX, L. Prep. Pure alumina and tannic acid,
of each, 20 gr. ; antimonial powder, IS gr. ; castor
oil, i dr. — Dote, 6 to 10 gr. ; frequently.

puis of Slate'rinm. ^s. Pilul;b blatbbii,
L. Prep. (Radius.) Elaterinm, 6 gr. ; extract
of gentian and Castile soap, of each, 9 gr. ; mix,
and divide into 12 pills. — Dote, 1 to 4 ; in
obstinate constipation, and as a purge in dropsy, Ac

Pills of Ergotine. Syn. PiLUUs bbqotina,
L. Prep. (Boitjean.) Ergotine (Sonjean't),
24 gr. ; liquorice powder, 40 gr. ; syrup, q. s.
For 24 pills. — Dote, 3 to 6 daily ; as an internal
hemostatic, Ac.

Pills, Everlast'ing. Sgn. PBBPBTirAZ pixib ;
PauLS JBIBBHX, P. pbbpetujE, L. Small
spheres of metallic antimony. They possess the
property of purging as often as swallowed, but
have now long f^en into disuse.

Pills, Expec'torant Sy». Pilcub bxpko-
lOKAKTBB, L. Prep. 1. Myrrh, H dr. ; pow-
dered squills, i dr.; extract of henbane, 2 dr. ;
syrup q. s. ; cUvide into 80 pills. — Dote, 2, night
and morning.

2. (A. T. XHomton.) Powdered squills and
extract of hemlock, of each, i dr. ; ammoniacum,
U dr.; divide into 30 pills.— Do*«, 2, twice or

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1886

PILLS

tbrice a day. In chronic coughs, asthma, Ac.,
after an aperient. See Pills, Pectobal, &c.
Pills, Family Antibll'loiiB. Sgn. AlobfilIiS;

AL0K8 B08ATA, PiLULf ALOES B08AT£, L. Prep.

Socotrine or hepatic aloes, 3 oz, ; juice of roses,
1 pint ; dissolve by beat, strain tbrongh a piece
of coarse flannel, evaporate to a proper consistence,
and form it into pills. Purgative, in doses of 6
to 16 gr.

Fills, Fe'ver. Sj/n. Vu.vtjb PBBBmroJC, L.
Of these the principal are those contMning
antimonials, bark, quinine, and salicine (which
see),

PiUs, Fordyee's. An active purgative, closely
resembling in composition the compound gamboge
pill of the Ph. L.

Fills, Dr FothergiU's. Prep. {Cooley). Aloes,
4 dr. ; extract of oolocynth and scammony, of
each, 1 dr. ; diaphoretic antimony, 30 gr. ; syrup,
q. s. For 3}-gr. pills. A diaphoretic aperient. —
Don, 1 to 4 pills at bedtime.

Pills of Fox'glove and Een'bane. Sg: Pi-

VTLX DIGITALIS BT HYOBOTAMI, L. Prep. {Dr

A. T. Thornton.) Powdered foxglove, 4 gr.;
powdered camphor, 12 gr. ; extract of henbane,
18 gr. For 6 pills.— X>o««, 1 or 2 at bedtime; as
a sedative in maniacal and spasmodic affections,
&c.

Pills of Fox'glove and Squills. Sifn. Pilu-
LJi SiaiTALIB BT 8CILLJE (Ph. E.), Ii. Prep.
(Ph. E.) Powdered foxglove and squills, of each,
1 part; aromatic electuary (Ph. E.), 2 parts;
conserve of red roses, q. s. ; divide into 4-gr.
pills. A valuable diuretic in dropsies. — Dote, 1
to 2 pills.

Fills, Frankfort. These are the Pilules An-
geliques noticed among Patbht Mbsichibs,
formed into 2-gT. pills, and silvered.

Fills, Franks'. See Pillb, Dimvbb.

Fills of Fnligokali. Sgn. Pili7L£ fttuoo-
KALI, L. Prep. {Detehampi.) Fnligokali, 6
dr. ; starch, 2\ dr. ; powdered tragacanth, 10 gr. ;
syrup, q. s. For 100 pills, which must be covered
with two or three coats of gum, and preserved
from the air. The pills of sulphuretted fnli-
gokal (E>iIttUe Fnligokali Sulphnrati) are prepared
in a similar manner.

Fills, Fnller's. 8gn. Bbkkbt pilis; Pilit-
LB bbitboiots, L. Prep. (C?oo2ey.) Aloes and
sulphate of iron, of each, \ dr. ; mvrrh and senna,
of each, 20 gr. ; assaf oetida and galbanum, of each,
10 gr. ; mace and saffron, of each, 6 gr. ; syrup,
q. s.; mix, and divide into 4-gr. pills. Anti-
spasmodic, emmenagogne, and tonic, and slightly
aperient. — Dote, 1 to 4, according to the object
in view.

Fills, Oalrthom's HUd Provisional. Prep.
(Oooley.) Compound gamboge pill, 60 gr.; aque-
ous extract of aloes, 40 gr. ; sulphate of potassa
and extract of senna, 30 gr. ; compound scam-
mony powder, 15 gr.; balsam of Peru, 6 or 8
gr.; emetic tartar, 3 gr.; mix, and divide into
86 lolls. Purgative. — Dote, 1, 2, or more, when
required.

Fills of Oal'bairam (Compound). Sgn. Pilitla

OALBAin COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), PlLTTUE O. COM-

POBITX, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Myrrh and
prepared sagapenum, of each, 3 dr.; prepared
galbanum and soft soap, of each, 2 dr.; pre-

pared assafoetida, 1 dr. ; treacle, q. s. to form a
pill-mass.

8. (Ph. L. 1886.) As the Ust, omitting the
soap.

8. (Ph. D. 1826.) As the Ph. L., except that
treacle is substituted for syrup.

Obi. These pills are stimulant, expectorant,
antispasmodic, and emmenagogne. — I>o*e, 10 to
20 gr.; in hysteria, chronic oongha, dilorons,
amenorrhoea, se.

PiUa of Qalbanum with Iron. Sun. Pnms
oalbavi ouh pbkbo, L. Prep. (Guy's Hoap.)
Compound galbanum pill, 2 parts; precipitated
sesquioxide of iron, 1 part ; water, q. s. to form
a mass. For 41-gr. pills. An excellent tonic,
emmenagogne. — Dote, 10 to 20 gr. ; in chloroais,
amenorrhosa, &c., when chalybeates are not
contra- incUcated.

Pills of Qam'boge (Compound). Sgn, Q ax-
boob VVLIA, FoKBTCB'S F.; PiLULX CAKBOaiX

0O1IPO8ITA (Ph. L.), p. oambooia (Pb. B.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Powdered Socotrine or hepa-
tic aloes, 8 dr.; powdered gamboge, 2 dr.; pow-
dered ginger, 1 dr. ; soft soap (Ph. L.), 4 dr. ;
mix, and beat them to a pill-mass. The f ormnlas
of the Ph. L. 1836 and Ph. D. 1826 are preciaely
similar.

8. (Ph. E.) Gamboge, East Indian or Barba-
does aloes, and aromatic powder, of each Qa
powder), 1 part ; Castile soap, 2 parts ; symp, q. s.

Obt. All the above are active cathartics.—
Dose, 6 to 16 gr. ; at bedtime ; in obetiiiate con-
stipation, Ac.

Fills of Qen'tian (Compound). Bgn. FtLUlLB
OBDTiAK^ 0OMPOB!T£, L. Prep. {W. CooUg.)
Extract of gentian, 1 dr. ; powdered rhnbarb and
cardamom, of each, | dr. ; ipecacnanha, 12 gr.
For 8-gr. pills. Stomachic. — Dote, 2 or 3, twice
or tbrice daily, to improve the appetite and
digestion.

Pills, Gent. Syn. Vvlvlm amtasthbrtcub.
L. Prep. 1. {Bouehardat.) Extract of eolehi-
cnm and compound extract of colocynth, of each,
1 dr. ; aqueous extract of opium, 3 gr. ; mix, and
divide into 8-gr. pills.— Z)on, 1 or 2, aceonling
to their purgative action, as required.

2. (Sir E. Ealford::) From acetic extract of
oolchicnm, \ dr. ; Dover's powder and compoand
extract of colocynth, of each, 18 gr. For 12 pills.
— Dote, 1 pill.

5. (Lartigtu^t.) From componnd extnct of
colocynth, 20 gr. ; alcoholic extract of colchicmn
seeds and alcoholic extract of digitalis, of each,
1 gr. For 2-gr. pills.— ilow, ^v- As the last.

4. (St George's Hosp.) Acetic extract of rol-
chicnm, 12 gr. ; Dover's powder, 30 gr. For 12
pills. — Dote, 2 pills.

6. {Sir C. Seudamorefi.') From acetic extract
of colchicmn, 1 dr. ; powdered marshmaUow
root, q. s. to form a mass. For 40 pills. — Dom,
1 to 8, or more, with caution, as required.

6. {Troutttau and Seveil.) Fbwdered oolchi-
cnm seeds, \ dr. ; powdered digitalis and sulphate
of quinine, of each, 16 gr. ; oilomel and extntct
of colocynth, of each, 8 g^. ; syrup, q. s. For 20
pills. — Dote, 1 to 4, during the day, at the com-
mencoment of an attack of gout. Other formalsr
for gout pills will be found under their respective
names.

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PILLS

1827

puis. Dr Grlfflth'i. Powdered rhuUrb, 11 dr.;
■alpbate of iron, | dr.; Castile soap, 40 gr.;
water, q. i. to form a maig. For 48 pills. An
excellent remedy in ooativeness, with loss of tone
of the bowels. — Dote, 2 to 4 at bedtime.

Pilla of Gn'aUcnin (Compound). i%ii. Piltt-
ut SITAUOI oouroBTls, L. Prep. 1. Powdered
reain of gnaiacnm, 1 dr. ; oxysnlphide of antimony,
40 gT. ; oil of cajeput, 12 drops ; extract of gen-
tian, q. s. to form a mass. For 4-gr. pilb. —
Z>of«, 8 to 6, thiice daily ; in gout, rheumatism,
■eoondary syphilis, varions obstinate cntaneons
affections, &e.

2: (St B. Hosp.) Gnaiacnm, SO gr. ; ipecacn-
anha and opinm, of each, 3 gr. ; symp, q. a. For
12 pills. — IhM, 1 to S ; as the last.

Pills, EaUbrd's. See Piixs, Oour.

puis. Hall's KxMt. JVap. Aloes, 1 gr. ; ex-
tract of glycyrrhiza, 1 gr. ; soap (in powder), 1 gr.;
molasses, 1 gr. (N. F.).

Ptna, Dr Eunilton's. The same as the colo-
cynth and henbane pill of the Ph. G. The com-
ponnd pills of gamboge, now vended nnder the
title of 'MoBiBOir'a No. 2 PaL8,' were long known
in Scotland as Dr Hamilton's Fills.

Pills, Eaad'aohe. Syn. Cbfealio filu ; Pil-

VUB CBPRALIOE, P. JLSTICXrB.AIAiaiOM, L. iVep.

1. Caffeine, 15 gr. ; aloes, 20 gr. ; conserve of
hips, q. B. For 12 pills. — Doie, occasionally;
when (mly one side of the head is affected.

8. {Srout$<ttt.) Extract of opinm, 6 gr. ; ex-
tracts of belladonna and henbane, of each, 16
gr.} extract of lettaee, 80 gr.; batter of cacao, 4
dr. For 120 pills. — Hote, 1, twice or thrice
daily; in headache, accompanying spasmodic
affections, &c.

3. {Dr Wilson Philip.) Powdered nntmeg and
rhnbu-b, of each, 20 gr. ; extract of chamomile,
80 gr. ; oil of peppermint, 10 or 12 drops. For
aO mils. — DoM, 1 to 3, thrice duly; in nervoos
headaches.

puis. Helm's. Prep. Powdered digitalis, \
gr. ; powdered opium, i gr. ; quinine, 1 gr. ;
powdoed ipecacnanha, } gr. — Dote, 1, three
time* a day; as a sedative and tonic in heart
disease.

Pllla, HclTetini't. 9gn. Vtlxtlm ALUnnras
HxLwni, L. Prep. Alom, 2 dr.; dragon's
blood, 1 dr.; honey M roses, to mix. For48inlIs.
Astringent.

puis of Hemlock (CompoTmd). Syn. Ptlttls
coam ooiTFOBiTA (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep.
(Fh. L.) Bxtract of hemlock, 6 dr. ; powdered
ipecacnanha, 1 dr.; treacle, q. s. Antispas-
nMxfic, expectorant, and narcotic. — Dote, 4 to 8
gr. (B. P. 5 to 10 gr.), twice or thrice a daily;
in hooping-congh, oronchitis, incipient phthisis,
Ac

Pilb «f Kmbaae (Componad). 8yn. Pamja
HTOSCTAin BT znroi, L. ; PiLiruig si Ubsliv,
Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Extracts of henbane and
Valerian, and oxide of zinc, equal parts. For 8-
g^. pills. — Dote, 1 to 10 ; as an anodyne or seda-
tive in neuralgia, nervous attacks, &c.

puis. Lady Heaketh's. See Pillb, Dih irn.

Tnia, HoAnann's. See P11.L8 o« Cobbobiti

SirBLIVATB.

PIlli, HoDoway't. See Paibnt MitDioTKBB.
POl*, Eooper't PUnale. Prep, 1. (Cfrag.)

Sulphate of iron and water, of each, 8 oz. ; dis-
solve, add, Barbadoes aloes, H lbs. ; white camella,
6 oz. ; myrrh, 2 oz. ; opopanax, 1 oz.

2. (Phil. Coll. of Fharm.) Barbadoes aloes, 8
oz. ; dried sulphate of iron, 24 oz. ; myrrh, extract
of black hellebore, and C^tstile soap, of each, 2
oz. ; canolla and ginger, of each, 1 oz. ; water,
q. 8. ; divide the mass into 21- or 8-gr. pills, and
put 40 in each box. Cathartic and emmenagogne. '
— Dote, 8, or more. " If we omit the soap, lessen
the quantity of extract of hellebore, and increase
that of the aloes, we think the form will be nearer
that of the original " ( Coolej/).

Pilla of Honad's-toiigue. (P. Cod.) Syn. Pn,-
TTLM auM. OTHoaLOBsd, L. Prep. Root-bark of
honnd's-tongue, 4 dr. ; henbane seeds, 4 dr. ; ex-
tract of opium, 4 dr. ; myrrh, 6 dr. ; olibannm, 4
dr. and 48 gr. ; saffron, 96 gr. ; castor, 96 gr. ;
symp of honey, 14 dr. ; mix. Contuns 1 gr. of
extract of opinm in 10 gr. The original form of
KIOOliAlTB contained styrax, and seems to have
been the origin of the compound styrax pill, aa
well as of this compound.

Pills, Hnmphrey's. See Pillb, Pioiokal.

Pills, Ennter's. See Pillb, Riital.

Filli, Eydragogne. See Bontitb'b Pillb, Ab.

Pills, Hydrophobia. Syn. PiLXTLiS ad babisx,
L. Prep. ( Werlhoffi) Cantharides (in very fine
powder), 2 gr. ; belladonna and calomel, of each,
4 gr. ; camphor, 8 gr. ; mucilage, q. s. For 12
l^us. — Dote, 2 to 8, twice daily.

PUla of In'dian Hemp. S!yn. Pj-lxtlm oah-
KABlfl Imiax, L. Pr^. From alcoholic ex-
tract of Indian hemp, i dr. ; sugar of milk, 1 dr. ;
mucilage, q. s. For 48 pills. An excellent pill
for soothing pain and quieting the system, acting
without causing headache or constipation of tho
bowels. — Dote, 1 pill, increased to 2 or more, aa
necessary.

Pill* of I'odide of Anenic. Syn. Pilvl^
ABSBHIOI xODtDi, L. iV«p. 1. (Dr Neliyan.)
Iodide of arsenic, 2 gr. ; manna, 40 gr. ; mucilage,
q. s.; mix, and divide into 12 pills.

2. (Gardner.) Iodide of arsenic, 1 gr. ; extract
of hemlock, 20 gr. For 20 pills.— JDo«e, 1 pill,
twice or thrice daily ; in lepra, psoriasis, and some
other scaly skin diseases.

Pills of Iodide of Iron. ^a. FamM rbbi
lODIDI, L. Prep. 1. Unozidised iron filings
(recentiy levigated), 20 gr. ; iodine, 40 gr. ; dis-
tilled water, 1 dr. ; mix in a cold wedgwood-ware
mortar, and tritnrate them together until the red
colour of the mixture has entirely disappeared ;
then add, of powdered gum, 20 gr. ; powdered
sugar, 1 dr.; liqnorice powder, q. s. to form a
mass, and divide it into 48 pills. Each pill contiuiis
1 gr. of dry iodide of iron. — Dote, 1 to 6 pills,
twice or thrice a day.

8. (B. P.) Fine iron wire, 40 gr. ; iodine, 80
gr. ; refined sugar (in power), 70 gr. ; liquorice
root (in powder), 140 gr. ; distilled water, 60
minims. Agitate the iron with the iodine and
the water in a strong stoppered ounce phial until
the froth becomes white. Pour the fiuid upon the
sngar in a mortar, tritnrate briskly, and gradually
add the liquorice. — Dote, 3 to 8 gr.

Oit. The above pills sre reputed alterative,
tonic, and emmenagogne, and are found peculiarly
nsefnl in indurations, scrofula, chlorosis, leucor-

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1S28

PILLS

rhcea, &c., when the administration of cfaalybeates
is not contra-indicated.

Pm« of Iodide of Lead. Sj/n. PtLWUB plukbi
lODIsi, L. Prep. From iodide of lead, 16 gr. ;
powdered sngor, li dr. ; mucilage, q. s. For 60
pills. — Vote, 1 pill, gradually increased to 8, or
more, twice a day ; in scrofula, scirrhns, &c.

Fills of Iodide of Her'enry. Sgn. PnuxJi
HTDEABOTM lODIDI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.
1836.) Green iodide of mercury and powdered
ganger, of each, 1 dr. ; eonserre of hips, 8 dr. —
J>o««, 2 to 6 gr., twice or thrice daily, as an
alterative in scrofula and scrofulous syphilis, Ac.

2. (ConnjBx'B Pills.) From green iodide of
mercury, 1 gr. ; extract of liqnorioe, 20 gr. ; mil,
and divide into 8 pills. — Bote, 2 to 4, as the last.
Fills of red iodide of mercury nre made in the
same way, but, owing to its greater activity, only
one fourth of the above quantity of iodide must
enter into their composition.

FlU* of Iodide of Fotas'sinm. 8j/n. Pilulx
POTABSU lOSiDl, L. Prep. 1. Iodide of potas-
sium and powdered starch, of each, i dr. ; con-
serve of hips, q. s. For 36 pills. — Dote, 1 to 6,
thiice daily; in glandular indurations and enlarge-
ments, goiture, scrofula, Ac

2. {Vogt.) Iodide of potassium, 16 gr. ; boint
sponge and extract of dulcamara, of each, 6 dr. ;
water, q. s. For 180 pills. — Dote, 4 to 6^ twice a
day, as the last.

IWs of Iodide of Silver, ^n. Pilttls ax-
O-ENXI lODlDi, L. (iJr Patterton.) Prep. Iodide
of silver, nitrate of potash, of each, 10 gr., rub
together into a very fine powder, and add, liquorice
powder, i dr.; white sugar, 20 gr.; mucilage,
q. s. to form a mass, to be divided into 40 pills ;
1 three times a day.

Pills of I'odine. Sjf*. Pilulje lODmn, L.
Prep. (£a<{tiia.) Iodine, 6 gr. ; extract of gentian,
1 dr. ; powdered gum, q. s. For 24 pills. — Dote,
1 to 8 ; in scrofula, &c. ; also in mercurial and
scorbutic salivation.

Fills of lod'oform. 5yii. PiLxruB lODOFOua,
L. Prep. (Bouchardat.) Iodoform, i dr. j ex-
tract of wormwood (or gentian), 1 dr. ; mix, and
divide into 86 pills. — Dote, 1, twice or (Jirioe
daily ; in scrofula, Ac.

nils of Ipecac'uanha (Compound). Sgn. Pillb

OT IFBOAOUAHHA WITH BQVILLS, P. OF I. ABS

opnm ; PnuuB ipkoaottakiub cuk bcillJI (Ph.
L.), P. iPKOAOUASHiB BT OPli (Ph. E.), L. Prep.
1. (Ph. L.) Compound powder of ipecacuanha
(Dover's powder), 3 dr. ; powdered ammoniaonm
and squills (freshly powdered), of each, 1 dr. ;
treacle, q. s. to form a pill-moss. Anodyne, sndo-
rific, and expectorant. — Dote, 5 to 10 gr.; in
chronic coughs and asthma, &c,

2. (Ph. E.) Dover's powder, 3 parts; con-
serve of red roses, 1 part ; mix, and divide into
4-gr. pills. Resembles Dover's powder in its
effects. It is hence regarded by many as a useless
preparation.

3. (B. P.) PlLULA IFBOAODAHHX CUK SctUjl.

Compound ipecacuanha powder, 3 oz. ; fresh-
dried squill, 1 oz. ; ammoniacum (in powder), 1
OS. ; treacle, q. s. Beat all together. — Date, 6 to
10 gr.

PiUs of I'ron (Compound). Syn. Pilulx
nUBI COXPOBITX (Ph. L.), P. p. cok hthbba.

L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Myrrh (in powder), 2 dr. ;
carbonate at soda, 1 dr. ; rub them together in a
warm mortar, then add of sulphate of iron, 1 dr.,
and again triturate; lastly, add of treade, 1 dr.,
and beat all together to form a pill-maas. An
excellent mild chalybeate tonic and emmenagogne,
similar in its properties to ' Griffith's Mixtone.' —
Dote, 6 to 16 gr., two or three times a day.
FlUs, Italian Black. Sy». Pilulb Ixauos

BISKS, P. ALOBTICS FBBBATiB, L. Prep. (Ph.

Bor.) Powdered aloes and dried sulphate of iron,
eqnsj parts ; beaten up with recti&ed spirit, q. s.,
and divided into 2- or 2|-gr. pills. See Pnx«OP
AliOBB AXS Iboh.

Fills of Jal'ap. Sgu. Pilttlb ;ai.apx, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1788.) Extract of jalap, 2 dr. ;
aromatic powder, 1 dr. ; syrup, q. s.

2. (Ph. Bor.) Soap of jalap, 8 parti ; powdered
jalap, 1 part ; beat them to a pill-mass. — Dote (of
either), 10 to 16 gr.

Fills, James's Analep'tic. Prep. 1. Antimonial
powder, guaiacum, and pill of ^oes with myrrh,
equal parts ; syrup, q. s.

2. {Coolnf.) Antimonial powder (James's), pill
aloes with myrrh, and compound aloes powder, of
each, 2 parts; powdered ammoniacnm, 1 part;
beaten op with tincture of castor, q. s., and divided
into 8i-gr. pills. A ^aphoretic purge.— Dosa, 2
to 4 pills.

Fills, Dr J. Johnson's. Prep. From com-
pound extract of colocynth, 2 dr. ; calomel, i dr. ;
potassio-tartrate of antimony, 2 gr. ; oil of cassia,
12 drops. For 4 dozen pills. An excellent
alterative and diaphoretic aperient. — Doee, 1 to S
pills.

Pills, Kaye's. See Piixb, WoBaoBLL'a.

Pills, King's. See Patent HBDlcnrsB.

Pills, Kitchener's. I^». Dr KnOHBim'B

FBBIBXAXTIC FEBSUASBBS ; PlLUUB RKXX KT

CABUI, L. Prep. From powdered Turkey rhn-
barb, 2 dr. ; simple syrup, 1 dr. ; lul of caraway,
10 or 12 drops. For 40 pills. An admirable
stomachic, dinner, or laxative pill, aeoordinff to
the quantity taken. — Dote, 2 to 6. " From § to
4 will generally produce one additional motion
within twelve hours. The best time to take them
is early in the morning."

Fills, Klein's. Prep. From ammoniacum and
extract of centaury, of each, i dr. ; Castile soap,

1 dr.; oil of amber, 3 drops. For 2-gT. julla.
Stomachic, emmenagogne, and pectoral. — Dote.

2 to 6 pais.

Fills of Lac'tate of Iron. Sj/u. Pouut na-
si LAOTATIB, L. Prep. (Cap.) Lactate of pro-
toxide of iron and powdered marshmallow root,
eqnal parts ; clarified honey, q. s. For S-gr. piQs.
One (k the most valuable of the chalybeatea. —
Dote, 1 to 2, three or four times a day.

Fills of Lactaca"riiini. <Sy». Pomlx lao-
TUOASII, L. Prep. 1. (Srera.) Lactncarinm,
18 gr.; conserve of elder-berries and extract of
liquorice, of each, q. s. For 12 pills. Dow,
1 to 2 pills, every three or four hoars; in dry
asthma, obstinate coughs without expectoratian,
&e.

2. {Dr Duncan.) Laotncarinm, 12 gr.; Uqaor-
ice powder, 20 gr. ; simple syrup, q. s. For IS
pills. — Dote, 1 to 2 pills, every hoar, as an ano-
dyne, or to indnce sleep.

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PILLS

1829

PUla, Lartigne'*. See Fau, Govt.
Pilla, Lax»tlT«. Post pabtum. Laxative inlU
after confinement {Barker't Pott Parttm PUU).
Each pill contains, oomponnd extract of colocynth,
l{gr.; aloes, tgr.; extract of nnx vomica, -^
gr. J remn of podophyllum, -^ gt. ; ipecac, in fine
powder, -^ gr.; extract of hyoacyamns, IJ gr.

Not*. — Thia ia the formula generally employed
by Dr Fordyce Barker, except where spe^al cir-
cmnatanoea render modiflcaUouB neoeuary. The
focmola naoally qaoted in mannfactnTen* licta
and lome formolariea ii not correct (If. F.).

Pills ef Lead. iVip. 1. See Pilu ov Aoa-
xkTt oa Lias.

2. (Opiated ; PlMTLS FLnrBl OFUI.B — Fh. £.;
Pnuiu. rLxncBi (tuk ofio— B. F.) Acetate of
lead, 6 parti ; opiom, 1 part j conserve of red
roaee, about 1 part; beat them to a proper mass,
and divide this into 4-gr. pills. " This pill may
also be made inth twice the qoantity of opium."
In htemorrhagee, obstinate (Uarrhoea, dysentery,
ipittiog of blood, and other cases demanding the
use of a powerful astringent. It has also been
lugUy extolled in cholera. — Dote, 1 to 8 pills,
twice or thrice daily, washed down with water
eonied with pure vineg^.

Pills, Iiee's AatibU'ions. Prtp. ('Amer.Joum.
of Pharm.') Aloes, 12 oz. j scommony, 6 01. ;
calomel, 5 oz.; gambogsk 4 ox.; jalap, S ex.;
Castile soap and syrup of buckthorn, of each, 1
OK. ; mucilage, 7 oz. ; beat them together, and
^vide the mass in 5-gr. pills. A powerful cathar-
tic, and, from containing mercury, not adapted
for frequent use. See Wyitdham's PjUiS.

Pills, Lewis's Al'tsntive and Liver. These
"for Uie most part resnnble Scott'b Biliovb
An> LiTXB P11X8. They are, however, of a more
drastic and powerful character, and frequently
operate with considerable violence."

POla, Leokstadfs. Prep- {P1uA%t.) Sul-
phate oi quinine, 8 gr. ; aromatic powder, 10 gr. ;
essential oil of lUmonds, 1 drop ; extract of gen-
tiui, q. s. For 10 pills. — Don, 1 to 2, thrice
daily, as a stomachic tonic; or the whole at once,
before an expected attack of an ague or inter-
mittent.

puis, Sr. liyiui's. Prtp. From pill of aloes
with myrrh and compound extract of colocynth,
of each, I dr. ; calomel, \ dr. For 4 dozen pills.
Aperient and antibilious. — 2>ott, 1 to 8 ; in
costiTeness, biliousness, Ac

puis of Kanganese, Carboaata. {Smuum,)
Sjf%. FtMJiiS MAireAimn oakbokatu. Prep.
Dissolve separately, 17 oz. of crystallised sulphate
of msBganeso, and 19 oz. carbonate of soda, in
water, q. s. Mix the solutions and add to every
17 OS. M the liquid, 1 oz. of syrup, and allow the
precipitate to snb^de in a weU-doaed bottle.
Poor off the supernatant liquid, wash the pred-
I^tatewith sugared water, express, mix it with
10 OS. of houOT, and ev^iorate rapidly to ■ pill
consistence. — Hot. From 4 to 10 4-gr. ^lls
daily, in anamia, chlorosis, &c -

Pills of »siigsiisse. Iodide. (JBomhw.) I^n.
Vuxui jLursAunn iosidl Prn. Iodide of
potaskinm, 1 oz. ; dried sulphate of manganese,
1 ox. ; mix with honqr, q. s. to form a [nil mass;
divide into 4-gr. inlls.—ito(*. From 1 ]^ daily,
gradually increased.
Ten. n.

Pills of Manganese, Malate. (^aitaoa.) %s.
VitMhM iLuraABiBn XAi^na. Malate of man-
ganese, 16 gr.; powdered cinchona bark, 15 gr.;
honey, q. s. for 20 pills. 8 to 6 or 6 dsily.

PiUa of Kanganese, Kuriate. {Niemann.)
Sgn. P1LVI4M KAVSAiraaii kubiatib. Prtp.
Chloride of manganese, 2 scruples ; gum-arabic,
2 scruples ; liquorice, 1 scruple. Mix.

Pills of Manganese, Phosphate. {Mannon.)
Sgn. FiLUUi KANaAirsan frobfsatis. Prep.
Fbosphate of manganese, Iji dr.; cinchona bark,
i dr. i syrup of catechu, q. s. Make into 4-gr.
pills.

Pilla of Manganese, Tartrate. Syn. Piluu
KAHSAiTBan TASXBATIB. As Fills of Malate
Manganese.

Pills of Manganese and Sulphate of Iron.
{Sannon.) Sgn. Fli.T7l.iE KAVOANSSn et
vnua BVXrsAXIB. Prep. Sulphate of iron,
18 OS.; sulphate of manganese, 8} oz.; car-
bonate of soda, 17i oz. ; hon^, 10 oz.; syrup,
q. a. to make a mass to be divided into 4-gr.
pills.

Pills, Mar'tial. Syn. Fills of isoh avs

WOBirWOOD; FtLUUC FBBBI OUII ABBDrTHIO,

F. KABTIALE8, L. Prtp, {Sydenham.) Levi-
gated iron filings, 1 dr. ; extract of wormwood,
q. s. Tonic and hamathiic. — Dote, 6 to 10 gr.,
twice a day.

Pilla, Matthew's. Syn. Pecttub Mattkbi,
P. FACiFlox, L. Prtp, 1. (^DrParit.) Black
hellebore, Castile soap, liquonce, opium, aaflron,
and turmeric, equal parts; made into pills with
oil of turpentine.

2. (Ph. B. 1744.) Opium and saffron, of each,
1 dr. ; castor, 2 dr. ; soap of turpentine, 8 dr. ;
balsam of copaiba (or oil of turpentine), q. s. to
form a mass. Alterative and anodyne. — Dott,
8 to 10 gr.

Pills, MeKinaey'a. See MoKimBT's Kata-
FOTIA, among Patbki Mbsioihib.

Fills, Meglin's. Syn. PiLUXsa SB Miauv,
Fr. See Pills o> HsNBAini (Compound).

Pill, Meroa"rlal. Syn. Blvb fill; Pilttla

HTSaABOYBI (B. P.), PILULX HYBBABSTKI
(Pb. L., B. & D.), F. MBBOXTBIALBB, L. ; FjLULBS

HSBOUBiaLLiB, Pr. Prep. 1. (Fh. L.) Mer-
cury, 4 dr. ; confection of roses, 6 dr. ; rub them
together until globules can no longer be seen ;
then add of liquorice powder, 2 dr., and beat
the whole together, so that a proper mass may be
formed.

2. (Ph. E.) As the last ; afterwards dividing
the mass into 6-gr. pills.

8. (Fb. D.) As the Ph. L. formula, but taking
fonr times the quantify of the respective ingre-
dients.

4. (B. P.) Mercury, 8; confection of roses, 8;
decorticated liquorice root, in fine powder, 1 ; rub
the mercury with the confection of roses, until
metallic globules are no longer visible, then add
the liquorice, and mix the whole well together. —
Doit, 8 to 6 gr. as an alterative, 10 gr. as a
purgative.

Ohi. The remarks under ' Mbboubial OIHT-
XBXS' (p. 1166), for the most part also apply
here. This pill, when properly prepared, presents
no globules of mercury when moderately rubbed
on a ^ece of white paper, and imme^tely com-

81

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1380

PILLS

municatea a white atun to a piece of bright gold
or copper. It poueau* conaiderable density, and
has a dark bine or slate colour. It contains one
third of its weight of mercury, which may be ascer-
tained from its sp. gr. ; or, more exactly, by an
assay for the metal. It is the mildest and most
extensively used of all the mercnrial prepara-
tions— Z>of«. As an alterative, 1 to 3 gr, ; as a
purgative, 10 to 16 gr. ; and as a sialogogne, 6
or 6 gr., or more, twice or thrice daily. To pre-
vent it sifecting the bowels, it is commonly com-
bined with either rhnbarb or opium. A blue-piU
taken overnight, and a black draught in the
morning, is a popular remedy in bilious oomphunts.
See AaKBBBTHT MBsionrss.

6. ( Collier.) Mercury, 2 dr. ; sequioxide of
iron, 1 dr. J confection of red roses, 3 dr.; tri-
turated, as before, until the globules disappear.
An excellent extemporaneous substitute for the
common mercurial pUl. The addition of only a
few gr. of the sesquioxide of iron to 1 or. of con-
serve renders the latter capable of rapidly killing
a large quantity of quicksilver.

6. {Tgton.) Orey oxide of mercury (prepared
by decomposing calomel with liquor of potassa to
which a little liquor of ammonia has been added),
2 dr. ; confection of roses, 6 dr. ; powdered chamo-
miles, 1 dr. ; mix. As a substitute for the Col-
lege pill.

7. (' Pharm. Joum.') Stearin, 1 dr.; rub it in
• warm mortar till it assumes the consistence of
thick- cream, then add of mercury, 4 dr., and again
triturate until the globules disappear; next
further add, of confection of roses and wheaten
flour, of each 8 dr., powdered gum, 1 dr., and
form the whole into a pill-mass. As a substitute
for the College pill.

8. (PII.VI.X BTDBIBSTBOSX— P. Cod.) Mer-
cury and honey, of each, 6 dr. ; triturate till the
globules are extinguished, then add of aloes, 6 dr. ;
rhubarb, 3 dr. ; scammony, 2 dr. ; black pepper,
1 dr.; and make a pill-mass as before. Contains
l-4ith part of quicksilver. Alterative and ape-
rient.— Dose, 6 to 10 gr. Biix08TB'a Bab-
babobba'b, S^diixot'b, and Mobilot'b P11.1.B
are nearly similar compounds. See PliXB Or
CaIiOXII. and CoHSOBm Sublikatb, ic.

9. (Prums uHOUBim etsrabsybi — Biett.)
Prep. Mercurial ointment, powdered sarsparilla,

1 dr. Mix, and divide into 48 pills. From 1 to
4 daily.

10. (PUiULX EYSKABOTBI CUK 8AP0VB — P.

Cod.) Prep. Mercnrial ointment, 8 dr.; soap,
4 scruples ; liquorice powder, 2 scruples. Make
into 3.gr. pills.

Pills, K«reiiilal (Aiabic). Sj/n. Vilvlx
mBOTTBlALBB Akabic£, L. Prep. Take of
quicksilver and corrosive sublimate, of each,
i dr. ; triturate them patiently together' until
the globules disappear; then add, of agaric,
pellitory, and senna, of each, 1 dr.; honey, q.s.
to make a pill-mass. For 8i-gr. pills. — Dote,

2 a day. Employed in the ' traitement araUque '
for the cure of obstinate cutaneous diseases.

Fillt, Kercurial, Hahnemaim't. (F. H.)

agn. P1LUI.X HTDBIBOTBI HAEimUlrSI.

Prep. Hahnemann's soluble mercury, 20 gr. ;

Sim-arabic, 80 gr.; sugar, 80 gr. Mix, and
vide into 80 piUs.

Fills, MitehelTs. Prep. Aloes, i dr. ; rhn-
barb, 1 dr. ; calomel, 6 gr. ; emetic tartar, 2 gr.
For 86 pills. An alterative aperient.— i>os«, 3
to 4 pills.

Pills, Moat's. Similar to Mobisob'b pilu.

FlUs, Korison's. Prep. a. (No. 1 piUs.)
From sloes and cream of tutar, equal purts, made
into a mass with either syrup or mucilage. A
mild aperient.

b. (No. 2 piUs.) From colocynth, 1 part ; gam-
b<^ 2 parts ; aloes, 8 parts ; and cream of tartar,
4 puts; mode into a mass with syrup, as the
last. An active purgative, often acting with
great violence. Both No. 1 and No. 2 are divided
into 3-gr. pills, of which 4 doaen are put into
each Is. lid. box. The proper dose of either is

1 to 8 or 4 pills ; but they are often given by the
Mwisons in doses of 12, 20, 80, or even more
daily. For the history of these pills and their
proprietors, see 'Anat. of Quackery,' or 'Med.
Circ.,* ii, 9—27.

Fills of ■or'plii*. Sgn. PiLUUt xobpbix,
L. Prep, {llageiuiie.) Morphine, 1 gr. ; con-
serve of roses (stiff), q. s. For 6 (or, better,
8^ pills. — Dote, 1 piU; as an anodyne or sopo-
rific.

Fills of MAtpUa (Compound). (Sowgier.)

Sgn. PlXVLS XOBPHUB 00MPO8ITA. Pr^.

Sulphate of morphia, 8 gr. ; cyanide of potassium,
4 gr. ; mncilsge, q. s. Make into 24 pills ; one
every six hours, in neuralgia.

Pills, Hoseley's. iVsp. Finest Turkey rhu-
barb, 60 gr. ; Jamaica ginger, 80 gr.; sugar,
20 gr. (all in powder) ; tincture of rhubarb, q. s.
to form a mass. For 4-gr. pills. A mild
and excellent medicine, closely resembling
KirOHBXBB'B fbbistaltio pbbsitasbbb.

Pills of Musk. 8g». Ptlvlx KOflOHi, L.
Prep. {Duptigtren.) Opium, 2 gr.; mask
(genuine), 8 gr. ; camphor (in powder), 24 gr.;
syrup, q. s. For 8 pills. Antispasmodic and
stimulant. — Dote, 1 to 8 thrice daily, in low
nervous affections ; or the whole during the day,
in hospital gangrene, Ac.

Fills of Xyrrh. See Pnxs o> Axobb ahd
Mtbbe.

Pills, Vapisr's Venroton'ie. Of iliese, like
Mobibob's fixlb, there are No. 1 and No. 2.
The first is a simple stomachic aperient ; the
other, a stimulant tonic. They both owe thdr
sale and reputed virtues to extensive advertising
(■ Anat. of Quackery ').

Pills, Vapoleon's. SeePscroBAi, Pills.

Fills, Venial'gia. Sgn. Pilulx AHTinr-
BALSIOX, L. Prm. 1. {llarehal De Calm.)
Aqueous extract of opium, 4 gr. ; sulphate of
quinine, 16 gr.; powdered cinnamon, powdered
orange leaves, and extract of valerian, of each,
20 gr. ; syrup of belladonna, q. s. For 8 dosen
pills. — Dote, 1 hourly.

2. (ZVonsMoii and JZoveii.) Extracts of opium
and stramonium, of each, 8 gr. ; oxide of sine,

2 dr. ; syrup, q. s. For 40 pills. — Dote, 1 every
two or three hours, gradually increased in fre-
quency until there is some considerable disorder
of vision, ^. Both of the above should be \ised
with care. See Pilib, Mbolib'B, &c.

8. Butyl chlonl hydrate, 8 gr.; hydrochlomte
of gelsemine, t4tj gr.— Dote, 1 eveiy four hows.

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PILLS

1831

Very uwfal in toothache and nennlgia affectang
the fifth nerre (Dr Singer).

Pills of Vi'trate of Binniith. Sgn. Piluub
BlBmnTHl TBI8KITHATIS, L. iVep. From trie-
nitrate of bismath and powdered rhnbarl), equal
parti ; aymp of orange peel, q. s. to form a maas.
For 8-gr. pills. — Dole, 1 to 2 every two houn ;
fea a tonic, itomachic, and antispasmodic, in
dyspepna, debUity, spasms. &c.

lilla of Vitrate of Kweniy. 8yu. Pixvia

HTDXAXaTBI PBOTO-innUTIB, L. ; Pelvlm db
SAnm Mabu, Ft. Ppwp. Powder of proto-nitrate
of mercoty, 7i gr. ; extract of liquorice, i dr.
Mix accnrately, and divide into 60 pills. — I>ote,
1, foor times a day.

Fills of Hitrate of Bll'var. Sgn. PiiiVUi
ABearn inixAxig, L. Prep. 1. (St B. Hosp.)
Nitrate of silver (crystallised), 12 gr. ; liquorice
powder, 24 gr.j treacle, q. s. For 12 pills. —
J>ai», 1 pill twice or thrice a day ; in cbiMiic
epilepsy and some other spasmodic disorders.

2. {Dr A. T. Thonuon.) Nitrate of sUver,
6 gr. ; cammb of bread, q. s. (say i dr.) ; mix,
and divide into 12 pills. — Dote, one every six
hours.

Obi. To prevent the Une or slate-coloured
tinge of the ^in, so often prodnced by the con-
tinaed nse of the salts of silver, 8 drops of diluted
nitric acid in 1 fl. oe. of water should be taken
after each pilL

puis, Korton's Chamomile. JVep. From
aqneous extract of aloes, 1 dr.; extract of gen-
tian, 8 dr.; mix, and drive aft the excess of
moisture by the heat of a water bath ; then add
of essential cnl of chamomile, 20 drops, and
divide the mass into 60 pills. To preserve their
aromatic properties, the; should be kept in a dry
glass bottle or a well-covered earthenware pot.
— Doie, 1, as a dinner pill; or 2 night and
morning, as a stomachic tonic (' Anat. of
Quackery ').

Fills of Ku Vom'iea. &f». Pnim^s irnoia
TOKKUB, L. Prep. 1. Knx vomica and aloes
(both in powder), equal parts ; syrup, q. s. For
8-gr. pills. — Doie, 1 to 8, twice or thnee daily,
carefidly watching the effects in the nervous
derangement, general debility, impotence, paraly-
sis, Ac.

2. Alcoholic extract of nux vomica, 1 part;
powdered sugar, 2 parts ; beaten up with rectified
spirits, q. s. For 2|-gr.idll8. — ^i}ow,lto2{ as
the last.

8. {Mtmdiire.') Alcoholic extract, 6 gr. ;
levigated black oxide of iron, 1 dr. ] syrup,
q. s. In atonic incontinence of uria«, amenor-
rhcM, &e.

Fills, Odontal'glA. Sgn. Pilvlm ODOXTiJi-
aiox, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Powdered opium
and extracts of belladonna and henbane, of each,
10 gr.; oil of olives, 20 drops; powdered pelli-
tory of Spain, 1 dr, ; beat them to a mass, and
divide it into 1-gr. pills; keep tiiem in a corked
phial.

Fills, OpUtad lead. See Pixls as Leas.

Fills of 0"plllin. ;Syil. AlrODYITB FILU, NlSHT

p., Thxbaio v. ; PiLuija CPU (Ph. U. S.), P. o.
or THKSAiouB (Ph. £.), L. Prep. l.*(Ph. E.)
Opium and conserve of red roses, o&iaach, 1 part ;
smphate of potash, 8 parts ; rub them together to

a proper mass, and divide into 5-gr. pills. — Dote,
1 to 2 pills, as an anodyne or soporific. Each pill
contains 1 g^. of opium, or double the quantity
in the same pill of the previous edition of the
Ph. E.

2. (Ph. U. S.) Powdered opium, 1 dr. ; Cas-
tile soap, 12 gr. ; water, q. s. For 60 pills. As
the last.

FiUs of Ox-gall. Sj/n. Bub fiix; VirATLM
IBLLIS BOTuri, p. BiLia, L. Pr^. 1. From in-
spissated ox-gall formed into pills by the addition
of any simple powder; or the harder extract
beaten up with a little proof spirit. Powdered
rhubard is frequently used for the purpose. For
8-gr. pills. — Dote, 1 to 6 ; for constipation, flatu-
lence, &c., arising from a deficiency of bile.

2. (Compound.) From inspissated oz-gall, 1
dr. ; powdered rhubarb, i dr. ; powdered ipe-
cacuanha and capsicum, of each, 16 gr.; oil of
caraway, 12 drops. For 48 pills. — Dote, 1 to 4;
in loss of appetite, and dyspepsia, with torpor of
the bowels, &c. See CoirSTiPATioir, Qall, &e.

Pills of Ox'ide of Gold. Svn. Piluls avbi
OXTDI, L. iV^. (Magendie?) Terozide of gold,

5 gr. ; extract of mezereon, 2 dr. ; mix and divide
into 60 pills. Each pill contains -^ gr. of ter-
oxide. —Doee, 1 to 8 ; in scrofula, syphilis, malig-
nant fevers, &c

Fills of Oxide of Hsrcuy. See PiLU, Mbb-
oxntiAii.

Fills of Oxide of SU'ver. Sf». Vi%vzm ab-
0BNTI OXYDI, L. Prep. From oxide of silver,

6 gr. ; powdered rhubarb and extract of gen-
tian, of each, 12 gr. For 1 dozen filU.— Dote,
1 pill, twice or thrice daily ; in gastralgia, hte-
morrhages, nervous sftections, Ac Milder than
the pills of nitrate of silver.

puis of Oxide of Zinc. 8s»- Pilule zikoi
OXTDI, L. Prep. From oxide of zinc, powdered
cascarilla, and conserve of hips, equal parts. For
8i-gr. pills. Tonic and antispasmodic. — Dose, 1
to 3, thrice daily ; in dyspepsia, gastric or spas-
modic coughs, epilepsy, chorea, &c.

Fills, Parr's UA. Prep. Aloes, 7 lbs. ; rho-
barb and jalap, of each, 6 lbs. (all in powder) ;
extract of gentian, 84 lbs. ; soft soap, i lb. ;
liquorice powder, treacle, and moist sugar, of each,
44 lbs. ; oil of cloves, 10 oz. ; oil of caraway, 84
oz. ; mix, and beat the whole to a proper mass
with syrup bottoms, q. s., and divide it into 84-gr.
pills. "There are about 4 dozen in each Is. ijfd.
box, weighing (dry) barely 3 gr. each." A good
stomachic and aperient piU, but possessing none
of the extraordinary virtues ascribed to it by its
proprietors (' Med. Circ,' ii, 146, 167, &c).

puis of Panllin'la. Sfn. Ottaxaha pilu;
PiLuxjK axTRASit, P. FAUiiLnriA, L. Prep, 1.
Panllinia mixed up with syrup of oraoge-peel,
and the mass divided into 24-gr. pills.— l>ot«, 2
to 8.

2. (Dr Oawrelle.) Extract of gnarana, 1 dr.
llquonce powder, q. s. For 40 pilU. — Dote, 8 to
6 daily.

Obt. These pills are highly esteemed on the
Continent as a tonic and astringent, in diseases of
the bowels and bladder, in chlorosis, debility, gee.

Pee'tonl Pills. <Sy». Bbbath Piixa ; PiluiiS
PBOIOBAIiBS, L. Pr^. 1. Compound sqoiU
pill, 1 dr. ; gum benzoin, 4 di. ; powdered ipe«

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PILLS

cacoanha and extract of henliane, of each, 16 gr. ;
syrap, q. s. For 8-gr. pilli. — Ihit, 2 to 4, ^ree
or four times a day ; in atthnuw, chronic bnmobial
affections, oonghs, Ac

2. {Dr Copland.) Camphor (in powder), 10
gr. J ipecacuanha, 15 gr. ; extract of hemlock, 1
dr. — 2)on, 8 to 6 gr. ; in irritating and spaamodic
coughs, to.

8. {Raggart.) Powdered ipecacnsnha and
sqiuHs, of each, i dr. ; acetate of morphia, 6 gr. ;
entile soap, 8 dr. ; mix, and divide into 72 pills.
A most excellent medicine, at once soothing
and expectorant. — Doit, 1 to 8, thrice a day, or
oftener.

4. (HiWPHXiBS' CouoH Pills.) From pow-
dered ipecacnanhai 16 gr. ; componnd sqniU-
pill, 1 dr. i compound extract of oolocyntb, \ dr. ;
For 3^-^. pills. — Dott, 2 pills, night and
morning.

6. {Dr Laiham^ Componnd powder of ipe-
cacnuiha, 1 dr. ; fresh aqnill and gnm ammonia-
cum, of each, 20 gr. ; calomel, 4 gr. For 20 pills.
A most Tslnable pectoral and expectorant. — Dote.
1 pill, thrice daily; in bronchitis, coughs, ke.,
after the more active inflammatory symptoms
have snbsided.

6. (Napoltonft.) From ipecacuanha, 80 gr. ;
squills and ammoniacnm, of each, 40 gr. (all in
powder) ; mucilage, q. ■. to mix. For 24 pills.
It is said that this was a favourite remedy with
the Bmperor Napoleon I for difficulty of 'breath-
ing, bronchitis, and various affections of the
organs of respiration. — Dott, 2 pills, night and
morning.

7. {Dr Parit.) Powdered squills, i dr. ; pow-
dered myrrh, 1| dr. ; extract of henbane, 40 gr. ;
water (or simple syrup), q. s. to mix. For 4-gr.
pills. — Dote, 2 pills, night and morning. As
No. 2.

8. (Ph. L. 1746.) Onm ammoniacnm, 4 dr, ;
gum benxoin, 3 dr. ; gum myrrh, 2 dr. ; saffron, 1
dr.; anisated balsam of sulphur, i dr. ; syrup of
toln, q. s. to mix. — Dote, 6 to 16 gr.

9. (Siekter.) Assaf oetida and valerian, of each,
i dr. ; castor, 16 gr. ; powdered squills and ses-
qnicarbonate of ammonia, of each, 8 gr. ; extract
of aconite (alcoholic), 8 gr. For 4-g^. pills. —
Dote, 1 to 3 pills, night and morning; in spas-
modic affections of the respiratory organs.

Pills, Perpef nal. See Pills, EviBLAmira.

Pills, Peter's. Prep. {CooUy.) Aloes, 3 dr. ;
gamboge, jalap, and scammony, of each, 2 dr. (all
in powder) ; calomel, 1 dr. ; beaten up with recti-
fieil spirit, q. s. A powerful cathartic. — Dote, 1
to 8 ^Is.

Pills of Ph«iplk«nu. (B. P.) Bgn. PiLirtx
FH08PH0BI. Prep. Phosphorus, 8 gr. ; balsam
of tolu, 120 gr. ; yellow wax, 57 gr. ; curd soap,
90 gr. Put the phosphorus and balsam into a
Wedgwood mortar half full of hot water, and
when the phosphoms has melted and the balsam
become sufficiently soft, rub them together be-
neath the surface of the water until no parineles
of phosphorus are visible, the temperature of the
water being maintained at or near 140° F. Add
now the wax, and as it softens mix it thoroughly
with the other ingredients. Allow the mass to
cool withont being exposed to the air, and keep
it in a bottle immersed in cold water. It may

be softened with a few drops of reetifled spirit
when made into pills. — Dote, 2 to 4 gn

PUIS ef Pif 'arine. Sgu. Pavui pimnu,
L. Prep. From piperine, k dr.; exttack of
cinchona, q. s. For 80 jnlls. — Dote, 1 pSl,
every two hours, during the intermission of an
agne; also as an aphrodisiac and ■ remedy in
piles.

Fills of Pitch. Sg*. Pavca nom -simtM,
L. Prep. From blade pitch and powdered black
pepper, equal parts; beaten together in a warm
mortar, and divided into 4-gr. pills, — Dtie, 2
pills, night and morning ; in piles, Ac.

Pills, PitMhaff s BMoprotlo. Prep. From
strained aloes and disulphate of quinine, eqnal
parts ; made into 2-gr. pills. A tonic and stom-
achic aperient. — 'Dote, 2 to 4^ ^t bedtime; in
torpor of the large intestines, the dyspepsia of
the debilitated, &c.

Pilla of FodophylUa. Bgn. PntnUB PODO-
PHTLLnn. Prep. Besin of podophyllin, i n. ;
extract of henbane, 1 gr. To make one piH. One
or two for a dose.

Pills, PluDmer's. See PnxB o* CAUnoa
(Componnd).

Pills, Pni'gatiTe. Sgn. PiLVXiX FraaASTM,
L. Prep. 1. {Dr JtoMssoa.) Aqueous extract
of aloes, 1 dr. ; powdered scammony, i dr. ; bal-
sam of Peru, 10 or 12 gr. ; ml of caraway, 9 or
10 drops ; mix, and divide into 80 pills. A warm,
stimalating aperient, highly recommended to ex-
cite the peristaltic action of the bowels of the
aged, sedentaiy, and debilitated. — Dote, 1 to 4
pills, as required.

2. {Pnmtteati and BeeeiU) Besin of jalap, 1
dr.; scammony, i dr.; extract of oolocynlii, - 6
dr. ; excipient, as required. For 20 (or, better,
24) pills. — Diote, 1, "every two hours, in the
morning, fasting, nntil they operate." For
other f ormnln see Pills, ApaiuzirT and Cathab-
Tio, and Pills of Alois, Jalap, Colooxirs,
&c.

Pills of Qatnlne'. See PiLU) oi SmPEin op
QmnxB.

Pills, Seeee's. See Pilu, Ceibatta.

Pills, Be'nal. Sg9. Pilttla bbvaum, L.
Prep. 1. Squills, myrrh, and digitalis, of each
(in powder), 10 gr. ; extract of rhubarb and mer-
curial pill, of each, 15 gr. ; powdered nilare, 20
gr. ; oil of jnniper, 10 or 12 drops. For 24 pills.
Alterative, diuretic, and tonic. — Dote, 8 to 6,
thrice a day. Hnntei's Benal Punning Pills are
similar, bnt omitting the merenrial pill. De
Roob' Renal I^lls contain a preparation of
copaiba.

Pills, Bhen'matlsm. Sgn. Pam-a AsrasHar-
KATIOA, L. Prep. 1. Onm guuaeum, 1 dr. ;
nitrate of potassia, li dr. (both in powder) ; soft
soap (Ph. L.), i dr. ; <dl of cajepnt, 16 drops.
For 4 dozen pills. — Dote, 2 to 6, night and morn-
ing ; in chronic rheum«tism,|and rheumatic gout.
Their action is accelerated by the copious use of
lemon juice during the day.

2. {Beatleg.) Extract of artichoke, i dr.;
powd^«d sarsaparilla, 20 gr. ; oil of iisssahss, 1
drop. For 12 pills. — Dote, 1 pill, thrice daily.

Fills ef BhuOwrb. Sgn. Pclvlm bhbi (Ph.
E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Powdered riiularb,
9 parts; acetate of potaasa, 1 part; conserve of

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PILLS

1888

red roMi, 6 parti j mix, ind divide into S-gr.
pilla. A rtonMMhio and g«ntle •perieat, parti-
calarlj uelii) in atonic d^pepna. — D019, 3 to 4

S. (Ph. V. S.) Powdered rirabarl^ 6 dr. ; Cas>
tile Map, 2 dr. ; beaten np with water, q. •,, and
divide into 120 pills. Aa the last.

FUk of Bk«barb (Componnd). 8j/n. Abo-
luno FUiu, BAiauno iiAXi.TnrB v., Bsnr-
BVBAH v., OroiuaBio p.; Pan.! sni ook-

POMTA (B. P., Ph. L.), PnULil B. OOKFOanJB

(Ph. B. and D.), P. rohaohioji, P. abokatioa,
I>. Avp. 1. (Ph. L.) Powdered rfavbarb, 4
dr.} powdered Soeotnne aloee, S dr.; pow-
dered myrrh, 2 dr.; loft toap (Ph. L.), \ dr.;
oil of oaisway, 16 dropa; treacle^ q. s. to form a

f . (Ph. L. 1886.) Powdered rhnbarh, I 01. ;
■loee, 9 dr. ; myrrh, 4 dr. ; Castile soap, I dr. ;
<rfl of caraway, \ fl. dr. ; lymp, q. s.

8. (Ph. E.) Powdered rhobarb, 12 parts;
•loesi 9 parts ; myrrh and Castile soap, of each,
6 parte; conserve of red roses, 6 puis; oil of
peppermint, 1 part; mix, and divide into ti-gr.
pills. The oil of peppermint may be omitted
when so pretened.

4. (Ph. D.) Shabaib, H os. ; hepatic aloes,
9 dr. ; mynh and Castile soap, of each in line
powder, 0 dr. ; oil of peppermint, 1 fl. dr. ;
treacle, 2 os. ; mix, and Iwat the whole to a
uniform mass.

5. (Ph. U. S. and Ph. E. 1817.) Ahnbarb, S
dr. t aloes, 6 dr. ; myrrh, 4 dr. ; oil of pepper-
mint, i fl. dr, ; syrnp of orange peel, q.s.; mix,
Md divide into 240 pilla.

9. (B. P.). Bhnbarb, in fine powder, 8 os. ;
Soootrine aloes, in fine powder (some phyaiciana
pnfer the aqneoos extract — Squire), Zi ex.;
myrrh in fine powder, H 01. ; hud soap, li oz. ;
English <nl of peppermint, 1| dr. ; glycerine, 1 oz.,
treiuile aboat 8 oz. j rednce the soap to fine powder
and tritmato it with the rhnbarb, aloes, and
myrrh; add the treacle, glycerine, and oil, and
beat into a mass. — Ihte, 5 to 10 gr.

Obt. The above are tonic, stomachic, and
gently laxative; extremely naefnl for obviating
costiveness and giving tone to the stomach and
boweb.— Dots, 6 or 8 to 20 gr. The London
^11 ia not only the moat agreeable, bnt it keepa
the best.

nila of Bhvbaib and Car'away. See Eii-
cmmiit'g PntiBTAiiTio PsstruAsaas (Patent
medicines).

Fill* «f Bhnbarb and Chamomile. 8y%.

SPnDIXAll'B PILL8; FlLXTLX BKII IT AJTTHB-

VlDn, L. Prep. From aloea, myrrh, rhnbarb,
(eadi in powder), and extract of chamomile, of
each, 1 dr. ; essential oil of chamomile, 10 or 12
drops. For 4-gr. pilla. An excellent tonic and
stomachic aperient, particnlarly naeful in the
dymepsia and loss of appetite of hard drinken.
— iote, 1 to 8 pilla, either before dinner or at
bedtime,

Pffls of Bhnbarb and Copaiba. %«. PILUI.X
SHn >T OOPAIBJI, P. B. BAUAmOJt, L. Prep.
{BtBedioHr.) Powdered rhnbarb and gnm, eqnal
parts; balsam of copaiba, q. a.

Pin* of Bhnbarb and Oln'ger. iSya. Stohaok
tnu ; Tthvj.m bhbx bt fisavnau, L. Prep.

From powdered rhnbarb, 1 dr. ; powdered ginger,
i dr. ; entile soap, 20 gr. ; tincture of essence of
ginger, q. s. to form a mass. For 80 {nils.— Dom,
lto6.

POb of Shnbarb and Ipeeaeuutlia. Sjf».
PiLVUi BHBi BT iFlOAOlTAirBX, L. Prep. From
rhnbarb, i dr. ; ipeoacnanha, 16 gr. ; opiam, 6 gr.
(each in powde^; oil of cinnamon, 6 drops;
symp, q. a. For 18 pilla.— Dom. In loss of
appetite and apaamodie dyspepsia, 1 to 8 pilla,
twice a day ; in dyaentory, diarnioea, &c, to relieve
tonnina and teneamna, 1 every two honrs.

Pills of Bhnbarb and Vim. j^ Piluim
BHBI BT PBBBi (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.)
Dried snlphato of iron, 4 parts; extract of
rhnbarb, 10 parts ; conserve of red rosea, 6 parts ;
beat them to a proper mass, and divide this into
6-gr. pills. — Dote, 2 to 4 pilla ; in the atonic
dyspepsia of debilitated aobjects, in chlorosb, &c.

PUli of Bhnbarb and Ox-gall. Sg*. Pamja
BHBI BT PBLLI8 Bovnrt, L. Prep. From pow-
dered rhnbarb, gnm ammoniacum, and inspissated
ox-gall, in equal parts beaten np with a little
tinctnre of ginger or proof apiri^ and the mass
divided into ik-gr. pills. In dyspepsia and consti-
pation dependent on a torpid action of the liver.
—Dote, 2 to 6 pilla.

Pilla of Bhnbarb asd Soda. Sgn. Ptlvlm
BHBI BT BOSS, P. B. ooxp. ouK bodA, L. Prep.
(On/a Hoap.) Dried carbonate of aoda, powdered
rhnbarb, and extract of gentian, eqiml parts.
For 4i-gr. pilla. — Dote, 2 to 4 pilla; aadity,
heartburn, diarrhoea, loia of appetite, Ac,

Pills, Bichter'a. See Pxotobax Piixb.

Pills, Sr Bobinwm's. See Piufl, PuBaATlTB.

Pills, Bndlns'a. Syn. BrsnrB'B bztbaot;
PiLTTLx Busn, EzTBAonru Bin>n, L. Prep.
1. Colocynth pnlp, 6 dr. ; agaric, black hellebore,
and tnrpethnm root, of each, 4 dr.; cinnamon,
mace, and clovea, of each 40 gr. ; rectified apirit,
i pint ; digeat for 4 daya, expreaa the tinctnre,
and evaporate it to a proper consistence for
making pills. Formerly esteemed one of the
moat wfe and certain cathartics in troublesome
constipation. — Dote, 6 to 20 g^.

2. (Ph. E. 1788.) BUick hellebore and colo-
cynth, of each, 2 oz. ; water, 4 pints (o. w. m.) ;
boil to a quart, strain, evaporate to the consist-
ence of honey, and add of aloes, 2 oz. ; acammony
(powdered), 1 oz. ; next remove the veaael from
the fire, and further add of aulphate of potaaaa,
2 dr. ; oil of clovea, 1 dr. ; and form the whole
into a pill-maaa. Besembles the last (nearly).

PQls, Bnflis's. See PixxB of Atobb with
Mtbbh.

mis of Sabadilla. Bgn. PnuLx oxrAsnjjB.
.IVep. Equal parte of sabadilla and honey ; make
into 6-gr. pills. — Dote. For an adult, 4 to 6 pilla ;
for a child, 1 to 2. (Vermifuge.)

PillB of SaTfron. Syn. PztmJi CBOCI, L.
Prep. 1. From hay saffiron, 1 dr. ; myrrh, J dr. ;
oil of eajepnt, 6 drops; syrup of saffron, q.a.
For 36 pilla. — Dote, 1 to 8 or 4 occasionally ; as
a stimulant in low spirits, hypochondriasis, tec.

2. (PtoiiM.) Saffron, myrrh, and sulphur,
equal parts; inspissated bile, q.s. For 2-g>r.
pills.— Dottf, 2 to 12, duly ; ■ as an emmena-
gogne.

Pills of Sagapennm (Compoimd). Sfn. Prnnx

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1834

PILLS

Bi.OAPKn 00MP08IT*, L. JVwp. (Ph. L. 1S36.)
Sagapenum, 1 oi.; aloef, i dr.; syrap of ginger,
q. a. — Dole, 6 to 20 gr. ; ai a stimuluit aatispaa-
modic laxative, in djgpepaia with Batolence,
flatalent colic, &c.

Filla of Bal'iein. Sg». PiluIlB ALUovtx, L.
Prep. From salicin, i dr. j powdered rhubarb,
SJO gr. ; extract of gentian, q. b. to mix. For 4-gr.
pills. — Doee, 2 to 4^ every three honrs, daring the
apyrexia of intermittent!.

Pilla of Sandal-wood Oil. (Shert.) Bgn.
PiLUUt OLKi BAiTTAiJ. Prep, OH of yellow
■andal-wood, i oz. j yellow wax, i ox. Melt
the wax into a capsule, and weigh into it the
oil of sandal-wood. Mix, and stir until cold,
then roll oat the mass and divide it into 80 pills,
by means of the pill machine or pill-tite, in the
same manner as in the ordinary mass, and
sprinkle with marsh-mallow root powder. Each
pill oontiuns about three gr. or about 6 drops of
the oil. The exripient is unobjectionable, as it is
readily soluble in the juices of the stomach.

Pills of Seam'iDony (Compound). Sj/n. PijjJTlm

B0A3aiOan OOKFOSITiS, L. Pr^. 1. (St. B.
Hosp.) Scammony, 24 gr. j ginger, 20 gr. j
aloes and gamboge, of each, 12 gr. ; treacle, q. s. ;
mix, and divide into 12 pills. A powerful cauiar-
tic and vermifuge. — Doie, 1 to 8 pills.

2. (B. P.) Resin of scammony, resin of jalap,
of each, 1 oz. ; cnid soap, in powder, 1 oz. ;
strong tincture of ginger, 1 fl. oz. ; rectified
spirit, 2 fl. oc. Add the tincture and spirit to the
soap and resins, and dissolve by the ud of a gentle
heat, then evaporate the spirit over a water-bath
until the mass has a pilular consistence. — Dote,
6gT,tol5gr.

Fllli, Scot's. Prsp. From aloes, 9 lbs.; jalap,
8 lbs.; gamboge and ginger, of each, i lb.;
beaten with treacle, q. s. See Pilis, Ahsbbboh'b
Scot's.

Pills, Dr Seotf s Bil'ious and LiTsr. Prep.
(CSooIey.) Compound extract of colocynth (Fli.
L. 1836), 8 oz. ; powdered rhubarb, 4 ox.;
powdered myrrh, 2 oi. ; soft soap, i ox. ; oil of
caraway, H dr. ; strong syrup of saffron, q. s. to
form a pill-mass. " There are twenty-flve 3i-gr.
pills in each U. l^d. box." "It has been stated
that these pills contain a minute portion of anti-
mony " (' Anat. of Quackery ').

puis, Sed'ative. Sgn. PixurjB bvdativm,
L. iVep. Hydrochlorate of morphia, 6 gr. ;
powdered aombul, 20 gr. ; alcoholic extract of
Indian hemp, i dr. For 2-gr. pills. — Dote, 1 to
3, twice or thrice daily; in excessive nervous
irritability, painful menstruation, Ac.

nils, Sedlllof s FebrUtoge. P\rep. From pow-
dered opium, 3 gr.; sulphate of quinine, 12 gr.;
confection of opium, 10 gr.,or q. s. For 12 pills.
—Dote, 1 to 2, every second hour, daring the in-
termission of an ague.

Fills of Sen'na. Syn. Pilvlx aairss. P.
B. OOMF08IT£, L. Prep. 1. Powdered senna,
1 dr. ; extract of rhubarb, i dr. ; powdered capsi-
cum, 4 gr. ; oil of juniper, 6 or 8 drops. For
S-gr. pills. An aperient well suited for females.
— Dote, 6 to 8 pills.

2. (Su/eland.) Powdered senna, 1 dr. ; ex-
tract of dandelion, q. s. to mix. For 80 pills. As
'Hie last.

puis. Smith's. Prep. From powdered aloes.
4 dr. ; jalap, 2 dr. ; ginger and son soap, of each,
I dr. ; oil of juniper, ( dr. ; emetic tartar, 6 gr.
For 120 pills. Laxative and diaretic. — Dote, 1
to 4, at bedtime, or early in the morning.

Pills, Dr Hugh Smith's. See Stoiuoh
P1T1T.R.

Pills of Soap. 899. PiLuiiX SAPoaia, P.
cuic BAFOKB, L. Prtp, (P. Cod.) White
Castile soap, 82 parts; powdered manh-maUow
root, 4 parts; powdered nitrate of potaa■^ 1
part ; beat them to a mass, and divide this into
4-gr. pills. In habitual oostiveness, calculary
anlectiona, lK.—Dote, 1 to 6 {nils, twice or thiice
a day.

Pills of Soap (Compound). %». Pnu ov

BOAP AHD OPIUH, LaUSUTUX HLU ; PlL1IIi4
BAPOKIS 0OHP08ITA (Ph. L.), PuiOLM BASOnB

C0K opio, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oiuam and
liquorice, of each (in powder), 2 dr.; soft sokp
(Ph. L.), 6 dr. ; beat them to a uniform maas.

2. (B. P.) Opium (in fine powder), i ot. ;
Castile soap, 2 oz.; glycerin, q. s. ; reduce Uie
soap to powder, mix it with the other ingredieota,
and beat the whole together, as before. — Doat,
8 gr. to 5 gr. See P1ZJ.B OP Opnrx.

Obt. The above pills contain l-5th part of their
wnght in dry opium. The dose is 8 to 10 gr., in
the usual Cases in which the administration of
opium is indicated. Mr Skey, the eminent sur-
geon of St Bartholomew's Hospital, has shown
the great value of this pill in promoting the heal-
ing of obstinate ulcers, more especially those of
the legs.

Pills of Soda. iSys. PtvohM bosa oaxbo-
NAIIB, L. Prep. (Ph. £. 1817.) Exsiccated
carbonate of soda, 4 parts ; Castile soap, 3 parts ;
symp, q. s. to form a mass. Antacid and slightly
laxative. — Dote, 10 to 20 gr. This piU was
a great favourite of the once celebrated Dr
Beddoes.

Fills, Speediman's. Prep. (Cooleg.) Aloes,
3 dr. ; rhnharb, myrrh (all in powder), and ex-
tract of chamomile, of each, 1 dr. ; oil of chamo-
mile, 20 drops. For 4-gr. pills. An excellent
aperient, tonic, and stomachic. — Dot, 2 to 4
pills, as a purgative ; 1, as a stomachic or dinner
piU.

FUls, Splenet'ie. 8gn. Pvlvlm Axmaut-
NBTIOIB, L. Prep. (Saundert.) Strained aloe*
and gum ammoniacum, of each, 3 dr.; myrrh
and bryony, of each, i dr. For 4-gr. pills. —
Dote, 3 to 6. " Extolled in amenorrhcea and hypo-
chondriasis " (^Dr Jt. E. Qr^gUh).

FUls of SqoiU (Componad). Sg*. Coir&H
PILLS, Pills op bqttillb and anroiB ; Piliti,a

BOILLS C0XP08ITS (B. P., Ph. L.), PtttrUB
BOILLiB COltPOBITS (Ph. D.), P. BCILUB (Ph. E.),

L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Freshly powdered
squills, 1 dr.; powdered ginger and powdered
ammoniacum, of each, 2 dr. ; mix, add of soft
soap (Ph. L.), 8 dr. ; treacle, 1 dr. ; and beat the
whole together, so that a mass may be formed.

2. (Ph. £.) Squills, 6 parts; ammoniacum,
ginger (aU in fine powder), and Spanish soap, of
each, 4 parts; conserve of red roses, 2 parts;
mix, as before, and divide the mass into S-er.
pills. *

8. (Ph. D.) Squills (in fine powder), 2^ dr.

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PILLS

1836

ftmmoniacam, ginger, and Cxtile soap, of each
(in flne powder). 2 dr. ; treacle, i oi.

4. (B. F.) SqiuU (in fine powder), li parti;
ginger (in fine powder), 1 part ; ammoniacnm (in
powder), 1 part ; hard soap (in powder), 1 part ;
treacle (by weight), 2 parts, or a safflciency ; mix
the powders, add the treacle, and beat into a
mass. — Dott, 6 to 10 grains.

Oit. Componnd aqnill pill is a most useful
expectorant in chronic conghs, asthmas, bron-
chial affections, difficulty of breathing, &c. ; and,
combined with calomel and foxglove, and, occa-
sionally, with croton oil, as a diuretic, ke., in
dropdes. Unfortunately, however, it soon spoils ;
and, therefore, to be effective as a remedy it
most be recently prepared. As an expectonnt,
it should not be administered until the inflam-
matory symptoms have been subdued by purga-
tives or bleeding. A little powdered opium, or
extract of henbane, is occasionally added, to allay
Irritation. — Dott, 6 to 20 gr., twice or thrice a
day, accompanied by an occasional aperient.

Fills, Stahl's. See Piu,s, Apbbisiit.

PiUs, Starkey's. Fr»p. (Original formula.)
Extract of opium, 4 cs.; mineial benzoar and
nutmeg, of each, 2 oz.; saftron and Virginian
snake-ioot, of each, 1 oz. ; Starkey's soap, | lb. ;
oil of sassafras, i oz. ; tinctore of antimony (Old
Ph.), 2 fl. oz. Anodyne, diaphoretic, &c — Dote,
8 to 10 gr. The formula already given under
MATTHXtr's Pills is erroneously assigned to this
pill by some writers.

Pills, Xn Stephen's. This once celebnted
remedy for stone was prepared from the calcined
shells of eggs and snails, made into 8-gr. pills
with soft soap. Its active ingredients were, con-
sequently, lime and potash.

puis. Stim'nUuit. 5ys. Pilvla btucu-
liAHTia, L. Prep. 1. Capsicum, i dr. ; nitrate
of silver, 2 gr. ; conserve of hips, q. s. For 12
pills. — Dote, 2 to 4, washed down with a spoon-
ful of warm spirit and water, and repeated
hourly until reaction ensues ; in cholera, iK.

2. (^A. T. Tkom*o»>) Strychnine, 1 gr. ; acetic
add, 1 drop ; cram <« bread, 20 gr. ; mix very
car^nlly, kbA divide the mass into 10 pills. —
Dof, 1 eveiy six hours ; in paralyris arising from
lead.

Pills, Stottok's. 8y». PatrLS ooim, F.
doiTTJi, L. treip. From extract of hemlock, 1
dr.; powdered hemlock, q. s. to make a mass.
For 2-gr. pills. — Dote, 1 to 1, twice a day ; in
various gUuidular and visceral enlargements, pul-
monary affections, cancer, scrofula, neuralgia, fte.

puis. Stomach. 8y*. FiLinJB btoxaokioa,
L. iVsf). 1. Ipecacuanha, 10 gr.'; sumbnl and
extract of rhnt»rb, of each, 80 gr. ; powdered
quassia, 20 gr. ; oil of sassafras, 6 drops; beaten
up with essence of ginger (strongest), q. a. For
8-gr. pills. — Dote, 1 to 3, thrice daily; m loss of
appetite, flatulence, dyspepsia, &c.
■ 2. (Dr Sugh Smitk't.) From aloes, rhubarb,
ginger (all powdered), and aagapenum, of each,
1 dr. ; oils of peppermint and cloves, of each, 10
drops ; balsam of Peru, q. s. to mix. For 6-gr.
^lls. — Dote, 2 or 8 nightly; or 1 to 2 before
dinner. For other formula, see DmrxB, An-
BiiKT, CoKPOUin) Bhttb^asb, Alois aitd Kistio
Pills, &c.

PiUs of Sto'rax (Compound). 8jr». Stobax

POLS; PiLULA BTYKACIS OOMPOSITA (Ph. L.),
PlLTTLS aTTKAOIB (Ph. E.), L. Pnp, 1. (Ph.
L.) Prepared storax, 6 dr.; saffron and pow-
dm!«d opium, of each, 2 dr., beat them together
to a uniform mass. Contuna l-6th of its weight
of opiam.

2. (Ph. E.) Opium and safFron, of each, 1
part ; extract of styrax, 2 parts ; beat them to a
uniform mass, and divide this into 4-gr. pills.
Cont^ns l-4ith part of opium.

Obt. The storax is here chiefly employed to
disguise the odour and taste of opium. The
name of the preparation has been chosen so that
the word 'opiam' may not appear in the pre-
scription, a point highly necessary with certun
patients. — Ihte, 8 to 10 gr. ; as compound soap
pill, and as an anodyne and expectorant in chronic
coughs, to.

Pills of 8tramo"nlnm. Sg». Filttlx btra-
vovii, L. Prep. 1. Stramonium seeds (in
powder), 12 gr. (or leaves, 25 gr.); powdered
camphor and extract of seneka root, of each, 1
dr.; powdered savine, 1) dr.; oil of c^eput, 16
drops. For 2)-gr. pills. — Dote, 2 to 4, thrice
daily; in rheumatism, ke.

2. (Sir S. Sa^ord.) Extract of stramonium
and liqnorioe powder, of each, 1 dr.; powdered
Castile soap, 2 dr. ; mucilage, q. s. to mix. For
GO pilU. — Dote, 1 night and morning; in
asthmas, &c.

PiUs of Btrych'sias. 8gn. Filulx btiitch>
NLX, L. Ptip. (Mageidie.) Strychnine, 2
gr. ; conserve of hips, 36 gr. (liquorice powder,
q. s.) ; mix very carefully, divide the mass into
24 pills, and silver them. — 2)ote, 1 pill night
and morning ; in amaurosis, impotence, paralysis.
Sec.

PiUs of Sulphate of Copper. (Braade.) Sf».
PiLTTLs 01TFBI BT7LPHATIB, L. Prep. Sulphate
of copper, 8 gr. ; bread crum, 1 dr. Mix, for 24
pills ; 1, three or f onr times a day.

Pills of Snl'phate of Iron. 8yn. Vilvj^ vmvi
BTJLPHATIB (Fh. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Dried
sulphate of iron and conserve of red roses, of
each, 2 parts ; extract of dandelion. 6 parts. For
6-gr. pills. A useful chalybeate tome. — Dote, 1
to 2, twice or thrice daily; in dyspepsia, chloro-
sis, amenorrhoea, &c.

2. (Ph. E. 1817.) Sulphate of iron (dried), 1
01. ; extract of chamomile, li oz, ; oil of pepper-
mint, 1 dr. ; syrup, q. s. As the last.

Pills of Sulphate of Quinine'. Sgn. Filulx
QiriirrB bvlfhatib, F. q. dibulphaiib, L. Prep.
1. Sulphate of quinine, 20 gr. ; extract of gentian,
40 gr. For 20 pills.

Pills of Sulphate of Zino. Stg». PavLM znra

BVLPHATIB, F. Z. B. OOKPOBITX, L. Prep. 1.
Sulphate of zinc, 12 gr. ; extract of gentian, i
dr.; liquorice powder, q. s. For 20 pills. In
dyspepsia, epilepsy, and various convulsive dis-
eases.

2. (DrParit.) Sulphate of zinc, 10 gr. ; pow-
dered myrrh, li dr.; conserve of roses, q. s. For
30 pills. — l)ote, 1 to 2, twice or thrice daily; in
hooping-cough, Ac.

Pills of Snlphnret of Iron. (Biett.) St/».
PfLXTLM nBBi auLPHTOBTi. Prep. Sulphuret
of iron, i dr.; marsh-mallow powder, 10 gr.;

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1836

PILLS

lyrap, q. ■. Hake into 20 pilb; 1 to 4 pillt daily,
in icrofaloai eraptioni.

Pllla, St^'IUs. Sy». Pixuui AHnnrau-
TlOiB, L. See the variotu pilli of maroary, gold,
dec. The pills of corroaive anhlinwto eommonly
paas tinder this name.

Filli, Tangoie. Bee Pills, AsciaviOAL.
PUliofTan'nteAeid. >%«. Pilulx TUimn,
P. AOIOI TAHHIOI, L. Prep. From tannic acid
or tannin and poirdered sagar, of each, i dr. ;
conserve of roaes, q. s. For 24 pills. — JDom, 1 or
2 pills thrice daily, in diarrhoea, or 2 ereir three
honrs, in internal hnmorrhages, spitting ox blood,
Ac.

Fills of Tar. 8yn. Pilulx fioib linviDM,
It. Prtp. From tar, 1 dr. ) powdered gentaan,
i dr., or q. a. For 24 pills. Stimnlant, mnietio,
and andorific — Dot*, 1 to 4, thrice a day; in
dropaiea, worms, ichthyosis, and several other skin
disrases, kc.

Pills of Taraz'aeun. Syn. Piloijb tabaxaci,
L. Prtp. 1. Sztract of dandelion, 1 dr. ; pow-
dered rhnbarb, q. >. j divide into 8i-gr. jnlls. In
dyspepaia, &c., complicated with congestion of the
liver.

2. (8t Marie.) Extract of dandelion and Cat-
tile aoap, eqnal parts; liquid acetate of potassa,
q. 8. to mix. For 4-gr. piUs. As a diuretic in
dropsy.

8. Extract of dandelion, 1 dr. ; mercnrisl pill,
20 gr. ; powdered digitalis, 16 gr. ; liquorice
powder, q. a. For 24 pllla. — Dote, 1, afterwards
increased to 2 or 8; in dropsy connected with
liver disease.

Pilla, Thomson's Stomadi and Livw. Prep.
From extract of dandelion, 1 dr. ; scammony and
rhnbarb, of each, 16 gr. For 14 pilla. — Dote, 2
pilla, night and morning ; in hysteria, hypochon-
driaaia, and chronic inflammation of the liver or
kidneys.

Pills of ToTmoco. {JMgnft¥n.) Sgn. Pelvui
XABAOI. Prep. Powder of tobacco, 24 gr. ; con-
fection of rosea, q. a. Mix, and form 72 pilla. —
Dote, 8 to 4 daily, till nanaea ia prodne«l. In
dropay.

PlUi, Tenic. Bg%. Vvlvlm tokiob, L. Prep,
1. Sulphate of iron, ginger, and myrrh (all in
powder), equal parte; conaerve of roaes, q. a.;
mix, and divide into 4-gr. pills. — Dote, 1, twice a
day ; in debility, chlorosis, &c.

8. Powdered myrrh and sulphate of iron, of
each, 1 dr. ; disnlphate of quinine, \ dr. ; powdered
capsicum, 16 gr.; conaerve of rosea, q. a. to mix.
For 60 plla. — Dote, 1 or 2, twice or thrice a day ;
in debility, dyapepaia, agne, kc.

8. (Dr Collier.) Tartrate of iron and extract
of gentian, of each, 1 dr.; oil of dnnamon, 2
dropa. For 80 pills. — Dote, 8 to 6, three or four
times a day. A good stomachic tcmic.

4. (Dr dottier^ Oxide of zinc, i dr. (or sul-
phate of sine, 20 gr.) ; myrrh, 2 dr. ; camphor,
20 gr. ; confection of hips, to mix. For 40 ^lls.
— Dote, 1 or 2 pills, three times a day ; in epilepsy,
chorea, and other nervous disorders, debility, &c.

Fills Of Tnrpentine. (P. Cod.) Sgn. Pilitlx
TBBlBnrrHlK.s. Pr^. Venice turpentine, li
oz. ; carbonate of magnesia, 1 oi. Make into 200
pills.

Fills of Vale"riaii (Componnd). Sj^n. Pnvut

TAJMaiAMM aoiamnM, L. Prep.
Powdered valariaa, (dr.; castor and iriiits ludde
ot sine, of each, 80 gr.; syrap^ q. s. to mix. For
18 ^Is.— J>0M, 2 or 8, thries daily; in hystaria,
hypochondriasis, ohlorosis, baaierania, kc

Pilk of Tala"tlaMt8 af Claa. Bfu. Piun,s
▼iXBBiAXAS, L. Prep. From valoriaaate at
zinc and powdered gnm, of each, 16 gr. t oonserre
of hips, q. s. to form a mass. For 18 piUs. — Dote,
1 piU, twies daily; in nerrons headaehe, aennl-
gia, hysteria, kc

Fills, TaUstTs. See Pnxi oi CAMMOuaa aw
Ibov.

Pills, ▼aaea's. See Fuu, Arnmrr.

puis af Yaratrine. 8y». Piutxb rwMtxaatM,
L. Prtp. 1. (Magemtie.) TetafariBe, i gr-;
powdered gon-araUc and qrnip of gaiii« «( saeh,
q. s. to form 6 pilla (see belom).

2. (IStmiaU.) Veratrine, 1 gr-t extract of
henbane and liqnorioe powder, of each, 12 gr. ;
mix, and divide into 12 luUs. — Dote, 1 ^11, evaij
8 honrs ; in dropay, e^epay, hystaria, paralyna,
nervoua palpitationa, ke. Thia ahoold be prepared
and nsed with great caution.

Fills, Ward's Bod. Syu. Wasd'b urnxo-
KiAii PILLS. Prep. ¥rom glass of antimony
(finely levigated), 4 Ol.; dragon's blood, 1 o>.;
mountain wine, q. s. to form a mass. For
H-gT. pills. Emetic. " They are recommended
in olMtinate rheumatic affections, in fonlneaa of
the atomach and bowela, ke. Their action ia often
of a very unpleasant character" ('Anat. of
Quackery ').

puis. Lady Webster's. See Piixb, Dimrxx.

Fills, Whitehead's Sssenea of Kistatd. Bal-
aam of toln with resin {Dr Parit).

Fills, Whytfs. Prep. {Raiiut.) Aloes,
chloride of iron, and extract of hortjioand, of
each, \ dr. ; asaafotida, li dr. For 2-gr. pilla.
— Dote, 2 to 6, thrice daily; in leoconhcea,
chloroaia, hyateria, Ac, with constipatioa.

Fills, WorsdeU's (Xaye's). Prep. {OtoUg.)
Powdered aloea, gamb(^, and ginger, equal
parte; together with a very amall quantity of
diaphoretic antimony, beaten into a mass with
uther ayrup or treacle, and divided into 2)-gr.
pilla. "There are about 4} dozen {nlla in each
la. \\d. \mx." " Thedoae, aa given in the direc-
tiona, is from 8 to 8 pills (or even 10 to 12)
daily" (' Anat. of Quackery'). Thqr frequently
operate with great violence.

Fills, Worm. 8y%. Pilvla atvBXtaawrtCM,
P. TaaacsTaOtX, L. Prep. 1. Calomel, 1 os.;
angar, li oi. ; mucilage, q. s. ; mix, and divide
into 240 pills. — Dote, 1 to 2, overnight, followed
by a strong dose of castor oil early the next morn-
ing.

2. Qamboge, 6 gr. ; calomel, 6 gr. ; mncUage,
q. a. ; divide into 8 pills. For a mon^ng'a dose,
fiwting.

8. Extract of wormwood, calomel, and powdered
scammony, equal parte. For 4-gr. pilla. — Dote,'
1 to 2, as the last. For ascarides, and other
small worms.

4. (JBretmer^ Powdered aloes and tansy aeed,
of each, i dr. ; oil of rue, 9 or 10 drops. For 18
pills. — Dote, 8 to 6, in the morning, fiuiting, and
repeated in two or tliree honrs.

6. {PhaAiu.) Iron filings, \ dr. ; aaaafostida.

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PIIiOCARPINB— PIPEBIN

1887

1| dr. ; eiMntial oil of tansy, 10 or 18 dropi ; ez-
ttmet at wormwood, q. t, j mix, aad divide iBto
80 pilb.— DoM, 6 pilla, thrice daily.

8. (Jfteaiier.) Bthereal extiMtof male fam,
80 diopa; eztiBct of dandelion, 1 dr. ; powdered
rhiaomea of male fam, q. a. to mii. For 80 pills.
In tapewom. — 2)ot*, 6 to 16 at bedtime ; the doae
being repeated in the morning, and then followed
in an boor by a strong doae of castor oiL

nila, Wyndkam'a (Lee's). Prep. Waolaf.)
Aloaa and gamboge, of each (in powder), S oi. ;
Gastila soap and exteaet of oow-parsnip, of aaeh,
1 oa. J nitre, i ox. For 6-gr. piUs. A powwtal
diBstiocathartie.— i)0M, 1 to 8 pills.

Snia of Bat. See P11.L8 or Ozn», Svubati,
sad TAUBiAXATaov Zivo, Ac.

nLOCABmrX. C„H„N,Or An aUsIoid
cUbooreied by Qerrard,' aad eztraotad from the
Imtss of jaborand! (Piloearp%t peimai^eUmt).
Prtp. Bxhaost the leaves or bark of jaborandi
with 80% aleohol, to which hydioehloric add
bM been added in tiie proportion of 8 gr. per
liiM; distil and evi^oratetothe consistence of an
eztraet. Bedisstdve the extract with a small
quantity of Stilled water and filter; treat with
unmonia in slight excess, and a lai^ quantity
of chloroform. Distil off the chloroform, dis-
aolve the reaidae in distilled water acidulated
with hydroehlorie add, and filter. Treat af redi
with ohlorafonn and ammonia. The ohlorof ormic
■olatiaB is then shaken with water, to which
hydrochlsTie add is added, drop by drop, up to
the quantity sufficient to saturate the pilocarpine.
The foraign uMtteis remain in the chloroform,
•nd npon evaporation of the aqueous liquid the
hydrochlorate is obtained, well ciystallised, in
k»ig needles radiating from a common centre.
The hydroehlerate dissolved in distilled water,
and treated with ammonia and chloroform, yields
the pikMai^e upon evaporation of the ^loio-
form aolation.

^ Pilocarpine appears under the form of a soft
visooas sttbttaaoe j it is slightly soluble in water
and very sidnble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform.
It presents ail the chemical characters of an alka-
loid, and rotates the plane of polarised light
strongly to the right.

Two salts of pilocarpine are in common use,
the nitrate and hydrochlorate, both of which form
eiystals, freely sMuble in water.

Pilocarpine salts are powerful diuretics and
rialogogues. A dose taken by the writer kept
him in a continual perspiration for five hours,
wUh saliva running from the month for two or
three hours. It contracts the pupil of the eye.

Ute*. — Antidote in cases of poisoning with bel-
ladonna or atropine, useful in asthma, diabetes,
intermittent fever, and puerperal convulsions. —
Dote. Nitrate or hydroclilotate, iV to ^ gr.

FIICA'BIC ACID. A resin add first obtuned
by Laurent from the tnrpentine of Pimu maritima
(Bofdeanz turpentine), by the action of hot
alcohol.

pnHiVTO. 8yn. Allbhob, Ccoti pappss,
Jaxaioa p., PimvTO saBBna ; PncmxA (B. P.,
Ph. L., E., and D.), Pifr OASTorKTiiiiiTirx, P.
JutAionm, P. OBOKA.ntK, PncnrM ■uk.ooM, L.
"The dried nnr^ berries of the allspioe tree,
Sngmtiaj^mnta, from the West Indies "— B< P.

" The immature fruit of Sugn^ pimtvta ( Jt^rr-
imt ftmtmta, Linn.) " — Ph. L. Fimsutm qficittalU,
LindL A tree common in Jamaica, from whence
large qnantilies are in^orted into this country.
IRmento is very largely used as a sptosk also in
medicine for its aromatic and stimulant properties.
Oil of pimento, obtained by distillation from the
fruits, is often used for similar purposes a» the
oil of cloves, as well as in perfumery. Bticks of
the pimento are imported in very lai^ quantities
for waUdng-sticks and umbrella handles.

From the leaves of an allied spedea (P. Mrif,
Wight.) the oil of bay or bayberty is obtained,
used in the mannfactnre of bay rum, employed
in the United States as a refreshing perfume in
faintness, or to sprinkle abont sick rooms, as
well as for hair washes.

It possesses a mixed odoar of cinnamon, doves,
and nutmegs, which, with its other propratSes, it
fortbemost part yidds to alcohol, ether, and water.
It is a stimulant and tonic, and is much esteemed
as an adjavaot in medidnes prescribed in dvs-
pepsia, flatulence, gout, hysteria, to. ; and also
to cover the taste of disagreeable medidnes.—
Dote, 6 to 80 gr., bruised or in powder. Bee
Ebmkoi, Oils (ToUitile), SpmrB.and WAnna.

PIH'FLEB. See BsimiOBrg (Papular).

FIBCE'BSCK. A gold-like alloy of copper and
sine. See Dutch Gold.

FIBS-APPLE. Sgn. Akaitab. The fmit of
AtM»aaia tatiea, a plant of the Nat. Ord.
BnoKHJAOiiB. It is astringent, esculent, and
possesses a rich flavour and odour. In Europe it
is chiefly used as a delicacy for the table, but in
tropical climates it is said to be valuable in renal
diseases. See Essenoi, Ac.

PI'BBT TALliOW. 8y. Pmr ugnr, P.
DAKXAB. An oleo-resinons substance obtained
from the fruit of VaUria indiea, a tree common
in Malabar, by bdling it with water. It is inter-
mediate between &t and waz, and makes good
soap and excellent candles. It melts at 98° F.
Sp. gr. -9260 to -0265.

FI'BIC ACID. The portion of common resin
or colophony which is soluble in cold alcohol of
•p. gr. -888.

FIBK. A w^l-known shade of light ted. The
name is also applied to several pigments, consist-
ing of whiting stuned with liquid dyes. See Bed
and Ybllow PientxnTi, Ac.

FIBK STB. Prep. From washed safllower,
8 ox. ; salt of tartar, i ox. ) cold water, 1 quart;
digest for three hours, express the liqnor, and
strain it. Used as a oosmetic, and to dye silk
stockings, Ac., of a rose colour. The colour is
brought oat by afterwards applying to, or passing
the artides through, water soured with lemon
juice. See SATrams (Knk).

FIPEBIB. C„H„NOt. Syn. Pipibiva, Pi-
PBBiHxrx, L. Prep. Alcoholic extract of white
pepper is treated with a weak solution of caustic
potash (1 to 100), and the redduum, after bdng
washed with cold water, is dissolved in alcohol ;
the solution is next agitated with a little animd
charcoal, and the filtrate allowed to evaporate
spontaneously; the product may he purified hy
re-eolntion in alcohol and re-crystallisatioa.

Prop., 4-c. Colourless, or only slightly ^llow ;
tastdess; inodorous; funble; crystallises in

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1888

PIPES— PITCH

platei ; inaoIaUa in WBter ; frady ndnUe in al-
eohol, eth«r, and in the uidi; tot feebly '
iTB, nowi

a few deftnite oompoimdi hare, bowerer,
obtained with diiBealty ; reddened by oQ of Titricd.
It bai been mach employed in Italy and on the
Continent ai a febrifuge.

Oil. An anay for its piperin i* the only cer-
tain method of terting the qnality of pepper.
For thii pnrpoee a weighed qnantity of the
■ample ia rednoed to powder, and ia ezhaoated
with alcohol of the ip. gr. <y9S3; the mixed
tinctoree are then eraporated to an extract, which
if treated aa abore. See PlFPMa.

FXraS (in eouftctiouery). Thew are formed
from any of the common hataigo-anmm, by
rolling them into cylinderi of aboat the thick-
nan (rf a gooae-qnill. They are fraqfoently medi-
cated.

FIFSRE. A graduated glass instnunent, in
frequent nie in the chemical labontory, for con-
reying a measnred qnantity of flmd bom one
vessel to another. The pipette generally eonsisia
of a bnlb, from each end of which proceeds a
straight, slender, hollow stem, oommnnicating
with the balb, and vaiying in length with the
e^iacity of the instmment. Thns constmcted,
the lower end of the pipette can be dipped into a
vessel containing a fioid, the required vdame of
which can be removed from it. The pipette
varies in capacity from 10 to 300 cubic centi-

Dr Fresenins gives the following directions for
its nse :— " To ilU a (npette with the fluid which it
is intended to transfer from one vessel to another,
the lower part of the instrument ia dipped into
the fluid, and suction applied to the upper aper-
ture, eiUier direct wiu the lips or throngh a
caontchouc tube until the fluid in the pipette
stands a little above the required mark ; the
upper, somewhat narrowed, ground orifice is then
cloeed with the pcrint of the index of the right
hand, which to that end had always better be
moistened a little, and holding the pipette in a
perfectly vertical direction, the excess over the
qnantity required is made to drop out by lifting
tiie finger a little. When the fluid in the pipette
has fallen to the required level, the drops which
may happen to adhere to the ontoide of the
pipette are carefully wiped off, and the contents
of the tube are then fully transferred to the other
vessel. In this process it is found that the fluid
does not run ont completely, but that a small
portion of it renuuns adhering to the glass in the
point of the pipette ; after a time, as this becomes
increased by other minute drops of fluid trickling
down from the upper part of the tube, a drop
gathers at the lower orifice, which may be allowed
to fall from its own weight, or may be made to
drop off by a slight shake; if, after this, the
point of the pipette be laid agunst a moist por-
tion of the inner side of the vessel, another
minute portion of fiuid will trickle out; and lastly,
another trifling droplet or so may be got out by
blowing into the pipette throngh the upper orifice.
Now, supposing the operator follows no flied mle
in this respect, letting thefloid,for instance, in one
operation simply runout, whilst in another opera-
tion he lets it dndn afterwards, and in a third
blows oft the last particles of it from the pipette.

it is evident that tke leapeelire qnaatities of fluid
dsiivevedin the serenl operatiana camot be quite
eqnaL I prefer in all cases the aesonil asetiiod,
na. to lay the point of the pipette whilst drain'
tag flnally against a moist portiaii of the inner
ride of the veasd, whidi I have always found to
give the malt aeennte eorrespiwidiiig iimaaiim-

FISIA'CHIO HITS. Sfu. Pbucu vms ;
KvcH nSTACiii, L. The kernels of the firnit
of JPittadua vera, Linn., one of ilie turpentine
trees. They eloady resemUe alnsonds. bat are
sweeter, and form a green emnlrion with wmter.
Used in confectionery and pertmnery, and abo aa
a dessert fruit.

FITCH. Sg*. BjJiCK pnoH, BoixXD r.,
Siora p.. Wood p. ; Pix (Ph. L.), Pix nexA,
L. Thereaidnnm fron hailing tar ia an open
iron pot. or in a still, until the voUtile and Uqnid
portiaa is driven off. The volatUe prodncta prin-
cipally oonost of erode pyndigneons acid and oil
of tar. Ktch is chiefly employed in shipboildlng.
As a medicine it is a stimulant and tonic ; it has
been used internally in some skin diseases, and in
piles. An ointment made of it is also extensively
oaed in cntaneoos affections of the scalp. — J>ase,
10 gr. to i dr.

Fitch, Bnrgudy. Sgrn. Whiti pitoh. Bra-
avxsT ran sHnr; Pre BxtwBtjmnox (B. P.,
Ph. L., E.,ftD.), L. This is an impure reain pre-
pared from the turpentine ot Abin exeelta, or
Norway spruce flr, and from its concrete reeinons
exudations. It is chiefly used in plasters.

Ob*. The importation of this snbstance has
for some years past been gradually leasening in
amount, in consequence of the substitntion for it
of a fictitious piteh, made by melting common
resin with linseed oil, and colouring the mass with
annotte or palm oiL The physiological action of
the two articles is, however, considermbly different,
since Burgundy piteh acts upon the skin as a
powerful local irritant, exciting a slight degree
of inflammation, and not nnfraqoently producing
a pimply emption and an exudation of purulent
matter. It is celebrated for its efiecte when em-
ployed as a plaster in all cases where warmth,
support, and long adhesion to the skin are desir-
able ; and in the latter qnality no snbstance
equals it. The fictitious Burgundy pitch has
similar properties, but in an immensely lees de-
gree.

Pbbpabbd BTTBamrDy Pitor (Pix Btnt-
auHDioA PKJiFAXATA — Ph. L.) may be obtained
in the same way as that adopted for strained
ammoniacum. This plan is, however, seldom, if
ever, adopted in trade.

Pitoh, Burgundy (Faeti"tio«a). Si/». PiX
BuBauKSiOA PA.OTIIIA, L. Pnp. By melting
good yellow resin, 1 cwt., with linseed ml, 1 gall.,
and palm oil (bright), q. s. to colour. The mix-
ture is allowed to cool considerably, and is then
pulled with tbe hands in the same way as lead
plaster is treated ; after which it is placed in
' bladders ' or * stands ' for sale.

Ob*. The product of the above formula is the
< Burgundy pitoh ' of the shops. The ' pulling ' or
'working 'destroys the translucency of the reain,
and imparts to it the peculiar semi-opaoity of
f oroign Burgundy pitch. Cold water is commonly

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PITCOAL

1889

employed to cool it down. Annotta U often i nb-
(titatM tor palm oil s* a colonring inbetance.
The addition of some of the ' droppings ' or
'bottoms' of Canada balsam, Cbio turpentine,
(h1 of juniper, Ac, lenden this article nearly
eqoal to foreign pitch ; bnt in commerce this is
nerer attempted, the aim being only the produc-
tion of a good colour with moderate toughness.
A common melting-pan and fire (if carefully
managed) may be used, bat, both for safety and
oonTenience, steam pans are preferable, and on
the lai^ scale almost indispensable. A good
workman can poll and pnt into stands or casks
about 6 cwt. daily ; or nom H cwt. to 8 cwt. in
bladders, the latter quantity depending on the size
of the bladders (see above).

Piteh. Can'ada. S^ Hbioook avu, H.
PITCH. Similar to Burgundy pitch, but from
the Aiiu eanadtntit, or hemlock spruce fir.

Pitch, Jews'. Asphaltum.

Fitch, Kin'eraL Indurated mineral bitumen.
See Abpealtitk, Bituius, &c.

FIT'COAL. Syn. Coal ; HouiLLa, Fr. ;
SxauncoHiai, Oer. This article has been truly
described as the most valuable of all those mineral
subatanoes from which Great Britain derives its
prosperity, and the one which may be regarded
as tiia main snpport of the whole system of
British production. It fuses the metals, it pro-
duces the steam which sets our machinery in
motion, and, in short, it may be said to render
all the resources of this country available for
use.

Coal appears to have been formed by some pro-
cess of decomposition or fermentation of buried
v^etable matter, the result being that much of
the hydrogen in this matter has separated in the
form of marsh gas (the chief constituent of fire-
damp) snd other analogous organic compounds ;
whilst tihe oxygen has for the most part passed off
in the form of carbonic acid gas, leaving the
carbon and other elements in the residual mass.
By properly selecting samples from difierent
neighbonrboods and analysing them, a series may
be obtained showing the different stages of decom-
position through which ooal passes. Boscoe gives
the following table:

Wood oellnloM . . .

Irish peat

Lignite from Cologne .
Ewthy coal from Dax .
Caonel ooal from Wigan
Newcastle ' Hartley ^ .
Welsh anthracite . . .

Csrbon.

66-96
74-80
86-81
88-42
94-05

Hydro-

Oxygen ud
Mitrof^n.

6-00
6-88
625
5-89
6-85
6-61
8-38

44-00

8410

27-76

19-90

8-84

5-97

2-67

The foeaiUsed vegetable remains found in coal
onbrace over 600 distinct species, of which the
calamites (the representatives of the living Equise-
tnms), Lepidodendra, Sigillaria, ferns, coidfers,
and eyeadaarethe most important.

Coal occurs chiefly in the ' carboniferous sys-
tem ' of lock formations, bnt it is also worked to
advantage in more recent stiata.

The more important kinds of ooal may be classi-
fied as follows : — 1. Lignite or brown ooal occurs
in the tertiary depositej it has a low specific
gravity, a ligneous structure, and consists of the
remains of reoent plants. 2, Bituminous or caking
coals. The most widely diffused and valuable of
English coals. They are subdivided into — a.
Caking coaL Splinters on heating, but the frag-
ments then fuse together in a semi-pasty mass.
The chief sources of this valuable variety of coal
are the Newcastle and Wigan districte. b. Cherry
coal or soft coal. Lustre very bright ; does not
fuse, ignites well and burns rapidly ; it occurs in
the Glasgow district, Stafibrdshire, Derbyshire,
Nottingham, Lancashire, <fcc. c. Splint, rough,
or hard coal. Black and glistening; does not
ignite readily, bnt burns up to a clear hot fire.
It constitutes the bulk of the produce of the
great coal-fields of North and South Staffordshire,
and occurs in the Glasgow district, in Shropshire,
Leicestershire, Warwickshire, Ac. d. Cannel or
parrot coal. Dense and compact, having a shelly
fracture, and taking a polish like jet. Splinters
in the fire, and boms clearly and brightly j it
occurs in Wigan and other parts of Lancashire,
West Glasgow district, &c. The curious deposit
at Bathgate, near Edinburgh, commonly known
as ' Boghead cannel coal,' or ' Torbane Hill
mineral/ difiiers considerably from the ordinary
' canneU ; ' by distillation it yields paraffin oils
(q. v.), which are largely used for illuminating and
lubricating purposes. 8. Anthracite or stone-coal.
The densest, hardest, and most lustrous of all
kinds of pitcoal. Burns with little flame or
smoke, but gives great heat ; it occurs in South
Wales, Kilkenny, Devonshire, &c. 4. Steam coal.
This approaches nearly to anthracite. Admirably
adapted for steam-vessels; it occurs in South
Wales, I^ne district, tc

The quality of coal may be ascertained by either
directly testing its heating power or by chemical
analysis. In the investigations nnderteken at
the Museum of Economic Geology, under the
directions of Sir H. De la Beche, and which fur-
nished the materials for the celebrated ' Admiralty
Reports,' three different methods were adopted
for this purpose. These consisted in the deter-
mination of the quantity of water which a given
weight of the coal was capable of converting into
steun, the quantity of Utharge which it was
capable of reducing to the metallic stete, and,
lastly, ite ultimate analysis by combustion with
oxide of copjier. See OsaAVio Scbstaboss.

The quantity of sulphur in coal is another
matter of importence that may be determined by
chemical analysis (see Sulphub). The presence
of more than 1% of sulphur renders coal unfit for
the economical prodnction of good illuminating
gas, and more than 2% of sulphur renders it ob-
jectionable for use as domestic fuel. In like
manner, coals containing mineral ingrediente in
excess are to be avoided, not merely on account
of the quantity of ashes left by them, but for
their tendency to vitrify upon the bars of the
furnace, and to produce what is technically called
' clinkers.' The presence of much silica or alumina,
and more particularly of any of the salts of lime>
in ' steam ooal,' is, on this account, highly objec-
tionable.

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1840

PITTRU8IS— PLASTBE

For aome farther information connected with
tUs salgect tee Abthsaori, CHUOfsn, Con,
Vxna, Qab, Liairrra, Oiu (ICnenU), Obsahio

SVMTAHOBB, Ae.

PITTBIA8IB. [n(rvpo>> — takn.l Hie tech-
nical name for dandrifl, a Bnperflciaf chronic in-
flammation of the skhi withoat ezndation or
twalling, and accompanied by a distorbance of the
nntrition of the epidermis earning it to desqua-
mate.

FLAICE. The Platmta mlgarii, a well-known
flat-flsh, common to both the English and Dutch
coMts. Its flesh is good and easy of digestion,
bnt more watery than that of the flonnder.

PLAHTAnr. The plantain, which belongs to
the Nat. Old. Mitsaosa, and is a native <A the
East Indies, is coltirated in all tropical and sub-
tropical regions of the world, in many of which it
constitutes the prindpal food of the inhabitants.
There are a great many yarieties of the plantain,
in some of which the stem is 16 or 20 ft. high,
whilst in others it does not exceed 6 ft. It is one
of the largest of the herbaceous plants.

The fmit is sometimes eaten raw, bnt is more
generally Ixnled or roasted. It contains both
starch and sugar. Boiled and beaten in a mortar,
it forms the common food of the negroes in the
West Indies. It also constitutes the chief food
of the Indians of North and South America.

Humboldt has calculated that the food produce
of the plantain is 44 times greater than th»t of
the potato, and 188 times that of wheat.

The banana is a species of plantain. See Ba-
hama.

FLAITTAnr, WATES-, or AUnui plantago.
He use of the root of this plant as a remedy for
hydrophobia ia by no means recent, and was sanc-
tioned by the College of Physicians of Moscow in
the year 1820. Its value is, however, very doubt-
ful. The root contains a very active principle.
Cattle are frequently poisoned by it, and it ia held
in repute in some parts of America as a remedy
for the bite of the rattlesnake. It has powerf nl
sedative properties, and is best administered by
scraping about an ounce of the solid root and
letting it be eaten between two slices of bread
(Orirfy).

FIiASKA. The liqnor sanguinis, in which the
corpuscles float.

FLAS'TKB. (In loUing, &c.) See Mobtab.

Plaster of Paris. Calcined sulphate of lime.
See Alabastib, Otfbuh, Lixb, &c.

FIiABTXB. (In pharmacy.) Sgn. E1CPUL8-
TBTO, L. Plasters (emplastts) are external ap-
plications that possess sufficient consistence not
to adhere to the fingers when cold, but which
become soft and adhesive at the temperature of
the human body.

Plasters are chiefly composed of oils, fats, or
fatty acids, united to metallic oxides, or mixed with
powders, wax, or resin. They are usually formed,
whilst warm, into i-lb. rolls, about 8 or 9 inches
long, and wrapped in paper. When reqnired for
use a littie is melted off the roll by means of a
heated iron spatula, and spread upon leather,
linen, or silk. The less adhesive plasters, when
spread, are nsnally surrounded with a margin of
resin plaster, to cause them to adhere.

In the preparation of plasters the heat of a

water-bath or of steam shonld alone he em-
plomd. On the large scale weU-eleaned and
polished copper or tinned copper pans, surrounded
with iron jackets, supplied with high-pressnra
steam, are nsed for thu purpose. The resins and
gom-resins that enter into their eemposition are
previonsly pnrified by straining. After the in-
gredients are mixed, and the mass has acqidied
sufficient consistence by eooling, portions of it
are taken into the hands, and wdl palled or
worked under water until it becomes solid
enough to admit of being formed into rolls ; bnt
this process must not, on any account, be prae-
tised on compound plasters containing odoroas
substances, or substances soluble in water. These
should be suffered to cool on an oiled marbled
slab until sufficienUy 'stilt' to be formed into
rolls. Many plasters, as those of lead and reun,
derive much of their whiteness from the treat-
ment just refierred to. White plasters are not,
however, always the best; but they are those
which are most admired, and the most sought
after in trade.

Plasters are preserved by enveloping the rolls
with paper to ezclnde the air as much as possible,
and by keeping them in a oool situation. A fsw,
as those of belladonna and ammoniacum with
mercury, are commonly placed in pots. When
kept for any length of time they are all more
or less apt to become hard and brittle, and to lose
their colour. When this is the ease they should
be remelted by a gentie heat, and sufficient oil
added to the mass to restore it to a proper con-
sistence.

The operation of spreading plasters for use
requires skill and experience on the part of the
operator. Various fabrics are employed for the
purpose, of which linen or cotton doth, or leather,
are those most generally employed. Silk and
satin are nsed for 'court plaster.' The shape
and size must be regnlated by tbe part to which
thOT are to be applied.

On the large scale plasters are spread by means
of a ' spreading machine,' illustrations of which
are found in works on pharmacy.

Compound plasters are now much leas fre-
qnently employed in medicine than formerly.
Those principally in use are such as afford pro-
tection to sores and abraded snrfaces, and give
support to the parts. A few, however, which
contun acrid, stimulating, and narcotic sub-
stances, and operate as rubefacients, blisters,
or anodynes, are still retuned in the Pharma-
copoeias.

Alcoholic extracts are far more sniteble for
mixing with plasters than watery extracts.

Plaster of Ac'onito. fi^a. Emplabtbux aoo-
iriTi, L. Prep, (Oirtit.) Qentiy evaporate
tincture of aconite to the consistence of a soft
extract, then spread a very small portion over the
surface of a common adhesive plaster, on either
calico or leather. Mr Curtis has strongly recom-
mended this plaster in neuralgia. A little of the
alcoholic extract may be employed instead of that
obtained fresh from the tincture.

Plaster, Adhe"rent. See Plabtib, Soap (Com-
ponnd).

Plaster, Adlie'iive. See Plasibb, Bbbdt,
COUBT P., &c.

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PLASTER

1841

PlMtar. AdheilTe Lime. Sg». ExPLASTBint

ADRXaiYTTK OiXOlSIUK. JPtap. Sokp of lime,
200 puti ; boiled turpentine, 100 part* ; luet, :^6
parte.
Flactar, Ammoni'acal. Sg». Db Eiskuhs'b

TOLATILB FLUTIB ; EKKiASTBVK AKMOHUB, S.

A. HTDBOOHLoaiTiB, L. !><}). Take of lead
plaater, 1 oi. ; white soap (ehared fine), i os. ;
melt them together, and, when nearly cold, add
of aal-ammoniac (in fine powder), 1 dr. Stimu-
lant and rube&cient. Dr Fub, who highly re-
oommendi it in pnlmonary aSeotioni, emplori
double the abore proportion of lal-ammottiac. Its
efficacy depends on the gradnal extrication of free
ammonia by thedecompodtionof the sal-ammoniac,
on wUch acconnt it is pnmer to renew the appli-
cation of it every twenty-four honrs.

Plaster of Ammonl'aeum. iS^. ExPLAaTBinf
■UcxoHUOi (Ph. L., E., & D.), I.. JV^. 1.
(Pik, h. & E.) Ammottiacum (struned), 6 oc. ;
dilate acetic acid (cUstUled vinegar), 8 fl. os. (9
fi. OS. — Ph. E.) ; diasohre, and, frequently stir-
ring, evaporate by a gentle heat to a proper
consistence.

2. (Ph. D.) Onm ammoniaeum (in coarse

fowder), _ 4 oi. ; proof spirit, 4 fl. oi. ; diseolvc
y the aid of a gentle heat, and evaporate, as
before.

Obt. This plaster is adhesive, stimulant, and
resolvent, and is employed in sck^oos and indo-
lent tmnoun, white swellings^ Ac In the Ph. D.
1826 vinegar of squills was ordered instead of
distilled vinegar.

Plaater of AnmonlMsn witb Hemlock. Sfn.
Eiin.AancBU](AiaiojnAoi ouh oiovtX,L. JVsp.
(Ph. E. 1744.) Qum ammoniaenn, 8 os. j vinegar
of squills, q . s. to dissolve ; hemlock juice, 4 oz. ;
gentiy evaporate, as before. In cancerous and
other painful tomonn. A better plan is to add
1 dr. of extract of hemlock to li oi. of strained
ammoniaeum (previously reduced to a proper
consistence with a little distilled vinegar), melted
by a very gentle heat.

Plaster of Ammoniaeum with Ker'cniy. 8jr»,
Emplastbum axxokiaoi ouk etdbasstbo (B.
F.,Ph.L.,E.,&D.),L. JfVtp. 1. (Ph.L. &E.)
OUve oil, 66 gr. ; heat it in a mortar j add of
solphnr, 8 gr. ; triturate ; further add of mercury,
8 01. ; again triturate, and when the globules are
extinguiiuied add it to ammoniaeum (strained),
1 lb. (12 ox.— B. P.), previously melted by a
gentle heat, and mix them well together.

2. (Ph. D.) From ammoniaeum plaster, 4 ox. ;
mercurial plaster, 8 os. ; melted together by a
gentle heat, and then stirred constantly until
nearly cold.

8. (Wholesale.) Take of mercury, 38 oi.;
prepared sevum, 6 ob.{ triturate as last, and
add the mixture to strained ammoniaeum, 10
lbs., prerioosly snfikiently softened by a gentle
heat. Possesses a fine blue colour, and is quickly

OU, This plaster cannot be rolled till con-
sideraUy cooled, and neither this nor the simple
plaster must be put into water. It is power-
fully diseutient, and is applied to indurated
glands, indolent tumours, to.

Piaster, An'odyae. See Pi.ifliaB, OnuK;
Plastbb, BiixAsomrA, &c

Plastar, Amioa. (Ph. U.S.) Sgn. Empi.ib.
TBUX ABXiCiB. Pnp. AlcohoUc extract of
arnica, H bz. ; resin plaster, S os. Add the ex-
tract to the plaster previously melted over a water-
bath, and mix it thoroughly.

Plaster, Aromatic. /^. Stokaoe plabtib j
Ekflastbuk ABOKAnoiw, L. Prap. (Ph. D.
1826.) Strained frankincense (thus), 8 os. ;
beeswax, i oz. ; melt them together, and, when
the mass has considerably heated, add of pow-
deied cinnamon, 6 dr. ; oils of allspice and lemons,
of each, 2 dr. Stimulant; applied over the
stomach in dyspepsia, spasms, nausea, flatulence,
&0. Camphor, 1 dr., is commonly added.

Plaster of Assaftrtida. Sjrs. Antistbsibio
FLAaTBB, AimaPAaMosio p. ; Explabtbuic ab-

BAPCBTIDA (Ph. E.), E. AKTIKTanBIOUX, &C., L.

Pr^. (Ph. £.) From lead plaster and strained
aasafcatida, of each, 2 oz. ; strained galbanum and
beeswax, of each, 1 oz. ; melted together. Anti-
spasmodic ; applied to the stomach or abdomen in
spasms, hysteria, Ac. ; and to the chest in hoop-
ing-cough.

Plaster, Baynton's AdhaslTe. frtp. From
yellow resin, 1 oz. ; lead plaster, 1 lb. ; malted to-
gether. Recommended for bad legs and other
like sores.

Plaster of BaUadon'aa. Am. Ekplabcbuii
BBLLADOinrjB (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Pnp.
1. (Ph. L.) Soap plaster, 8 os. ; melt it by 4£e
heat of a water-bath ; add of extract of belladonna
(deadly nightshade), 8 oz. ; and keep constantly
starring the mixture until it acquires a proper
consistence.

S. (Ph. E.) Resin plaster, 8 oi. ; extraet of
belladonna, 1( oz. ; a* the last.

3. (Ph. D.) Resin plaster, 2 oz. ; extract of
belladonna, 1 oz.

4. (B, P.) Alcoholic extract of belladonna, 1
part ; resin pUster and toup plaster, of each, 2
parts ; melt the plasters and the extract and mix.

U*ei, ife. As a powerful anodyne and anti-
spasmodic ; in neuralgia and rheumatic pains, and
as an application to painful tumours. Witk many
persons this plaster produces a rash and diynese
of the throat ; its use should then be discontinued.
The plaster of the shops is usually deficient in
extract. The fcdiowing formula is in. common
use in the wholesale trade : — Lead plaster and
resin plaster, of each, H lbs.; extract of bella-
d(mna, 1) lbs. This plaster mnst not be 'pulled'
in water.

Plastn, Berg's Antirheimatlc. fym. Oodt

PAPBB ; BxPUBTBlnc AMTlBHJSUMATlCOTi,

Ceabta AirmmnnfATioA, L. Prap. By di-
gesting euphorbinm, 2 parts, and cantharioes, 1
part (both in powder), in recti6ed nirit, 10 parts,
for 8 days; adding to the sttained liquid, black
resin and Venetian turpentine, of each, 4 parts ;
assisting the mixture by a gentle heat. Two or
three coats of the product are suooessivdy qpread
over the surface of thin paper. Und in gout and
rheumatism (' Anat. of Quackery').

Plaster, Blaek. 8gn. EKPLAannrx bibbuk,
L. Prtp. Mr Sharo's black {daster was ibrmed
hj boiling together oUve oil, 18 oi. j wax, %i ox. ;
carbonate of lead. 10 oz.

Plastar, Blaek Siaok'ylm. See Come
Plabtbb.

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1842

PLASTEB

FUater of Black Pitch. Sgn. Evplabtbttk
pioia NiSKx, L. Prep. (Ph. Wirteni.) Black
pitch, black regin, and beeswax, of each, 8 parts;
suet, 1 part ; melted together. Rubefacient and
stimulant.

Plaster, Blistering. See Plastbb of Cait-

TEABISB8.

Platter, Bree's Antiaathmatie. Prep. From
lead plaster, 1 ox.; olive oil, 1 dr.; melted to-
gether, and, when somewhat cooled, mixed with
powdered camphor, 2 dr. ; powdered opium, 1 dr.,
and at once spread on leather.

Plaster, Brown. Syn. Eictoabtsuh puBotnc,
L. ; OirauBlfT Ds LA Kiss, Fr. The butter, lard,
oil, suet, and wax should be first melted together,
and the heat gradually increased until they begin
to smoke ; the litharge is then to be sifted in,
and the stirring and heat continued until the
mixture assumes a brown colour; the pitch is
next added, and the whole stirred for some time
longer.

Plaster, Brows Diach'yloii. See Plabtsb or

GALBAHTlf.

Blaster, Bryony. {Boeriaave.) Sy». Ek-
SLASTBUK BBTONLB, L. Prep. Strained gal-
banom, 4 oz. ; wax plaster, 9 oz. ; olive oil, 1 oz.
Melt together, and add powdered bryony root, 8
oz. ; flowers of sulphur, 1 oz. ; Ethiops mineral, 2
dr. ; stir till cold.

Plaster of Bnr'giuidy Pitch. Syn. Cbprauc

FLABTBB, BBBATH F. ; EKFIiAaTBUK FIOIS (B. P.,

Ph. L. & £.), E. p. ooKFOgiTiTir, E. p. BuBSinr.
DKUI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Prepared (strained)
Burgundy pitch, 2 lbs. ; prepared frankincense
(thus), 1 lb. ; yellow resin and beeswax, of each,
4 oz. ; melt them together, then add olive oil and
water, of each, 2 fl. oz. ; expressed oil of nutmeg
(mace), 1 oz. ; and, constantly stirring, evaporate
to a proper consistence.

8. ^Ph. E.) Burgundy pitch, 1 lb.; resin
and beeswax, of each, 2 oz.; olive <rfl and
water, of each, 1 fl, oz.j oil of mace, | oi.; at
the laat.

8. (6. P.) Burgundy pitch, 26 parts; common
frankincense, 18 parts ; resin, 4^ parts ; yellow
wax, 4) parts ; expressed oil of nutmegs, 1 part ;
olive oil, 2 parts ; water, 2 parts ; add the oil and
the water to the other ingredients, previously
melted together; stir, and evaporate to a proper
consisten<»r.

Viet, (po. Burgundy pitch plaster is stimu-
lant, rubefacient, and counter-irritant. It is a
common application to the chest in pulmonary
affections, to the joints in rheumatism, and to
the loins in lumbago. Spread on leather, it
forms a good warm plaster to wear on the
chest during the winter. "When it produces
a serous exudation it should be fireqaently re-
newed."

The BtrBSinrBT pitoh plabtxb of the shops
is commonly made as follows : — Factitious Bur-
gundy pitch (bright coloured), 42 lbs. ; palm oil
(bright), f lb. ; beeswax (bright), 6 lbs. ; melt,
and, when nearly cold, add of oil of mace, 6 oz. ;
oil of nutmeg, 1 oz.

PlMtor of Burgundy Pitch (Irritatiiig). (Ph.
O.) 8y». Explabtbvx Pion iBBiTAira. Prep.
Burgundy pitch, 88 oi.; yellow wax, 18 oc.;
turpentine, 18 oz. ; enphorbium, 8 oi.

Plaster, Calefii'oieat. Sgn. Wabh pi:.A6TSB;
Ekplabtbuv CALBPACiiHS (Ph. D.), L. Prep.
(Ph. D.) 1. Plaster of cantharides, t lb. (1 part);
Burgundy pitch, 6^ lbs. (11 parts); melt them
together by a gentle heat, and stir the mixture
as it cools until it stiffens. Stimulant, rube-
facient, and counter-irritant; in a variety of
affections. In some persons, when long applied,
it blisters or produces a running sore.

2. (Ph. B.) Cantharides in coarse powder,
4 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint; expressed oil of
nutmeg, 4 oz. ; yellow wax, 4 oz. ; resin, 4 oz. ;
soap plaster, 8 lbs. ; resin plaster, 81 lbs. Infuse
the cantharides in the boiling water for six hoars;
squeeze strongly through calico, and evapotate
the expressed liquid by a water-bath till reduced
to one third. Then add the other ingredients and
melt in a water-bath, stirring well till the whole
is thoroughly mixed.

Plaster, Camphor, i^a. EkpUlStbtjx oak-
PHOBS. Camphor is b^t applied by sprinkling
the powder on the warm surface of a spresl
adhesive or other plaster. Blisters are treated in
this way to prevent strangury.

Flatter, Can'car. Sgn. Ekplastbitx abti-
CAVCBOSVM', L. Prqp. 1. Wax pUster, 1 oz. ;
extract of hemlock, 1 dr. ; levigated anenioni
acid, i dr.

2. (Biehter.) Extract of hemlock, 1 ox. ; ex-
tract of henbane, | oz. ; powdered belladoons,
1 dr.; acetate of ammonia, q. s. to form a plaster.
Both the above must be used with great eantioD.
See Canobb, &c.

Flatter of Canthai'idat. Sjfu. Busmnvs

PLA8TBB, YBBIOAHT P., PlABlVB OP SPABIBH
PUBB; EMPIABTBmr OASTEABISIB (B. P., Ph.
L., E., A D.), E. 0. VBBIOATOBB, E. I.TTT.B, L.

Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Yellow wax and tnet, of
each, 7i oz. ; laid, 6 oz. ; retin, 8 oz. ; mdt them
together, remove the vessel from the fire, and, a
little iMfore they concrete, sprinkle in of can-
tharides (in very fine powder), 1 lb. (12 cs. — B. P.),
and mix.

8. (Ph. E.) Cantharides, beeswax, resin, and
suet, equal parts ; as the last.

8. (Ph. D.) Spanish flies, 6 oz. ; prepared lard,
resin, and yeUow wax, of each, 4 oz. ; jm>ceed as
before^ and " stir the mixture constantly until the
plaster is cool."

4. (Wholesale.) From beeswax and good laid,
of each, 4 lbs. ; flies and yellow retin, of eadi,
6 lbs. ; suet, 10 lbs. A commonly used formalt,
the product of which is, however, greatly inferior
to that of the Pharmacopoeia.

Obt. All the above are used to raite blitten.
The plaster is spread on white leather or adhesive
plaster with a knife, and is snirounded with
a margin of resin platter to make it adhere. A
piece of thin muslin or tissue-paper it tome-
times placed between the plaster and the Ma
to prevent absorption. A fitUe powdered cam-
phor is sometimes sprinkled on the turfuse of
the spread plaster, to prevent strangury. A hatter
mode of obviating the action on the nrinaiy
organs is by the copious nte of ^uentt. "ndt
plaster shoiUd be rolled in stareh powder, and not
with oil.

PlMtar of Oantlnridtt (OompaBad). %». Ek-
PLABTBTm OAVTR Axisn ooMPOsiTinf, L. Prep ,

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PLA8TEB

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(Ph. E.) Venice turpentine, 4) os. ; cantharides
and Bmipindy pitch, of each, 8 oi. ; beeswax,
1 01. ; rerdigna (in fine powder), ( os. ; powdered
mnitard and black pepper, of each, 2 dr. ; mix at
a heat under 212° ¥. Stronger than the lost, and
qnidcer in it* action ; but it causes more pain,
and is much more apt to occasion trouble-
some ulcerations. Used in gout, spasms of the
stomach, Ac

Flastan, Caoatchone. Dr. Schneegans and Cor-
nulle have made known some caoutchouc plaster
fwrmula. Thegronndworkof theseplastersisamix-
tore ot lanoline, benzoated lard, and dammar resin
with caootchouc ; they keep well, and are usually
s^-adheaiTc. A slight ad^tion of glycerine pre-
vents the prodnctdiyiog too ra^dly by exposure to
the air. The caoutchouc is previously dissolved in
benaol (1 to 6 parts) by soaking for three or four
days. The composition of the various plasters is
as follows :

1. Zime Camdehoue Pltutar, 20% . Besin dam-
mar, 20 parts; benxoated lard, 26 parts ; lanolin,
15 parts; caoutchouc, 8 parts; glycerine, 12
parts; and sine oxide, 20 parts; total, 100 nuis.

2. Todoform Caoutekoue Flatter, 20% . Besin
dammar, 16 parts; benzoated Iwd, 80 parts;
lanolin, 20 parts ; caoutchouc, 6 parts ; glycerine,
10 parts; iodoform, 20 » 100 parts.

8. Mareurial CaotOekote Flatttr, 20% . Besin
dammar, 26 parts; benzoated lard, 12 parts;
yellow wax, 16 parts; caoutchouc, 8 parts; lano-
lin, 20 parts; quicksilver, 20=100 parts.

4. Soraeia Caoutekouo, Platter, 20% . Besin
dammar, 20 parts; benzoated lard, 26 parts;
white wax, 16 parts ; caoutchouc, 8 parts ; hmolin,
12 parts; and boradc add, 20 parts ; total, 100
parts.

6. SaiiegUe Aeid Caontchome Platter, 80%,
is prepared like that with boradc aeid.

6. IcUigol Caomtekouo Platter, 20% . Besin
dammar, 20 parts; benzoated lard, 20 parts;
yellow wax, 20 parts; caontchono,8 parts; lanolin,
12 parts; and ichthyol (ichthyolnatrinm), 20
parts; total, 100 parts. The ichthyol is first
lieated with the lanolin in a water-bath, and the
oUier materials added afterwards.

7. Ziae and Quiettilver CatmUAome Platter,
20% and 10% . Besin dammar, 20 parts ; ben-
loated lard, 12 parts; yellow wax, 10 parts;
caoutchouc, 8 puts; lanolin, 20 parts; quick-
silver, 20 parts; and line oxide, 10 parts; total,
100 parts. The zinc oxide is mixed previously
with the mercury, the two being well worked up
together, and to the lukewarm mixture the other
substances are added afterwards. Of course
similar plasters can be made in like manner with
other active ingredients, as may be prescribed.
The authors say that these joeparations can be
jnoduced at a cost of about tbeepence to sixpence
a square yard.

Flastar, Ci^iidtiii'. See Fubtib o> Ev-

FHOBBrUlf.

Flastarof CarlMnateoflMd. 8g». EifPLAa-
TSBit ranai cabbokatib, E. ozBrssx, L. Prep.
(P. Cod.) Carbonate of lead, 1 lb. ; olive oil and
water, of each, 2 lbs.; boil them together until
they combine and form a plaster; lastly, remelt
this with white wax, 8i os. Its properties re-
senUe those of ordinary lead plaster. An excel-

lent emollient and defensive plaster. SeePuBXXB,
Kaxx'b.
Plaster, Cephal'ie. £^«. Labsaxtv fi^tbb;

ElCPI.AfiTB1Tl( OBFBALICUK, E. IaLBVASI, L.

Prep. (Ph. L. 1788.) Labdannm, 8 oz. ; frank-
incense (thus), 1 OS. ; melt, and add to the mix-
ture, when nearly cold, powdered cinnamon and
expressed oil of mace, of each, t ox. ; oil of mint,
1 dr. Applied to the forehead or temples, in
headache; to the atomach, in colda, &c. See
RusTSB OP BvaawDt Pitch, &c

Plaster, Cheaelden's Stiok'lng. Sgn. EkfIiAS-
IBUK PI.VKBI cm PIOB, L. Prep, From lead
plaster, 2 lbs. ; Burgundy pitch (genuine), 1 oz. ;
melted together.

Plaster, Com. £ys. Ehpubtbux ad OLAYoa,
L. Prep. 1. Besin plaster, 6 parts ; melt, stir
in of sal-ammoniac (in fine powder), 1 part, and
at once spread it on linen or soft leaUier.

2. (Samdofe.) Besin cerate, 40 parts ; galba-
num plaster, 40 parts ; verdigris, 16 parts ; tur-
pentine, 6 parts; creaaote, 8 parte.

8. (Kennedg'e.) From beeswax, 1 lb. ; Venice
turpentine, 6 oz. ; verdigris (in flne powder), 1)
oz. ; mixed by a gentle heat, and spread on cloth.
It is cut into pieces and polished, and of thews
1 dozen are put into each box.

4. {Le Forei.) Qalbanum plaster, 2 oz. ; melt
by a very gentle heat ; add sal-ammoniac and
saffron, of each, \ oz. ; powdered camphor, 2 oz. ;
and, when nearly cold, stir in of liquor of am-
monia, 2 oz. Applied, spread on leather, to the
com only, as it will blister the thinner sldn sur-
rounding its base.

6. (Ph. Sax.) Oalhanum plaster, 1 OS.; pitch,
i 01. ; lead plaster, 2 dr. ; melt them together,
and svdd verdigris and sal-ammoniac (in fine pow-
der), of each, 1 dr. For other formulie see Plab-
IBB OP Vebdiobib {below), and COBXS.

Plaster, Court. Sgn, Stiokiks plastbb,
IbersiiAbs p.; EmuLSTSTm iohthtooollx, E.
AOHiBirxTK ABauoinf, L. Prep. 1. Isinglass,
1 part ; water, 10 parts ; dissolve, strain the solu-
tion, and gradually add to it of tincture of ben-
zoin, 2 parts ; apply this mixture, gently warmed,
by means of a camel-hair brush, to the surface of
suk or sarcenet, stretched on a frame, and allow
each coating to dry before applying the next one,
the application being repeated as often as neces-
sary; lastly, give the prepared surface a coating
of tincture of benzoin or tincture of balsam of
Peru. Some manufacturers apply this to the un-
prepared side of the plaster, and others add to
the tincture a few drops of essence of ambergris
or essence of musk.

2. {Detchampi.) A piece of fine muslin, linen,
or silk is fastened to a flat board, and a thin coat-
ing of smooth, strained flour paste is given to it ;
over this, when dry, two coats of colourless gela-
tin, made into size with water, q. s., are applied
warm. Said to be superior to the ordinary court
plaster.

3. {Littoii?t.) Soak isinglass, 1 oa., in water,
2i fl. oz., until it becomes swollen and quite soft;
then add of proof spirit, 8| fi. oz., and expose the
mixture to the heat of hot water, frequent^
stirring, until the union is complete ; lastly, apply
four coats of the solution to the snr&ce <rf died
silk nuled to a board, by means of a soft brush.

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PLASTER

4. (Dr Pari*.) BUck silk or sarcenet it
etrained and brashed over ten or twelve tines
with the following composition: gum benzoin,
i oc. ; rectified spirit, 6 os. ; dissolre. In a
separate vessel dissolve of isinglass, 1 oz., in as
little water as possible ; strain each solution,
mix them, decant the clear portion, and apply it
warm. When the last coating is qnite di;, a
finishing coat is given with a solntion of
Chio turpentine, 4 oc., in tinctnre of benzoin,
6 oz.

Obt. The common 'oovbt nuns' of the
shops is generally prepared without using sjHrit,
and with merely sufficient tinctnre of benzobi, or
other aromatic, to give it an agreeable odonr.
Formerly black silk or sarcenet was exclusively
employed as the basis of the plaster, but at the
present time chequered silk is also much in
favour. ' FcnH-OOLOtTBID OOUBT n.A8TaB' is
likewise fashionable. ' TBAirBFABHirr oointi
plabtsb' is prepared on oiled silk. 'Waikr-
fBOOV GOVST FLAaTBB' is simply the common
plaster which has received a thin coating of pale
drying oil on its exposed surface. The mnn
OOTTSi PLABTSB of the West-end bouses is now
prepared on goldbeaters' skin (or the prepared
membrane of the cacum of the ox), one side of
which is coated with the isinglass solution as
above, and the other with pale drying oil or a
solution of dther gntte percha or caoutchouc in
diloroform, or in bisulphuret of carbon.

FlMtar of Cro'ton Oil. Sf». Emvlastbux
OBOiosia, E. outi TiSLn, L. Prap. (Sou-
chardat.) To lead plaster, 4 parts, melted by a
very gentle heat, add of croton oil, 1 part. A
powenal counter-irritant; it also generally acts
powerfully on the bowels.

TlMtn of Cnm'in. Sy». Emplabtbttk cuiain
(Ph. L.), B. OTKun, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Bnrgmkdy mtoh, S lbs.; beeswax, 8 oz. ) mel^
add of cnmin seed, caraways, and bayberries, of
each (in powder), 8 oz. ; next add of olive oil and
water, of each, 1) fl. ox., and evaporate to a
proper consistence.

8. (Wholesale.) From yellow resin, 7 lbs.;
beeswax and linseed oil, of each, i lb. ; powdered
cumin and caraway seeds, of each, 7 oz. ; mix.

Obt. This is a mere revival of the formules of
the Ph. L. 1724. In that of the Ph. L. 1778
no water waa ordered, and the powders simply
stirred into the melted mass shortly before it
cools — the common practice in all laboratories.

Cumin plaster is carminative, stimnlnnt, and
disentient. It is applied over the regions of the
stomach and bowels in colic, dyspepsia, and flatu-
lence, and is also applied to indolent tumours.
It has long been a favourite remedy with the
lower classes.

PlMter, Belaeroix*! Aggln'tiaatiTV. Sy». Bx-
rhtmant SLVrrsun SAiron Aitdbbji a Crvom,
B. noiB oou BUKi, L.; BkplXibb d'AtoxA
SI liA Cboiz, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) From Bur-
gundy ^tch, 26 parts; gum elemi, 6 parts;
Venice turpentine and oil of hays, of each, 8
parts; melted together, and strained.

natter, IMadi'yloii. See Plabixb op Lias.

Ptactar, Diaptl'wa. See Pubtib, Palx.

Plaster of H'mdI. 8f». BxpuflKBuv na-
m, L. Prap. From wax plaster, 8 parts; gum

elemi, 1 part ; melted together by a gentle heat.
Stimulant and £scntient. Used for issues, Ac.

Plaster of Euphor'bliim. <E^. BrniOBTBinc
BVFHOBBii, L. ^rtp, 1. (Gay's Heap.) Bur-
gundy pitch plaster, 8 ox.; mdt, and add of
euphorUnm (in powder), 1 ir.

2. (Capuohut fubtbb — Ph. Wirt) Bur-
gundy pitch and beeswax, of each, > os. ; Veaioe
turpentine, 1 oz. ; melt them together, add gum
ammoniacnm, oliliannm, mastic, and laps* ohi-
minaris, of each, 1 oz. ; eaphorbinm, pyrethrom,
and common si^, of eftch (in powder), 2 oi. ; and
stir until the mass concretes. Both of the above
are stimulant, rubefacient, and counter-irritant.

Plaster, Payaid's. See Papxb (Qont).

Plaster of Ftowor of OiatBieBta. Syn. Bm-

FLABTBITK BUM VBOirBinDBinC 9ICTF1C, L.

Prtp. From fiankineense (thus), yeUow redn,
suet, and beeswax, of each, 1 lb. ; olibaanm, k
lb. ; Venice turpentine, 6 oz. ; gum myrrh, S oa. ;
white wine, 16 n. oz. ; boil to a plaster, ad^m^,
before the mass cools, of oaaq^hor, i oc Oalon-
facient and stimulant.

nattar of Praak'iMene. Sgn. BraisaTH-
Birnra bulsibb; Eirpi.ABTBVi[ tbvxb, B. bo-
BOBAXB, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1788.) To lead
plaster, 2 lbs., melted by a gentle heat, add of
frankincense (thna), ^ lb., dragon's blood (in
powder), 3 oz., and stir welL In mnsealar re-
laxations, weak joints, ke. Mr Bedwood aays
that a "better-looking plaster is prodneei by
melting the frankincense and dragon's bkod to-
gether, and straining them through a elatl^ then
mixing these with the lead plaster previoosly
melted." See PiiMtbb o* Qzibb of Iboh.

Plaster of OallHunun. $fn. CoKPomm ui-
BARrm PI.ABTBB, Ybixow siaortiav, Qux
BLASTBB, DiAOHTLOH WITH THB STTXB ; BXPLAB-

iBUX OALBAKi (B. P., Ph. L.), B. enaioavx
(Ph. £.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Take of
strained galbannm, 8 oz. ; commea turpentia^ 1
oz. ; melt them bother, then add of prepared
frankincense (thus), 8 oa.; and next, of lead
plaster, 8 lbs., previously melted over a slow fire.

2. (Ph. E.) Gum ammoniaenm and galbanim,
of each, | oz. ; melt them together, stnio, and
add of litharge plaster, 4 os.; beeswax, 1 oz.
(both previously melted); and mix the whole
thoroughly. These proportioBS are the aaan as
these of the B. P.

8. (Wholesale.) From lead plaster, 41 lb&;
yellow resin, 12 lbs. ; strained galbannm, > lbs. ;
strained assafcstida, 1 oz.

4. Galbannm, ammoaiaonm, yellow wax, of
each, 1 part; lead plaster, 8 puts. Kelt the
galbannm and ammomacum together and attain,
then mix with the other melted lagredieBta.

Obt. Galbannm plaster is stimolant and resol-
vent, and is much used in inddeot, serofnloQs,
and other tumours, painful gouty aad iIibb— He
joints, in rickets, Ac.

Plastar, Gavlthlar's. {Omibonrt.) Pain pka-
ter, 12 parts; olive oil and white wax, at eadi,
1 part ; melt and odd ef Venioe tmpoBtiBe. 2
parts. More adhesive than the simple rUM

FLABTBX.

Piaster of CHs'gtr. jjjra. HaaiMnxau snr-
siBEBU, L. See QnrOBB.

nattor, QOBt Sflt. ExPLiBXBVM AXT.AB.

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PLABTBB

1846

vcaxnotnt, L. See FIiAstbb (» OuBAmm,

FiTOH, Ac, ; PaPIB, GOVT.

Plaster of Onm. See Plabtib ov OAiBAimt.

Plaster of Hemlock. %». Ekplabtbuk
OOro, B. OIOITTJI, L. JVirp. 1. Wax, 1 part j
Bm^randy piteb, 9 parte; melt them together,
and add of extract of hemlock, 8 parte.

2. (Ph. Bat.) Lead plaiter and beeawaz, of
each. 1 lb.; oUto dl, 6 fl. oz. j melt, and add of
pondered hemlock (recent), 1 lb.

06*. _ Hemlock plaeter ia occasionally tised as
an application to painful and malignant oloen
and tomonn, painfnl jcnnta, Ac A. ipread plas-
ter of it, with 6 or 8 gr. of tartar emetic (in vary
flne powder) nirinkled orer its surface, has been
highly eztoUed as a ooonter-irritant in hooping-
eoogh, phthUs, Ac

Plaater of EaalMBa. Blf», Exfiastbvii
HTOsoTija, Ii. Avp. Aa the last, bat osing
henbane instead of hemlock. As an anodyne, in
Tarioos external affections.

Plastor of I'odids of Lead. (Ph. B.) Syn.
EmiJLaTRVif FLUKBI lODiDi. Pftp. Add io-
dide of lead in fine powder, 1 oz., to lead plaster,
8 parts, and resin, 1 part, previonsly melted to-
gether. Mix thoroogluy.

PlMter of Iodide of Fotas'slmn. Sgn. En-
TLABiaVU POTiJMII lODim (Ph. L.), L. JVwp.
(Ph. Lk) Iodide of potassinm, 1 os. ; olive oil, 2
fl. dr.; tritnrate them together, then add of
strained frankincense (thus), 6 oz. ; wax, 6 dr. ;
and stir constantly until the mass cools. " This
plaster ia to be spread on linen rather than on
leather." Used as a discntient or resolvent ;
more particularly as an application to sorofaloas
tomours and indurations.

Plaster of I'odlne. S^. BmiiAaiBtnt losi-
Hn, L. iVsp. Tritnnte iodine, 1 dr., in a
warm mortar, with olive oil, 1 oi. ; then add of
beeswax, 1 ox.; yellow resin, i os., previonsly
melted together, and stir the whole until it con-
cretes. It should be, preferably, spread at once
on leather, and applied shortly after being pre-
pared. Used as the last.

Plaster of Iodine (Componnd). 1^, Ek-
XLUnsau losntn ooxposinnr, L. frip. 1.
Iodine, 1 dr.; iodide of potassium, 2 dr.; rub
Uiam to a fine powder, add this to lead powder,
a OS.; Bnrgondy pitch, 1 oz., previoaaly melted
together, and j nst about to concrete. More active
tiian either of the preceding.

a. (Exp. lOD. amt BBULAOOKvi.) To bel-
ladonna plaster, 8 oz., melted by a very gentie
heat, add iodine and iodide of potassinm (in fine
powder), of each, 1 dr., and stu: the mixture
nntil nearly cold. Powerfully resolvent aad
anodyne. Used is the same cases as the preced-
ing, when there ia much pain.

Plaster of I'ros. See Piabtbb ov Oxidb ov
Ibov.

Plaster of I"singlaa8. See Flutib, Cotibx.

Plaster, Is'sas. ^n. Euvulstrvu ad pobti-

OUIOS, SFABADBAFUX FBO VOBTIOTrXIB, L. Prep.
1. Prom beeswax, i lb.; Burgundy pitch and
Chio turpentine, of each, 4 oz. ; vermilion and
orris powder, of each, 1 oz. ; mask, 4 gr. ; melted
togeuier and spread open Unsn. l^is is after-
wwds polished with a smooth piece of glass
moistened with water, and ent into pieces.
Toi. n.

2. (Ph. Anst.) Tellow wax, 6 oa.; mutton
suet, 2 oz. ; laid, H oz. ; melt, add of turpentine,
li oz., and afterwards of red-lead, 4 oz. ; dip
pieces of linen into the melted mixture, pass these
between roUers, and when cold polish them, as
before, and cat them into sqnares. The issue
plaster (issue paper; oharta ad fonticnlos) of the
Ph. Suecica is a nearly similar compound, with
the addition of about l-48th part of verdigris
in very fine powder, and bong spread upon
paper.

Plaster, Kennedy's. See Flabtbb, Cobb.

PUstsr, Klrklaad't. SeePLABTXB, AxxoiriA-

OAL.

Plaster of Lab'daavBi. See FLAflXBB, Cb-

PHAUO.

Plastir of lead. ^n. Lbad fiiAstbb, Li-

THABSB p., COKICOII P., DiAOHTMB, SiKPLB
SXAaHYlA>N, WhiTB J>. ; EXPIiABTBirX PIiVMBI

(B. p.. Ph. L.), E. LiTHABSTBX (Ph. E. A D.),

E. OOKHUirS, DlAOHTIiOB BUfPIiBZ, L. JVsp.

1. (Ph. L.) Oxide of lead (litharge), in very
fine powder, 6 lbs. ; olive oil, 1 gall. ; water, 1
quart ; boil them over a slow fire, constantly stir-
ring to the consistence of a plaster, adding a little
boiling water if nearly the whole of that used in
the beginning should be consumed before the end
of the process.

2. (Ph. E.) Litharge, 6 oi.; olive <ril, 12 fl.
OS. ; water, 8 fl. oz. ; as the last

8. (Ph. D.) Uthaige, 6 lbs. ; olive oil, 1 gaU. ;
water, 1 quart.

4. (OUo Kohnkt.) For each lb. of litharge
employed, add i pint of oolonrless vinegar (each
fl. oz. of which is capable of saturating i dr. of
carbonate of potassa), add the oil, boQ until all
moisture is evaporated, and until only a few strieg
of litharge rise to the surface ; then remove the
vessel from the heat, add gradually l-8rd to half
as much vinegar as before, and boil the nuztore to
a proper consistence.

6. (Wholesale.) From G-enoa oil, 7 galls, (or
66 lbs.) ; litharge (perf ectiy free from copper),
28 lbs. ; water, 2i galls. ; boil to a phtster, aa
before,

6. (B. P.) Oxide of lead, in very fine powder, 6
parts ; olive oil, 10 i water, 6 ; boil all the ingredients
together genUy by the heat of a steam-bath, and
keep them simmering for 4 or 6 hours, stirring
constantly until the product acquires the proper
consistence for plaster, adding more water dunng
the process if necessary.

Obt. The London College orders too little oil.
The second, fourth, and fifth f ormuls produce
beautiful plasters, that keep well; those of the
others, altnongh very white, get hard and brittle
much more rapidly. The proper proportion of
oil is fully 2| times the weight of the litharge, — 2i
times appears the best, quantity ; and without
this is used, the plaster speedily gets hard and non-
adhesive. The process consists m putting the water
and the litharge into a perfectly clean and well-
polished tinned copper or copper pan, mixing them
well together with a spatula, adding the oil, and
boiling, with constant stirring, until the plaster
is snfficientiy hard when thoroughly cold. This
process usually occnpiea from 4 to 6 hours, but by
adi^pting tiie fourth formula an excellent plaster
may be made in from 20 to 80 minutes. This
' 86

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FLASTEB

plaater is generally cooled hy immeTuon in cold
water ; and to render it very white, a quality
highly prized in the trade, it is usual to submit it
to laborious 'polling,' in the manner already
noticed.

Z7m. As a simple defensive plaster or strap-
ping; bat principally as a basis tor other
plasters.

Plaster, Uaton's. See Plabtkb, Cottrt.

Plaster, Kahy's. Sj/n. Ekflastbux PLrxBi

CABB0HA1M8, E. p. 0. OOMPOBrTUK, L. Prtp.

(Ph. n. S.) Carbonate of lead (pure white-lead),

1 lb.; olive oil, 82 fl. oz. ; water, q. s. ; boil them
together, constantly stirring nntil perfectly in-
corporated ; tiien add of yeUow wax, 4 oz. ; lead
plaster, 1} lbs. ; and when these are melted and
the mass somewhat cooled, stir in of powdered
orris root, 9 oz. A favonrite application in the
United States of America to inflamed and ex-
coriated surfaces, bedsores, bums, &o.

Planter of Kal'Uot. Sgn. Emflabtbvx kbli-
lon, E. i MBLrLOiO, L. iVep. 1. (Ph. £.
1744.) Fresh melilot, chopped small, 6 lbs. ; suet,
8 lbs. ; boil until crisp, strain with pressure, and
add of yellow resin, 8 lbs. ; beeswax, 4 lbs., and
boil to a plaster. Stimulant. Used to dress
blisters, &c. The greater portion of this plaster
In the shops is made without the herb, and is
eolonred with verdigris. (See the next formula.)

2. (Wholesale.) Take of yellow resin, 18 lbs. ;
green ointment, 4i lbs.; yellow wax, 8 lbs.;
finely powdered verdigris, q. s. to g^ve a deep
green colour.

Plaster of Kenthol. S;/*. EnFLASTBlllt luir-
THOL (B. P. additions, 1890), L. Prep. 1. Menthol,

2 parts ; yellow wax, 1 part ; resin, 7 parts. Melt
the wax and resin, and as the mixture cools stir
in the menthol.

2. lioad plaster, 76 parts ; yellow wax, 10 parts ;
yellow lesin, 6 parts ; melt, strain, and add men-
thol, 10 parts. Mix well, and spread on cloth or
leather.

Plaster, IIerea"rial. Syn. Expubtbuk

KIBOUBUXB, E. HYSBABaYBI (B. P., Ph. L.,

E., &!>.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Add, gradually,
of snlphur, 8 gr., to heated olive oil, 1 fl. dr., and
stir the mixture constantly with a spatula nntil
they unite ; next add of mercury, 8 oz., and tri-
turate until globules are no longer visible ; lastly,
gradnally add of lead plaster (melted over a slow
fire), 1 lb., and mix them all well together.
(About 1 fl. dr. of balsam of aolphur may be sub-
stitnted for the oil and sulphur ordered above.)
These proportions are the same as those of the
B. P.

S. (Ph. E.) Besin, 1 oz. ; olive (ul, 9 fl. dr. ;
mix by heat, cool, add of mercury, 8 oz., and tri-
turate until its globules disappear ; then add of
litharge plaster, 6 oz. (previously liquefied), and
mix the whole thoroughly.

8. (Ph. D.) Oil of tur^ntine, 1 fl. oz. ; resin,
2 oz. ; dissolve with the aid of heat; add of mer-
cury, 6 oz. ; triturate until the globules disappear,
and the mixture assumes a dark grey colour ; then
add of litharge plaster (previously melted), 12
M., and stir the whole until it stiffens on cooling.

4. (Wholesale.) Take of mercury, 7 lbs. ; pre-
pared serum, i lb. ; triturate until the globules
disappear, and add the mixtoze to lead plaater

(melted by a gentle heat), 86 lbs. ; stir them we|l
together, and until they concrete. Very fine
bluish-slate or lead colour.

Oi«. Mercurial plaster is used as a diseutient
in glandular enlargements and other swellings,
and is also applied over the hepatic regions in
liver complainta.

Plaster, Mercurial, with Belladon'na. Sgn.

EMPIIiLfllBTnt HTDBABGTBI OUX BBUASOHItA, L.

Prtp. From mercurial plaster, 6 dr. ; extract of
belladonna, 2 dr.; olive oU, 1 dr. ; mixed by a gentle
heat. One of our most useful anodyne and dis-
eutient applications, in painful scirrhous, scro-
fulous, and syphilitic tumonra. The Medioo-
Chirurgical Pharm. orders i fl. dr. of hydroi^yanic
acid to be added to every 2 oz. of the above.

Plaster of Kezereoa and Cantiiaridas. (Ph. 6.)
i^n, EkpjiAstbuk mbzbxbi okXTRAxanxmt,
L. iVsp. Oantharides in coarse powder, 8 ox. ;
mezereon, cut and dried, 1 oz. ; acetic ether, 10
oz. by weight. Macerate for 8 days, filter, and
dissolve in the filtered li^id 176 gr. of sandarac,
87 gr. of elemi, 87 gr. of re^, which spread on
silk previously covered with the following sola-
tion: — Isinglass, 2 os.; distilled water, 80 ox.;
rectified spirit, 6 oz. by weight.

Plaster of Kln'lum. Sign. Ekplabtbux mini,
E. k lOKio, E. plukbi oxna bubbi, L. Prtf.
(Ph. L. 1746.) Olive oil, 4 lbs. ; minium (red-
lead), in fine powder, 2i lbs. ; wiiier, q. s. ; pro-
ceed as for lead plaster (which it cloaely re-
sembles).

Obt. To ensure a good colour and the qoali^
of keeping well, the quantity of oQ should be in-
creased about l-Srd. When discoloured by heat
it forms the ' brown mimum plaster ' (amp. h
minio fuscum) of old pharmacy. Lead jdaater,
^ther alone or with the addition of a litUa red-
lead, is usually sold for it.

Plaster of Xinlnm (Oouponnd). iS;^ Nu-

BBXBIBO PUBIBB; EKPI^ABTBTW msn OOK-

POSiTVx, L. ; EkplXtbb oa Nubbxbbbo, Ft.
Prep. (^Sovbeiran.) Bed-lead, 12 parts ; olive oil,
8 parts ; grind them together on a porphyry slab,
and add the mixture to lead plaster, 60 parts ;
beeswax, 24 parts, melted togetiier; laaUy, when
nearly cold, stir in of camphor, 1 part.

Plaster, Korrlaon's Adhealva. l^rn. Horn-
biboh's asebbitb pabtb. From wheaten flour,
2 oz. ; mild ale, i pint; stir them together, and
heat tiie mixture to the boiling>-p(ant ; when cold,
add of powdered resin, 8 ox. ; and constantly stir-
ring, again heat them to boiUng. Used as a de-
pilatory in ringworm, &c.

Plaster of Koa'tard. 9fu. ExFunsint
SiNAPiB, L. This is always an eztemporaiiBona
preparation. Flour of -mustard is made into a
stiff paste with lukewarm water, or with vinegar,
and 18 then spread oa a piece of calico or I^en
(folded two or three timea) j over the sor&oe of
the mustard is placed a piece of gause or thin
muslin, and the plaster is then applied to the part
of the body it ii intended to medicate. Itaa^on
is that of a powerful rubefacient and counter-
irritant; but its application should not ba oom-
tinued long, unless in extreme cases. Its sAeda
are often apparently wonderfoL We have seen
very sevrae cases of fiuital neotateia, sore Vhmmt,
painful joints, rbeuamtio pains, we, rdi«nd ia a

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PLA8TBB

1847

few minatei by mesai of a mtuteid plaiter or
'poaUice.'

TUmUr, Mutmaimg. See PLisnB, Mnmnc
(CoMPomro).

FlactarofOkkXlaUetoe. (Sardg.) S^. Ek<
puaramc tiboi QVisom, L. Pnp. To 8 parti
«f melted beeswax add gradually 1 part of jnice
of tme oak miitletoe^ and form a pUwter. In
nemalgic pains.

FlartarafO^pink. Stm. ExpiiiBTBinc Airo-
sinnni, B. opn (B. P., Fb. L., E., k D.), L. JV«p.
1. (Ph. L.) Lead plaster, 8 os. ; melt, and add of
frankincense (thus), 2 m. s next add of extract of
opium, 1 oz., prerionsly dissolved in boiling water,
1 fl. 01. ; and, constantly stirring, eraporate the
mixture over a slow Are to a proper consistence.
Thia ^buter is much stronger t^m that of the
Ph. Ii. 18S6 and of the other British Colleges.

2. (Ph. L. 1886.) Lead plaster, 1 lb. ; melt,
add of powdered thus, 8 oi. ; mix, and further
add of powdsired opinm, i oi.; water, 8 fl. oi.,
and boil to a proper consistence.

8. (Ph. E.) Litharge plaster, 12 oe.j Bur-
gundy pitch, 8 01. ; liquefy by heat, then add, by
degrees, of powdered opium, | os., and mix them
thoroughly. This and the preceding contains
only l-8rd part of the opinm ordend in the
present Ph. L. k D.

4. (Ph. D.) Resin plaster, 9 oi. ; (nnum, in flue
powder, 1 ox. ; as the last. Same as B. P.

6. (Ph. B.) Powdered opium, 1 oz.; resin
plaster, 9 oi.; melt the pUster and add the
opium*

Ob». nie above plaster is reputed anodyne,
aad osefol in rarions local puns ; but its virtues
in tiiis way have bean greatly exaggerated. The
formula of the Ph. L. 1886, from being less costly,
ia still often emidoyed in place of that of .the Ph.
h. 1861. The foUowing is commonly used:—
Lead plaster, 14 lbs.; yellow resin, 2 lbs.;
powdflrad opium, \ lb.

FUstar of Opium and Caatplior. {Dr Pari*.)

Sjfn, EXFIABTKUK OPH IT OAXPKOBB. iVwp.

O^am and camphor, of each, f dr. Lead plaster,
q. a. Mix.

Flactarof Ox'ideof rnm. Sf». Iboxplabtib,
FKASxnronmB p., STBnrflTHximre p. ; Bxplab-

nVK BOBOSAim, E. PEBBI (B. P., Ph. L., E., &
D.), E. VBirrBU, E.pbbbi oztsi bttbbi, L. Prep.
1. (Fh. L.) Lead plaster, 8 os.; frankincense
(thaa), I ox. ; melt them together over a slow flte,
■prinldeinto the mixture sesquioxide of iron, 1
OS., and mix the whole well together.

8. (Ph. E.) Litharge plaster, 8 oi. ; yeUow
dr. ; beeewax, 8 dr. ; melt th

, 6 dr. ; beeewax, 8 dr. ; melt them together,
then add of red oxide of iron, 1 oz., previously
tritmsted with olive oil, 8i fi. dr.

5. (Ph. D.) Litharge plaster, 8 ox.; Burgundy
jriteii, S ox. ; pero^de of iron, in fine powder, 1
oa. ; aa No. 1. Same as B. P.

4. (Wholesale.) From lead plaster (quite dry),
84 lbs. ; powdered yellow resin, 14 lbs. ; ' crocus
snartis ' (lively coloured), 14 lbs. ; olive oil, 8 pints ;
iul7a2.

6. (B. P.) Add hydrated peroxide of iron in
Ibie powder, 1 ox., to Burgundy pitch, 2 ox., and
Utliane plaster, 8 ox., prenoosly melted together,
and tOr me mixtare constantly till it atiinns on

Ob». Iron plaster is reputed strengthening
and stimulant. It is employed as a mechanical
support in muscular relaxation, weakness of the
joints, Ac., especially by public dancers. Its tonic
action is probably wholly imaginary. No. 4 is the
' iifPLAaTBinf BOBOBAKR' of the shops at the
present time.

Plaster, Oxyoro'eenm. Sjfn. Ehplasibum ozt-
OBOOBTTX , L. JPrep. 1. (Ph. E. 1744.) Beeswax,
1 lb. ; black pitch and strained galbannm, of each,
1 lb. ; melt, and add of Venice turpentine, pow-
dered myrrh, and olibanum, of each, 8 oz. ; pow-
dered saflArbn, 2 oz.

2. (Wholesale.) From black pitch, 9 lbs.;
black resin, 11 lbs. ; beeswax and lard, of each,
2i lbs., melted together. Warm, discutient. Still
popular with the lower orders. The saffron of the
original formula never finds its way into the oxy-
crocenm plaster of the druggists.

Plaster, Palm. Syt. EkpiiABtbdx siapal-

XVU, L. ; DlAPAIiICB, EmPLATBB SUPAUfB, Fr.

Prep. (P. Cod.) Lead plaster, 82 parts ; yellow
wax, 2 parts ; melt them together, add of sulphate
of zinc, 1 part ; dissolve in a Uttle water, and con-
tinue the heat, with constant agitation, until all
tiie water is evaporated.

Ob*. This pUwter oritpnall^ contained palm
oil, and tiiis ingredient is still ordered in the
formulss of Plenck and Beuss. Sonbeiran directs
white wax to be employed.

Plaster, Paraeelsas's. Sgn. Ehpiartbuk
Pabaobui, E. WKPTIOUM, L. Prep. From lead
plaster, 28 lbs. ; galbanum plaster, 2 lbs. ; pow-
dered white canella and gum thus, at each, li lbs.,
melted togeOier. The original formula, as well
as that of the Ph. L. 1721, was similar, ijthongh
much more complicated.

Plaster of Piteh. Sly». Poob has*! pubtbb,

OOUT p., AKTIBHXinUTiO P.; BXPUBTBinC
PAUPBBX8, E. AHTIBHBUIUTIOXnf, £. ABTABTHBI-

Tiomc, E. pioiB ooKinrKB, L. This has been
already noticed under the hmd of BBanr Papbb.
It is also, but less frequenUy, spread on doth and
leather.

FbMtar, Prestaf s Adhe'alve. Prep. From
lead plaster, 2| lbs. ; yellow resin, 5 oz. ; Venice
turpentine, 4 oz. ; gum immoniacum and mastic,
of each, 1^ oz. ; made into a plaster, and spread on
linen or dilico.

Plaster of Bed-lead. See Plabtbb op Mnmnf .

Plaster of Bes'in. Sjf. Adsbbitb plabtbb,
BBanrouB p. ; Exfi.A8tbvx ashbbituk, £. bb-
■nra (B. P., Ph. L. A D.), E. bbbihobum (Ph.

E.), E. LITHABSYBI OUX BBBIVi, L. Prep. 1.

(Ph. L.^ To lead plaster, 8 lbs., melted by a
gentle heat, add of resin, i lb., also liquefied by
heat, and mix. The formula of the Fh. U.S. is
similar.

2. (Ph. E.) Litharge plaster, 6 oi.; resin, 1
ox. ; mix witii a moderate heat.

8. (Ph. D.) To litharge plaster, 2 lbs., melted
by a gentle heat, add of powdered resin, 4 oz. ;
Castile soap, in powder, 2 oz. s and mix them
intimately.

4. (Wholesale.) Pale lead plaster (firom a pre-
vious oatc^ and quite dry), 72 lbs.; olive oil
(Gknoa), 8 lbs. ; melt them together in a bright
aad perfectiy clean copper pan, and sift in of pale
yellow resin Qu powder), IS lbs., stirring all the

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1848

PLASTBB

while. The mutnTe is to be cooled, and ' pnlled '
or ' worked,' after the manner of lead plaster.

6. (B. P.) Beain (in powder), 2 parts ; litharge
plaster, 16 parts; cord soap, 1 part; melt the
plaster with a gentle heat, add the resin and soap,
first liquefied, and mix.

Oit. Besin plaster, spread upon calico, forms
the well-known 'BTBAFFiir&' or 'ashsbiyx
7i>abtib' so extensively used to protect raw sur-
faces, support parts, and for dressing nlcers, re-
taining the lips of recent cuts and wounds in con-
tact, ic It IS gently stimnlant, and is thought
to assist the helping process. It is also employed
as a basis for other plasters. The ' hobfixal
FLA8TIB ' of certain houses is of this kind. See

FlJlBTBB a» SOAF (COKFOims).

Flaater, B«aol'Tent. ^». EicFLABTBUif bi-

BOLTUTB, E. BX lOXTIB QUATTTOB, L. iVsp.

(P. Cod.) Galbannm, hemlock, mercurial, and
loap plasters, equal parts, melted together.

FlMtar, Soper*! Royal Bath. JPnp. {CooUg.)
Strained blade pitch, 16 oz. j Burgundy pitch,
10 ot.i tar and beeswax, of each, 1 ot.; melt,
and, when considerably cooled, add of expressed
oil of mace, 8 dr. ; croton oil, 1 dr. ; and spread
the mixture upon heart-shaped pieces of white
sheepskin, without remelting it. Stimulant and
counter-irritant j recommended by its proraietor
as a cure for all human ailments. The ' Bath-
FiiASTBB PiLU,' also prepared by Hr Boper, re-
semble several of the aperient pills atready
noticed. (See ' Anat. of Quaokery.')

Flaatar, SoottTs. iV«p. From lead plaster, U
o>.; olive <^ and white resin, of each, 1 ox.;
melted together, and spread on odico.

Plaster, Sharp's Blade. iV<p. From olive oil,
6 parts; carbonate of lead, 4 parts; beeswax,
1 part ; boiled to a pUster.

FlMter, Simple. See PLAanm, Wax.

Flatter of Soap. Syn. Eicp&ABTBTrx k 8A<
poxi, E. BAFOiria (Ph. L. E. and D.), L. Prep.
1. (Ph. L.) To lead pUster, 8 lbs., melted by a
slow beat, add of Castile soap, sliced, i lb. ; resin,
1 ox., both (also) liquefied by heat, and, constantly
stirring, evaporate to a proper consistence.

2. (Ph. E.) To litharge plaster, 4 os., gum
plaster, 2 os., melted together, add of Castile
soap, in shavings, 1 oz., and boil a little.

8. (Ph. D.) To litharge plaster, 2i lbs.,
melted over a gentle fire, add of Castile soap (in
powder), 4 os., and heat them together (constantly
stirring) until they combine.

4. (B. P.) Cord soap, 6 parts ; lead plaster,
86 parts ; resin (in powder), 1 part j to the lead
plaster, previonsly melted, add the sosp and the
resin, first liqncd&ed, then, oonstantiy stirring,
evaporate to a proper consistence.

06t. Care must be taken to evaporate all the
moisture from the above compounds, as, if any
is left in the plaster, it tarns out crumbly, and
docs not keep well. Much heat discolours it.
(See btloK.)

Soap plaster is emollient and resolvent, and
is used in abrasions and excoriations, and as
a drearfng to soft ooms, lymphatic tmnonrs, ftc

Plaster of Soap (Outpkorated). (P. Cod.) 9g».
ExFiiAffrBirx Boonna oakpeobatux. Soap
plaster, 10 os. i ounphor, 48 gr.

Flastar of Soap (Oaapoiui^. Sg*. Enuu-

TBux BAFoins aoxpoBEnm, E. ASHXBsim, L.
Prtp. (Ph. D. 1826.) Besin plaster, 8 os.; soap
plaster, 2 oz. ; melted together.

Obt. Less emollient, but more stimulaat, than
the simple plaster. The ' BKFLAarBTnc i lUHio
one SAFOHB ' (Ph. B. 1744) was made by melting
1 part of soap with 6 parts of minium plaster.
Neither of the above must be put into water.
See Plabteb of Bsbih, Ph. D.

Plaster of Soap-ce'nte. Sfn. ExPLAVtBVM
OBBATI BAPOKIB (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. From soap-
cerate, heated by means of a water-bath nntil all
the moistnie is evaporated. Sometimes 2 or 8 dr.
each of powdered mastic and gum ammoniaeiim
are added for each pound of cerate. The inadQet
is generally spread whilst still waim. Sm to be
suppurative, resolvent, oooliag, and denoestive.
See Cbbatb (Soap).

2. (B. P.) Curd soap, 10 parti ; beeswax, 12i
parts ; oxide of lead (in powder), 16 parts ; olive
oil, 20 parts; vinegar, 160 parts; bral the raie-
gar with the oxide over a slow fire, or by a steam-
bath, constantiy stirring them until thqr onite ;
then add the soap and hoU again in a similar
manner until all the moisture is evaporated;
lasUy, mix with the wax previonsly diasolved in
the oil, and continue the process till the product
takes the consistence of a plaster.

Plaster of Squill (Gampnmd). Sf». Bkfub-
TBVM BOiix« ooxPOBcruic. />ri*p. Oalbanmn,
i OS. ; soap, i M. ) litharge plaster, 2 os. j melt
togeOuat, and add <qpium, 1 dr.; ammoniaeam,
i oz. ; vinegar of squills, 8 oz., mixed together;
keep them over the fire constantiy stimd till
they are incorporated.

Plaster, St Andrew's. Prtp. From jreUow re-
sin, Sox.; gum elemi, Soz.; Bordeaux turpen-
tine and oU of the bay laurel, of eaoh, 1 oa.;
melted together by a gentle heat. A. stbnalaiit,
resolvent, and adheeire plaster, onoe suppoaed to
possess extraordinary virtues.

PlastMT, Stlck'ing. See Pubihb, Omm,
Plastbb of Bnnr, Ac

Plaater, Stom'aoh. See Piabixb, Abchutb),
&c.

Plaster, Strength'saiiig. See Plabtim of
FBAimaraKKBB and Oxidb of Ibob.

Plaster, Styp'tlo. See Plabtbb of Oxidb of
Iboh, PABAOaunB'a P., Ac

Flaatar of Thus. See Plabcbb of Fbabbxb-

OBXBB.

Flastor of Ter'digria. 8jf». 'SMTLtanvu
.SBUonriB, E. otnrai bubaobvazis, L. Prep. (P.
Cod.) Beeswax, 4' parts ; Burgundy ^teh, 2
parts; melt, add of Venice turpentine and pte-
pared verdigris (in powder), of each, 1 part, aod
stir until the mass is nearly eold. For othor
formula see PuaiBB, CoBV, Ac.

Plaster, Vigo's. %•. BHmaEBUic yiaana,
L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Lead plaater, 40 oi. ; mer-
cury, 12 oc; liquid styrax, 6 oa.; beeswax, tur-
pentine, and resin, of each, 2 oz. ; ammoniacum,
bdellium, myrrh, and olibanom, of each, 6 dr.;
saffron, 8 dr. ; oU of lavender, 8 dr. ; made into
a piaster s. a.

PbMtar, Wans. See OuMWAoaan PuunaB,
BuBStnrsT Pitch P., Ae.

HaatarofWas. iS^ Snnia nuan* i Bk>

PUKEBUH AXXBAHBn, E. BDIFLBZ (Ph. M.), E.

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PLASTIB1IULL8— PLATINISmO

1849

ona,L. Prtp. 1. (Ph. E.) Baeiwax, S oi. j
•net and ydlow resin, of each, 8 oi. ; melt them
together, uid itir the mixtoie brUkly oniol it
ooneretee by oooling.

8. (Ph. li. 1886.) Yellow wax and roet, of
each, 8 Ibi. ; yellow reain, 1 lb. ; a« the lart. In-
tended to be employed aa a limple dreaiing,
eepecially to blistered luifaces. It is now seldom

Plaster, White Siaoh'ylm. See PUiBtbi em
Flaater, Tallow Dlaeh'ylon. See Punn o>
Plaster, Zinco-lead. Bt/n. BxPLiaTBrx zinoo-

nOKBIOim, E. 1>U70IIPH0LY6K>B, L. Prap.

iPh. Snec.) Beeswax, 1 lb, j olire oil and graphite
black-lead), of each, 6 oi.; carbonate of lead,
4 01. ; osida of zinc {impnre), 8 ox. ; olibannm,
li ox. ; boil to a plaster. Astringent and denc-
caat. Other forma snbstitote an equal weight of
litharge for the graphite.

PIiASTSXMDLLS. (S. Uma.) This name
haa been giren to a dressing or plaster consisting
of a layer or sheet of gntt^peroha fixed to mns-
lin. Cte the gntta-percha side is spread a layer
of soft material, of unknown composition, con-
taining one or more active compounds. They
are spread in strips 1 metoe long and 20 em.
wide. Those in common nae contain salicylic
add or a mixture of salicylic acid and creasote.
They are prepared in Germany.

Utn. Hamly for the removal of hard skin, or
as an application to Inpas.

PLATS. The name is commonly given to gold
and silver wrought into instrnmenta or utensils
for domastiouse.

The cleaning of plate is an important opera-
tion in a large estaUiahment, as its donbility,
and much of its beauty, depend on this being
properly done. The common pradaoa of using
mcMonal plate powder is destructive to both <n
thesei as mercury not only rapidly erodes the
sur^e of silver, but renders it soft, and, in ex-
treme cases, even brittle. The only powder that
may be safely used for silver is prepared chalk,
of the best quality. For gold, the form of red
oxide of iron known as •TmmUst'* Mouff* u the
most useful and appropriate.

In hia ' Workshop Baceipts ' Mr Spon recom-
mends the following: — " Take an ounce each of
cream of tartar, common salt, and alum, and boil
in a gallon or more of water. After the plate is
taken out and rubbed dry it puts on a beautiful
ailvery whiteness. Powdered magnesia may be
used dry for artidaa slightly tarnished, but if
very dirty it must be used first wet and then
diy."

ChamoU Uuitibts, a plate brush, or very soft
woollen rags should alone be used to apply them ;
and thdr application should be gentle and long
eontbmed nmier than the revene. Dirty plate,
after being cleaned with boiling water, may be
restored by boiling it in water, each quart of
which contains a few grains of carbonate of soda,
and about an onnce St prepared chalk, calcined
hartshorn, or cnttie-flsh bmte, in very fine pow-
der. The ebullition sets up a gentle trictioa,
wUoh effects its purpose admirably. The boiled
phrte, after being dried, is best 'finished off'

with a piece of soft leather or woollen cloth
which has been dipped into the cold mixture of
chalk and water, and then dried. The same
method answers admirably with German silver,
brass, pewter, and all the s^ter metals. Sea
Fo-WDBB (Plate), Ac.

VLkTaA.. See Piv^TDmc.

PIiA'TDTG. The art of covering copper and
other metals with either silver or gold.

PUting is performed in various ways. Some-
times the silver is fiuxed on to the sunaoe of the
oopper by means of a solution of borax, and sub-
sequent exposuie in the 'plating foruaoe,' and
the compound ingot is then rolled to the requi-
site thinness between cylinders of polished steeL
The common thickness of the silver plate before
rolling is equal to about the l-40th of that of the
oomponnd ingot. Sometimes the nobler metal is
IB«oipitated from ite solutions upon the oopper
by the action of chemical afbiity, or, more fre-
quently, by the agency of eleetaco-chemical de-
oomposition (electro-plating).

The metal employed tor plating is a miztue
of copper and brass, annealed or hardened, aa the
case may require. For electro-plated goods,
' nickel silver ' is now almost invariably em]^oyed.
See ELaoiROTTFi, Oii>i>nia, Pu.Tiinania, Bil-
TiBnro, tc.

PLATlSIBnra. Metals may be coated with
platinum by nearly similar processes to those
already referred to under Puxiva. In . the
' moist way' vessels of brass, oopper, and silver
are conveniently platinised in the following
manner :— Solid biddoride of platinum, 1 part,
is dissolved in water, 100 parti, and to this solu-
tion is added of common salt, 8 parts ; or, still
better, 1 part of ammonio-chloride of platinum
and S parts of chloride of ammonium are placed
in a suitable porcelain vessel, with about 40 parte
of water, and the whole heated to ebullition ; the
vessels or utensils, previously made perfectly
bright, are then immened in the boiling liquid. In
a few seconds they generally acquire a brilliant
and firmly adhering layer of platinum.

Silver plates for voltuo batteries are commonly
platinised in order to make them last and to &ci-
litete depolarisation by immersing them for a few
seconds in a mixturo of saturated solution of
bichloride of platinum, 1 part ; dilute sulphuric
add, 8 parte J water, 4 to 6 parte. Platinum
battery plates are covered with a pulverulent de-
posit of platinum by means of the electrotype.

The electro-deposition of platinum has within
the last few years become an important art. It
is very difBcult to produce a bright adherent de-
posit of platinum. Most of the processes which
have been proposed give good resnlte at the com-
mencement, but the solutians deteriorate from a
variety of causes, the chief among which is the in-
solubiUI^ of platinum as an anode, which neces-
sitetes occasional additions to the bath of fresh
quantities of the platinum salt, whereby the
elestrolytes are continually altoing in conduc-
tivity, and gradually besoming conteminated with
secondary producte. The character of the deposit
of platinum is natunlly impoverished by such
alterations in the conditions.

All the soltitions recommended for electro-plat-
ing, except Boettger's, which is the double

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1860

PLATINOTTPB— PIiATINUM

ehloride of anunoninm and platiiiam in sodium
titrate, are made by treating the platinic chloride
with alkaline salts, the most faroored of which
are the phosphates and oxalates. The result is a
solution of the double phosphate or oxalate, as the
case may be, together with the chloride of the
alkali nom the decomposition of the platimc
chloride.

As the solution becomes impoTerished it is
strengthened by fresh additions of platinic
chloride, with the result that the alkaline chloride
accumulates until the bath is practically spoilt.
Boettger maintains his bath by fresh additions of
the original solntion, but here agun the acon-
mnlation of foreign substances must follow.

W. H. Wahl, who has been investigating the
question of the best method for the electro-deposi-
tion of platinum, states in a recent issue of the
• Journal of the Franklin Institute ' that with an
alkaline platinate solution, an oxalate solntion or
a phosphate solution may be used.

Solntion of platinic hydrate in caustic potash
will give a good deposit of metal, and the bath
may be kept up to a standard by additions of
platinic hydrate without any deterioration due to
the aconmulation of foreign salts. He recom-
mends a eolation of platinic hydrate in the pre-
paration and maintenance of the strength of the
ordinary solution in use, and gives the "following
directions:

The AlitOime PUMnate SobtUon. Platinic
hydrate, 2 oi. ; caustic potash, 8 oi. i distilled
water, 1 gall.

One half of the caustic potash is dissolved in a
quart of water and the platinic hydrate gradually
added ; when solution is effected, the remainder of
the caustic potash dissolved in another quart of -
water is itiired in, and the solution made up to a
gallon.

A current of about two volts is the beet, and
there should be only a slight, if «Q[> evolution of
hydrogen at the cathode, Imt a Uberal one of
oxygen at the anode. The solntion may be worked
at half the above strength. A little acetic acid
improves the working of the bath when a heavy
deposit is required. Articles of steel, nickel, tin,
xino, or Qerman silver are preferably thinly coated
with copper in a hot cyanide bath.

An oxalate solntion may be prepared by dissolv-
ing 1 oz. of platinic hydrate in 4 oz. of oxalic
acid, and dilating to 1 gall. The best plan is to
work with a saturated solntion of the oxalate,
kee^g an undissolved excess always present.
The addition of a small quantity of oxalic acid
now and then is advantageous. The double
oxalate may be prepared by saturating the alka-
line oxalate with platinic hydrate, the strength
of the bath being maintained by the presence of
jhe- single oxalate, as above. The deposits from
these sdntions are sensibly harder than those ob-
tained with the alkaline iMtth, and will bnfF toler-
ably well.

Tha Phoip%ai» Solmtion. Phosphoric add,
■y">P7 (^P- gf- ^'"O' 6 <"•; plAtinio hydrate,
1 — li/Oi.; distilled water, 1 gall.

The add should be moderately dilute, and the
solntion of the hydrate effected at the boiling
temperatore, after which it is diluted to a gallon.
The cnrrent in this case may be stronger Utma in

the previous one. The stinngth is muntained by
additions of platinic hydiat^ The donUe alka-
line phosphates may be used, and are prepared by
neutralising the above with the alkali, and then
adding an excess of phosphoric acid. The depoait
is described as brilliant and adherent, with the
same steely appearance as with the oxalate, but to
a lees pronounced degree.

Platinised asbestos is prepared by dipping
asbestos into a solution of bichloride of platinnm,
or one of the double chlorides of that metal, and
then gradually heating it to redness. It is nsed
as a subrtitnte for spongy iplatinom. See Klm-

rSOTYPa, VOBTAIO EUMJTUOITS'.

FLATnrOTTPE. See Pho»wkapbt.

FLAnVUK. Pto 194-4. H^ PLAsai,
Weitb SOU); Plaiihtm, L. Ahesvy,gieviah>
white metal, oocorring chiefly in oartiiiii <k the
alluvial districts of Mexico and Brasil. in the
Ural Mountains of Bussia, in Ceylon, Bcaail,
Australia, Peru, Borneo, and Caiifaniia. It
occurs in nature only in the metallic state under
the form of grains and small rolled masses, asso-
ciated with palladium, rhodiom, osmium, rathe-
nium, iridium, and a little inm t gold nenally
accompanies it in the form of grains. It has only
been known in Europe sinee 1748.

Prtjp. 1. The uMve alloy of this metal f erode
platinum) is acted upon, a* far as poasible^ by
nitro-hy(uochloric acid containing an excess of
hydrochloric acid, and slightly dilated with water
in order to dissolve as small aqoanUiy of iridiom
as possible ; to the deep yellowish-red and highly
acid solution thus produced ammonium chlwide
is added, by wUoh nearly the whole at the pla-
tinnm is thrown down in uie state of the aramonio-
chloride. This snbstanoe, after being waahed
with a little cold water, is dried and heated to
redness ; the product is spongy metallic plaUnnm.
This is made into a thin onimm paste with water,
introduced into a ilightty conical moald of brass,
and subjerted to a graduated pressure, by which
the water is squeeied out, and the mass rendered
at length suflcienUy solid to bear handling. It
is next dried, very carefully heated to whiteness,
and hammered, or subjected to powsrfol pressure
by suitable means, whilst in the heated state. It
will now bear forging into a bar, and may after*
wards be rolled into {dates, or <bswn into win,
at pleasure.

8. The erode platinnm is foaed with riz parte
of lead, and the alloy treated with dilate nitric
acid (1 : 8) ; the reagent dissolves most of the lead,
and along with it any copper, iron, palladinm,
and rhounm that may be preeent, leaving a reai>
doe, which consists of lead, platinum, and iridinm.
This residue is now treated with dilute aqua regia,
which dissolves the lead and platinum, bat laavea
the iridinm ; the solntion is separated off, the lead
which it contains precipitated with sulphnric aiad,
and then the solaiton of platinic chloriae ia treated
as in Prep. 1.

Prop., 4^0. Platinnm is one of the hekriest
substances known, its sp. gr. being^ 21-6. It is
whiter than iron, harder than silver ; it is infasible
in ordinaiy furnaces, and melts only when ex-
posed to the higliMt temperature obtained by
Deville's ozyhydragen gas furnace, vis. aboat SOOCr
C. It is nnaffeeted by air, water, and all tlM or>

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FLATIKUM

1851

dinaiy acldi, uid even iU polish ia tmi^jiiTed by
the »truiiy«t he»t of a imith'i forge ; aqua regia,
however, diaaolves it, thongh wi^ mneh more
difficnlty than gold ; it ia also miperflcially oxi-
diied by fiued hydrate of potaHinm ; it ii mal-
leable and dnctile. Spongy platinnm, powdered
platinnm, and even porfectly clean platinam-foil
poeaesa the remarkable property of earning the
nnion of oxygen and hydrogen gaaea, and of pco'
moting the oxidation ot other bodies, with more
or leaa elevation of temperature. Platinnm is
precipitated from its solntions by deoxidising inb-
stanoes in the form of a black powder (platinnm-
blaek), which has the power of absorbing oxygen,
and again imputing it to combnstible sulMtancea,
and thns causing tiieir oxidation. In this way
alcohol and pyioxylic sjdrit may be converted into
acetic and formic acids, &c. The slight expan-
Bioa which platinum nndergoes when heated al-
lows of its being sealed into glass without cracking
by naeqiial contraction on cooling.

Flatinnm-black ia simply platinnm in a fine
state of division ; Barthelot, however, considers
that it is really an oxide : it is readily obtained
as follows: — 1. A solution of platinic chloride, to
whidi an excess of carbonate of sodium and a
quantity of sugar have been added, is boiled until
tiie preci{ritate which forms after a little time be-
comes perfectly black, and the supernatant liquid
colourless ; the black powder is then collected on
a filter, washed, and dried at a gentle heat.

8. Platinic ammonium chloride, reduced to very
fine powder, is moistened with strong sulphuric
•cid, and into the mixture a small piece of sine is
thrttst; after a while it is reduced to a black
powder; it is then washed, first with hydrochloric
add, then with pure water, and is, laatly, dried.

8. (ZdramtowUidk.) PUtinum-black, in a
UgUy active condition, can be obtained by
adding 8 to 6 c.c. of solution of perchloride of
pUttioaBi, drop by drop, to a boiling mixture of 16
ce. of givoerin and 10 ce. of solution of caostic
potash of 1-08 sp. gr.

Platinum, in the state of platinum-black, pos-
sesses tiie property of condensing gases, more
especially oxygen, of which it will absorb 800
times its volume, into its pores, and afterwards
giving it ont to various oxidiaable substances.
When placed in contact with a solution of formic
acid it converts it, with effervescence, into car-
bonic add; alcohol, dropped upon it, becomes
changed by oxidation into acetic add, the rise of
temperature bdng often suffident to cause inflam-
mation ; exposed to a red heat it shrinks in volame,
assumes the appearance of spongy platinum, and,
for the most part, loses these peculiarities. That
prepared with sine explodes, whenhe8ted,likegun-
powder. The spongy platinum is obtained by ignit-
ing the amnHmio-platinio chloride at a red heat.

Tettt. If a platinum compound be heated on
a eaiboniaed matdi in a fl«ne a grey spongy
mass is obbdned solnble only in aqua regia. Tbe
sslts of platinum are recognised as follows : —
Solphnretted hydrogen throws down from neutral
and add solutions ox the plantinic salts a black-
ish-brown predpitate, which is only formed after
a time in the odd, hot immediately on heating
tiie liqiiid. Ammonium snlphide also gives a
UaddMi-lnrown predpitate, which completdy re-

dissolves in a large excess of the predpltant, pro-
vided the latter contains an excess of sulphur.
Chloride of ammonium and chloride of potassium
g^ve yellow cryabiUine predpitates,', insoluble in
adds, but soluble in excess of the precipitate np<8l
the application of heat ; these precipitates are de-
composable by heat, with production of spongy
platmum. Ammonia and potauiom hydrate also
give similar precipitates in solutions previously
acidulated with hydrochloric add.

XMm. This may be efCeeted by throwing
down the metal in the form of chloride of ammo-
nium and platinum, which, after being washed on
a filter with a Uttle weak alcohol, to which a little
of the predpitate bas been added, and afterwards
with alcohol alone, may be carefully dried at 212°
F., and wdghed. Or the predpitate may be ig-
nited in a platinnm cmdble, and weighed in the
state of spongy platinnm. 198'26 gr. of the
platinic and ammonium chlorides are equivalent
to 98*76 gr. of metallic platinum.

Utet. Platinum is valuable for making cmd-
blea, capsules, and other utensils or instruments
intended to be exposed to a strong heat, or to the
action of adds. In the form of basins, foil, wire,
and crucibles, it is indispensable to the analytical
chemist. Platinic chloride and the platinic
and sodium chloride are much used in chemical
analyns. Both of these are also used in medi-
cines with the same intentions, and in the same
doses, as the corresponding salts of gold. These
compounds are poisonous. The antidotes and
treatment are similar to those described under
Ooio.

Conebtihig S«marit. Deville and Debray in-
troduced a method of refining platinum which
has already done much to extend the useful appli-
cations of the metal. The process consists in
submitting the crude metal to the action of an
intensely high temperature, obtained by the com-
bustion of hydrogen (or coal-gas) with oxygen in
a cmdble of lime. By this means large quantities
of platinum (60 lbs. or more) can be kept fused
until tiie sulphur, phosphorus, arsenic, and
osmium, geneially occurring in crude platinnm
are oxidised and volatilised, and the iron and
copper are oxidised and absorbed by the lime
forming the cmdble.

Platinic Chloride. PtCI^. Sgn- Biohlobisb
ov PLAinnrK, Chxosidb ot flatimto, Pm-

OHLOBISB OV F. ; PLATIVI BIOHIiOBIDITH (Ph.

L.), PiATuri TBTBAOHiOBrDim, L. Pwp. By dis-
solving scraps of platinum-foil in nitro-hydro-
ohloric add (4HC1,HN0J, and evaporating the
solution to dryness at a gentle heat. — Prop., <f».
Reddish brown, deliquescent, and very solnble in
both water and alcohol, yielding onnge-colonred
solations. It combines with a variety of metallic
chlorides to form ' doable salto.' Used as a test
in chemical anslyds for browning gnn-barrels,
and as an aUeiative in secondair syphilis, &c. —
^^o**> -ft^ ifP' dissolved in distilled water, or
made into a piU with syrapand liquorice powder.
Borne persons prescribe much lai^er doses, but
nnsafely. Hoefer recommends an ointment made
with it as an application to indolent ulcers. In
doses of 6 gr. and upwards it acts as a violent
caustic poison. This last salt is the ' chloride of
platinnm ' of the shops, and the one used in tbe

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1868

PLEUBI8T

krtf and medicine. It formi one of the teat* in-
cluded in the Appendix to the Ph. L.
natlnio InmonlniB Chloride. PtCl4,aNH4Cl.

SjfU. AlOfONIO-OHIiOBtDB 0> VULTISVll, PlA-

TIKO-OBLOKISB 07 AHKOHnni. jPnp. Aaolntion
of chloride of ammoniam ia added to a itrong
Bolntion of platinio chloride, and the precipitate
washed with dilate alcohol.

iVop. Minnte tranaparent, yellow, octahedral
erystala, reiy feebly solnble in water, leu so in
dilate alcohol, and insoluble in acidi ; heat eon>
Yorta it into ipongy platinum.

Flattale Potaisium Chloride. PtCl4.2ECl. Bifu.

PUIINO-OHLOBIDB OF POTAMIUlf, POTAMIO-

OELOBIDB at plathtux. Prtp. A bright yellow
crystalline precipitate, formed whenerer solutions
of the chlorides of platinum and of potassium are
mixed ; or a salt of potassium, acidulated with a
little hydrochloric acid, is added to platinic
chloride. In appearance, solubility, Ac, it oloeely
resembles ammonio-cliloride of platinum.

Flatlnlo Sodium Chloride. PtCl4,aNaa. Sy1^.
CHi.0Bn>B OF FLAinmc Aim sodium, Sodio-

OHIiOBISB OF PIiAmrUK, PLATIBO-BIOHIiOBtDE
OB BOOnTX; PlaTIHI BT Boon OHIOBISinC,
FliATIKI BODIO-OHXOBISXIII, ftc, L. Prtp.
Platinic diloride, 17 parts s chloride of sodinm,
6 parts ; dissoWe the two salts separately in water,
q. s.; mix the solutions, and evaporate, tiut
crystals may form. The ci7stala are large, trans-
parent, and of a yellow-red colour. — Vote, -fg to
i gr. ; in the same cases as the bichloride.

Flatiaie Oxide. PtO,. Sjfu. Bikoxxdb of
FLATtBUX. Frap. 1. By enctly decomposing
the platinic sulphate with nitrate of barium, and
adding pure hydrate of sodium to the filtered
solution, ao as to precipitate only half the oxide
(JBsrcafiM). 8. By boiling platinic ciiloride with
hydrate of aodium in considerable exoeaa, and
then adding acetic acid.

FrcviT^- As the hydrate, Ft{H0)4, it is
s bulky brownish powder; this, when gently
heated, becomes the black anhydrous dioxide, tt
forms salts with the acids, and combines with
some of the bases. The salts haTe a red or yellow
colour, and a remarkable tendency to form double
salts with the alkaline salts.

Obt. Both the oxides of platinum are reduced
to the metallic state on ignition.

FlatiBons Oxide. PtO. /^s. OxntB of piiA-
xnnnf . Prtp. l. By heating to l)elow redness
the platinic chloride and digesting the residne
with hydrate of potassium.

2. By carefully igniting the corresponding
hydroxide.

Prop., 4'e. A dark grey powder, soluble in
ezcen of alkali, and freely ao in the acids, form-
ing brown solntiona of the platinous salts. These
are diatingniahed bom eolations of the platinic
salts by not being precipitated by chloride of
ammonium. Platinous oxalate, in fine oopper-
colonied needles, may be obtijned by heating
platinio oxide in a solution of oxalic acid.

PlatiBoiis Chloride. PtCl,. Syn. PulTibttk
BIOHIiOBIDB. J¥n). 1. By dissolving tlie metal
in aqoa regia and crystallising out the chloro-
platinic acid, H,PtClg, which forms: this heated to
800° C.

8. By heating tpaofff platinum in a entreat of

dry chlorine to between 840° and 860° C.
(Sekattenbtrgir).

Prop. A greenish-grey powder whidi is in-
soluble in water.

FlatlnunGaa. Sign. CUs-fultihb{ Odcubo'S
ais. In Paria tliia gas is employed by gold- and
sUversmiths and electro-platers because it giree
rise to no sulphur product* and bnms withont

giving off soot or smoke. It is free from amell.
team ia decomposed \n being made to pass
throogh a retort filled with red-hot r.harwial. The
hydrcgen being free from the carbonic acid which
ia aaaodated with it, by meansof crystallised car-
bonate of aoda, ia bamt from ao Argand bomer
provided with numerona amall hole*. The fiama,
wliich ia not luminoua in itself, is surroanded hy
a network of moderately fine platinum wire, whid
on becoming white-h^ is Inminons. It bonu
quite steadily, and its illuminating power ia sMd
to exceed alightly that of ooal>gaa.

Flatinnm. Spengy. Prtp. 1. By heating
ammonio-chloride of platinum to redneas.

8. Crude bichloride of platinum and ehkoride «t
ammonium are aepaiately diaaolved in proof ajnrit,
and the one aolution is added to the other as long as
a precipitate forms; this is collected, and, wlUlst
atiU mdat, formed into little balls or pieces, which
are then dried, and gradually heated to redneas.

Prep., ^. These have been noticed aiiove.
Small balls of spongy platinum are used (or tlie
hydrogen 'instantaneous-light' lamp (DObe-
rdner s lamp) ; but they are apt to absorb moistur*
from the atmoaphercb and then lose their power
of inflaming hydrogen until they are r«-dried
and heated.

FUDIUBT. Inflammation of the plenra, or
membrane covering the lungs. The symptoms
of pleurisy are a sharp pain in the side, wUch is
rendered more acute whan a deep breath ia
taken ; quick, short, difficult inspiration ; cough ;
a quick pulse; and fever. Uneh pain is also
en)erienoed if the attempt be made to lie on the
alneteddde.

Plenrisy sometimes accompanies pneumonia or
inflammation of the substance of the lungs. If
allowed to run on, the disease produces lOxaioa
ot serum or of lymph into the cavity of the chest, in
either case giving rise to adheaiona, which cause
embarrassment of breathjng. On the contrary, it
mKv terminate by resolution or complete recovery.
Fleurisy generally arises from exposnre to the
cold. A blow or a wound will abo cause it, and
» not uncommon origin is tiie snUntared end of a
broken rib. In every case the advice of tlie
medical practitioner should be sought upon the
first indications of tlie disease. A perfertly nor-
mal case ot acute pleuriay will attain its maxi-
mum in abont a weu.

TrtaimttU. Perfect rest, warmth, protection
from chill, leeches applied to the affected aide,
followed by bandaging and, when the leech-lute*
will allow, strapping with plaster. James's pow-
der, ipecacuanha, and liquor ammonite aoetatea
are useful medidnea. Alkaline eflTervascing
drinks and liquid foods should be given. Solid*
and stimulants fbrbidden. QenUe Uiateiing or
painting with iodine over the atteoted part of the
chest ia often uaefuL The bowela ahonld be kept
gently acting by aalines.

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FLBnBO-FNBUUONIA OONTAOIOSA— PLUHBAOO

186S

Xpliootle Plenrlay in EoriM. Def. An in-
flunmation of the pleara and lobstance of the
Inngg, pieoaded and accompanied by a low ty-
phoid or adynamic form of fever, which ]a<t8
from leven to fourteen daya. It generally oc-
ean bat once in a leaaon, bat one attack does
not render an animal exempt from a Mcond or
third (IPtiiuMu).

This diaease in an epizootic form raged in the
north of England in 1861-2, and caused great
mortality, eapeoially among yoang horses, and
those removed from pasture to stables.

Alternations of heat and cold in spring and
early sammer, and exposure of the animals, nn-
oovered, to cold winds while waiting in carts and
carriages, are common causes of pleurisy.

Sgitptiymi. The animal is dull and stupid, off
its food, is easily fatigued, and perspires freely on
small provocation. The pulse is 60 to 80 per
minute, and the temperature 103° to 104° j some-
times there is a cotigh, but often this does not
i4>pear in the first three or four days. The extre-
mities are alternately hot and cold, the mucous
membranes injected, the tongue fold, and the
animal does not lie down, and has obvious pain
and difficulty in breathing, indicating pleural
inflammation with exudation ; often there is peri-
carditis in addition.

7\natm»at. 1. Perfect rest on the first signs
of illness. 8. Wann housing in a diy, light,
well>ventilated koM box. 8. Protection from
dranght and cold. 4. Plenty of dotidng to the
body, and bandage on the l^s.

WiUiams strongly oondemna bleeding, purging,
and oonnter-irritation, and advises plenty of (hm.
water to driiA, and warm or cold bran mashes, a
bmled linseed mash every night, roots snch as car-
rots, turnips, or potatoes, and a handful or two of
the best hay. Two or three dosea daily of spirits of
nitrons ether in warm water may be given, and if
the kidneys do not act half-ounce doses of nitrate
of potash; 10-minim doses of Fleming's tincture of
aoonite in a ball three times a day are useful when
the fever is high. Opium should be given as
tincture when the pain is great, with linseed oil
to relieve the constipation caused by it Warm
fomentations applied to the sides for an hour
three or four timea a day give great relief.
When the appetite is very Ind give plenty of
milk, or even eggs beaten in milk,

A similar treatment will prove naeful in ordi-
nary plearisy. If the quantity of fluid in the
chest be large relief most be given by tapping,
followed by careful feeding with warm nourish-
ing food.

PIiEUBIST SOOT. The toot AteUfia* tuba-
fwo. Atinetoreof the root (1 in 10) is employed
•a a remedy for pleurisy and heart disease, acting
as an expMtoiant and diuretic— i>oM, 6 to 40

FLKUBO-PnUKOSIA COSTASIOSA. Daf.
A oontagioDS febrile diswse peooUar to horned
cattle, due to a contagion which gains access to
the system by the lungs, and which, after an in-
cubative period of from two to three weeks to as
many months, induces corapUeations in the form
of extensive exudations within the substance of
&e limgs and on the surfaces of the pleura, finally
lesttlting is eonsoUdation of some portions of the

lungs, occlusion of the tubes, embolism of the
vessels, and generally adhesion of the pleural
surfaces. In some cases there is extensive and
rapid destruction of lung tissue, with death by
suifocation; but most commonly the disease is
of a lingering character, symptoms of great
prostration manifesting themselves, with blood-
poisoning from absorption of the degraded pal-
monary exudates, and death from marasmus and
apnosa {WiUiamt).

Sj/iumifiiu. Lung disease, pleura, new disease,
new de%ht (Yorkshire), pulmonary murrain,
epixootic pleuro-pnenmonia, Ao. Lungensenehe,
Oer. ; peripneumonie oontagieuse, Fr.

Under tiie Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act,
1878, all animals suffering from plearo-pneu-
monia are directed to be slaughtered. And by
the Fleuro-pnenmonia Slaughter Order of 1888,
all cattie bemg or having been in the same field,
shed, or other place, or in the same herd, or
otherwise in contact, with cattle affected by
pleuro-pneumonia, are to be slaughtered within
ten days after the fact of their having been so in
cental has been ascertained, or within such
farther period as the Privy Coondl may in any
case direct.

FLUa'QIHa. The introduction of a mass of
lint, sponge, or other suitable material, into a
wound or cavity, with the intention of arresting
hssmorrhage. It is now seldom adopted, except
in cases of bleeding from the nose, and that only
after more approved methods have fidled.

FLUK. A name applied to several varieties of
the PnuHU domattieiu, Linn., or wild plum.
Among the cultivated varieties, the damson,
greengage, French plum, magnum bonum or
Hogol p., mirabelle p., Orleans p., and prune, are
those best known. Grocers' ' plums ' are nUrina,
or dried grapes.

In the table on the next page will be found
the oompoation of the principal varieties of
plum.

PltUIUA'aO. B»»- Qbaphitb, Buox-uus.
One of the native forms of esrbon. The black
powder known by the name of ' black-lead ' has
no relation to lead, but probably received this
name because pencils made of it caused a mark
on paper resembling that made by lead, only
blaeker. This similarity, together with its m^
tallic appearance, also gave it the name of plum-
bago, from the Latin phmlntm, meaning lead.
The name graphite is derived from a Oreek sonrce,
and bears a reference to its nse as a writing ma-
teilaL It is really a crystalline form of carbon
fonnd in the oldest sedimentary rocks. It is
sometimes fonnd associated with iron in its ores,
and in some districts is found in the form of
veina in the rocks. Its specifio gravity varies
from 2*16 to 2-86. It contains from 96 to 100%
of pure carbon, has a metallic lustro, and eon-
duets electricity nearly as well as the metals. It
was formerly regarded as a carbide of iron, hot
the iron generaSUy found is now known to be
merely in a state of mixture. There are two dis-
tinct varieties of graphite — crystallised or foliated
graphite, obtained chiefiy from Ceylon; and
amorphous graphite (the ordinary plumbago or
black-lead), which is largely impwted to this
country from Qermaay. The Borrowdale mine

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1864

PliUMBAGO

ICInlwUe,

OOmBOB

TdUow.

eiMBgice.

Black-
bine,

middlB-
•i»d

Hum.

Duk

bUek-rad

Pluu.

KUMinuM.

Ttllow.
iUe.

gtMB,

iweet.

Commoo.

IfaUiu.

Sugar

Free acid, reduced to eqaiva-
lent in mali'c add . , .

Pectoas robitancei, fto. . .

A«h

IntoMle matitr t

Seed.

Skins, ko.

PectoM

lAthfrom tMoMU matter in-
eludtd in mt^itt give»\ .

Water

8-684

0-682
0-197
6-772
0-670

6-780
0-179
1-080

2-960

0-960

0-477

10-476

0-818

8-260
0-680
0-010

[0039]
80-841

8-406

0-870

0-401

11-074

0-898

2-862
1-035
0-246

1-996

1-270
0-400
2-818
0-496

4-190
} 0-609

188-761

1

2-262

1-331
0-426
8-861
0-668

8-829
1-020

6-798

0-962
0-786
8-646
0-784

8-640
r 1-990
1 0-630

6-780

0-841
0-832
4-106
0-690

S-124
0-972
1-634

lOOW

99-971

lOOKX) 99-926

lOOKW

100-00

100-00

in CamberUtnd, from wUch the flnert black-lead
was formerly derived, is now nearly ezhansted.
The foliated graphite of Ceylon and other part*
is the principal material employed for making
plumbago cmcibles and other fire-resisting goods.
The amorphous graphite is nsed for making
black>lead pencils, polishing powder for stove* and
grates ('Instre,* 'servants' friend,' &c), and to
diminish friction in heavy machinery (anti-friction
powder). Its powder is also nsed to give con-
dacting surfaces to articles on which it is derired
to deposit copper by the electrol^pe. In medi-
cine plumbago has been used with apparent ad-
vantage in herpes and several chronic skin diseases
as an ointment made with four times its weight
of lard; and internally, in the form of pills.

JWt/toa<io«. For medical and chemical use
graphite may be treated as follows :

1. Heat it to redness with caustic potash in a
covered crucible, then wash it well with water,
b<Hl it in nitric acid and in aqua regia, again wash
it with water, dry it, and expose it at a white
heat to a stream of dry chlorine gas; lastly,
wash it with water, and again heat it to dull
redness.

2. Pure native plumbago, 1 lb., is boUed in
water for one hour, then droned, and digested
tor twenty-f onr hoars in a mixture of water, 8
ox.; nitric acid and hydrochloric acid, of each,
2 ox.; it is, lastly, well washed with water, and
dried.

8. (Brodit^i Prooett.) This is only applicable
to the hard varieties of graphite, as that of
Ceylon. It consists in intrMndng ooanely pow-
dered praphite, previously mixed with l-14th of
its weight of chloimta of potash, into 2 parts of
concentrated sulphuric acid, which is heated in a
water-bath until the evolution of add fumes
ceases. The add is then removed by water, and
the graphit* dried. Thus prepared, this substance,
when heated to a tempeinitnie ap^oaching a red

heat, sweUs up to a voluminous mass of Bnely
divided graphite. This powder, which is quite
free from grit, may be afterwaards consolidated
by pressure, and used for making pendla or other
purposes.

This material is of great use to the electro-
iyper, since it enables him to coat a non-conduct-
ing surface of a mould with a conducting sub-
stance capable of reproducing the finest line*
impressed thereon. For this pnrpoee the very
best graphite should be employol.

That whidi rube into a very fine powder of a
dead-black appearance when undirtnrbed, but
having a metallic Instre when rubbed or brushed
on a surface, is the Ijest. Coarse graphite is use-
less, however mnch it may be lauded by the ven-
dor as being " pnie as it comes from the mines."
Mnch of this native graphite is too impure to be
used for black-leading moulds.

"Coarse impure graphite maybe pnrifled by
heating the powder with snlphnric acid and
potaadum chlorate ; a compound is thus obtained
which, on bdng strongly heated, decomposes,
leaving pnre graphite in a bulky, finely divided
powder '' ( J2owo«), Electrotyper's graphite may
have its conducting power improved by mixing
with it some tin or copper-bronie powder. BIr
Watt gives the foUowing redpe for improving
the conductivity of plumbago : — " Dissolve 1 part
of chloride of gold in 100 parts of sulphuric
ether; this is then to be mixed with 60 parts of
plumbago, and the mixture is exposed to sunlight,
bdng froquently stirred until quite dry."

Blaot-teading or PUmbagoimg. The praoess of
applying plumbago or gnphite to moulds to ren-
der tiieir surfaces conductors of dectridty. Small
moulds of coins and medallions are blaolc-Ieaded
by brushing in the fine plumbago dust with a
sable or camd-h^ brush or peneil. Larger
moulds require larger brushes, which should
always be soft ; whilst those of printing electro-

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PLUMBIC ACID— PLU8IA QAMUA

1856

typei are bUck-leaded by machineiy, the monid
being flzed to a traveUing earriage and oansed to
more to and fro under a vibrating braih. Evary
part of the mould most be ooat^ with the oon-
doeting material, and the coat most be nicely
poliabed to prodnee good raraUe. Some electro-
^iata, it shonld be aid, diipenae with Uie dry
black-leading procen and adopt Knight* i wet pro-
oeas. By tide method the mould is coated with a
thin wa<n of plumbago in water aqnirted on to it
ftom a roae nozile.

FLmfBIC ACn>. Binoiide of lead ocoaaion-
aOy receiTe* thie name (m aooonnt of ita combining
with aome of the baaaa to fonn oompoonda i^hicn
have been called phimbatei.

PunauK oaanauit. see lias, Ckio-

BI9B0*.

FliiniOSX AIiTm. The old name of the lilky
amianthine oijatals of the double sulphate of
aluminium and iron occasionally found on alum
■lato. Asbestos has also been ao called.

PLnmrB cavceb bhudt. see

Caubtio, Plvhxbt'b.

PLU8IA eAlUA, Linn. [From wXoinoc, and
the Greek letter y (^amma), which the wing-mark-
ings resemble in shape.] Thb Siltbb T Moth.
This moth was very abundant in sevoral districts of
Kent in 1881, and in other parts of the oonntiy it
was noticed to be unusually plentiful in this same
year, as well as in 1882. In Scotiand, also, it was
remarked that it was mndi more numerous than
nsnal, and did mnch mischief to swede and turnip
plants, Insh tumip-flelds do not escape, as
several attacks have been reported in Ireland
during the last eight years. The injury caused
is not by any means ao extensive or so serious as
that of the Diamond Back turnip moth, but in
some instances farmers have estimated their losses
from it at from £4 to £6 per acre. An attack
was reported from the neighbourhood of Derby in
1879, where swede and white turnip plante were
infested somewhat badly, and others m the same
season from CK)aport, Andover, and Baigate.

The caterpillars are universal feeders, being
found upon com plants, clover plants, trees,
weeds, swedes turnip, beet, and mangel-wurzel
planta.

Stephana aaya that this ia by fir the most com-
mon species of this genus, frequenting every
hedge and field where lowers abound (' Illustra-
tions of British Entomology,' Hanstellata, by J.
F. Stephens). Sometimes in fields of clover in
bloaaam one may see hundreds of these moths
rising at every step that is taken, attracted
evidentiy hy the honey in the flowers, for the ex-
traction of which the insect has a long tongue.
Mr Whitehead says he has seen swarms upon
sainfoin plants when in flower, as well as upon
vetehee and lucerne. It appeared, from obser-
vations made at this time, that the motiu did not
lay eggs upon these pliats, for they were not
noticed afterwards to iMve any caterpillars upon
them during the summer, bat plante of swedes
and rape not far off were injured to some extent
by the cater^llan of this moth,

A large quantity of moths were especially
noticed swarming npon the flowers of the ' second
cat' of clover plante towards the beginning of
Angnst in 1879, which was a very wet season. I

These were evidently of the second, or even third
generation, and bad probably come from the
turnip and rape fields hard by, or elsewhere, to
Teed upon the honey in the flowers.

The Phitia gamma is veiy common throughout
the Continent. Both French and Qerman writers
speak of it as abundant and destructive to crops
cf most kinds. _ NordUoger says it is common in
Europe, and swarms ftom spring to autumn in
abnnduice. Taachenberg and KOllw also treat of
it as occasioning mnch loss to cultivators, espe-
cially in respect of sugar beat.

Lift BMary. The silver Y moth belongs to
the group meUAim til the Nat. Ord. Lbsi-
DOPTBBA, and the genus Phuia. TtM moth is
nearly { of an inch in len^ of body, with a
wing expanse of from li inches to 1| inches.
The head and thotax and upper part of the body
ore dark grey. The fore-wings are silvery grey,
with a tinge of purple in certain lights, and
darkish markings and a brilliant gloss. In their
centres there is a metallic spot shaped like the
Greek later y, or the English T. The stigmate,
or spots^ on tiie fore-wings are lustrous. The
hind or posterior wings are pale ash-coloured,
with brown marks. Although it is chusifled
among the Socimia it flies at all times of the
day.

In the spring, between the 27th of April and
the 7th of May according to the season, the female
lays eggs singly (Curtis, in ' Farm Insecte,' says
that one female T moth might become the pro-
genitor of 16,000,000 catorpiUan in the space of
twelve months, vis. from the spring of one year
to the following spring), but abundanUy, fixing
them npon the under side of the leaves of various
plants. The egg, seen microscopically, is very bean-
tifnl, having, as Curtis says, a curiously sculptured
shape. Frmn the eggs the caterpillars proosed in
ten days. The caterpillar is green, with pale yel-
low or white lines down ite back, and a more dark
yellow streak along the sides, having somewhat
sparse hairs upon the body. It has only twelve
legs, and moves in a similar manner to the
' Iioopers,' Otomttrida, only that ite ' loop ' is not
so pronounced. Before changing it sjdns a cocoon,
in which the dark chrysalis is ensconced under
the leaves of plaate. This insect passes the
winter in this caterpillar form under laavea, roote
of plants, grass, and rubbish.

JPnvniion, Sunfoin leys and clover l^s kmit
down for more than one season are without doubt
harbours of refuge for the caterpillars, as they
are for many other insecte. Close feeding witn
sheep folded on the land is very demrable where
these moths have been noticed in the summer and
aatnmn, or where swedes, turnips, or rape have
been attacked near. Ontsides ot fields must be
carefully cleaned, and hedges also cleared out at
the bottoms. Strips of grass land most not be
allowed to skirt fields. Paring and burning the
ontmdaa of fields and ditebas which divide flelda
is a good practice for the purpose of destroying
insecte as well as weeds.

Etmadin. Soot broadcasted in the early morn-
ing upon infested plante may be of some benefit;
alM guano or lime; but the caterpillars keep
under the leaves mainly, so that these applications
do not in some caaea prove of full advantage.

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ISM

TVJsauasu.

JDialodging the caterpillan with bonchea of
birch, tone, or green broom fattened to the hone-
hoes is an excdlent remedy, with another hone-
hoe following to bory or kiU them.

IfatunU JlwmJM. Birds, aa rooki, itarlingt,
peewits, thmshes, eagerly eat these oaterpillus,
and shonld be encouraged (' Reports on Insects
Iiuarious to Crops,' by Chas. Whitehead, Esq.,

FJDjeUJCOHIA. Inflammation of the sabatanoe
of the longs. When the inflammation extends
to the plenra, or covering of the longs, the dis-
ease is distingniahed as Plsubo-phktxoxia.
By moat pat^logists pneomonia is described
under the three general heads of — (1> Croopooa
pneomonia, (2) catarrhal pneumonia, (8) chronic
pneumonia, each of which has, by some medical
writers, been subdiTided into other forms and
varieties.

1. AOTTTB OBOUPOVB pmuxONU. This flnt
description of pneomonia is most common
amongst persons of from twenty to thirty yean
of age, although no age escapes it, and it is gene-
rally veiy seven in chsiaoter when it attacks the
very young or old. It prevails mote amongst
men than women, since the former, from their
mon frequent exposure to the weather and to
changes of temperature, run greater risk of
being overtaken by a very fertile cause of cronpal
pneomonia, vii. a sodden chill when the body is
nnnsnally heated.

It fieqoently seizes those sofferiDg from
ohronie ot acote disorden, as weU as thon who
are intemperate and drunken. It often assails
patients suffering from oontagioos and acute
maladies, such as measles, smallpox, pyiamia,
pnerperal fever, ^hns, and, as appean bam the
acoonnts of the recent outbreak of Astrakan
plague, in that disease also. It likewise fre-
^nentl^ prevails amongst the poor and badly fed
hving in the overcrowded quarten of large towns
andeitiee.

The following are the principal symptoms of
•cote croupous pneumonia, given by Dr Roberts
(' Handbook of the Theory and Practice of Medi-
dne,' by V. J. Roberts, M.O., &c.: Lewis,
1878):

"In some oaaes there are premonitory signs of
genenl indisposition for a short time. In pri-
mary, or unmixed pneumonia, the attack tete in
nsaally very suddenly, the invasion being at-
tended with a tingle, tnere, more or Uu fro-
loaged rigor. There may be great proatration
with fever; vomiting or nervous symptoms, via.
headache, deliriom, restless stupor, or, in chil-
dren, convnlaions. The spedal symptoms are
local iiA ffoneroL

"LoetU Bgmptom*. Fain in the side is nsnaUy
present, commonly stabbing or farcing, in>
creased by a deep breath. Difficulty of breath-
ing. Cough also commences speedily; it does
not oome on in violent paroxysms, but is short
and hacking and difficult to repress. Soon
expectoration occun, the expectorated matter
presenting paonUar ehanusten. It it scarcely at
all frothy, but extremely vitdd and adhesive, and
the vessel which contains it mi^ often be over-
turned without its escaping. The expectorated
matter hat a maty colonr or presents vaziont

tints of red, from admixture of blood, and aa the
oase progresses, changes of colour are observed
through shades of y^ow, until finally they be-
come merely like tiie expectoration of bronmtit.
In tome cases of eronpal poenmonia pain and
other symptoms are sometimes very slight or
absent, and the expectoration may be merely like
that in bronchitis, absent, or in low oases present
the appeannoe of a dark, offensive, thin fluid,
resembling liquorice or prune jiuoe.

" General Symptonu. These may be summed
op generally as severe fever with gnat deipNs-
don and prostration. The skin is hot, dry, and
homing. The temperature risea with great ra-
pidity to 108°, 108°, 106°, or sometimes higher.
It has been faiown to reach 107° in oaaea which
recovered, and in fatal cases it has attained to
109*4°. In a large nnmber of instaneea It doea
not exceed 104°. There it umally oonaidazaUe
flashing of the cheeks. The pulse rangea gene-
rally from 90 to 180, or may be much afaore
this."

In the majority of cases this variety of pnaii*
monia has a nivoorable termination, bat, how«ver
slight the form in which it shows itsdf, or the
mildness of its attack, the properly qnalified
practitioner should be called in to oomhat it.
We have described the nature and cause of the
disease, and gf ven the course to be followed in
treating it, for the benefit only of the emigtant
and o^en similarly situated. The above oom-
mentt are meant to apply to the other itmenf-
tiont of pneumonia, whion will be adverted to in
the ooune of the pretent article.

TSnatmeiU to he foUowad m oroufem* feum-
Moaia. Bleeding waa ibrmerly had recoane to,
but this treatment haa dther been abandoned of
lato vean, or very lamly praetited, the only ease
in which ita mdderate employment is raeom-
mended being that in wmch the patianfe is
threatened with death from pariaal privation or
suspension of breath.

Leeches may be applied to the spot in pain,
and a large blister near it, but it is prafemUe to
flnt try the effect of hot f omentationt and pool-
tioes containing laudanum ; or tnipentine aprin-
kled on a warm damp flannel may be tried. A
third of a gnun of tartarised antimony, with a
few drope of landannm, or a third of a grain of
hydrocUorato of morjiiua may be given eveiy
ibnr hours.

"In all lorn forms of the diieata the only
chance is in free tiimmlatio*. At the tsme toia
full doaea of carbonate of ammonia, with bark,
spirits at chhnofonn, ether, eamphor, tad mA
remedies most be adminJtteced. In wiBa eaaet
quinine with iron is useful " (fir SoUHe).

The best diet oooaists of milk and bMf-tea.
The patient, it is needleti to m^, ihoold be kept
in bed, and the temperatnn of hit cbambar
ihould be maintained at about 00° F. It ia alao
most etsential that the room tbonld be tho-
roughly ventilated, and all the expectofted
matter, stools, Ac., thoroughly diaiaf ected heSatt
removid.

a. CAlABBHAli ZimnioiraA. Tba M«to va-
riety of this form of pneomonia ia that wUd
prindpally attacks infants and children, nad t^
qoentiy eomplioates diphtheria, hot^dng-eoogh.

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FOACHINa->PODOSPHJBBA CASTA6NEI

1SS7

rneMlea, and influensa; althoiiKh it may oco»-
■unnlly ooenr when not uwciated wiu thew
diaeaiM.

In the other variety — chnmic catarrhal jHiea-
monla — the greater number of casei arise from
bnmchitu. Many aathoritiei look upon the
laat variety of pnenmonia ai the eanee of a
great prt^mtion of the oaies of pnlmonary
phtbisie.

Sgmpbmu. Then differ, in the great majority
of caiea, from cnrapal pnenmonla, in not being
preceded by rigon. There is always fever and a
rise of bodily temperature from 108° to 106°.
Itiere ia often cojdoos perspiration and increased
pnlse. As the disease progresses the breathing
becomes more difBeult and rapid, the cough
changes its character, and "becomes short, harsh,
hanking, and punfnl, the child endeavouring to
repress it, and having an expression of pain ot
crying ud diminished expectoratiou (Dr

The tnatment of this form of pneumonia con-
fists in keqpiag up the strength of the patient
by meaBS of good nourishing food, and stimulants
jndidously administered. Ammonia and senega
sbonld be given if the suSerer is very weak. In
cardinaiy cases ipeoaeoanha wine will be found
nsefnl. Poultices of linseed or mustard to the
chest are also prescribed. Daring convalescence
the patient requires earefnl watdiing ; his diet
shonld be generous, and shoold inelnde wine, cod-
liver oil, quinine, and iron, or other tonics.

8. Chbosio PHvuifonA. This disease, in which
the anfastance of the lung b in a more or less ab-
notnial or altered condition, is mostly the result
of some previous pulmonary affection. It fre-
quently fdlows suoeesHve attacks of the oatarrhal
variety of pneomonia and the bronchial irritation
aiiring from the inhalation of small particles of
dnat fpyva. oB by substances employed in certain
ocenpationa or mannfactnres, sach as coal, steel,
graiute, tc

The symptoms are pains in the side, cough,
sometimes ocenrring in severe' paroxysms, short-
nesa of breathing, the patient meantime gradually
beccHning thinner and weaker. Sometimes night
■weata occur, but generally theire is little or no
fever.

The best treatment is nonrishing diet, combined
with toaifls and cod-liver oU.

Of late years the doctrine of the contagions
natiue of some forms of acute pneomonia
(whetiier complicated with pleurisy or not) seems
to have been gaining ground amongst medical
praetitioaers. The ww-known fact that the
pleaoo-pneanKRiia of cattle ia propagated by eon-
tagioB, if it does not prove tms contention, is at
any rate "worthy," as Or Farkes remarks, " of
all attention."

VOACH'XI'a. Amongst cooks, a peculiar
method of cooking small articles by a slight b<Hl-
iag or stewing process.

FaAOHXD Baes are {oepared by breaking them
into a small sancepan or stewpan containing
about i pint of boiling water, to which a tea-
spoonful of eommon salt, and, oeaasionally, a little
Tinagar, are added, aad gently simmering them for
three or four minutes, or unci safidenily firm to
Iwwi iwiimial withaepooBttf 'aliea.' Anotherme-

thod is to employ melted butter instead of water,
and to dress them Mther wither without stirring.

Poached eggs are commonly served on toast,
or with fried ham or bacon, with spice or vege-
table seasoning at wiU. They form an excellent
breakfast, or ■ make-shift dinner.'

POSOPHTLLIV. %». BniH o> podo-
FHYLLUX; Bs8iKA.FOD0FHnu(B. F.),L. Ob-
tained from the root of the Podophyllum ptUa-
<■«, Linn., or may-apple.

Prep. 1. The alcoholic extract of may-apple
is digested in cold ether to remove fatty matter,
and is then dissolved in rectified spirit; the solu-
tion ia decoloured with a little animal charcoal,
and filtered; it is, lastly, allowed to evaporate
spontaneonsly.

a. (B. P.jl Podophyllnm, in coarse powder,

1 part ; rectified spirit, 8 parts, or a suficiency ;
distilled water, a sufBoiency ; exhaust the podo-
phyllnm by percolation with the spirit; distil
over the spirit ; slowly pour the liquid remaining
after distillation of the tincture into three times
its volume of water, constantly stirring ; let it
stand £4 hours j collect the resin which falls,
wash on a filter with distilled water, and dry in
a stove. Cbolagogoe purgative ; used as a sub-
stitute for calomel. — I>oit, ^ to i gr., or even

2 gr. It is best to begin with \ gr. (Sqture^.
Prop., ^0. An amorphous powder, varying in

colour from a pale yellow to a deep orange,
solnble in alcohol, and slightly soluble in water.
It is a safe and certain cathartic, superior in
activity to resin of jalap. — Voit, i to 1 gr. See

EXTBAOT OV MaT-AFPLB,

POSOPHTLLUK BOOT. Sfn. Fooofhtlli
BASix (B. F.),L. The dried rhizome of the Podo-
phglUun ptUatum ; imported from North
America. Active and certain cathartic.^X>iMe,
10 to 20 gr.

POIMBPEXBA CASTAGBSI. Tmi Hop Mo-
DKW. or Movu>. This disorder, termed the
' white blight ' by hop planters, is due to a
fungus. Considerable losses were occasioned by
it in the last season, 1890, in certain hop-gardens.
Patches of mildew appeared npon the leaves first ;
directly the burr — ^the incipient cone — showed
itself it was affected and prevented from further
development. Sulphur was used in enormous
quantities, but on account of the wet, cold
weather of July and August its operation was in-
effectual to a great extent. Sulphur acts as a
preventive of mildew, and as a remedy against it,
by the disengagement of sulphurous acid gas,
which is prejudicial to fungoid growths. Heat
and some moisture are essential to the formation
of this gas. In a dull, cold time there are but
few fumes given off. In hot weather there is a
strongly perceptible evolution, and even in
ordinary summer temperature sulphurous acid
gas can be readily smelt on passing through or by
a recently snlphored hop-garden. It is weU
known that sulphur fumes are effectual in check-
ing parasitic fungi in greenhouses and hothouses.
The fumes then are generated by heat and
moisture, and are confined ; while in the open air
they are slowly evolved and cannot be concen-
trated upon the fungus, so that it is not strange
in these circumstances that sulphur often fails in
its operation. n« best possibM conditions tor its

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1868

POISONS— POLISH

proper working are baming ann hmt with sliflit
rainfall. Theae conditiona were entirely wanting
in the last aeaaon. It is ondonbtedly from the
great uncertainty of the action of aolphnr, even
in a climate of greater heat than tiiatof England,
that the French wine producers have discontinued
the Die of lalphur for the vine mildew, and have
had reconrse to snlphate of copper washes, whose
efficacy in keeping the fnngas in cheek is very
great. I have urged hop planters to use these
remedies. A few experiments were made in July,
1890, with the SouUlie lordtlaite, but they were
not carried oat thoroughly, ao that no reliable re-
cords of the results have been obtained. It has been
proved beyond doubt that sulphate of copper solu-
tions, properly mixed, arrest or destroy parasitic
fungi ; it only requires a Uttie trouble and skill
on the part of the hop planters to put it on the
hop pUmts evenly and at right periods. The hop-
washing engines are perfectly fitted to distribute
sulphate of copper washes over hop plants, with
the substitution of copper or lead for iron tanks.

The life history of this fungus has been de-
scribed in previous reports, and it is not deemed
necessary to repeat it here (' Reports on Fungi,'
by Chas. Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

F0I80HS. Sgn. Poibohb, Fr.; Qtm, Oer.
Any substance may be said to be a poison which
possesses an inherent deleterious property of such
a nature as to render it capable of destroying life
if introduced into the animal economy in any
way soever. Those substances which act in a
pnreW mechanical manner are excluded from this
d«&mtion.

Poisons are now usually classed under three
heads : 1, eorrotite poUmu ; 8, irrUant poitomt
and S, neuroUe poiion*.

Oorro$iee JPtuotu, The mineral acids— oxalic
acid — ^the caustic alkalies and corrosive salts,
such as potassium bisnlphate and carbonate, the
chlorides of xiac, tin, antimony, and mercury,
and nitrate of silver.

Jm'Anrt Poitoni. Poisons which cause inflam-
mation of the parts to which they are applied,
generally the alimentary tract. The irritant
action is almost always combined with some more
or less well-marked effect on the nervous system.
The most important divirira of irritant poisons is
into mttaUie and vtgtidble irritants, ontmoJ irri-
tants being grouped with the latter. Arsenic is
the most important metallic irritant, and the
salts of antimony, zinc, and other metals. Elate-
rium, essential oils, and gamboge are examples
of vegetable irrituit'S, and cantbarides of an
animal irritant.

Nearotio Poitoiu. Poisons whose most im-
portant effect is produced upon the nervous
system — morphia, chloral hydrate, hyoscyamus,
digitalis, strychnia, prussic acid, nitro-benzol,
phenol, alcohol, aconite, belladonna, and many
others.

Treatment of Poitoning. Under the heading
AvTiDOCB and under eadi separate drug some
account will be found of the special symptoms
produced in each case, and the mode of treat-
ment. When corrosive poisons have been taken
and there is great damage to tissues, the use of
the stomach-pump is undesirable by reason of
the ri^ of perforaiiiig the gullet or stomach.

In all other cases it can at least do no hano.
Adds may be neutralised by lime-water or aae-
charated lime-water, or by frequently repeated
doses of chalk or whiting and water, or the alka-
line carbonates. Alkalies are similarly to be
neutralised by dilute acids. The effects of corro-
sive and irritant poisons must be counteracted
afterwards by the administration of oil and de-
mulcents ! opiates may also be required to allay
the intense pain, and this is particularly the ease
with carbolic acid. In poisoning by prussic add
artificial respiration is our only help, and this
should be persisted in till all hope is gone. In
alkaloidal poisoning emetics should be followed
by tannin, tincture of galls, strong tea, and ooSee^
in the hope of reducing the alkalmds to an in-
soluble form.

FOLABIBATIOV (of Light). Aehauigepio-
doced upon light by the action of certain media
and surfaces, by which it oeases to present the
ordinary phenomena of reflection and tranamisaiott,
and, on the undnlatory theory, instead of tra>
vernng all planes the beam of light is more or
less perfecUy restricted to one. Light thua
affected is said to be 'plane polarised.' Instru-
ments or apparatus employed to effect this change
are called ' polariscopes.' Although the polarisa-
tion of light is freqnentiy employed as a means
of cheminl investigation, and is of the utmost
interest to the philosophical inquirer, ita con-
sideration scarcely comes within the province of
this work. See ■ Watf s Diet, of Chemistry,'
' Qanof s Physics.' Ac

FO-LIO-TO. A vatie^ of oil of peppermint,
prepared in China. It it sold as Japanese drops,
in small bottles, with a label in Chinese. The
oil is rich in menthol, and used by the Chinese
and Japanese to paint on painful parts, espedally
to relieve toothache and neuralgia.

POLISH. Various substances, diffining widely
from each other, are popularly known nndw
this name. See FowsiBa, Vaxhibh, &&, and
hilow.

Foliali, Vreneh. See Fbsxoh Pokibh {bekm).

PoUili, Trench Bevtvar. Prtp, 1. Liineed oil,
I pint ; pale lac varnish and wood naphtha, of
each, i pint; well shaken together, and again
every time before use.

2. Methylated rectified spirit, 8 pints; linseed
oil and Fronch polish, of each, 1 pint; as the
last.

8. Linseed oil (pale), 1 quart ; strong distilled
vinegar, \ pint; spirit of turpentine^ i pinti
muriatic add, 1 os.

Fnmltnia dean. Pr«p. 1. Pearlash, 8 oc. ;
soft soap, 4 oz. ; beeswax, 1 lb. ; water, 1 gall. ;
boil until the whole is united and forms a creamy
liquid when cold.

2. Beeswax, | lb.; good yellow soap, ilb.;
water, 6 pints ; boil to a proper oonnstenoe with
constant agitation, then add of boiled oil and
spirit of turpentine, of each, \ pint. For use,
the above are diluted with water, spread upon the
surface with a painter's brush, and then polished
off with a hard brush, eloth, or leather.

8. Boiled oil (pale), \ pint; beeswax, H ocj
mixed by heat. Applied by a ' rubber,' and at
once polished off.

4. (For wooden fnmiture.) White wax, 8

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FOLLABD— POKATUM

1S69

put*; nrin, 2 parta; true Venice turpentine,
t fiait melt at a gentie heat. The warm mais,
completely melted, ii poured into a itono jar,
agitated, and 6 parfaa of rectified oil of turpentine
added thereto. After twenty-foor hoars the
man, haying the eonaistency of ioft batter, is
ready for nae. Befbre nsing the paite the form-
tore ihonld be waihed with loap and water, and
then well dried ('Dingler'i Jonrnal').

Vnniltiire Oil. See Oils, HtZBD.

Fnntitnre Faate. Prep. 1. Oil of toipentine,

1 pint alkanet root, i os.; digeet nntil snffl-
ciently coloured, then add <rf beeiwax (scraped
small), 4 oc; pot the Teuel into hot water, and
itat nntn the miztnie ia complete, then pot it into
pota. If wanted pale^ the attanet root eboiild be
omitted.

a. (White.) White wax, 1 Ih.; aotntion of
potaiaa, i galL; boil to a proper ooneiftence.
• Vnndtiira Foliah. Idiueed oil, 10 oz.; tur-
pentine^ 8 oi. ; vinegar, 2 oi. ; metiiylated spirit,

2 OB. ; hydiochlorie add, i ox. Mix the oils with
the hydrochloric acid, them add the vinegar and
spirit. Thia shoold be applied sparingly, and the
fnmitare well mbbed afterwards. It gives an
ezeeUent polish, and leaves no flngwmaAs if
weUmbhed.

Ctoniaa Tnmltnre Polish. This semi-trans-
Incent white paste, known on the Continent aa
'Moehel-politor- Pomade^' haa been submitted to
analyaia^ and the result shows that it ia composed
of 8S per cent of hard panlBn, and 66 per cent,
of tnnentine. We am infonned that it can be
made by taking 8 os. of hard paraffin to 1 jnnt
of turpentine. The paraffin must be carefully
melted, and the turpentine gpradually added, great
precaution being taken lest the mixture in&me.
It is stirred until it assumes a creamy consistency,
and is then poured into appropriate boxes.

PoUah, Hanets. See BiiAOxne, HABxm.

Polish, Leather. See BLAonve.

Pdlah fiir Karble. Mr. W. C. Dnrkee (Boston,
17.S.A.) givea the following formula for a marble
dreanng or poliah : — Pure beeswax, 10 parts ;
Japan gold sue, 2 parts ; spirits of turpentine,
88 parts. The mixture is of creamy consistence,
and ahould be applied in amall quantities, with
tiie aid of a jneoe of white flannel. If it is de-
aired for uae upon white marble, white wax may
be substituted. The same preiiaration can be
used with advantage on woodwork. The Japan
riae prevents the atiddneaa which exiata when
wax alone ia used.

Foliih ftn Show, liqnld. Lampblack, 1 dr.;
<»1 of turpentine, 4 dr. j alcohol (meUiylated
apirtt), 12 oi,; shellac, H oi, ; white turpentine,
Sdr.; ssndarac, 2dr. Ibke a solution by digest-
ing the mixture in a dose vessel at a gentie heat
and strain.

Prendt Paliah. Shdlac, H oz. ; gum benzoin,
i oz.; gun sandarac, i oz.; metiiylated apirita,
i pint. IKssdve.

POLXABO. See Flovx.

POLTCEBSST. Sf. FoLTOHS»Tim, L, A
term formerly applied to several medidnea on
account of the numerous virtues they were sup-
posed to possess, Sal polydureatus b the old name
tat solpliate of potassa.

POITCHSOITS, The name formerly given t*

the colouring matter of saffron, bom the variety
of colours which it exhibits with different re>
agents. Its alcoholic and aqueous solutions aie
of a golden yellow; nitric add turns it green ;
sulphuric add, first blue, and then lilac,

POLTSBBXUB C0KPLAIATU8, Linn, Tn
THOUBAim Lbs 8 (ItUUpedei). Though these are
not insects in the strict sdentific meaning of the
term, as having no wings, nor undergoing any trana-
formation, and not having bodies divided or cut,
they must be described hare as having the habits
of insects and haUts ii^urions to cultivation.
Linnnus classified these among the order ApUra,
and Mr Murray in his ' Handbook of Economic
Entomology' follows thia daaaiflcation, and treats
them as insecta. These thouaand legs are utterly
distinct from, flnt, WWewormt, wiu which they
are sometimes confounded; second, Centipedm
{Seolopandrida), of which there are many spedes
not coming within the scope of this work, aa
living mainly upon animal snbstancea.

The thousand legs eat wheat, oats, and barley
plants, but they are not nearly so destructive as
wireworma and several other root-eating insects.
They do much harm also to bean and pea crops,
and are most injurious to French beans and broad
beans in market gardens, and market garden
farms in Easex, Bedfordshire, Surrey, and Kent,
The species named above, Poljfdetpuu complana-
tuM, ia perhapa the most troubleaome to ftan cropa
generuly, but all the spedes are more or leas in*
jurioua to vegetation.

L^ Suitory. The female laya egga in the
spring in damp places under stones and dacayhig
wood and leaf rubtnah. From these tiny worms
come, which do not attain their full growth and
power of reproduction until two years. They
have only three pairs of legs at first. In course
of time tiiese are multiplied even to as many aa
one hundred pairs. They live for five years, and
always under ground. This spedes is about nine
lines, or three quarters of an inch in length.
Other species, as Julut gvUtttu, are an inch long.

PrntuHon, As the Polydesmi, aa well aa the
Jnlidn, like dampneas and moisture, wet land,
and boggy, marshy places should be drained, A
good dressing of hot lime should be ploughed into
land infested with them early in the spring to
destroy their eggs. Rubbish and decaying matter
must not be aUowed to lie about in fidds,

Sewtediei, When com is attacked dressings of
soot, lime, nitrate of soda, and guano may be used
with some advantage, espeoally if soaking
showers follow the appUcations. In cases where

Cand beans are steering from thdr onslaughts
e and hand hoeing should follow dressings of
these manures. In market gardens pieces of
swedes, mangels, or vegetable marrows, if pro-
curable, should be put between the drills to attract
the millipedes from the growing crops, aa they
burrow into these like wireworma, and can be
taken from them and destroyed (* Beports on
Insects Injurious to Crops,' by Charles Whitehead,
Esq., F.Z^.),

POX'ACB, SeedssB.

POXATUK. i^ PoiauDX,Fr. This term
was originally applied to a fragrant ointment pre-
pared with lard and apples ; but is now wholly
restricted, in thia country, to aolid greasy sub-

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1S60

POMEOBANATB— FOmCADB

(ttnce* aied in drawing the hmir. The pomstami
of French pharmacy (poiocasbs, ftBAiBBas uioi-
OAXBirrBUBUi — P. Cod.; LiPABOLia — Gaiboort;

LIPABOI.^8 snd UPABOID^g— B&ral ; BTBABOLia

— Chjreau) are soft ointmentB, having a banB of
lard or fat, withont reaiuoiu matter. See Olira-

HBHT and POXMASB.

FOKEOSAS'ATE. The fruit of JPmnieagramt-
turn, Linn., cnltirated from early antiquity for it«
fruit i naturalised in the Mediterranean region, but
a native of Weatem Aua, louth of the Caepian,
and not of Carthage, as its name would denote
{Malmm punieum). It was known to the Hebrews
under the name Simmon, and is mentioned in
Deuteronomy as a product of Palestine. The
root is an excellmt vermifuge; the bark gives
the colour to yellow morocco leather, which is
tanned with it. The dried rind of the fruit is
valued as a remedy in India for diarrhoaa and
dysenten. Walking-sticks are made from the
stems of yonng plants imported from Algeria.
Fruit (FoxiaBAHAia; auxaxTA, uuii puvica)
is cooling and astringent; fruit-rind (poiCR-

eUAHATa PBXL ) KATACOBIUX, OOXTBX SBAIT ATI ;

eBAHAXlTK — Ph. L.) and root-bark (asAXATi
BAsnc — B. P., Ph. L., E., and D.) are powerfully
■atiingent, detersive, and anthelmintic ; the last
more particularly so. The double flowers of the
wild tree (BALAUBTiirsB ; balacbiub), as well as
those of the cultivated one (cttini), are tonic ahd
astringent. — Dou, 16 to 20 gr. of the root-bark,
repeated every 80 to 40 minutes, until four doses
have been taken, followed hy castor oil ; in tape-
worm. As an astringent, all the parts described
are commonly given under the form of decoction.

POHHASE. [Fr.] The term applied by Con-
tinental perfumers to any soft fragrant ointment
(roiCATXTx).

In the preparation <tf pommades one of the
first olgects of consideration is to obtun their
fatty basis in as fresh and pure a state as pos-
sible. Lard, beef, and mutton suet, beef marrow,
veal fat, and bear's fat are the substances com-
monly employed for this purpose, either singly
or in mixtures of two or more of them. The fat,
carefully selected from a yonng and healthy
animal, after being separated from eztraneous
skin and fibre, is pounded in a marble mortar, in
the cold, until all the membranes are completely
torn asunder. It is next placed in a covered por-
celain or polished metal pan, and submitted to
the heat of a water-bath, which is continued
until its fatty portion has liquefied, and the albu-
minous and aqueous matter, and other foreign
substances, have completely separated and sub-
sided. The liquid fat is then carefully skimmed,
and at once passed through a clean fluinel filter.
In this state it may be aromatised or perfumed
at will ; after which, when it is intended that the
pommade should be opaque and white^ it is assidu-
ously stirred or beaten with a glass or wooden
knira, or spatula, until it concretes ; but when it
is desired that it should appear transparent or
crystalline, it is allowed to cool very slowly, and
withont being disturl>ed. To prevent the accession
of rancidity, a little bencoic acid, gum benioin,
or nitric eUier maybe added to the fat, whilst in
the liquid state, as noticed under Fat and Onrr-
KBHT. Sometimes a small portion of white wu

or beeswax (according to the intended eolonr of
the product) is melted with the fat to increase ita
soU(Uty. Some makeia employ a few grmina of
powdoed citric acid per ounce, in a like maniwr,
with the intention of increasing the whitenasa of
the compound ; but the practice is not to be com-
mended, as pomnudea so prepared prove iiquriona
to theh^.

The i^«nch perfumers, who are ealebnted for
the variety and excellence of their posninadea,
divide them into four classes :

1. PoxxASBa BT nrrusioir. These are made
by gentiy melting in a dean pan, over a water-
bath, 2 parte of hog's lard, and 1 part of beef
suet (botii of the flnest quality, and careAilly
' rendered '), and adding thereto one part of the
given flowers, previously carefully incked and
separated trom foreign matter i or, if tb« odorous
substance is a solid, tiien coarsely bruised, but not
reduced to fine powdor. The mixture is Mxt
digested at a very gentie heat for from 12 to M
hours, with occasional stirring, the veaael boin^
kept covered as much as possible during the whole
time. The next day the mixture is reheated, and
again well stirred for a short time, after whish it
is poured into oanvas bags, and these, tmng
securely tied, are submitted to powerful pzessure,
gradually increased, in a screw or barrel pnas.
This operation is repeated with the same fs^ and
fresh fiowen, several times, until the pommade is
sufflcientiy_ perfumed. A good pommade requires
thrice to six times its weight in flowen to be thus
consumed ; or of the aromatic barks and seeds a
correspon^ng proporticm. The pommadea of
casna, orange flowers, and several othen kept by
the French perfnmen, are prepai«d in this
manntf.

2. FOKWAOBB BX CX>BTAOT (BimjnrsAaB).
These are made by spraadiug with a palette knife
simple pommade (made with lard and a«et aa
above) on panea of glass or pewtsr jiKtet, to the
thickness of a tnger, and sticking the surf aoa all
over with the sweet-soented flowers. These last
are renewed daily for one, two, or tiiree months,
or until the pommade has beccmie snfficientiy per-
fumed. On the large scale, the panea are plMed
in small shallow frames, made of four pieces of
wood nicely fitted together, and are tiien eloaely
piled one upon anoUier, On the amall scale,
pewter plates are generally used, and th^ are in-
verted one over the other. In some of the per-
fumeries of France many thoosands of frames
are employed at once. The pommadea of jaamine^
jonquil, orange flowen, narcissus, tuberose^ violet,
and some ouer delicate flowen wv prepared in
this manner.

8. PomuvBS BT Aspmoir. Thaae are pre-
pared by simply adding the fragrant eaaenoea or
essential oils, in the required quantity, to the
simple pommade of lard and suet to produce the
proper odour. In this way the pommades of ber-
g&motte, cMrat, cinnamon, lemons, lemon thyme,
lavender, limettee, marjoram, Portugal rosea, rose-
mary, thvme, verbena, and about forty othen
kept by the Parisian perfumers, are made.

4. MixBB roiOKASBB. Of theseagNat wie^
existe, prepared by the addition of jadicions son-
binationa of the more esteemed perfnmat to aimide
pommade; or, by the admixture et (be diibrent

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POHMAOE

1861

perfamed pommaidea whUct in the lemi-Uqnid
state. (S«e below.)

Tbb ooloubkd POKicASBS derive their respec-
tive tints from tinctorial matter added to the
melted fat before perfuming it. Qbbkt is given
by gum guaiacum (in powder), or by the green
leaves or tops of spinach, parsley, Javender, or
walnut; — BBS, by alkanet root and carmine; —
TBLLOw and OBAxaa, by annatto or palm oil.
Whitb poxkasbs are made with mutton suet
instead of beef suet. The bbowk and bIiAOX hard
pomatums, vended under the name of ' COB-
MBTiQUB,' are noticed at page 668. A few com-
pound pommades are used as skin cosmetics.

FoBUBade. i%r». Vomatux. Prtp. 1. (Plain
POXATTM, SlXPU p.) a. From lard, 2 lbs.;
beef suet, 1 lb.; carefully rendered as above.
The ordinaiy consistence for temperate climates.

h. Lard and suet, equal parts. For warm
climates. Both may be scented at will.

2. (SOBITTXD POKATUX.) a. Plain pomatum,
1 lb. ; melt it by the least possible degree of heat,
add of essence of lemon or essence of bergamot^
3 dr., and stir the mixture until it concretes.
This forms the ordinary ' pomatum ' of the shops.

b. Plain pomatum, ij lbs. ; essence of bergamot,
li dr. ; essence of lemon, 1 dr. ; oils of rosemary
and cassia, of each, i dr. ; oil of doVes, 20 drops.
More fragrant thim the last.

Bonuaade, Caator Oil. iVvrp. 1. From castor
oil, 1 lb. ; white wax, 4 oz.; melt them together;
then add, when nearly cold, of essence of berga-
mot, 8 dr. J oil of lavender (English), i dr. ;
essence of ambergris, 10 drops. Snpposed to
render the hair glossy.

2. (Crystalliaed.) From castor oil, 1 lb.;
spermaceti, 3 ox.; melt them together by a gentle
heat, add of essence of bergamot, 8 dr.; oil of
verbena, lavender, and rosemary, of each, i dr. ;
pour it into wide-moothed glass bottles, and allow
it to cool vary slowly and undisturbed.

8. Castor oil, 680 parts; vaseline, 170 parts;
yellow wax, 100 parts. Perfume to fancy.

Pommade, Castor Oil and Olyoerin. (American
receipt.) White wax, \\ oz. ; glycerin, 2 oz. ;
castor oil, 12 oz. ; essence of lemon, 6 dr. ; essence
of bergamot, 2 dr. ; oil of lavender, 1 dr. ; oil of
doves, 10 drops ; annatto, 10 gr. ; rectified spirit
and distilled water, of each a sufficient quantity.
By a moderate heat dissolve the wax in a small
pOTtion of the castor oil (one fourth), and triturate
it with the remainder of the oil and glycerin till
quite cod; then sdd volatile oils. Lastly, rub
tiie annatto with a drachm of water till smoothly
suspended s add a draehm of alcohol, and stir
the colouring into the pommade antil it is tho-
roagbly mixed. Avoid much heat.

Pommade, Caianave's. Prep, From prepared
beef marrow, 4 ox. ; tincture of canthandes (P.
Cod.), 8 to 4 dr. ; powdered cinnamon, i oz. ;
mdt them together, stir until the spirit has, for
the most part, evaporated, then decant the clear
portion, said again stir it nntil it concretes. Be-
oommended as a remedy for baldness and weak
hair. It is to be used night and morning, the
head being washed with soap and water, and after-
wards with salt and water, b^ore applying it.
Dr Cattdl scents it with the oils of origanum and
bergamot instead of dmuKoon.
TOL. n.

Pomaiade, CoUaote. Prep. 1. Oil of almonds.
8 oz. ; white wax, J ox, ; melt them together, and
add of tincture of mastic (strong), 1 oz. ; essence
of bergamot, i dr. Used to stiffen the hair and
keep it in form.

2. Burgundy pitch (true), 8 oz.; white wax,
2 oz. ; lard, 1 oz. ; melt, and, when considerably
cooled, stir in of tincture of benzoin, 1 oz.;
essence of bergamot, i dr. Used to fasten f^se
curls.

Pommade, Cowslip. Prep. From plain pommade,
2 lbs. ; essence of bergamot, 3 dr. ; essence of
lemon and essence of orange peel, of each, 1 dr. ;
hnile an jasmin and essence de petit grain, of each,
i dr. ; essence of ambergris, 6 drops.

Pommade, Crystallised. Prep. From olive oil
and spermaceti, as crystallised castor oil pommade,
with scent at will.

Pommade of CninunberB. Sg*. PohkadbdbCok-

OOICBBBB, Fr. ; UKaUBNTUH OUOUIIIB, L. Prep.

Lard, 10 oz. ; veal suet, 6 oz, ; balsam of tolu, 9
gr.; rose water, 44 minims; cucumber juice, 12 oz.
by weight. Melt the lard and the suet over a water-
bath, and add the tolu, previously dissolved in a
little alcohol, and then the rose water. When
clear, decant it into a tinned basin, then add to a
third of the cucumber juice, and stir continually
for four hours ; pour off the juice and add another
third, stir as before, then pour off, and add the
remainder of the juice ; separate as much as pos-
sible the fat from the liquid, mdt by a watcr-l»th,
and after some hours skim, and put into pots.
(Beat when in a semi-liquid state with a wooden
spatula, when it will become much lighter and
nesrly double in bulk,)

Pomaiade,Daiidraff. Salicylic acid, 80 gr.; borax,
16 gr. ; Peruvian balsam, 26 minima ; oU of anise,
6 drops ; oil of bergamot, 20 drops ; vaseline, 6
drachms. Mix.

Pommade d'Alyon. See OniTiCBin? of Nisbio
Aom, and CuPB.

Pommade de Beantfi. Prep. From oil of
almonds, 2 oz. ; spermaceti, 2 dr. ; white wax, 1)
dr. J glycerin, 1 dr. ; balsam of Peru, i dr. ; mixed
by a gentle heat. Used as a skin cosmetic as
well as for the hair.

Pommade de Casse. Prep. From plain pom-
made, 1 lb. ; palm oil, \ oz, ; melt, pour off the
dear, and add oil of cassia and hnile au jasmin,
of each, 1 dr. j neroli, 20 drops ; oil of verbena
or lemon-grass, 16 drops ; otto sf rosts, 5 drops ;
and stir until nearly cold. Very fragrant.

Pommade d'Hebe. Prep. To white wax, 1 oz.,
melted by a gentle heat, add of the juice of lily
bulbs and Narbonne honey, each, 2 oz. ; rose
water, 2 dr, ; otto of roses, 2 drops. Applied night
and morning to lemove wrinkles.

Pommade de Vinon de I'Snclos. Prep. Take
of oil of almonds, 4 oz.; prepared lard, 8 oz. ;
juice of honseleek, 8 fl. oz. Used chiefly as a
skin coemetio. Said to be very softening and re-
freshing.

Pommade, Divine. Prep. 1. Washed and
purified beef marrow, 2 lbs.; liquid styiax,
cypress wood, and powdered orris root, of each,
2 oz. ; powdered cinnamon, 1 oz.; doves and
nutmeg, of each (bruised), \ oz, ; digest the whole
together by the heat of a water-bath for six
hours, and then strain through flannel.

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1368

POMMADE

2. Plain pommade, 2 lbs.; essence of lemon
and bergamot, of each, 2 dr.; oils of lavender
and origanam, of each, 1 dr.; oils of verbena,
cassia, cloves, and neroU, of each, 12 drops; huile
an jasmin, 3 dr.; essence of violets, i ox.

Pommade, Dapnytren's. Frep. 1. Take of
prepared beef marrow, 12 oz. ; melt, add of
baame nerval (see Ointment, Nhbyihb), 4 oz.;
Peruvian balsam and oil of almonds, of each,
8 oz. ; and lastly, of alcoholic extract of cantha-
rides, 36 gr.; (dissolve in) rectified spirit, S fl.
dr. This u the original lormuls for this cele-
brated pommade. The following modifications of
it are now commonly employed : —

2. (Cap.) Beef marrow, 2 oz. ; alcoholic ex-
tract of cautharides, 8 gr. ; rose oil, 1 dr. ;
essence of lemons, 80 drops.

3. (Onibourt.) Beef manow and 'baome
nerval ' (see page 1167), of each, 1 oz. ; rose oil,
1 dr.; alcoholic (or acetic) extract of cantha-
rides, 6 gr. ; (dissolved in) rectified spirit, q. s.
These compounds are used to promote the growth
of the hair and to prevent baldness, for which
purpose they are usually coloured and scented
according to the taste of the manufacturer. To
be useful, they should be well rubbed on the scalp,
at least once daily, for several weeks, and the
head should be occasionally washed with soap and
water.

Pommade, East India. Prep. Take of suet,
3 lbs. ; lard, 2 lbs. ; beeswax (bright), ^ lb. ; palm
oil, 2 oz. ; powdered gum benzoin, 3 oz. ; musk
(previously triturated with a little lump sugar),
20 gr. ; digest the whole together in a covered
vessel, by the heat oFa water-bath, for two hours,
then decant the clear portion, and add of essence
of lemon, i oz. ; oil of lavender, i oz. ; oils of
cloves, cassia, and verbena, of each, 4 dr. A
favourite pommade in the East Indies.

Pommade for Preckles. ('New York Drug-
gists' Circular.') Prep. Citrine ointment and
oil of almonds, of each, 1 dr. ; spermaceti oint-
ment, 6 dr. ; oil of roses, 3 drops. Mix well in
a wedgwood mortar, using a wooden or bone
knife.

Pommade, Hard. 8sn. Hasd pokaivk,
Boiii, F. Prq>. 1. Take of beef suet, 2 lbs.;
yellow wax, i lb. ; spermaceti, 1 oz. ; powdered
benzoin, ^ oz,; melt them together, tiien add of
oil of lavender, 2 dr. ; essence of ambergris, i dr.
Before it concretes pour it into moulds of paper or
tin-foil.

2. Mutton suet and lard, of each, 1 lb. ; white
wax, 6 oz. ; melt, and add of essence of lemon,
2 dr. ; oil of cassia, i dr. Other perfumes may
be employed at will.

Hard pomatums are used to gloss and set the
hair. They act both as ' pommade ' and ' flxatenr.'
See CoBUBiiQUE.

Pommade, Xaoassar. Prep. From castor oil,
6 oz. ; white wax, 1 oz. ; alkanet root, i dr. ;
heat them together until sufSciently coloured,
then strain, and add oil of origanum and oil of
rosemary, of each, 1 dr. ; oil of nutmeg, i dr. ;
otto of roses, 10 drops. Said to be equal in
efficacy to kacassab oil.

Pommade, Harechal. Plain pommade scented
by digesting it viithpoudre marSehaU.

Pommade, Marrow, ^n. Maxbow poma.

TUH. Prep. From prepared beef marrow, i lb.;
beef suet, | lb. ; palm oil, i oz. ; melted together
and scented at will.

Pommade, MUleflenr. Prep. From plain pom-
made scented with a mixture of essence of lemon
and essence of ambergris, each, 4 parts ; oil of
lavender, 2 parts ; oil of cloves and eesenoe de
petit gjain, of each, 1 part ; or with other like
perfumes so proportioned to each other that no
one shall predominate. Much esteemed.

Pommade, Boll. See Poicxadb, Habd.

Pommade, Soman. Seei«2o».

Pommade, Bose. 8gn. Bou foxatvk. This
is plain pommade or hard lard which has been
well beaten with ean de rose, or, better still,
scented with otto of roses. It is sometimes
tinged with alkauet root.

Pommade, Soft. Plain pomatum scented at
will.

Pommade, Sonbeinu'e. Prep. From beef
marrow, 1} oz. ; oil of almonds, i oz. ; disni-
phate of quinine, 1 dr. Recommended for
strengthening and restoring the hair.

Pommade, Transparent. Prep. Spermaceti,
2 oz. ; castor oil, 6 oz. ; alcohol, '6 oz. ; oil of
bergamot, i dr. ; oil of Portugal, ^ dr.

Pommade, Transparent BrllUantise. Melt
together on a water-bath 200 grms. of snet and
120 grms. of clear amber resin ; while liquid and
at a temperature of about 80° C. add to the
resinons fat a solntion of 160 grms. of caustic
soda (40°) in 800 grms. of rectified spirit. Use
a vessel for holding these ingredients which will
enable them to be boiled. Heat the contents of
the vessel until saponification is complete, and a
transparent soap has formed. Meanwhile melt
in a separate vessel 4 kilos, of vaseline in 6 kilos,
of castor oil by the heat of a water-bath. Add
by portions 690 grms. of the transparent soap
mass, and 3 kilos, of rectified spirits. Heat the
whole until bubbles rise to the surface, then ponr
out, colour with gamboge, and perfume with 100
grms. of oil of sweet orange or any other per-
fume.

Pommade, Tanilla. Sg*. Rohan pokiudi;

POKXASB A LA TANILLB, POKXASB ROXAIN, Fr.

From plain pommade and pommade & la roae,
of each, 12 lbs. ; powdered vanilla, 1 lb. ; heat
them together in a water-bath, stir constantly
for one hour, let it settle for another hour,
decant the clear, and add oil k la rose, i\ lbs. ;
bergamot, 4 oz.

Pommade, Taaeline. In the following formulis
the fatty basis consists of 3 parts of white vase-
line and 1 part of creasin (purified mineral wax).
These substances should be melted together and
placed in a warm porcelain vessel, the colouring
matter added, and the whole diligently stirred
until the mixture is of the consistence of thick
cream ; then add theperf nmes, and pour into pots
or bottles :

Pommade i la Rote. Fatty basis, 1000 part» ;
oil of rose geranium, 16 ports ; oil of bergamot,
6 parts ; oil of neroli, 2 parts. To be coloured a
fiUnt red with alkanet.

Pommade & VBfliotrope. Fatty baaia, 1000
paits ; oil of cassia flowers, 7 parts ; oil of bitter
almonds, 8 parts ; oil of cinnamon, 8 parts j
Peruvian balsam, 9 parbk

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POND'S BXTRACT— POETKR.

1368

Powmadt am SiMa. FMty batia, 1000
portt; oil of beigsmot, 8 parte; <ril of bitter
tdmondi, 6 parte ; oil of neroli, 4 parte ; oil of
ylang-ylang, 1 put. To be coloared green with
■pinacn.

Pommadt a» Citron. VtAtjf basia, 1000
parte; oil of lemon, 10 parti; oil cf bergamot,
2 parte ; oil of citronella, 2 parte. To be CMOored
ydlow with f^mboge.

Pommade amx OrMigei. Fatty bans, 1000 parte;
oil of orange-peel, 10 parte; oil of bergamot, 2
parte ; oil of rose geraniam, 2 parte. To be
colonred orange with annatto.

POBD'S SXTBACT. An aromatio water dis-
tilled from the leaves of Samamelit virginica, or
winter bloom. It is also known as baidina.

Vtei. Valnable bssmostetdc, very useful in
piles, or to check mncons ^diarges, or as an
application to bruises and wounds.

FOPPT. Sg». Whitb pofft; Fapatbb bok-
nnmnt, Jj, The capsules or fruit ("mature,"
Pb, h. i " not quite ripe," Ph. £.) form the pop-
pies or poppy-heads of the shops (fafavbbis
CAfsrxx; PAPA viB, Ph. L., £.,&!).). They are
anodyne and narcotic, similar to opium, but in
only a very slight degree. The seeds (kaw beh)),
which are sweet, oleaginous, and nutritious, are
used as a substitute for almonds in confectioiiery
and mixtures, and are pressed for their <nl. See
ExiKAOT, Opiuk, and Stbup.

^^VVT) Bad. Syn. Cokn poppt, Cobb bosb ;
PapATBB bhcbab, L. The fresh petals or flowers
(BUdASOB PBTALA ; BHCBAB, Ph. L., E., & D.) are
reputed pectoral, but are chiefly employed on
account of their rich colour. See Stbvp.

POPTJIIV. 8gn. PopiTLiinni, L. A peculiar
neutral, oryitalluable substence, formerly sup-
posed to be an alkaloid, found, associated with
BAUOnr, in the root-btffk of the Populmi trtmula,
Linn., or aspen.

Pnp. Concentrate the decoction by a gentle
heat, and set it aside in a cool situation to crys-
tallise ; Resolve the crystals which are deposited
in rectifled spirit, decolour them by digestion with
animal cliarcoal, fllter, and again crystallise. To
render them still purer they may be rediasolved
and crystellised a second and a third time, if
necessary.

Prop., i^. It resembles salicin iJi appearance
and solubility, but, unlike Uiat substance, has a
penetrating sweet taste. Dilute acids convert it
into benzoic acid, grape sugar, and aaliretin ; and
with a mixture dt sulphuric add and biclinnnate
of potasaa it yields a large quantity of galicy-
lons add. It appears to be tonic, stomachic, and
febrifuge.

FOSXILAnr. See Pottbbt.

FOSK. The value of pork as an artide of
diet is well known. That from the young and
properly fed animal is savoury, easy of diges-
tion, and, when only occasionally employed,
highly wholesome ; but it is apt to disagree with
some stomachs, and should, in such cases, be
avoided. To render it proper for food it should be
thoroughly bat not overcooked. When salted it
is less digestible. The frequent use of pork is
said to favour obesity, and to occasion disorders
of the skin, espedally in the sedentary. See
MlAT.

POS'PETSIZED, POBFHTSIZA'TIOV. Words
coined by recent pharmaceutical writers, and
possessing similar meanings to lbtioatbd and

LBnaATIOK.

FOBPHTBOX'nr. A nentral crystallisable
substance discovered by Merck in opium. It is
soluble in both alcohol and ether, insoluble in
water, and is characterised by assuming a
purplish-red colour when heated in dilute hydro-
chloric acid.

POKaroO. See BnrewoBK.

POS'TXS. This well-known beverage, now
the common drink of the inhaUtente of London,
by whom it is generally termed ' beer,' orig^inated
with a brewer named Harwood in 1722. Pre-
viously to this date, 'ale,' ' beer,' and ' twopenny'
constituted the stock in trade of the London pub-
lican, and were drunk, either singly or together,
under the name of 'half-and-half' or 'three
threads,' for which the vendor was compelled to
have recourse to two or three different casks, as
the case might demand. The inconvenience and
trouble thus incurred led Mr Harwood to endea-
vour to produce a beer which should possess the
flavour of the mixed liquors. In this he sucoeeded
so well that his new beverage rapidly superseded
the mixtures then in use, and obteined a general
preference among the lower classes of the people.
At first this liquor was called 'entire' or 'entire
butt,' on account of it being drawn from one cask
only, but it afterwards acquired, at first in de-
rision, the now familiar name of ' porter,' in con-
sequence of ite general consumption among por-
ters and labourers. The word ' entire ' is still,
however, frequently met with on the signboaida
of tevema about the metropolia.

The characteristics of pure and wholeaome
porter are ite transparency, lively dark brown
colour, and ite peculiar bitter and slightly burnt
taste. Originally these qualities were derived from
the ' high-dried malt ' with which alone it was
brewed. It is now generally, if not entirely,
made from ' pale' or ' amber malt,' mixed with a
BufScient quantity of 'patent' or 'roasted malt/
to impart the necessary flavour and colour. For-
merly this liquor was ' vatted' and 'stored' for
some time bcriFore bdng sent out to the reteiler,
but the change in the teste of the public during
the last quarter of a century in favour of the mild
or new porter has rendered this unnecessary.
The best 'draught porter,' at the time of ite con-
sumption, is now only a few weeks old. In this
steto only would it be tolerated by the modem
beer-drinker. The old and add beverage that was
formerly sold under the name of porter would
be rejected at the present day as ' hard ' and nn-
pleasant, even by the most thirsty votaries of
malt liquor.

The 'beer' or 'porter' of the metropoliten
brewers is essentially a weak mild ale, coloured
and flavoured with roasted malt. Ite ricbnoas in
sugar and alcohol, on which its stimulating and
nutritive properties depend, is hence less than
that of an nncoloured mild ale brewed from a like
original quantity of malt. For' pale malt is as-
sumed to yield 80 to 84 lbs. of saccharine per
quarter; whereas the torrefied malt employed by
the porter brewers only yields 18 to 24 Ids. per
quarter, and much of even this small quanti^ is

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1864

PORTEB

altered in ito propertiea, and ii incapable of under-
going the Tinona fermentation. In the mana-
factore of porter there ii a wute of malt which
does not occur in brewing ale ; and the consnmer
most, therefore, either pay n higher price for it
or be content with a weaker liqoor.

The hygienic properties of porter, f of the most
part, resemble those of other malt liqnors. Some
members of the faculty conceive that it is better
suited to persons with delicate stomachs and
weak digestion than either ale or beer. That
there may be some reason for this preference, in
inch cues, we are not prepared to deny, bnt
nndonbtedly, when the intention is to stimulate
and nourish the system, ale is preferable. Cer-
tain it is, however, that the dark oolonr and
strong taste of porter render its adolteration
easier than that of ale, whilst anch adulteration
is more difficult of detection than in the paler
Tarietiea of malt liqnors. "For medical pur-

rie«, ' bottled porter ' (obkkvibu iiAanrASii)
usually preferred to 'draught porter.' It is
useful as a restorative in the latter stages of
fever, and to support the powers of the system
after surgical operations, severe accidents, Ac"
{Ptrtira, ii, 982). When ' out of condition' or
adulterated, porter, more than perhaps any other
malt liquor, is totally nnfit for use as a beverage,
even for the healthy; and when taken by the
invalid, the consequences must necessarily be
serious. Dr Ure says that pure ' porter,' " when
drunk in moderation, is a far wholesomer bever-
age for the people than the thin acidulous wines
of France and Germany ."

The manufacture of porter has been described
in our article on BBXWiHe, and is also referred to
above. It presents no difficulty or peculiarity,
beyond the choice of the proper materials. A
mixture of ' brown ' and ' bUek malt' is thought
to yield a finer flavour and colour to the pale malt
that gives the body to the liqnor than when
'black' or 'roasted malt' is employed alone.
The proportion of the former to the latter com-
monly varies from l-6th to l-4th. When ' black
malt ' is alone used, the proportion varies from
the 1-lOth to l-16th. 1 lb. of 'roasted malt,'
mashed with about 79 lbs. of pale malt, is said to
be capable of imparting to the liquor the flavour
and colour of porter. The following formulss
were formerly commonly employed in London :

1. (OsAnaET POBTEB.) From pale malt, H
qrs.; amber malt, S qrs.; brown malt, \\ qrs.:
mash at twice with 28 and 24 barrels of water,
boil with brown Kent hops, 66 lbs., and set with
yeast, 40 lbs. — Prod., 28 barrels, or 3i times the
mali^beddes 20lniTels of table-beer from a third
mashing.

2. (BoTTLiva POKTXB, Bbowit 8T0UT.) From
pale malt, 2 qrs.; amber and brown malt, of
each, 1( qrs. ; mash at 8 times with 12, 7, and
6 barrels of water, boil with hops, 50 lbs., and set
with yeast, 26 lbs. — Prod., 17 barrels, or 1\
times the malt.

The purity and quality of porter as well as of
other malt liquors may be inferred in the manner
noticed under Bbbb, but can only be positively
determined by a chemical examination. For this
purpose several distinct operations are required :

1. Bieknttt m aloohoi. This may be cor*

rectly found by the method of M. Gay-LiiMae,
or from the b(nling-point. (See AloohokOIU-
IBT and Ebullioscofb.) The metiiod with
anhydrous carbonate of potass* will also give
results sufficiently near to the truth for ordimay
purposes, when strong or old beer is operated on.
The quantity of the Uquor tested should be 8600
water-grains measure ; and it should be well agi-
tated, with free exposure to the ur. after weigh-
ing it, but before testing it for its alcohol, llio
weight of alcohol found, multiplied by 1*8587,
gives its equivalent in sugar. This may be con-
verted into 'Inewer's pounds' or deniity per
barrel, as below.

8. JUthttU in BAOOHABIlrB or EZTBAOXtTB

kaitib, a like quantity of the liqnor under
examination, after being boiled for some time to
dissipate its alcoliol, is made np with distilled
water, so as to be again exactly equal to 8600
water-grains measure. The sp. gr. cj the result-
ing liquid is then taken, and this is reduced to
' brewer's pounds ' per barrel by multiplying its
excess of densiir above that of water (or 1000)
by 860, and pomting off the three light-band
figures as decimals.

8. Acano aoid or vurBaiB. This is deter-
mined by any of the common methods of Aon>l-
KBIBT (which tM ; see also Acbtubtbt) . Kach
grain of anhydrous acetic add so found repre-
sents 1-6765 gr. of sugar.

4. OratUy tf OBieiHAL wobt. This is ob-
tained by the addiUon of the respective quanti-
ties of saccharine matter found in Not. 1, 2, and
8 (oioiM). These resnlts are always slightly
under the true original density of the wcrt, as
cane sugar appears to have been taken by the
Excise as the basis of their calculations. More
correctly, 12% of proof siurit is equivalent to 19
lbs. of saccharine per barrel. 10^ lbs. of saeeha-
rine are equivalent to 1 gall, of proof sinrit.

6. I)€teetio% of HABOonoB. This may be
effected either by the method descrilied under
AixATOiD, or by one or other of the following
processes :

a. Half a gallon of the beer under examination
is evaporated to dryness in a water-bath; the
resulting extract is boiled for 80 or 40 minutes
in a covered vessel with 10 or 12 fl. oz. of alcohol
or strong rectified spirit, the mixture being occa-
sionally stirred with a glass rod, to promote the
action of the menstruum ; the ijcoholic solntion
is next filtered, treated with a sufficient quantity
of solntion of diacetate of lead to precipitate
colouring matter, and agun filtered ; the filtrate
is treat^ with a few (&ops of dilute sulphuric
acid, again filtered, and then evaporated to dry-
ness ; it may then be tested with any of the nsual
reagent*, mther in the solid state, or after being
dissolved in distilled water. Or the extract,
obtained as above, may be boiled as directed
with rectified spirit, the solntion filtered, the
spirit distilled oft, and a small quantity of pure
liquor of potassa added to the aqueons residue,
which is then to be shaken up with about 1 fl. ot.
of ether; lastiy, the ethereal solntion, which
sepanttes and floats on the surface, is decanted,
evaporated, and the residuum tested, as before.
The alkaline liquid, from which the ether has
been decanted, is then sep«nited from any pre-

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FOBTEB

1866

d^tete whioh may have formed, and both of
tbaM separately tested for alkaloidi.

5. From 2 to 8 oz. of pTirified animal charcoal
is diffused throogh i gall, of the beer, and is
digested in it, with frequent agitation, for from
8 to 12 honrs ; the liqnor is next filtered, and the
charcoal collected on Uie filter is boiled with about
i pint of rectified spirit ; the resulting alcoholic
solution is then further treated as above, and
tested. This answers well for the detection of
strychnia or nnz vomica.

6. Piauo Acns. This substance, which was
formerly employed to impart bitterness to Lon-
don porter in Uen of hops, may be detected as
follows;

a. A portion of the liqnor •£^tated with a
little solation of diaoetate of lead loses its bitter
flsToor if it depends on h(^w, bnt retains it if it
depends on picric add.

0. Pure beer is decoloured and deodorised by
animal charcoal ; bnt beer containing picric add,
when thus treated, retains a lemon-yeUow colour
and the odour.

0. Unbleached sheep's wool, boiled for six or
ten minutes, and then washed, takes a canary-
yellow colour if picric add be present. The test
IS so delicate that 1 gr. of the adulterant in
150,000 gr. of beer is readily detected.

d. {VitaU, ' Chemical News,' vol. zzxv,p. 76.)
The author agitates 10 cc. of the suspected beer
in a test-tube with half its volnme of pnre amylic
alcohol. If the mixtme is left to settle, the
amylic stratum separates entirely, and is drawn
off with a pipette, evaporated to dryness at a con-
venient temperature in a porcdain capsule, and
the residue is finally taken up in a little distilled
water with the aid of lieat. The aqueous solu-
tion is divided into portions, and submitted to the
fdlowing reagents. One portion is treated with
a solution of ammonio-suli^te of copper, which,
in dilate solutions of picric add, instantly pro-
duces a tupidify, due to the formation of very
minnte erystala of the ammonio-picrate of copper,
cf a gFsenish colour. Another portion may be
treated with a concentrated solation of cyaidde of
potasnnm, which produces a blood-red ooloor,
more or less intense, according to the quantity of
picric acid present, in consequence of the forma-
tion of iso-purpuric add. A third portion may
be submitted to the action of sulphide of ammo-
nium, rendered still more alkaline by the addition
of a few drops of ammonia. Here also a blood-
red colour is produced, which becomes more in-
tense on the application of heat, snd is due to the
formation of picramio acid.

7. MnrnAii kattib. a. A wdgbed quan-
tity of pure beer evaporated to donees, and
then incinerated, does not famish more than
from -Kfi, to -86% of ash, the qnantitv varying
within these limits with the strength of the
liqnor and the character of the water used in
brewing it.

i. A solation of this ash, made by decoction
with distilled water, shoold be only rendered
slightly turbid by soIuti<ws of acetate of lead,
bichloride of platinum, nitrate of baryta, nitrate
of silver, oxalate of ammonia, and salphoretted
hydrogen.
«. U the beer contained common salt, the

above solation will give a dondv white precipitate
with a solution of nitrate of silver. Each grain
of this precipitate is equivalent to f gr. of com-
mon salt (nearly).

d. If QVEXK OOBWaAi (sulphate of iron) is
present, f erridcyanide of potassium gives a blue
precipitate, and f errocyanide of potassium a bluish-
white one, turning dark blue in the air ; solution
of chloride of barium Kives a white precipitate,
each grain of which, after Iwing washed, dried,
and ignited, represents 1-188 gr. of crystallised
protosulphate of iron.

B. The ash digested in water slightly acidulated
with nitric add, and then boiled, yields a solution
which, when cold, gives a black precipitate with
salpharetted hydrogen, and a white one with
dilute solphuric add when lead is present.

8. Witttt»i»'* method fi>r fk» dattction of
AswsKRiWM i» boor. (' ijrchiv der Fharmade,'
January, 1876; 'Pharm. Joomal,' 8rd series,
V.) One litre of the sospaeted beer is eva-
porated by a moderate heat to the consist-
ence of a thick syrup. This is poured into a
tarred glass cylinder capable of containing ten
times its volume and weighed; five times its
wdght of 98° to 95° alcohol is added, and the
whole frequently stirred, by means of a thick glass
rod, during twenty-four hours.

By this means all the gum, dextria, salphates,
phosphates, and chlorides are separated, and a
comparatively small portion is obtained in solu-
tion. After clearing this solution is decanted, the
reddue is again treated with fresh alcohol, the
two products mixed, flltered,and the alcohol driven
off 1^ a gentle heat.

a. Of the syrupy residue left after this evapora-
tion, a small pwtion is diluted with three times
its bulk of water, and tested for picric add,
according to the directions already given.

i. The remaining largest portion of the <yrap is
sgitated for some time with six times its wdght
cX pnre colonrless beniol (boiling-point 80°
C); this is decanted off, and the operation is
repeated with fresh benzd, and the two liquors,
tiie first of which has become yellow, the second
having scarody changed colour, are evaporated at
a gentle heat. The pale yellow, rednons residue
thus obtained may possibly contain bmcine, strych-
nine, colchicine, or colot^thin. To ascertain this,
three portions of the resin are placed on a porce-
Idn eapsole; one is treated with nitric add (sp.
gr. 1'88 to 1*40), another vrith concentrated snl-
phorie add, and the third, after a few morsels of
red chromate of potash have been added, also with
sulphuric add. A red colour, produced by the
nitric add, indicates brudne with certainty, and
a violet colour colchicine i a red colour proilaced
by sulphuric add indicates ooloeynthin, and a
purple-violet, produced by sulphuric add and bi-
chromate of potash, reveiQs sfa^chnine. Bedn in
which one or other of these cdorations is prodnoed
possesses an extremely bitter taste; that in whioh
the coloration does not take place is also bitter,
bnt the bitterness recalls the well-known hop
flavour.

c. The syrup which hss been treated with
benxol is freed by gentie heating from the small
quantity of benzol remuning, and agitated twice
with pure colourless amylic s^cohol (boiling-point

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POBT.FIBE— POTASH

182° C.)- The first portion of the alcohol ■oqairei
• more or leu wine or golden-yellow ooloor. It
wonld take np any picrotoxin or aloei if preaent,
and thereby acquire a strongly bitter taste.

If neither of these two snbstances be present,
the amylic alcohol does not become bitter, becanse
neither the hop bitter nor the remaining f onr bitter
principles — absinthin, gentipicrin, menyanthin,
and quaasiin— are solable in it.

In order to distinguish picrotojdn from aloes a
portion of the first obtuned amylic alcoholic solu-
tion is poured upon glass, and allowed to evaporate
spontaneously. If a fine white crystallisation be
formed picrotoxin is present, if not aloes is present,
and can only be recognised by its peculiar saffron-
like odour.

d. The syrup which has been treated with
benzol and amylic alcohol is freed by means of
blotting-paper from the small quantity of amylic
alcohol adhering to it, evaporation by heat bong
impracticable in consequence of the high boiling-
point of the alcohol, and shaken with anhydrous
ether. This takes up the hop bitto' yet present
and absinthin. After evaporation the latter is
easily recognised throngh its wormwood-like
aroma; it also gives a reddish-yellow solution
with concentrated snlphurie add, which changes
quickly to an indigo-blue odloar.

«. After treating with ether the syrup has yet
to be tested for gentii^crin, menyanthin, and
qnassiin. As it is now free from the hop bitter,
a decidedly bitter taste points to one of these
three substances. Any remaining ether is re-
moved, and the syrnp is dissolved in water and
filtered; to one portion is added strong ammo-
niacal solution of silver, and it is then heated.

If it remains clear quassiin is present; if a
silver mirror be formed it originates either with
gentipicrin or menyanthin. Another portion is
evaporated to dryness on porcelain, and concen-
trated snlphnric acid added. If, while cold, no
change of colour takes place, but on heating it
becomes carmine-red, gentipicrin is present;
menyanthin wonld give a yeilowish-brown colour,
gradually changing to violet.

For further information connected with this
subject, see Alooeoloxbtrt, Au, Bxbb, Bbbw-
nre, ILuo? LiQTroita, kc.

POST-nBE. A paper tube, from 9 to 12
inches in length, filled with a slow-burning com-
position of metal powder, nitre, and sulphur,
rammed moderately hard 1^ a similar process to
that adopted for small rockets. It is nsed in lieu
of a tonch-match to fire guns, mortars, pyro-
technical devices. Sec.

POBTLASB CZKEBT. A species of mortar
formed by calcining a mixture of limestone and
argillaceous earth, and grinding the calcined mass
to powder, in which state it most be preserved
flrom the air. It is characterised by abmrbing a
large qnanti^ of water and then rapidly becom-
ing soUd, and after a time acquiring considerable
hwdness. See Mobtab and CBirairr.

FOSOI/O&T. SeeDoBK.

POS'SST. Sfn. PoBSBTTV, L. Milk curdled
with wine or any other slightly acidulous liquor.
It is usually sweetened with either sugar or
treacle, and is taken hot.

iVt]). From new milk, i pint; sherry or

manaJa, 1 wineglaasfnl; treacle, 1 or S tahl»>
spoonfuls, or q. s. ; heat them together in a cleaa
saucepan nntil the milk coagulates. This is called
' treacle posset' or ' molasses posset,' and taken on
retiring to rest is highly esteemed in some parti
of the country as a domestic remedy for oolda.
Lemon juice, strong old ale, or even vinegar, ia
occasionally substituted for wine, and powdered
ginger or nutmeg added at will.

POTKSTAL. See Cook Mn^.

POT' ASH. The 'potash' or ' potashes' of oom-
meroe is an impure carbonate of potassium, so
named after the pots or vessds in which it wttm
first made. The 'potash' or 'potassa' of the
chemist is the hydrate of the metal potaorium,
which is more particularly referred to below.
See Caxbohati or PoTAMiuit, &c.

Potash, which is in much demand for the manu-
facture of soap and glass, is now principally ob-
tained from the following sources :

1. From camallite. a hydrated double chloride
of potassium and magnesium, which occurs aaao-
dated with other salts of potassium and mag-
nesium, as well as of sodium, in a bed of clay, at
Stassfnrt, near Magdeburg, in Prussia.

2. Feldspar and similar minerals.

8. Sea water, and the mother-liquor of salt
works.
4. Native saltpetre.
6. The ashes of plants.

6. The calcined residue of the molaaaesof beet-
root sugar remaining after distillation.

7. The seaweeds, as a by-product of the manu-
facture of iodine.

8. From the fleece of the sheep. 3iaumen£ and
Bogelet state that a fleece wdghmg 9 lbs. contains
about 6 OS. of pure potash.

The following is a process for obtaining alkali
from seaweed, described in the ' ChoDsical News '
forNov. 10th, 1876:

At the chemical works at Aalbourg, in Jut-
land, Denmark, where about 80 tons of alkali an
made per wmk by the ammonia prooeai^ Mr
TheobiUd Schmidt, the director of the manufac-
tory, works, in conjunction with ttus process, a
method of treating seaweed so as to obtun iodine^
potash, salts, and other marketable prodneta
therefrom.

In Denmark a very heavy dvty is levied on the
importation of common salt, whilst enormous
quantities of seaweed rich in iodine and potash
can be obtained at small cost in the neighbour-
hood of the works. Mr Schmidt* s process is as
follows : — ^After the seaweed is dried and burnt, a
concentrated solution of the ash is made and
added to the liquor, containing chlorides of sodium
and calcium, left after the ammonia has been re-
covered in the ammonia-aoda proeeaa by bcAIing
with lime. The sulphates tt potash, aoda, and
magnesia contained in the ash of the seaweed are
thereby decomposed, and hydrated sulphate of
lime and hydrated magnesia are predpitated in a
form whidi is available for paper-making, as
' pearl-hardening.' The last traces of sul]^ates
are got rid of by adding a small quantity of soln-
tion of chloride of barium. To the dear solution
nitrate of lead is now added, until all the iodUne
is predpitated as iodide of lead, which is then
separated by flltration and treated for the pro-

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FOTASSIDU

1867

daction of iodine or iodidei. After flltxation the
liquid ia boiled; nitrate of soda is added to cou-
Twt the chloride of potauiam present into nitrate
of potash. The latter is separated by crystallisa-
tion. There remains a solntion of common salt,
contuning traces of ammonia from the previous
■oda operation, and a trace of chloride of potas-
rinm. This solution is again treated by the ordi-
nary ammonia-soda process for the production of
bicarbonate of' soda and white alkali. See Cas-

BOHATB 01 POTAiWITTX, &C.

F0TAS8ITIK. K=: 89-04. The metaUic base
of potash. It was discovered, in 1807, by Sir H.
Davy, who obtained it by submitting moistened
potaadiim hydrate, under a film of naphtha, to
the action of a powerful voltaic oarrent. It
has since been procured by easier methods, of
which the following, invented by Brunner, is the
best.

iVep. An intinukte mixture of carbonate of
potassium and charooal is prepsred by calcining,
in a covered iron pot, the crude tartar of com-
merce; when cold, it is nibbed to powder, mixed
with 1-lOth part of charooal in small lumps, and
quickly transferred inte a retort of stout ham-
mered iron ; the latter may be one of the iron
botUes in which quicksilver is imported, a short
and somewhat wide iron tulie having been fitted
to the aperture; the retort, thus charged, is
placed upon its side, in a furnace ao oonstmcted
tliat the flame of a very strong fire, preferably
fed with dry wood, may wrap round it, and main-
tain every part of it at a very high and uniform
degree of heat. A copper receiver, divided in the
centre by a diaphragm, is next connected to the
inm pipe, and kept cool by the application of ice,
whilst the receiver itself is partly filled with
mineral naphtha, to preserve from oxidation the
uewly formed potassium as it distils over. The
arrangement of the apparatus being com|deted,
the &e is gradually raised until the requisite
temperature, which is that of full whiteness, is
reached, when decomposition of the alkali by the
charooal commences, carbonic acid gas is abun-
dantly disengaged, and potassium distils over,
falling in large drop* into the liqnid. To render
the pradnct abaolotoly pure, it is redistilled in an
iron or green gUss retwt, into which some naph-
tha has been put, so that its vapour may expel
the air, and prevent the oxidation of the metal.
The pieces of charcoal are introduced for the pur-
pose of absorbing the melted carbonate of potas-
sium and preventing its separation from the
finely divided carbonaceous matter. — Prod., 9%
to 4% of the weight of tartar acted upon.

Avp., ifo. Pure potassium is a brilliant white
metal, with a high lustre ; at the common tem-
perature of the air it is saft,andm»y be easily cut
with a knift, bat at 82° F. it ia brittle and crys-
talline ; it melts completely at 186° F., and in
close vessels distils nnaltend at a low red heat.
Sp. gr. 0-866. It has an affinity for oxygen,
which is so great that it takes it flrom many sub-
stances containing it. Exposed to i^e air, its
surface is instantiy tarnished, and quickly becomes
covered with a crust of oxide or hydrate. It in-
flames spontaaeonaly when thrown upon water,
and bums with a bMntif nl pnrple or purple-red
flame, yielding a pore al](ali|ie solntion. Jt fan

only be preserved in naphtha, rock od, or some
other fluid hydrocarbon.

Teitt. The salts of potassium are all soluble in
water, the tartrate, periodate, and flnoailicate
being the least so; they are usually colourless,
unless the acid be coloured, crygtalliiiing readily,
and forming numerous doable compounds. They
can be recognised as follows :

Sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphide of ammonium,
and carbonate of ammouium do not affect them.
A solntion of tartaric acid, added in excess to
moderately strong neutral or alkaline solutions of
potassium salts, gives a quickly subsiding, crystal-
une, white precipitate, which is redissolved on
heating the liquid, and again separates as it cools;
and is also soluble in aqueous solutions containing
free alkali, or free mineral acids. Flatinio
chloride produces, in neutral and acid solations,
a yellow crystalline precipitate. Alkaline sola-
tions require to be flrst slightly acidulated with
hydrochloric acid. The separation of the pre-
cipitate here, as well as that produced by tartaric
add, is promoted by violent agitation and friction
against the sides of the -vessel, and the delicacy
of both is increased by the addition of some
alcohol. When converted into carbonate by
igniting with excess of carbonate of ammonium
and alcohol, and treated with sulphuretted hydro-
gen solution and nitro-proaside of sodium, it gives
a splendid violet colour, turning through red to
green on standing.

Potassium salts give with sodium periodate and
hydro-fluoeilicic acid white precipitates soluble in
much water.

Heated in the inner flame of the blowpipe on
platinum wire, they impart a violet coloration,
which must be observed through a piece of blue
glass, for it is masked by a mere trace of sodium
salts.

StUm, 1. The doable chloride of platinum
is formed in the separation of potassium from
sodium. An excess of platinum tetrachloride is
added to the mixed chlorides of potassium and
sodium, the liquid evaporated on a water-bath,
and the cooled residue mixed with strong alcohol
in which the excess of platinic chloride and the
sodium double salt easily dissolve; the potassium
double salt is then collected and weighed.

2. The mixed chlorides of potassium and
sodium are converted into sulphates by treatment
with strong sulphuric acid, and the weight of
these is then found. Then the amount of potas-
sium (a) and of sodium (i) present can be calcu-
lated when the weights of the several salts are
known, thus :

Weightof"
mixed
chlorides

Md.wt.ofKCl , Md.wt.of NaCa
= (89-04)

Md.wt.ofK,S04
= 2(89-04) ■'

Weightof
mixed
sulphates J
Fotassiom, Acetate of.

(22-99)
Md.wt.ofNa,30«,

KCjH,(V 8g». Aoa-

TATH OV POTASH, POTABglO AOBTATB ; POTABB«

AOBTAB, L, Prtp. Acetic acid, 26 fi. oz. ; distilled
water, 12 fi. oz.; mix, and add, gradnally, car-
bonate of potassium, 1 lb., or q. s. to saturate the
acid; next, filter the solution, and evaporate it
by the heat of a sand-bath, gradnaUy applied,
onti} tiie salt is dried-

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1868

POTASSIUM

Prop., i^c. Acetate of potassinm, prepared u
above, occurs in Bhining white maaaee, having a
soft foliated texture, a slight bnt peculiar odonr,
and a warm, sharp taste j it deliquesces in the air ;
dissolves in rather less than its own weight of
water, and in about twice its weight of alcohol ;
and by exposure to a red heat is converted into
pure carbonate of potassinm. It shonld be pre-
served in well- corked and sealed bottles. It is
soluble in water and in alcohol. These solutions
neither affeet litmus nor tarmeric, nor are they
cUstnrhed by either chloride of barium or nitrate
of silver ; but if from a stronger solution any-
thing is thrown down by nitnte of silver, the
same is again dissolved on the addition of water
or dilute nitric acid. Sulphuric acid being added,
the vapour of acetic acid is evolved.

Uiet, S(B. Acetate of potassium has been fonnd
useful in dropsies, febrile affections, jaundice,
scurvy, calculus, and several chronic skin dis-
eases. Daring its exhibition the urine becomes
at first neutral, and then alkaline, owing to the
salt being converted into carbonate of potassinm
in the system. — Dott. As a diaphoretic and
antiscorbutic, 16 to SO gr. ; as a dioretic, 20 to
60 gr. ; as an aperient, 2 to 8 dr. ; in each case
dissolved in some bland liquid, or in thd infusion
of some mild vegetable bitter.

Potanlnm Aattmooiatai. The normal potas-
sinm antimoniate (K8bO|) may be obtained by
heating, in an earthen crucible, 1 part of metallic
antimony with 4 parts of nitrate of potash. The
mass so obtained is reduced to powder, and after-
wards washed with warm water to remove the
excess of potash and potassium nitrate. The resi-
due must be boiled in water for an hour or two ;
the Insoluble anhydrous antimoniate is thus con-
verted into a soluble gelatinous hydrated modi-
fication (K^b,Oa,nH,0). The insoluble residue
now consists chiefly of acid antimoniate of potaa-
slum. The normal salts possess the property of
readily dissolving the acid antimoniate, which is
precipitated when such a solution is mixed with
any neutral salt of one of the alkalies. The
normal antimoniate does not crystallise, and has
an alkaline reaction.

Acid antimoniate of potassium, K4H](SbO,),
6'9HjO, may be procured by passing a stream of
carbonic anhydride through a solution of fhe
normal antimoniate.

Normal potassinm metantimoniate (K^SbjO;) is
best obtained by fusing the soluble hydrated anti-
moniate with three times its weight of potash, dis-
solving the mass in water, and crystalKsiog out
by evaporation. It forms deliquescent ciystals,
which are decomposed by water into free alkali
and an acid metantimoniate (HjKjSb^, -t- 6H|0),
which is a slightly soluble crystalline powder.
Its aqueous solution readily passes into the gela-
tinous antimoniate.

Potassium, Arsenite of. KAsO,. Sun. Po-
TABBlux KITABSBBITX. A salt of arsenioos add.
Vwy stable, bnt soluble easily in water.

tjtu. An ingredient in 'sheep-dipping' liquids.
In the manufutnre of arsenical soap. Natnialists
often use a soap composed of potassinm aisenite,
common yellow soap, and camphor, in order to
preserve the skins of animals.

Potassium, Borate of. KBOr 8)%. VoiAtam

BOBAB, li. Prap. From dry carbonate of potaa-
shim and dry boraeio acids, eqnal parts, redaoed
to powder, and heated to redness in a covered
cmeible; the sublimed mass, when cold, being
dissolved in boiling water, and the filtered solu-
tion concentrated by evaporation, and then aet
aside to crystallise j or at once completely evapo-
rated to dryness.
Potassinm, Boro-turtrate tf. Sfn. Potassx

BOBO-TASTBAB, CsmOB TABTABI gOLTTBIUS, Ij. ;
CBftn DB TABTBB BOLVBLB, Ft. Pnf. CiyB-

tallised boracic acid, 1 part ; bitartrate of potea-
sium, 4 parts ; water, M pafts ; dissolve, by (he
aid of heat, in a silver basin, oonstantiy stirring ;
evaporate the resulting solution either to dryneaa,
and then powder it, or it may merely be evapo-
rated to a syrupy eonsisteiioe, spread upon platea,
and dried by the heat of a stove. It must after-
wards be preserved from the air.

Prop,, (fo. A white, deliquescent powder,
freely soluble in water. It has been naed aa a
solvent for Itthio calculi, and in gout, &e.—
Dott, 15 to 80 gr. In doses of 8 to S dr. ; it
is laxative, and Is very popular as such on the
Continent

Potassinm, Bromide of. KBr. Sfn. Potabu
BBOXIDUX (B. P.). Prtp. Exactly as the iodide,
which it resembles in its charactiBr, only being
somewhat less soluble in water, and more so in
alcohol. Employed in similar cases and given in
similar doses to the iodide.

Potaaiinm, Carbonate at K^CO^. 4rM. Cax>

BOKATB OB F0TAB8A, SlTBOABBOITATB 0> POEAB8A,
SAI/I OV TABTAB; POTABB.a OABBOKAS (B. P.,

Ph. L., E., & D.). Impure or cnde oarbonate of
potassinm is chiefly imported from America and
Russia, where it is obtained by lixiviatiDg 'wood
ashes, and evaporating the solution to dryneaa.
The mass is then transferred into iron pots, and
kntt in a state of fusion for several homrs, until
it becomes quiescent, when the heat is withdrawn,
and the whole is left to oool. It is next broken
np and packed in air-tight barrels, and in this
state, mixed as it is witii much potasnum chlo-
ride and some sulphate, constitates the ' potashes '
or ' potash ' of commerce. Another method is to
transfer the black salts, or product of the flist
evaporation, from the kettles to a large oven or
furnace, so constructed that the flame is made to
play over the alkaline mass, which is kept con-
stuitiy stirred by metms of an iron rod. The
ignition is continued until the impurities are
burned ont, and the mass changes from a blackish
tint to a dirty or bluish white. The whole is next
allowed to oool, and is then broken into fragments,
and packed in casks aabefoie. It now oonstitntea
'pearUsh.'

When pearlaah is diaaolTed in eold dictiUad
water, the solution depurated, Altered, and crys-
tallised, or dmply evaporated to dryness, it toiins
' refined ashes,' or carbonate of potash suffloiantiy
pure for most pharmaceutical and technical pur-
poses. The granulated carbonate of potash, salt
of tartar, or prepared kali, of the shops, is simply
refined ashes which, during evaporation, and more
especially towards the conclusion of the desicca-
tion, have been assiduously stirred, so that they
may form small wliite grannies, instead of adher-
ing together aa an amorphous solid mass In this

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POTASSIUM

1869

■tkte it oonititntes the ordinary or oarbonato of
{lotaiat of the PharmaoopauH.

Pur. Ordinal^ potash or pearlash inay be re-
fined aa follows : — Baw potash, 10 parts, is dis-
solved in oold water, 6 parts, and the solution
allowed to remain for 24 hoars in a oool place ; it
is then filtered, and somewhat oonoentrated by
eraporatioD, crystallisation being prevented by
continoally stirring the mass nntil the whole is
nearly cold; it is next deoanted into a strainer,
and the mother-liquor allowed to drip oil; the
reridnnm is evaporated to dryness at a gentle
heat, and redissolved in an eqaal qnantity (» cold
distilled water ; the new solntion, afterliltration,
is again evaporated to dryness. The prodnct is
quite free from potassium sulphate, and is nearly
free from potassivm chloride and any nlieatea that
m^ be present.

I>otasaiam, Pore Carbonate of. Sjfu. Cxb-

BOHAra or POTAB8X (POTAMX OABBOVAI PITBUK,

Ph. E. ft D., and Ph. L., 1886).

Prap. 1, From bicarbonate of potaaaiam, in
crystals, heated to redness in a erudble.

2. As the last ; or, more cheaply, by dissolving
Utartrate of potassium in 80 puts of boiling
water, separating and washing the crystals which
form on cooling, heating them in a loosely-covered
crucible to redness aa long aa fumes are given
off J breaking down the mass, and roasting it in
an oven for two hours with occasional stirring ;
lixiviating the prodnct with oold distilled water,
filtering the solution thus obtained, evaporating
it to dryness, granulating the salt towards the
close by brisk agitation ; and, lastly, heating the
granular salt nearly to redness.

8. Bitartrate of potassium, 2 lbs., is exposed to
a red heat in an iron crucible as before ; the pow-
dered calcined mass is boiled for 80 minutes in
water, 1 qoart, the solution filtered, and the fil-
trate washed with water, 1 pint, to which ammo-
nium aeaquieariionate, i oa., has been added ; the
mixed and filtered liquors are evaporated to dry-
ness, and, a low red heat having been applied, the
residuum is rapidly reduced to powder in a warm
mortar, and at once enclosed in dry and well-
stoppered bottles.

ftop. It exhibits most of the properties of
hydrate of potassium, but in a vastly less degree ;
hence it is often termed 'mild' alkali. It is
very deliquescent, effervesces with adds, exhibits
an alkaline reaction with test-piiper, is insolnble
in alcohol, but dissolves in less tiian its own
weight of water, its affinity for the last being so
great that it takes it from alcoholic mixtures.

Ar., 4^. Carbonate of potassium frequently
oonttins an nndna quantity of water, as well as
ailidc acid, sulphates, and chlorides. The water
ni«r he detected by the loss of weight the salt
suffers when heated ; the silica, by adding to it
hydrodilorie acid in excess, ev^wrating to dfy>
neas, and igniting the residuum, by which tms
contamination is rendered insoluble. The sul-
phates and chlorides may be detected by adding
nitric acid in excess, and testing the liquid with
nitrate of silver and chloride Ol barium ; if the
former produces a white precipitate a chloride is
present, and if the latter does the same the con-
tamiBaiaon is a sulphate. Carbonate of potassium
deliquesces in the air, and is almost entirely dis-

solved by water. It may be ei^stallised in prisms
of the formula 2K,C0(.SH,0, which becomes
K,CO,.H,0 at 100° C. It changes the colour of
turmeric brown. Supersaturated with nitric acid,
neither carbonate of sodium nor chloride of barium
throws down anything, and nitrate of silver very
little. 100 gr. lose 16 gr. of water by a strong
red heat; and the same weight loses 26-3 gr. of
carbonate anhydride when placed in contact with
dilute sulphuric atnd.
Potassium, Biearhoiutte of. KHC(V S^-

POIABBIIIM HTSBOSIX CIBBONATK, BiCAXBO-
NATS 01 POTABBA; POTABAS BIOABBOVAB (B. P.,
Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. Carbonate of
potassium, 6 lbs. ; distilled water, 1 gall. ; dis-
solve, and pass carbonic anhydride (from chalk
and sulphuric acid diluted with water) through
the solution to saturation ; apply a gentle heat, so
that whatever crystals have been formed may be
dissolved, and set aside the solution that crystals
may again form ; lastly, the liquid being poured
off, dry them.

2. Carbonic anhydride, obtained by the action
of dilate hydrochlorie acid on chalk (the latter
contained in a perforated bottle immersed in a
vessel containing the acid), is passed by means of
glass tabes connected by vulcanised india-rubber
to the bottom of a bottle containing a solution of
carbonate of potassium, 1 part, in water, 2)
parts; aa soon as the air is expelled from the
apparatus the corks through which the tubes
pass are rendered air-tight, and the process left
to itself for a week ; the crystals thus obtained
are then Aaken with twice their bulk of cold
water, grained, and dried on bibulous paper, by
simple exposure to the air. From the mother-
liquor, filtered, and concentxmted to one half, at a
heat not exceeding 110° F., more crystals may be
obtained. The tube immersed in the solution of
carbonate of potassium will have to be occa-
sionally cleared of the crystals with which it is
liable to become choked, else the prooess will be
suspended.

8. Fota«riamcarbonate,1001hs.|distilledwater,
17 galls. ] diMoIve^ and saturate the solution with
carbonic anhydride, as in No. 1, when 86 to 40 lbs.
of crystals of bicarbonate of potassium may be
obtained ; next dissolve carbonate of potassium,
60 lbs., in tlie mother-liqnor, and add enongh
water to make the whole a second time equal to
17 galls. ; the remaining part of the operation is
then to be performed as before. This plan may
be repeated agun and agun for some time, pro-
vided the carbonate used is sufficiently pure.

4. Take of carbonate of potassium, 6 oi. ; see-
qolcarbonate of ammoninm, 8| oa. j triturate them
together, and, when rednoed to a very fine powder
and perfectly mixed, make them into a sti6r paste
with a very little water ; dry this very carefully
at a heat not higher than 140° F., nntil a fine
powder, perfectly devoid of ammomacal odour, be
obtained, occasionally triturating the mass to-
wards the end of the process.

6. (Commercial.) From carbonate of potas-
sium, in powder, made into a paste with water,
and exposed for some time on shallow trays in a
chamber filled with an atmoaphere of carbonic
anhydride, generated by the combustion of ather
coke or nharecml, and purified by being forced

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FOTASSiniC

through » dstem of cold water; the rerolting
■alt ii next dissolved in the least possible qnantity
«C water at the temperature of 120° F., and the
sdution filtered and crystallised.

Prop, It can be crystallised in large trans-
parent monoclinic prisms. It is solable in four
times its weight of water at ordinary temperature;
it is stable in the air, bat loses carbonic acid
below the temperature of a carbonate at a red
heat. It possesses the general alkaline properties
of carbonate of potassium, but in an inferior de-
gree, having a saline or only a slightly alkaline
taste, and, when absolutely pure, not affecting
the colour of turmeric. When an aqneout solu-
tion of it is boiled it gives off CO^

Pnr. amd Tetti. £i a solution of pure bicar-
bonate of potassium a solntioii of mercuric chloride
merely causes an opalescence, or very slight white
precipitate; if it contains normal carbonate, a
brick-ooloored predpitate is thrown down. From
100 gr. of the pare crystals of bicarbonate, 80*7
gr. A water and carbonic acid are expelled at a
red beat. In other respects it may be tested like
the carbonate.

ZTmr, <f-o. Bicarbonate of potassiom is the
most agreeable of all the salts of potassium, and
u much used as an antacid or absorbent, and for
making effervescing saline draughts. It has also
been Bueoessfnlly employed in rheumatism, scurvy,
gout, dyspepsia, and varioos other diseases in
which the use of potaasium is indicated. The
dose is from 10 gr. to i dr.

80 gr. bicarbonate, in ciystals,

are equivalent to

14 gr. of crystallised nitric add,
16 gr. „ tartario acid, and

i OK. of lemon jaioe.
Fotasainm, Chlorate of. KCIO,. Sgn. Chlo-

SATI on POTASH ; VOfUMM CELOIUa (B. P., Ph.

h. and O.), L. Prtp. 1. Chlorine gas is con-
ducted by a wide tube into a moderately strong
and warm solution of hydrate or carbonate of
potassium, until the absorption of the gas ceases
and_ the alkali is completely neutralised ; the
liquid is then kept at the boiling temperature for
a few minutes, after which it is gently evapo-
rated if necessary until a pellicle forms on the
surface; it is then set aside, so as to cool very
slowly ; the crystals which form are drained and
carefully washed on a filter with ice-cold water,
and are purified by re-solution and re-crystallisa-
tion. _ The motber-liqnor, which contains much
chloride of potassium mixed with some chlorate,
is either evaporated for more crystals (which are,
however, less pure than the first crop) or is pre-
served for a future operation.

Olt. The product of the above process is
■mall, varying from 10% to 46% of the weight
of the potassium consumed in it, aocording to the
■kill with which it is conducted; this apparent
loss of potassium arises from a large portion of
it being converted into chloride, a salt of com-
paratively little value. The following processes
have been devised prindpally with the view of
preventing this waste, or of employing a cheaper
salt of potassium than the carbonate :

8. IQx slaked Ume, 68 oi, with carbonate of

potash, 80 01., and triturate them with a Um
ounces of disced water, so as to make the mix*
ture slightiy moist. Plsioe oxide of manganese,
80 01., in a large retort or flask, and having
poured upon it hydrochloric add, 84 pints, di>
luted with 6 pints of wster, apply a gentle sand
heat, and conduct the chlorine as it comes over,
first through a bottle containing 6 oz. of water,
and then into a large carboy containing the mix-
ture of carbonate of potash aoid slaked lime. Whoi
the whole of the chlorine has come over remove
the contents of the carboy and bdl them for 80
minates with 7 pints of distilled water ; filter and
evaporate till a film forms on the surface, then
set aside to cool and crystallise.

The crystals tiius obtained shoald be purified
by dissolving them in three times their wdght of
boiling distilled water, and again allowing the
solution to crystallise.

8. A solution of chloride of lime is pied^tated
with a solution of carbonate of potassium, and
the liquid, after filtration, saturated with chlo-
rine gas ; it is then evaporated and ciystallised
as b^re. Dr Ure proposed the substitution of
sulphate of potassium for the carbonate, by
which the process would be rendered very inex-
pensive.

4. Carbonate of potasdum, 69 parts of the diy
or 82 parts of the grannlated, hydrate of ealdnm
(dry fresh slaked lime), 87 parts, both in powder,
are mixed together, and exposed to the action of
chlorine gas to saturation (the gas is absorbed
with great rapidily, the temperature rises above
212° F., and water is freely evolved) ; the heat,
with free exposure, is then maintained at 818°
for a few minutes (to remove some iaraee of 'hy-
pochlorite ') ; the renduum, consisting of chlo-
rate of potassium and chloride of oUdnm, is
treated with hot water, and the chlorate of
potassium crystallised out of the resulting sdln-
tion, as before. This process is an excellent
one.

6. A solution of chloride of Ume (18° to 80°
Baumi) is heated in a leaden or cast-iron vessel,
and snffldent of some salt of potasdum added to
raise the density of the liquid 8 or 4 hydrometer
degrees ; the solution is then quickly, but care-
fully, concentrated until the gravity rises to 30°
or 81° Banm^ when it is set aside to crystallise.
A good and economical prooess.

6. Chloride of potassium, 76 parts, and fresh
caldum hydrate, 222 parts, are rodnced to a thin
paste with water, q. s., and a stream of chlorine
gas passed throngn tiie mixture to saturation;
chloride of caldum and chlorate of potasdum are
formed ; the last is then removed by solution in
boiling water, and is crystallised as before. This
process, which has received the approval and
recommendation of Liebig, has long been prac-
tised in Germany, and was originally introduced
to this country by Dr Wagenmann. The pro-
duct is very laq^ and of excellent quality-

7. The following process given in Dingler's
' Folyteobnisches Journal,' dzxziz, p. 488, by
Lunge, is stated to be the most effident, and tiie
one that will be employed on the large scale in the
future. Into a solution of milk of lime (sp. gr.
1*04), dilorine gas is passed until the liquid is
nearly satorated. The clear sidation is then

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FOTASSIUU

un

STapontod until iti ip. g^. — 1-18. Potuiinm
chloride ii now added, and the miiture rednced
by evaporation to a sp. gr. 1-28. It is then
allowed to oool, and the ciystali of chlorate sepa-
rate oat.

Prop. White, inodorotu, glassy, monoclinic
tables, which, when of certain dimensions, exhibit
iridescence and emit light on being mbbed in
the dark ; aolnble in abont 20 parts of cold and H
parts of boiling water; in taste it resembles
nitre, at abont 450° F. it fuses, and on increasing
the heat almost to redness effervescence ensues,
fully 89% of pure oxygen gas being given off,
whilst the salt becomes changed into chloride of
potassium. When mixed with inflammable sab-
stances such as sulphur, and triturated, heated,
or subjected to a smart blow or strong pressure,
or moistened with a strong acid, it explodes with
great violence.

iW., l}Mtt. The usual impnriiy of this salt is
chloride of potassium, arising from careless or
imperfect manipulation. When this is present, a
solution of nitrate of silver gives a curdy white
precipitate, soluble in ammonia ; whereas a solu-
tion of the pure chlorate remtuns clear.

Uitt. Chlorate of potassium is principally
used in the manufacture of lacifer matches, fire-
works, oxygen gas, Ac, and as an oxidising agent
in calico printing. It was formerly used to fill
percussion caps, but was abandoned for fulminat-
ing mercury, on account of its disposition to nut
the nipples of the guns. As a medicine it is
stimulant and diuretic. It used to be given in
^"IW' (ypbilis, scurvy, cholera, typhus, and
other depressing affections, as it was believed to
act as an oxidising agent on the blood. It has,
however, lately been shown that the whole of the
salt passes out nndecomposed in the urine. It is
still largely employed in the form of lozenges for
allaying inflammation of the tonsils, and as a
gargle.

Ooneludinff Semarit. Formerly, chlorate of
potassium was a salt which was made only on the
small scale, and chiefly used in experimental
chemistry ; now it is in considerable demand, and
forms an important article of chemical manufac-
ture. The dilorate requires to be handled with
great care. It should never be kept in admixture
with any inflammable substance, more especially
with sulphnr, phosphorus, or tiie sulphides, as
these compounds are exploded by the most trivial
causes, and, not unfrequently, explode spon-
taneously.

Potaatinm, CUorida of. ECl. %». Celobidb
or P0TAB8A. This substance is an important
natntal source of potassium, being extracted
from the ashes of seaweed, from sea water, and
the refuse of beetroot sugar mann&ctories. In
combination with msgnesinm chloride it forms
the mineral camallite (KCI,Mo^Cle6H,0), which
is found at StassfVest in Saxony deposited in
strata which overlie beds of rock-salt in the salt
mines. Large deposits of a mineral consisting of
the chloride and sulphate of potassium have alto
been found in Bast Oalicia.

iV«p. The chloride of potassium of commerce
is usnally a seconds^ product in the manufac-
ture of chlorate of potassium and other sub-
stances. The motlier-Uqnor of the former is

evaporated to dryness and heated to dull redness,
the calcined mass is then dissolved in water, the
solution purified by defecation and evaporated
down for crystals.

It can also be well prepared by neutralising
boiling solution of carbonate of potassium by
dilute hydrochloric acid, evaporating down, and
crystallising.

Prop., Sfc. It crystallises in four-sided tables,
and closely resembles culinary salt in appearance j
is anhydrous ; dissolves in about 4 parts of cold
and 8 of boiling water ; has a slightly bitter,
saline taste ; fuses at a red heat ; and is volatilised
at a very high temperature. As a mediciae it is
diuretic and aperient. It was formerly in high
repute as a resolvent and antiscorbutic, and, par-
ticularly, as a remedy for intermittents. It is now
seldom used.

Potaattain, Chromat* of. K,Cr04. 8g».

CBSOKATB O* POTA88A, NXUTKAI. OHBOKATB
Of v., MOKOOHBOKATB OP P., TbLLOW C. OV
P., SAIiT op OHKOKS ; POTABBX OEBOKAB, P. 0.

PLATA, L. The source of this salt is ' CEBOira
OBB,' a natural octahedral chromate of iron,
found in various parts of Europe and America.
For medicinal purposes the commercial chromate js
purified by solution in hot water, filtration, and
recrystallisation.

Prap. 1. The ore, previously assayed to de-
termine its richness, and freed as much as pos-
sible from its gangue, is ground to powder in a
mill, and mixed with a qusntity of coarsely
powdered nitre rather less than that of the oxide
of chromium which it contains ; this mixture is
exposed for several hours to a powerful heat on
the hearth of a reverberatory furnace, during
which time it is frequently stirred up with iron
rods ; the calcined mass is next raked out and
lixiviated with hot water, and the resulting yellow-
coloured solution evaporated briskly over a fire,
or by the heat of high-preesure steam ; chromate of
potassium falls down in the form of a granular
yellow sslt, which is removed from time to time
with a ladle, and thrown into a wooden vessel,
furnished with a bottom full ot holes, where it is
left to drain and dry. In this state it forms the
chromate of potasnum of commerce. By a second
solution and recrystallisation it may be obtained
in large and regular crystals,

2. A mixture of pulverised chrome ore and
chloride of potassium is exposed to a full red heat,
on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace, with
occasional stirring for some time, when steam at
a very elevated temperature is made to act on
it until the conversion is complete ; this is known
by assaying a portion of the mass; the chro-
mate is then dissolved out of the residuum, as
before. Common salt or hydrate of calcium may
be substituted for chloride of potassium, and then
the chromates of sodium or calcium are respec-
tively produced.

3. On the small scale this salt may be prepared
from the bichromate by neutralising it with
hydrate of potassium, or with potassium car-
bonate until the red colour changes to yellow ;
it is then evaporated and crystallised.

Prop. Yellow prismatic efSorescent cirstals;
tastes cool, bitter, and disagreeable ; soluble in 2
parts of water at eO° F.

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POTASSIUM

Pur. The lalt of commerce is frequently con-
tuninated with Urge quantities of salpmite or
chlorate of potassium. To detect these Zueber
adds tartaric acid, dissolved in 60 parts of water,
to an aqueous solution of the sample. As soon as
the decomposition is complete, and the ooloor
verges towards green, the supernatant liquor
shonld afford no precipitate with solutions of
the nitrates of silver and harinm, whence the
absence of chlorides and snlphates may be re-
spectively inferred. The proportions are 8 parts
of tartaric acid to 1 part of the chiomate. If
saltpetre is the adulterating ingredient, the
sample deflagrates when thrown upon bnming
coals.

Auaf/. 1. A solution of 60 gr. of the salt is
treated with a aolution of nitrate of barium, the
precipitate digested in nitric add, and the insoluble
portion (snlphate of barium) washed, dried, and
weighed. 117 gr. of this substance are equivalent
to 89 gr. of sulphate of potassium.

2. The nitric acid solution, with the washing
(see above), is treated with a solution of nitrate
of silver, and the precipitate of chloride carefully
collected, washed, dried, ignited, and wdghed.
144 gr. of chloride of silver represent 76 gr. of
chloride of potassium.

8. The nitric solution, with the washing (see
abooe), after having any remuning barium pre-
cipitated by the addition of dilnte sulphuric acid
in slight excess, is treated with ammonia, and the
resulting precipitate of chromic oxide collected
on a Alter, washed, dried, carefully ignited in a
silver, platinum, or porcelain crucible, and
weighed. 40 gr. of this oxide represent 100 gr.
of pure chromate of potassium. Any deficiency
consists of impurities or adulterants.

UtM. Chromate of potassium is used in dye-
ing, bleaching, the manufacture of chromic acid,
bichromate of potassium, &c. It is the common
source of nearly all the other compounds of chro-
mium. A solution in 8 parts of water is occa-
sionally used to destroy fungus; 1 in 80 to 40
parts of water is also used as an antiseptie and
desiccant.

ConeUding BtmarJu. The flnt process is nn>
undoubtedly the best when expense is not an
object. To reduce this a mixture of 'potash'
or 'pearlash,' with about half of its weight of nitre,
or l-6th of its weight of peroxide of manganese,
may be substituted withont much inconvenience.
The assay of the chrome ore, alluded to above,
may be made by reducing 100 gr. of it to powder,
mixing it with twice its weight of powdered nitre
and a little hydrate of calcium, and subjecting the
mixture to a strong red heat for 8 or 4 hours ;
the calcined mass may then be exhausted with
boiling water, and the resnlting solution, aftra
precipitation with dilnte snlphnrio acid in slight
excess, and filtration, may be treated with alcohol,
when its chromium may be thrown down by the
addition of ammonia (see tAove). In the conver-
sion of chrome ore into chiomate of potassium
care should, in all cases, be taken that the propor-
tion of nitre or alkali should be slightly less than
what is absolutely required to saturate the ore, as
the production of a neutral salt is thereby en-
sured; for should not the whole of the chromate
be decomposed by the first calcination it may

easily be roasted a second time with fresh alkaE.
The nature of the furnace to be employed in the
conversion is not of any great importance so long
ai carbonaoeous matters from the fire are en-
tirely excluded, and the required temperature is
attainable.

PotaMimD, BiehjiMMt* of. Kfirfif, or
EjCrO^iCrO,. Sgn. Bicrbokati ov potabsa,
Rbd ohbomati of potash. Acid o. of r. ;
PoTASSJi BiOEBOXAB, L. Prtp. 1. To a eon-
centrsted solution of yellow chromate of potas-
sium, acetic acid is added in quantity equal to one
half that required for the entire decomposition
of the salt ; the liquid is then eonoentnted by
evaporation and slowly cooled, so that crystals
may form.

S. (Jaeaaeiain.') Chrome ore, finely gioaiid
and sifted, is mixed with chalk; the mixton
is spread in a thin layer on the hearth of a re-
verberatory furnace, and heated to bright red-
ness, with repeated stirring, for about 10 hours.
The yellowisn-green product consists essentially
of neutral chromate of calcium mixed with f errie
oxide. Having been ground and stirred up with
hot water, sulphuric add is added till a dight add
reaction becomes apparent, a sign that the neutral
chromate has been converted into luchiomate.
Chalk is now stirred in to predpitate the ferric
sulphate, and after a while the clear solution is
run off into another vessel, where it is treated
with carbonate of potassium, which precipitates
the lime, and leaves bichromate of potasdnm in
solution. The solution is then evaporated to the
crystallising point. This process, when oatried
out on a large scale, is very economical.

8. (Stromeyir'i new method.) 4i parts of
findy-ground roasted chrome iron ore is mixed
with 8| parts of potasdnm carbonate and 7 parts
of lime. The mixture is dried at 160", and then
heated to redness with an ozididng fiiime^ bdng
kept constantly stirred. The charge is then with-
drawn from tiie furnace, cooled, and lixiviated
with a small quantity of hot watw. Shonld cal-
dnm diromate have been formed a hot solution
of potasdnm sulphate is added ; this predpitates
the lime, and potasdnm chromate remains in
solution. After being treated with the proper
quantity of sulphuric acid and diluted with twiee
its volume of water, the liquid is allowed to
cool. A predpitate forms, which is then collected
and recrystallised. The mother-liqnora are used
for the lixiviation of more roasted mixture.

Prop.f^e. Itforms very beautiful garnet-red
square taoles, or flat four-dded prismatic crys-
tals; permanent in the air; soluble in 10 parts
of water at 60°, and in leas than 8 parts at 218°
F. ; it has a metallic, bitter taste, and is poisonons. .
It is chiefly used in dydng and bleadung, in the
manufactwe of chrome yellow, and as a source
of chromic add. The terts, Ac, are the same as
for the yellow chromate.

Potasdnm. Citrate of. K,C,H,0,. Sgu.
PoTABBX 0ITXA8, L. Prtp. Ftom a solution of
dtrio addnentr^isedwitb carbonate of potassium,
evaporated, and g^rannlated, or crystallised; very
deliquescent. Or in the form of solution, by add-
ing carbonate, or bicarbonate, of potassium to
lemon juice, as in the common effervescing
draught.

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POTASSIUM

1878

Fotuaiui Cyaaate. KO.CN. Prep. By pui-
intr g*MOii» (^aaomn chloride into an aqDeons
solution of pofaub, kept well coded.

Prop. CnstalliM in needles, which, when
heated till they twia, become changed into the
isocyanate.

Potasstnm, IwKyanats of. K(M>, or KCNO.
Prep. 1. By roasting, at a red hei^ dry ferro-
cyanide of potaamnm, in fine powder, npon an
iron plate, constantly stirring it until it Iwoomes
fused into one man, which most be reduced to
fine powder and digested in boiling alcohol,
from which crystals of the cyanate will be de-
pouted as the solution cools.

2. {lAMg^ A mixtnre of ferrocyanide of
potassium with half its weight of peroxide of
manganese is kindled by a red-hot body, and
allowed to smoulder away, after which it is
trcated with alcohol, as before.

8. A mixtnre of ferrocyanide of potassium
and litharge is heated as before, then dissolTed
oat by aleolu>l, and crystallised.

Piip. Ooloorless or white salt» erystalUsable
in plates^ readily soluble in alcohol and water,
but decomposed when moist into bicarbonate
of potassium and ammonia, or in solution into the
carbonate of potassium and ammonium.

This salt is poisonous. The cyanates of mItot,
lead, and many other metals may be made by
adding a sdntion of cyanate of potassium to
another of a nentnl salt of the base.

PotasilUB, Cyanide of. KCN, or ECy. Sgn.

CTAHim 01 POTASH, CtAVUXBI 07 rOTAMimf ;

PoTABsii OYAinsux, F. CTADroxnTK, L. Prep.
3. a. A solution of pure hydrate of potassium,
S parts, in alcohol, 7 parts, is placed in a re-
ceiver furnished with a safety tube, and sur-
lonnded with bruised ice ; the beak of a tubu-
lated retort, containing ferrocyanide of |iotassium,
IB powder, 4 parts, is then adapted to it in such
a manner that any gas or vapour evolved in the
retort mnst traverse the solution in the receiver ;-
the artsngement being complete, sulphuric add,
8 parts, diluted with an equal weight of water,
and allowed to cool, is cautiously poured into the
retort, and the distillation condncted very slowly,
only a very gentle beat being applied ; as soon as
the force of ebullition in the retort has subsided
the distillation is complete, and the connection
between the retort and receiver is broken ; the
contents of the receiver, now transformed into a
mixture of a crystalline precipitate of cyanide of
potassium, and an alcoholic solution of undecom-
posed potassium hydrate, is carefully thrown on a
filter, and the precipitate, after the mother-liquor
has drained o^ very cautiously washed with ice-
cold and highly rectified spirit ; then drained,
pressed, and dried. The product is chemically
pure, and equal to fully 10% of the ferrocyanide
employed. This is a modification of what is com-
monly known as ' Wigger's process.'

b. Expose well-dried and powdered ferrocya-
nide of potassium to a dull red heat, in a closed
vessel; when cold, powder the fused mass, pUce
it in a funnel, moisten it with a little alcohol,
and wash it wiih cold water ; evaporate the solu-
tion thus formed to dryness^ expose it to a dull
led beat in a porcelain dish, then cool, powder,
and digwt It in boiling aloohtdi as it cools, oigrstals

of cyanide of potassium, nearly pure, will be
depo«ited. The alcohol employed in both this and
the preceding process may be recovered by distil-
lation from odeined sulphate of iron.

2. (CnVDI or OOUIEROIAIi OTAKISB — LMig.)
Commercial ferrocyanide of potassium, 8 parts,
rendered anhydrous by gentiy heating it on an
iron plate, is intimately mixed with dry carbonate
of potassium, 8 parts; this mixture is thrown
into a red-hot earthen crucible, and kept in a
state of fusion, with occasional stirring, until gss
ceases to be evolved, and the fluid portion of the
mass becomes colourless ; the crucible is then left
at rest fbr a few minutes, to allow ite contents to
settle, after which the dear portion it poured
from the heavy black sediment npon a clean
marble slab, and the mass, whilst yet warm, broken
up, and placed in well-stoppered botties.

Oie. A cheap and excellent process. The
product, though not sufldently pure for employ-
ment in medicine ss potassium cyanide, is ad-
mirably adapted for various technical applications
of this substance, auch as in electro-plating, elec-
tro-gilding, photoe^phy, &c. It may also be
advantageously substituted for the ferrocyanide in
the preparation of hydrocyanic add by the distilla-
tion of that substance with dilute sulphuric add.

Prop., ifo. When pure, this salt is colourless
and odourless: it fcnms cubic or octahedral
crystals, which are anhydrous { it is freely soluble
in water and in boiling alcohol, but most of it
separates from the latter as the solution cools ; it
is fusible, and undergoes no change even at a
full red heat in close vessels ; it exhibits an alka-
line reaction; when exposed to the atmosphere
it absorbs moisture, and acquires the smell of
hydrocyanic acid. If it etTervesces with adds, it
contains carbonate of potassium, and if it be
yellow it contains iron. It is employed in chemical
analysis, and for the preparation of hydroqranio
add ; cyanide of sodium may be made in the same
way. The dose is -^ to i gr., in solution ; in the
usual cases in which the administration of hydro-
cyanic acid is indicated. — AtOidotei. The same
as for hydrocyanic add.

PotaMium Xthykto. C,H,KO. LSweg and
Weidmann obtained this compound by heating
together acetate of ethyl and potassium. Dr B.
W. Richardson, some few years ago, recommended
the employment of the alkalme ethylates as
caustics, and they are now frequently used as such
in surgery. When first applied to the body the
ethylates produce no action, but as they absorb
water from the tissues the^ are decomposed, the
potassium or sodium is oxidised, yielding caustic
potash or soda in a nascent conation, while alco-
hol is re-formed from the recombination of hydro-
gen derived from the water. Dr Richardson
believes the ethylates of potassium and sodium
will be foimd the most efTective and manageable
of all caustics, and that in cases of cancer, when
it is important to destroy structure without re-
sorting to the knife, and in the removal of simple
growths, they will be of essential service. The
ethylates dissolve in alcohol of different strengths j
the solution may dther be applied with a glass
brush ,or injected by the neecUe, and a slow or
quick effect can be insnred according to the wish
of the operator.

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POTASSITTM

FotMiiiun,Verrlcyuideof. K,(C,N,)4Fer Sgn.
Fbbbiootanidb o; potibsivic, Fxssictahvkbt
of p., rxd pbubsiatb of potaah ; f0ta8iii fxk-

RICrTAHIDVK, F. FBUB8I18 TOVBRVM, L. Thil

iiqpoitant sad beautiful salt was disooyered by L.
Omelin. At first it was merely regarded as a
chemical curiosity, but it is now extensively em-
ployed in dyeings, calico printing, assaying, &c.

Pr»p. 1. Chlorine gas is slowly passed into a
cold solution of ferrocyanide of potassiam, 1 part,
in water, 10 parts, with constant agitation, until
the liquid appears of a deep reddish-green colour,
or of a fine led colour by trannnittod light, and
ceases to give a blue precipitate, or even a bine
tinge to a solution of ferric chloride, an excess of
chlorine bong carefally avoided; the liquor is
next evaporated by the heat of steam or boiling
water, until a pellicle Torms upon the surface, when
it is filtered, and set aside to cool j the crystals are
afterwards purified by re-solution and re-crystal-
lisation ; or simply evaporate the original solution
to dryness, by a steam heat, with agitation, then
re-dissolve the residuum in the least possible
quantity of boiling water, and, after filtration,
allow the new solution to cool very slowly so that
crystals ma^ form.

2. Add nitric acid or some other oxidising agent
very gradually to a cold solution of ferrocyanide
of potassiam, with constant agitation, until a
drop of the mixture ceases to impart a blue colour
to a solution of ferric chloride, oiref nlly avoiding
excess of add. It may be at once used in solu-
tion, or evaporated, &c., as before.

Prop. 4v. Magnificent monodinic prismatic
crystals, of a rich ruby-red tint, which are fre-
quenUy madded ; permanent in the air; com-
bustible; decomposed by a high temperature;
soluble in 4 parts of cold water ; yidding a yel-
lowioh-brown or, when diluted, lemon-coloured
solution, wluch ultimately becomes changed into
a ferrocyanide or a blue predpitate; insoluble in
alcohol. It is a powerfol oxidising agent. Colours
ferric salts a pde brown, gives with ferrous salts
a deep blue, and precipitates bismuth salts pale
ydlow; cadmium and mercuric salts, yellow; zino
salts, deep yellow ; mercurous, cnpric, molybdenic,
silver, and nranic salts, reddish brown; cobalt
salts, dark brown; manganous salts, brown; cnpric
salts, greenish ; and nickdons salts, olive-brown.

Potasalo-ferTic Femeyanlde. K,Fe.(FeCN),.

Syn, SOLUBLI PKVBSIAH BIiTTB.

JVwp., 4*0- By the addition of ferric chloride
or ferric sulphate solution to potassium ferro-
cyanide solution, the latter being in excess. This
blue is insoluble in the liquid containing saline
matter, but dissolves as soon as the latter hss been
removed by washing ; the addition of an acid or
a salt repredpitates it.

Fotasdnm, Farrocyaaide of. E,(C,N,)4Fe, +
6H^. Sgn. FsBsooTAirrBiT oi fotabbiuk,

PbVBSIATZ of F0TA8B, YbLIAW P. OP P.; Po-
tUam FBUgSIA FI.ATA (B. P.), FOTA88II FBBBO-

OTAIIISVM (Ph. L., E., and D.), L. This valu-
able salt, the wdl-known 'prussiate of potash'
of commerce, was discovered by Scbeele about
the middle of the 18th century.

Prep. (Large scale.) Oood ' potash ' or ' pearl-
ash,' a parts, and dried blood, horns, hoofs, wool-
len rags^ or other refuse animal matter, 6 or 6

parts, are reduced to coarse powder, and mixed
with some coarse iron borings; the mixtnre is
then placed in cased hemispherical cast-iron pota
set in brickwork heated by fire ; the mass ia con-
stantiy stirred by means of vertical spindles which
pass through the lids, so as to prevent it mnninff
togetiier, and the caldnation u continued nntu
fetid vapours cease to be evolved, care being
taken to exdude the air from the vessels as mnch
as posuble ; during the latter part of the proceoa
the mass is stirred less freqnentiy; it is then
removed with an iron ladle, and excluded from
the air until cold ; it is next exhausted by lixiTUi-
tion with boiling water,and tiie resulting solution,
after filtration, is concentrated by evaporation,
so that crystals may form as the liquid cools;
these are redissolved in hot water, and the solution
allowed to cool very slowly, when large yellow
crystals of ferrocyanide of potassium are depo-
sited.—IVoAret. 1 ton of dried blood or woollen
nrfuse, with 8 cwt. of pearlash, yidds from 2 to
2\ cwt. of commercial ferrocyanide. The mother-
liquor contains sulphate of potassium.

In this operation the sulphor contained in the
animal matter, as well as that contained as sul-
phate in the ' potashes,' very quickly attacks the
iron pots, and a further loss occurs ovring to the
formation of potasuum thiocyanate.

A better yield is obtained when potash free
from sulphate is employed, and when on lixiviating
the masa with water some freshly predpitatea
ferrous carbonate (obtuned by dissolving chalk
in ferrous chloride solution) is added. T^ soln*
tion is then evaporated to a specific gravity 1*27,
and allowed to crystallise ; the crude salt is dis-
solved in warm water to form a solution of the
same specific gravity as before, and again crystal-
lised. The mother-liquors are reserved for use
in dissolving fresh quantities of crude salt.

Pn>p. It forms large and very beautiful lemon-
ydlow quadratic pyramidal crystals, which are
permanent in the air, and very tough and difficult
to powder, sp. gr. 1*88 ; it is soluble in 4 parts of
cold and 8 parts of boiling water; insoluble in
alcohol J has a mild saline taste, and is not poison-
ous ; at a gentle heat loses water ; at a higher
temperature, in dosed vessels, it is for the most
part converted into cyanide of potasuum, and,
when exposed to the air, into cyanate of potas-
uum. Precipitates solutions of antimonious, bis-
muth, mercurous, and sine salts, white ; wtdminm
salts, pole yellow ; cuprous salts, white, turning
red; ferrous salts, white, turning blue ; lead salts,
white; manganous salts, white, turning red;
mercuric salts, wbite> tnming blnish ; nickelous
salts, white, turning green; silver salts, white;
stannous salts, white; cobalt salts, green; cuprio
salts, chocolate-red; ferric salts, dark blue;
palladons salts, green; stannic salts, yellow;
uranic salts, reddish brown ; and sine salts,
white.

The commercial salt frequentiy contains potas-
sium sulphate, which can only be removed by
repeated recrystallisation.

Utet, ^. Ferrocyanide of potaaainm is chiefly
used in dydng and calico printing, in the manu-
facture of Prussian blue, in dectro-plating, and,
in chemistry, as a test, and a source of hydro-
cyanic add. As a medicine it is said to be seda-

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1875

tive and MtriBgent, and in large doees pnigatWe,
but appears to pouew little action. — Dou, 10
gr. fa> i dr., disaolved in water ; in hooping-ooagb,
chronic bronchitis, nigbt-sweate, lencorrhoea, Ac.

Potaisio - ferrou Perrocyamide. (K^^N.)
Prep. Obtained as a white precipitate when a
solation of a f erron* salt quite free from ferric
■alt is added to potasainm nrrocyanide quite free
from ferricyanide. When exposed to the air it
absorbs oxygen and becomes blue; oxidising
agents, like chlorine water and nitric acid, change
it into Flressian bine.

Potaaaiiun, Hydrate of. EHO. ^n, Cavstio

POTASH, POXABSA HTDE&Tl, HTSBATB OV P0TA8-
BA, POTABSA, HTSKATSD OXISX 01 POTABBinif ;
POXASSA OAUBTIOA (B. P.), FOTA88A (Ph. £.), P.
OA1T8TI0A (Ph. D.), P. HTDBA8 (Ph. L.), P. 7USA, L.

This substance was considered to be an oxide of
potash till Darcet, in 1808, showed that when
Ignited it contains some other ingredient, which
he considered to be water. For a long time it
was then supposed to be a oomponnd of potassium
oxide, and it was not till compaiatirely recent
yean that it was recognised to be a hydroxide.
Prep. 1. (Pnre.) From the metal or the oxide by
solation in water and subsequent evaporation.

2. From a dilute solubon of carbonate of
potossinm by decomposition with slaked lime.
Potassium carbonate, 1 part by weight is dis-
solved in water, 12 parts, and the solation heated
in a covered iron or silver vessel to boiling j milk
of lime is then gradually added till on heating a
portion of the filtered liquid with hydrochloric
acid, it evolves no carbonic anhydride. After
setUing the liqnid is decanted into a well-stop-
pered vessel, then evaporated in a silver vessel tUl
the residue begins to volatilise. It is then cast
in sticks.

3. WiUei'* Proeei*. (Pore.) Pure potas-
sinm nitrate, 1 part, and thin copper-foil, 8 parts,
are arranged in thin layers alternately in a copper
cmcible, and exposed to a red heat for feveral
hoars. The mass is then lixiviated with water
after it has cooled down, the liquid allowed to
stand in a tall stoppered vessel, decanted, and
flnalW evaporated down in a silver vessel and
cast in atius ('Ann. CSiem. Phann.,' Izzxvii, p.
878).

4. 8eM>erei Proeeti. (Pure.) To hot con-
centrated baryta water powdered potassium snl-

Ehate is added till there is a slight excess of the
itter. This is removed by carefully adding more
bo^i^rtii water. The solution is then treated as in
No. 8 (' Jomnal Pract. Chem.,' xxvi, p. 117).

5. PolaeePe Proeeti. Very pnre hydrate of
potash may be obtained in a few minutes by the
following process. In an iron vessel a mixture
eonsiating of 1 part of nitrate of potash well
tritanted with 8 or 8 parts of iron filings is
heated. The mass becomes r«d in a few minutes,
and, after cooling, it is treated with water, left
to settle, and then decanted. A more or less
concentrated solution may thus be obtained, or it
may be evaporated to produce the solid potash.

Pmr. The hydrate, obtained as above, is dis-
solved in alcohol or rectified spirit, and, after
repose for a few days in a closely stoppered
green glass bottle, the solution is decanted, and
cantioMly evaporated in » deep silver basin, oat

of contact with the air. By this method it may
be obtained fi?ee from potJsssiam sulphate and
alumina, but it always contains traces of potas-
sium chloride, potassium carbonate, and potas-
sium acetate, the latter being formed by the
action of the potash on the alo^ol.

6. A quantity of potassium hydrate may be
obtuned from the liquor potassn of the shops
thus : — Evaporate 1 gall, in a clean iron or silver
vessel over an open fire until the ebullition being
finished the residuam liquefies. Pour this into
proper moulds.

Prop. When perfectly pure it is a hard,
white soUd, very soluble in water and in alcohol;
intensely acrid and corrosive, and exhibiting the
usual signs of alkalinity in the highest degree.
That of the shops has usually a greyish or bluish
colour. Caustic potash often exhibits a fibrous
structure ; it melts below red heat to a clear oily
liqnid, and at higher temperature it volatilises at
a white heat ; the vapours decompose into potas-
sium, oxygen, and hydrogen. It is very deli-
quescent, rapidly absorbing moisture from the
air and also carbonic anhydride. 1 part water
dissolves 2'18 parts caustic potash with evolution
of heat

Ueee, ife. Since caustic potash destroys both
animal and vegetable substance it acts as a
powerful cautery, and is much used in surgery ;
for this reason aqueous or alcoholic solutions can
only be filtered through glass or sand ; they are
best clarified by subsidence. It is largely used itt
chemical analysis for absorbing carbonic anhy-
dride, and for drying certain gases and liquids ;
it is an indispensable adjunct to the laboratory.
Its most important commercial use is in the
manuftcture of soft soap. The Liquor Potassn
of the Pharmacoposia has a sp. gr. • 1*068, and
contains about 6% of KOH.

Qerlach (vide ' Zeitschrift fiir analytische
Chemie,' vol. viii, p. 279) gives the foUowing
table of specific gravities w aqueous solutions at
15° C. :

Far cent.

Per e««t.

of KGB.

8p.gr.

or KOH.

8p.gr.

1 .

1-009

40 .

1-411

6 .

. 1041

46 .

1-476

10 .

. 1-088

60 .

1-689

16 .

. 1128

66 .

1-604

20 .

. 1-177

60 .

1-667

26 .

. 1-280

66 .

1-729

80 .

. 1-288

70 .

1-790

86 .

1-849

Solid caustic potash must always be kept in
well-stoppered botties, which when not in use may
be waxed down.

Potaaaiiun, I'odate of. EIO|. S$n. Po-
TABBX lODAB, L. Prep. 50 gr. of iodine are
digested with 50 gr. of potassium chlorate, both
freely powdered, with \ fl, os. of nitric acid in a
flask till all colour disappears ; the liquid is then
boiled for about 1 minute, poured out into a
dish, evaporated to dryness, and then moderately
heated. The product consists of potassium io-
date and potassium chloride; the latter can be
dissolved out with water.

Prop. Small colourless cabical crystals. It
is a useful test for S0| which at once liberates
iodine from it ; if a drop or two of starch paste has

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POTASSIUM

been preTioaaly mixed with a aolotion of KIO,,
the addition of S0| generates the choiacteriBtic
bloe coloration.

Potanhun, Iodide of. EI. Sgn. Potasbii
lODiDVU (B. p.. Ph. L., E., and D.), L.

1. Take of iron filings, 2 oz. ; distilled water, 2
quarts ; iodine, 6 oz. ; mix them, and heat the
solntion nntil it tnrns green, and then add of
carbonate of potassium, 4 oz., dissolved in water,
X quart ; Alter, wash the residnnm on the filter
with water, evaporate the mixed filtered liquors
and crystallise. — I'roduet. 1 ox. of iodine yields 1
01. 45 gr. of iodide.

2. Add iodine to a hot solution of pure hydrate
of potassium until the alkali is perfectly neutral-
ised, carefully avoiding excess; evaporate the
liquid to dryness, and expose the diy mass to a
gentle red heat in a platinum or iron crucible;
afterwards dissolve out the salt, gently evapo-
rate the solution and crystallise. An excellent
process, yielding a large product, bat, if the
ignition be not carefully managed, it is apt to
contwn a little nndecomposed iodate. The addi-
tion of a little powdered charcoal to the mass
before ignition will obviate this (Seanlan).

8. lo^e is treated with a small proportion of
phosphorus in water, and is thus converted into
hydnodic acid ; hydrate of calcium is then added,
and the iodide of calcium formed is separated,
fused, and then decomposed by sulphate of
potassium into sulphate of calcium, which is pre-
cipitated, and iodide of potassium, which remains
in solution, and may be crystallised, as in the
other processes. This is a modification of a
method devised by Liebig.

4. Pnt solution of potash, 1 gall., into a glass
or porcelain vessel, and add iodine, 29 ot., or q. s.,
in small quantities at a time, with constant agi-
tation, nntil the solution acquires a permanent
brown tint. Evaporate the whole to dryness in
a porcelain dish, pulverise the residue, and mix
this intimately with wood charcoal in fine
powder, 3 oz. Throw the mixture, in small
quantities at a time, into a red-hot crucible, and
when the whole has been brought to a state of
fusion, remove the crucible' from the fire and
pour out its contents. When the fused mass has
cooled, dissolve it in 2 pints of boiling distilled
water, filter through paper, washing the filter
with a little distilled boiling water; add the
washings and then evaporate till a film forms on
the suriFace. Set aside to cool and crystallise.
Drain the crystals and dry quickly with a gentie
heat; mora crystals may be obtained by evapo-
rating the moUier-Uqaor, and cooling. The salt
should be kept in a stoppered bottle.

Prop, It crystallises in cubes, which in the
pura salt are transpaient if slowly depomted
from a somewhat dilate soIntioD, whilst if they
are deposited from a hot solution they have an
opaqne porcelain-like appearance; these are an-
hydrous ; fuse at 639° C, without decomposition ;
diasolve in less than an equal weight of water, at
60° F., and sparingly soluble in alcohol ; do not
deliqaeeoe in moderately dry air unless they con-
tain nndecomposed hydiate of potassium. Its
solntion dissolves, io&e freely, and also, less
readily, several of the insolable metallic iodides
uid oxides. Its aqneoti* solution altera the

colour of turmeric either not at all or bot veiy
slightiy, nor does it aSeot litmus paper, or after*
vesce with acids. Nitric acid and starch bung
added together, it becomes blue. It is not
coloured by the addition of tartaric acid with
starch. No precipitate occun on adding either a
solntion of hydrate of calcium or of chloride of
barium. 100 gr., dissolved in water, by the
addition of nitrate of silver, yidd a precipitate of
141 gr. of iodide of silver.

A*»ag. The iodide of commerce freqoentiy
contuns fully one half its weight of either chlo-
ride or carbonate of potassinm, or both of them,
with variable quantities of iodate of potassium, a
much less valuable salt. The presence of these
substances is readi^ detected. As the first at
these is only veiT shghtiy soluble in ooM alcohol,
and the othera insoluble in that liquid, a ready
method of determining the richness of a sample
in pure iodide, sufBcienUy accurate for ordinary
purposes. Is as follows : — Reduce 60 gr. of the
sample to fine powder, introduce this into a test-
tube with 6 fi. dr. of alcohol, agitate the mixtore
violently for 1 minnte, and throw the whole on a
weighed filter set in a covered Ainnol, observing
to wash what remains on the filter with another
fl. dr. of alcohol. The filtrate, evaporated to
dryness, gives the quantity of pure iodidei, and
the increase of weight of the filter dried at lOO^
C, that of the impurities present in the sample
examined, provided it contained no hydrate of
potassium. The quantity of alkali, whiter hy-
drate or carbonate, may be found by the common
method of ' alkalimetty.'

Um, 1(0, Chiefly in photography, medicine,
and pharmacy. — Don, 1 to 10 gr., twice or thrice
daily, made into pills, or, better, in sedation, ather
alone or combined with iodine; in bronehoede^
scrofula, chronic rheumatism, dropsy, syphilis,
glandular indurations, and various outer glandular
diseases. Also externally, made into a lotion or
ointment.
Potassium, Fitnta of. ENO^ Sg*. NnsAxi

07 POTASH, NiTBB, 8lXTFITB> ; POTABU* HIZRAfl

(B. P., Ph. L.,E.,and D.),NiTBinrt,8A£ vrmf,
Sal PSTSxf, Eau MiTBATtiKt, li. This salt is
found as an efflorescence on the smfaoe of the
soil and in certain porous felspathio rocka in
various parts of the world, espedally in the East
Indies.

Prtf. 1. On the Continent it has long been
produced artificially, by exporing a mixture of cal-
careous soil and animiJ matter to the atmoapbere,
when calcium nitrate is slowly formed, and is
then extracted by lixlviation. Tha solution is de-
composed by the addition of wood ashes, or car-
bonate of potassium, by which carbonate of cal-
cium is precipitated, and nitrate of polassiiiiii
remains in solution. The places whei« these
operations are performed are called * nitriainea,'
or ' nitri&res artiflcielles.' The salt of the lint
crystallisation, by either process, is called ' erode
nitra ' or ' rough saltpetre.' This is purilled bgr
solution in boi]^g water, skimming, and, after a
short time allowed for defecation, stmning
(while stiU hot) into wooden crystalliaing vassals ,
The oystals thus obtained an called ' singlB t»-
fined nitre;' and when the process is repeated
'donUe refined nitre.'

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8. (Artifloial.) Equal moleooUr quantities of
sodinin nitntte and potaarium chloride are dinolTed
in hot water until the ip. gr. s=l'6. Chloride of
sodium formB and ia thrown down as a precipitate.
The dear scdtrtnon is deoanted oft, and on being
agitated and aUowed to cool potasaiam nitrate
crystaUiaes oat as ' saltpetre flonr.'

Prop. White, p^ndd, regnlar six-sided
prisms; permanest in the air; solnble in 7 parts
of water at 60° with absorption of mnch heat,
and in 1 part «t 218° F.; insolable in alcohol;
its taste is oool, saline, slightly bitter; at about
660° it fuses to an oily-looking mass, which con-
cretes on coaling, f omung ' sal pmnella ;' at a red
heat it gives ont oxygen, and, afterwards, nitrons
fames ; sp. gr. 8-1.

Air. Commercial nitre generally contains
cUorides, etdpbates, or ealoareons salts. The flrst
majr be detected by its solution giving; a cloudy
white iBieeipitate with nitiste of silver; the
second by chlorides of barium or calcinm giving
a white precijntate] and the third 1^ oxahte of
■mmonimn giving a white predpitate. It may be
pnrifled thus : — Commercial nitre, 4 lbs. ; boiUng
distilled water, 1 quart ; dissolve, withdraw the
heat, and stir the solution constantly as it cools ;
the minnte orystals, thus obtained, are to be
drained, and washed, in a glass or earthenware
percolator, with odd distilled water, until that
which trickles through ceases to give a predpitate
with a solution of nitrate of silver ; the eontenita of
the percolator are then to be withdrawn, and
dried in an oven.

Attag. X)t the numerous methods prescribed
for tUs, few are auffidentiy simple for our pur-
pose. The proportion of chlorides, aniphates,
and calcareous salts may be determined sepa-
rately, and iihe general richness of the sample by
the method of Qay-Luaaac, modified aa foUowa:
— 100 gr. of the sample (fairly chosen) are tri-
turated with 60 gr. of lampblack and 400 gr. of
common salt; the nuxture is then placed in an
iron ladle^ and ignited or fised therein, due care
bdng taken to prevent loss ; the residuum is ex-
hausted with hot water, and the solution thus
obtained tested by the usual methods of alkali-
metry for carbonate of potaaaium. The quantity
of carbonate found, multiplied by 2*126 or H,
gives the percentage richness of the sample in
nitrate.

Vt»t, ife. mtre is chiefly employed in the
mannfticture of gunpowder, fireworks, and nitric
add. It ia ■used in curing meat, to which it im-
parts a red colour. It is used in many chemical
operstions, and in medicine as a sedative, refrige-
rant, and duqthoretie, and as a cooling diuretic.
It has been recommended in active hemorrhages
(especially spitting of blood), in various febrile
affections, in scurvy, and in herpetic eruptiona ;
and it haa been highly extoUed by Dr Baaham aa
a remedy in acute rheumatiam. — Dote, 6 to 15
gr., every two hours. A amall piece, diaaolved
slowly in the mouth, freqnentiy stops a sore throat
at tite commencement. In large doses it ia poiaon -
ous. The best treatment is a x>owerful emetic,
followed by opiates.

Brtaatium, Hitrlta of. EITO,. ;8ni. Nitsite
0> 70TABU ; FoXAflax STCBia, L. This 'is formed
when saltpetre ia heated until onestom of oxygen is
TOL. n.

evolved. Prep. 1. By heating nitre to redneas,
dissolving the fused mass in a little water, and
adding twice the volume of the solntion in alcohol ;
after a few hours the upper stratum of liquid ia
decanted, and the lower one, separated from the
crystals, evaporated to dryness.

2. (Coremrinder.) Nitric acid, 10 parts, are
poured upon starch, 1 part, and the evolved gas
passed through a solntion of hydrate of potaaaium
of the ap. gr. 1*88 to aatnration ; the liquid ia
then neutraliaed with a little potasaium hydrate
(if neceaaary), and at once evaporated.

Prop., Sfo. Small indistinctly formed cryatala ;
deliquescent; insoluble in alcohol; decomposes,
evolvhig red fumes, on being heated with dilute
solphnric add. Used for the separation of cobalt
and nickel, and in organic chemistry for effecting
aimultaneoualy the removal of 8 atoma of hydro-
gen from a compound and the inswtion of 1 atom
of nitrogen.

Potasdnm, Ozalats of. K3C^4.4H^. %■.

NxUTXAIi OZAIAIB OIPOTABSA, NOBXALO. O* P.;

PoTAsos OXU.AB, L. Pt^, Neutralise a solu-
tion of oxalic add, or the add oxalates, with car-
bonate of potassium, evaporate, and ciystalliae.
Tranaparent colourleaa rhombic priama, aolnble in
3 parts of water.
Potassiiim,Hydrogen Oxalate of. EHC,04,2H,0.

Sglt. POTASSIXrX BIirOZALATB, Saxt ov bobxbl,

EaBnrriAjj 8Ai;t o> likonb; Potabbs biit-
oxXLAB, L. iVsp. By saturating a solntion of
oxalic acid, 1 part> wiw carbonate of potssnnm,
adding to the mixture a similar solntion of 1 part
of oxalic add, and evaporating for crystals. It
may also be obtained from the expreaaed juice of
rhubarb, sheep's sorrd, or other apedea of Sumex,
by clarifying it with eggs or milk, and evaporating,
we., as before.

Prop., (f-e. Colourless rltombic orystals,
solnble in 40 parts of cold and 6 parts of boiling
water, yidding a very sour solntion. A solntion
of this aalt ia often uaed for removing ink ataina
from paper.

Potaaainm, Trihydrogen Oxalate, of. KHCjO^,
H,C,04,2H,0. 8j/n. PoiABBint qitasboxa-

IiATB, FOTABBIVK ACID OZALATX. iVsp. By

neutraliaing 1 part of oxalic add with carbonate
of potasaium, adding to the aolution 8 parta more
of oxalic acid, evaporating and cryatalluing.

Prop., <fe. Beaembles the last, but ia less
solnble, and more intensely sour, and forma
triclinic cryatala. The aalt ia occaaionally aold
nhder the namea of 'aal acetoseUn,' 'salt of
sorrel,' and ' essential salt of lemons.' It is used
to remove ink and iron stains from linen, to
bleach the straw uaed fi>r making bonnets, and,
occasionally, in medicine, aa a refrigerant.

Fotasslnm, Oxide of. Syn. P. monozidb.
EjO. iVap. 1^. Burn pure potassium in a
current of oxygen. White powder or grey brittie
mass, rapidly absorbing water and forming the
hydrate.

Potassium Peroxide. K,0,. Prep. Heat
dean potasdnm in a current of dry air, and then
in dry oxygen, according to Harcourf s plan {vide
' Journal Chemical Sodety,' xiv, p. 267). Dark
chrome-yellow coloured powder.

Potassium, PereUoiata of. KCIO^. Aw.
FoiABBii pbbohlobab, L. Prepared by mixing

87

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1878

POTASSIUM

well-dried and finely powdered chlonte of potu-
Bium in small portion! at a time with warm nitric
acid. The salt is separated by crystallisation.
Potanliun, Frai'siata of. See PoTAwrux

nSBIOTAiriDB and mSBBOOTAKISB.

Potaninm, Salicyllta of. Formed by mixing
salicylons acid with a strong solution of hydrate
of potassium ; it separatee, on agitation, as a
yellow crystalline mass, which, after pressure
between bibulous paper, is recrystallised from
alcohol. Golden-yellow crystals, soluble in both
water and alcohol ; damp air gradually converts
them into acetate of potassium and melanic
add.

Potauinm, Silicate of. E,SiO,. Sgn. Potab-
ax aaioAS, P. iotasiuoatb. Prtp., S^e. Mix
1 part of powdered quartz or flint, or of fine
■ibceous sand, vrith 2 parts of carbonate of
potash, and fuse them in a Hessian crucible. Dis-
solve tiie mass in water, filter the solution and
evaporate ; a glassy deliquescent mass. — Doti, 10
to 16 gr., in 6 or 8 oz. of water, twice a day.
To dissolve gout concretions.

Fotaasinm Tetraailicata. E,SI,0,. i^a.
Watbb aLA88. The 'soluble glass' of Freek.
Prep. By fusing 46 parts quartz, SO of potashes,
and 3 of powdered clurcoal for five or six hours ;
the greyish-black glass is then boiled with five
times its weight of water, the volume somewhat
reduced, and then l-4th its bulk of strong alco-
hol added. After standing the mother-liquor is
poured off and the residue dissolved in water. It
is used in the preservation of stone ; mixed with
sand and lime as a cement, and in the soap mann-
&cture, although the sodium silicate is superior
to it for these purposes.

FotaMiii]n,Salpluiteof. E^4. Sgn. PoTAsaii
8ULFEAS (B. p.. Ph. L., E., & D.). This salt has
been known since the 14th centoiy. It is found
native in the lava of Vesuvius and in kainite.
It is also obtained as a bye-product in several
chemical manufactures, «. g, the preparation of
potash, bichromate of potash, &c.

Prep. 1. From kainite. The mineral, after
having been weathered by exposure to the atmo-
sphere, becomes deliquescent; the soluble mag-
nesium chloride which it also contains is then
partially decomposed by treatment with boiling
water, and on cooling tiie sulphate, which is only
sparingly soluble, crystallises out.

2. The residuum of the ^tillation of nitric
acid from nitre is dissolved in water, the solution
neutralised with carbonate of potassium, and
after defecation and evaporation until a pellicle
forms, it is strained, or decanted, and set aside
to crystallise. Or, the residuum is simply ignited,
to expel excess of acid, and then dissolved and
erystijlised as befisre.

Ptop., Sfe. Anhydrous, heavy, hard, rhombic,
pyramidal crystals; permanent in the air; soluble
in 12 parts of water at 60° and in 6 parts at 212°
F. ; insoluble in alcohol ; extremely nauseous
and bitter tasted. It crepitates on the application
of heat ; fuses at a red heat, but can be volati-
lised only at high temperature. It is nsed as a
purgative in medicines, and in the manufacture
of potash alum and potassium carbonate.

Potaaslum, Blralphate of. KHSO4. Sgn.

PoiAaSItnC-BIDBOaBH BUIfHAXB, AOID FOTAB-

eitTM BUIf HATB ; POIAB&B BIBUIf HAS, L, Found

native in the Qrotto del Solfo, near Naples, in the
form of long silky needles. — Prtp. 1. (Anhy-
drous.) ItTentral sulphate of potassium and sm-
phuric acid, equal parts ; hot water, q. s. to dis-
solve ; anhydrous bisulphate crystallises out, in
long delicate needles, as the solution cools. If
these are left for several days in the mother-liquor
they are redissolved, and crystals of the ordinary
hy^ted bisulphate are deposited.

2. (Hydrated.) a. Salt left in distilling
nitxic acid, 2 lbs. j boiling water, 8 quarts ; dis-
solve ; add of sulphuric acid, 1 lb. ; concentrate
by evaporation, and set the Uqnid aside, so that'
crystals may form.

b. Powdered sulphate of potanium, 8 os. ; sul-
phuric acid, 1 fl. oz. ; mix in a porcelain capsule,
and expose to a heat capable of liquefying its con-
tents, until acid vapours cease to be evolved;
powder the residuum, and preserve it in a well-
stoppered bottle.

iVop., IfC. Sour and slightly bitter-tasted
rhombic prisms; soluble in about 2 parts of
cold and 1 part of boiling water, the solution ex-
hibiting a strongly acid reaction. It is much
employed in lien of tartaric acid, for the produc-
tion of carbonic add, in ' gazogenes,' Jbc. ; also to
adulterate cream al tartar and tartaric add.
According to Dr Paris, it forms a "grateful ad-
junct to rhubarb." — Dott, 12 gr. to 1^ dr., in
solution, combined with rhubarb or bitters, as the
neutral sulphate.

Potassium, Sulphide of. iSya. SvLFKintBT

01 FOTABSnTlC, LrVBR OF BITLPHTTSt ; POTABSA
BTTLFKimATA, POIABSn BVLPBTTKBTUIC (Ph. L.,

E., & U.S.), Hbfab bttlfhttkib (Ph. D.), L.
laver of sulphur and Hepar sulphuris are the old
names given to a mixture of potassium polysnl-
phides with potassium sulphate or potassium
thiosulphate. The true sulphides of potassium
are the monosulphide K^, the trisulphide K,S,,
the tetiasulphide KjS^ and the pentasulphide
E]S(, none of which are of much importance. —
Prep. 1. Salphnr, 1 oz. ; carbonate of potassium,
4 oz. ; mix, heat them in a covered crudble till
they form a nniform fused liver-coloured mass ;
when cold, break into fragments, and preserve It
in well-cloeed vessels.

2. Sublimed sulphur, 4 oz. ; carbonate of potas-
sium (from pearlash, first dried, and then reduced
to powder), 7 oz. ; mix in a warm mortar, beat
in a Hessian crudble, pour the fused mass into
an iron cup, over which immediately invert •
second vessel to exdude the air, and, when cold,
break the mass into fragments, and preserve it
in a green glass-stoppered bottle.

Prop., ife. A hard, brittle, liver or greenish-
brown coloured solid; inodorous whilst dry;
soluble in water, forming a highly fetid solution ;
and, in adds, evolving strong fumes of sul-
phuretted hydrogen ; reaction, alkaline ; exposed
to the air, it is gradually converted into sulphate
of potash. As a medicine it is reputed diaphoretic,
expectorant, and stimulant. — Dote, 2 to 6 gr., in
solution, or made into pills with soap ; in gout,
rheumatism, liver affections, and various chronic
skin diseases. Externally, made into a lotion and
ointment. It is highly acrid and corrorive, and in
large doses poisonous.

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POTATO

1879

FotMBiiim. Solphoeyulde of. ECNS. Sgu.

P. TEIOOYAiriTB, P. gVIf HOOYAHATB, SlTLPHO-
OriLlDTHIlT Of POTABBIXnC ; POTASSII glTIiFHOOYA-
STDVH, P. BUIiPHOOYAirnBBTUK, L. Pnp. 1.

Dried f errocyanide of potauium, 46 parte ; sul-
phur, 82 parte ; pore carbonate of potassium, 17
parte ; reduce them to powder, and very gradually
heat the mixture to low redness in a covered iron
cmdblek which it will leas than one hidf flU;
remove the half-cooled but still soft mass, crush
and exhaust it with water, then evaporate the
aqueous solution to dryness; powder the residuum,
and exhaust it with hot alcohol or rectified spirit ;
the alcoholic solution will yield beautiful white
crystals as it cools, and the residuum or mother-
liqnor may be evapowted for the remainder of
the salt

2. Qj^snide of potassium, 8 parte; sulphur, 1
part; water, 6 parte; digest them together for
some time, add 8 parte more of water, filter,
evnotalbe, and crystallise.

Prop., (f-c. Long, slender, colourless prisms
or plates, which are anhydrous, bitter tasted,
deliquescent, fusible, blue when hot, very soluble
in both water and alcohol, and are non-poisonous.
It is chiefly used as a test for ferric oxide, for
which purpose it is preferable to all other sub-
stances.

Fotasslnm, Tartrate of. E,C4H40,. Sgn.
KanrsAL tastbatb op potassiitx, Tabtratb

OV P0TAS8A, NlirCKAL TASTAB, SOLTTBIA T. ;
PoTABSa TABTJIA8 (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.),
Kai.1 TABTABIZATVlft, L. Prep. Carbonate of
potassium, 8 oz.; distilled water, 2 quarts; dis-
solve, and to the solution, whilst boiling hot,
gradually add of bitartrate of potessinm, in fine
powder, 1 lb., or q. s. until the liquid, after
ebullition for a couple of minutes, ceases to change
the colour of either blue or reddened litmus paper ;
next filter the liquid through calico, evaporate it
until a pellicle forms on l£e surface, and set it
aside to crystallise; after 12 hours collect the
crystals, dry them on bibulous paper, and preserve
them from the air.

Prop., Ifc. The crystals of this salt, which are
obtuned with difficulty, are right rhombic prisms,
and are deliquescent. The wit of commerce is
usually in the form of a white granular powder,
which is obtained by simply evaporating the solu-
tion to dryness, with constant stirring. In this
stete it requires 4 parte of cold water for ite
solution.

The solution changes the colour neither of litmus
nor turmeric. Almost any add throws down
crystals of bitartrate of potassium, which generally
adhere to the vessel. The precipitate occa-
sioned by either chloride of barium or acetate of
lead is dissolved by dilute nitric acid.

As a medidne it acte as a gentle diuretic and
aperient, and is valued for correcting the griping
properties of senna and resinous purgatives. It
18 also antiscorbutic. — Dote, ) dr. to | oz., in pow-
der, or dissolved in water.

Potassium, Bitartrate of. EHC4.H4O,. Byn.

Acn> TABTBATI OP POIAgaA, SxrFBBTABTBATB

01 P., Cbbah op tabtab; Cbxhob tabtabi,
POTA8SJE BITABTB&B (B. P., Ph. L., E., k D.),
FOSA8&S BTTPBBTABTBAa, TABTABI OBYBTAIXI,

L. iVsp., 4-0. This well-known salt is deposited

during the fermentation of grape juice as a crust
on the sides of the casks or vate. In ite unpre-
pared or crude stete it is called white or red tertar
or argol, according to the colour of the grapo
juice from which it has been obtained. It is
purified by boiling it in water, crystallisation, reso-
lution in water, and treatment with freshly burnt
charcoal and clay, to remove the colour ; the clear
liquid is then decanted whilst still hot, and
allowed to cool slowly; the resulting crystals
form the ' cream of tartar ' of commerce.

Prop., ^e. Small, translucent, gritty, pris-
matic crystals, irregularly grouped together;
permanent in the air ; requiring fully 100 parte
of cold water, and about 15 parte of boiling water,
for their perfect solution; the solution has a harsh,
sour taste, and, like that of the tertrate, suffers
spontaneous decomposition by keeping. It diB-
solves easily in adds and alkalies, which convert
it into the neutral tartrate. When heated it gives
off the odour of burnt sugar and leaves a black
mass of charcoal and potauium carbonate (salte
of tartar). Ite solution reddens litmus. It is
much used to make a pleasant cooling drink
('Imperial'), and in tooth-powders. — Don. As
an aperient, 1 to 8 dr. ; as a diuretic, ^ dr. to
1 dr.; as an antiscorbutic, 10 to 80 gr. fre-
qnenUy.

POTATO. This well-known and valuable
article of food is the tuber of the Solamum
tuiarontm or etonUtUum, a plant which was in-
troduced to this country by either Sir Francis
Drake or Sir Walter Raleigh, towards the latter
part of the 16th century. It is now extensively
cultivated in all the temperate cUmates of the
world. It yields a vast quantity of food on a small
space of ground, but only about l-7th part of the
wdght of the tnber is nutritious, and this is chiefly
farinaceous. Ite farina or starch is, however, ac-
companied by no inconsiderable portion of saline
matter, more especially of potessa, which renders
it highly antiscorbutic, and a powerful corrective
of the grossness of animal food. When forming
part of a mixed diet, perhaps no substance is more
wholesome than the poteto, and, certainly, no
other esculent hitherto discovered appears equally
adapted for universal use.

Boussinganlt gives the following as the average
composition of the tubers of the poteto :
Moiit. Dry.

Water . 76-9 . . —

Albumen . . 2-8 . .9*6
Oily matter . 0*2 . .0-8
Fibre . , 04 . .1-7
Staroh . 20-2 . . 88-8

Salte . . 1-0 . .4-1

100-0 100-0

Manuring experimente on potetoes in 1867-9
show that on Ught soils a mixture of mineral
superphosphate, crude potash salte, and ammonium
sulphate produces veiy beneficial resnlte ; on stiff
soils nitrogenous manures have little effect. Fur-
ther proof is given that manuring with common
salt tends to decrease the yield.

Analyses, conducted by A. Stockardt, of pote-
toes grown in dght dillerent years, show that
those manured with salt invariably contain less
starch than those umnaaured, the decrease being

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POT.POUKEI

irom 10% to 20% of itarch; the same effect
ia produced when the salt ii mixed with other
manaren.

Under the microscope the cells are seen to be
very sparingly fitted with starch-grains.

Unmanned potatoes contained '43% of sodiam
chloride in the dry substance, and those which
had received a small dressing of common salt
1*84% (Voelcker, ' Eoy. Apic Society's Journal,'
quoted in ' Journal of Chemical Society,' vol. zzr).

No certain rule can be laid down for ' dressing '
potatoes. " If boiled, it may be that the^ require
to be pot into boiling water, or, may be. into cold,
and either boiled quickly or slowly ; but this you
must find out. Choose them all about the same
size, with a smooth skin, and when they are boiled
and begin to crack, throw off the water imme-
diately, as it only damages the root. When
dressed, let them stand near the fire, with a doth
over them, and serve them in their skins. Salt
may be put into the water at the beginning. A
watery potato will require quick boiling, and
sometimes to be put into boiling water" {Soj/er).

To retun the highest amount of nourishment
in potatoes they should be ' dressed ' with their
■kins on them. The bruised or damaged parts,
worm-holes, &c, being removed with a knife,
the dirt should be carefully cleaned out of the
'eyes' and from the rough parts of the skins,
\n means of a brush and water, after which they
should be well rinsed in clean water, and drained
in a colander. If they are at all dry or shrivelled
they may be advantageously left to soak for 8 or
4 hours in clean cold water before cooking them.
Potatoes ' dressed' in the skins have been found
to be nearly twice as rich in potaasa salts as those
which have been first peeled. The skins are easily
removed before sending them to table.

NlW P0IAT0I8 shoSd have their loose outer
skin rubbed off with a cloth or stiff brush before
being dressed or cooked.

Potato starch panoles.

Mabhkd potatoib are prepared by crushing
with the back of a spoon, or with a rolling-pin,
the hot ' dressed ' tubeirs, placed in a bowl or dish,
or on a pie-board. A little milk, butter, and salt

may be added to them at will, and they may be
either at once ' served up,' or pressed into ' forms,'
and first 'browned off' in the oven. Potatoes, if

Potato itsrcli gnnsln iwoUen by liqnor

not soft and mealy, and well masticated, fre-
quently escape the solvent action of the stomach,
and pass off undigested, often to the seriona de-
rangement of the health. £^ maahing them this
inconvenience is removed. The delici^ the dys-
peptic, and the aged should take them in no other
form.

Potatoes may be preserved so as to stand the
longest voyages unchanged, by thoroughly desic-
cating them in an oven, or by steam heat. For
this purpose the roots, either raw or three parts
dressed, are generally first cut into dice of above
} inch square, to facilitate the operation. Under
a patent granted to Hr Downes Edwards, Aug.,
I&IO, the boiled potatoes are mashed and granu-
lated by forcing them through a perforated plate
before drying them. The granulated product,
beaten up with a little hot milk or hot water,
forms an excellent extemporaneous dish of mashed
potatoes.

The microscopic detection of potato starch is
easy. Instead of being round or oval, and with a
central hilnm, the starch grains are pyriform,
with an eccentric hilum placed at the smaller end,
and with well-marked concentric rings. A weak
solution of liquor potassta (one drop of the Phar-
maoopcsia preparation to ten of water) swells
them out greaUy after a time, while wheat starch
is little affected by potash of this strength ; if the
strength is 1 to 8 (as in the fyt.) the swelling
takes place very rapidly.

Potatoes, like many other plants, dtgnteraU
when propagation by tubers is constantly resorted
to. varieties become extinct, and when once
this has occurred it can never be restored. The
terrible ravages of the potato disease have led_ to
careful inquiry as to the beet means of rusing
healthy vigorous plants, and much valuable in-
formation will be found on the subject in ' An
Essay on Baising Kew Varieties of Potatoes,' by
Charles Lynch, 1886, threepence, published by
Eyre and Spottiswoode j or in ' Potato Culture
for the MillioD,' by H. W. Ward, by the same
publishers, 1891.

POT-FOTTSSI. [Fr.] A mixture of odorous
flowers, roots, gums, &c., varied according to the

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POTTBD MEATS— POUDRBTTB

1B81

taste of the operator, either ndzed together dry,
ot in the frean state preserved with nilt. " The
nsual way of making it is to collect roses, laven-
der, and other sweet-scented flowers, as they
blow ; to put them into a large jar mixed (strati-
fied) with salt, nutil a sufficient quantity has
been collected ; then to add to these such other
odoroos substances as may be required to form an
agreeable prafnme." Among the substances thus
added are — ambergris, benzoin, calamus root,
cascarilla, cassia, cassia bads, cinnamon, ^ve/k,
cloves, musk, musk seed, orange berries and
flowers, orris root, pimento, storaz, vanilla, yellow
sandal-wood. Sic.

" Instead of the fresh flowers, dried roses are
somedmes used, and, with the addition of some
easential (nls, these answer qnite as well " (Sed.
wood).

The following is a French formnla: — Take the
petals of the pale and red roses, pinks, violets,
moss rose, orange flower, lily of the valley, acacia
flowers, clova gilliflowers, mignonette, heliotrope,
jonquils, with a small proportion of the flowers of
myrtle, balm, rosemary, and thyme ; spread them
out for some days, and as they become dry put
them into a jar, with alternate layers of dry salt
mixed with orris powder, till the vessel is filled.
Close it for a month and stir the whole up, tt^
moisten it with rose water.

POTTSD KEATS. See PuTBBVAOTiqK and
PoTTiHe (beloip).

POT'TSKT. The mechanical operations con-
nected with tiie manafactare of pottery (obbakio
AST) do not come within the province of this
work. The materials employed in this country
to produce the best kind of earthenware (Srxr-
voBQ^Blsa WABa) are the fine white days of
Devonshire and Clomwall, and powdered chert or
flint. Tlua is brought to a perfectly homogeneous
plastic siass with water, and in this state is
fashioned upon the potter's wheel and lathe, or
by mouliUng, into all the varied olyects of utilil?
and oroament which are made in this material.
After the newly formed vessels and other articles
have been dried by exposure in heated rooms they
are enclosed in clay oases (BBaaARs) and exposed
to heat in a kiln, by which they arrive at a state
(bibovit) which renders them fit for glazing ; the
patterns (if any) and, afterwards, appropriate
vitreoos materials having been applied to their
Boifaces, they are again placed in the seg^ars,
and are again exposed in a kiln to a heat suffi-
ciently high to fuse the newly applied compound,
by wnich they acquire a nuiform enamelled
surface, and become fit for the market. Fobor-
LAIH, or China, as it is commonly called, is
manofactored in a nearly similar manner, but
tiie materials are selected and the various pro-
cesfea ccmdncted with corresponding skill and
care.

The ornamental patterns are produced upon
both StaSordahire ware and porcelain by a
nqmber of ingenious processes, among which
printing, punting, and moulding are the prin-
cipal. The colours employed are those which
have been already referrad to under Evahbls.

Thb metallic lustres now w common on stone-
ware^ Ac-, are giresa as follows :

1. Gou> I1U8TBB. Dissolve giwn-gold, 1 dr..

in aqua regia, ) oz. ; to the solntion add of me-
tallic tin, 6 gr. j and when this is dissolved ponr
it very gradually, with constant stirring, into a
mixture of balsam of sulphur, i dr. ; oil of tar-

rntine, 20 gr. ; when the mass begins to stiffen,
dr. more of oil of turpentine must be added,
and well mixed in. Uore gold deepens and
brightens the lustre; more tin turns it on the
violet or purple.

2. Iboh LtrsTBB. From a mixtnre of 'ntu*
riate of iron ' (ferric chloride) and spirit of tar.

8. FLATiinrx lttbtbb. To a solution of plati«
nam in aqua regia (platinic chloride) is added,
drop by drop, a mixtnre of spirit of tar ana
balsam of sulphur in equal proportions, nntil by
a trial the composition is found to give the
required result. This gives the appearance of
polished steel.

4. SiLTBB LV8IBH. The ammonio-chloride of
platinum is reduced to an impalpable powder,
ground up to the roquisite consistence with a
little spirit of tar, and at once applied with a
brush.

The above lustres are applied over an easily
fusible glaze to the outer surfaces only of the
vessels, after which adhesion is produced by ex-
posing the pieces to a slight degree of heat in the
muffle. To mve them their full beauty' they must
be rabbed with cotton, wool, or chamois leather,
after the firing. See Axukiita, Clat, Ehaxiu,
OiLniira, OiiAzes, Eaoijk, <fcc.

POTTISQ. A term commonly applied to the
operation or practice of preserving animal sub-
stances in a state fit for immediate use, in small
pots or jars. The method of proceeding is, first,
to mince the substance (previously well dressed,
and carefully deprived of bones, sinews, skin, &c.),
and next to pound it in a clean polished marble
or iron mortar, along with a little batter and
some cayenne pepper, or other suitable spice or
sauce, until it forms a perfecUy smooth paste;
this is pressed into the pots, so as to about 2-3rds
fill them, and clarified melted butter is then
ponrod in to the depth of about l-8th of an inch ;
the pots are, lastly, closely covered over, and kept
in a cool situation. In this state their contents
may be preserved for a year or longer. Potted
beef, ham, veal, poultry, game, anchovies, bloaters,
salmon, &c., are commonly sold in the shops.
They are all intended for relishes, and are sprmd
upon bread in the same manner as butter.

POUSKE KOnSIQTn. [Fr.] A French nos-
trum, consisting of nitre and sulphur, of each, 60
parts ; charcoal and antimony, of ^ch, 1 part.
It is divided into i-dr, doses, of which three are
put into each packet. It is given to dogs in a
ball of butter to prevent the disorders to which
they aro liable.

POTTDSS XETALUQirx. [Fr.] See Tooth
Cbkbhts.

POtlDSE SITBTII1B. [Fr.l See Dbfilatobt.

POTISaETTS. [Fr.l Dned night-soil. The
manure sold under this name is a compound of
night-soil with day, charcoal, or gypsum, made
into balls or cakes. Its extensive use in Belgium,
France, the United States of America, and more
particularly in China, where it was first employed,
has shown it to be one of the most generally
applicable of all the numerous substances used

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POULTICE

u mannre ; bnt as its nitrogen ii very low oom-
pared with gnano and other materials, the cost of
carriage is very g^reatly against its use, 1 ton of
guano being equal to 9 or 10 tons of poudrette.

Tardieu, speaking of the men engaged in making
poudrette, says, " The action of the exhalations
from the manure manufacturers is certainly not
injurious. The workmen show actually no trace
of sickness or disease which can be referred to the
inflnence of these exhalations."

That 'poudrette' is, however, occasionallj
liable to set up fermentation seems undeniable ;
and when this is the case, and large quantities of
poudrette are stored within a small space, serions
consequences may ensue.

Parent Dnch&telet cites the case of a vessel
carrying poudrette to Qnadalonpe, in which half
the crew died, and the remainder were in a very
low state of health on the arrival of the vessel at
Gnadaloupe, owing, as he affirms, to the exhala-
tions given ofF by tiie pondrette.

FOUL'TICE. £Jy«. Cataplash ; Cataplabma,
L. An external application, generally extempo-
raaeoos, used to promote suppuration, allay pain
and inflammation, and resolve tamours, by means
of moisture, warmth, or certain remedies they may
contain.

Poultices (cataplasmata) are generally prepared
with substances capable of absorbing much water
and assuming a piUpy consistence, so as to admit
of their application to any anr&ce, however irre-
gular. Their curative action principally depends
upon the liquids with which they are moistened,
and the heat retained by the mass. With this
object they shonld never be heavy or very bnlky,
and shonld be frequently repeated, and lightly
but securely bandaged on to prevent dis^ace-
ment.

The addition of a little lard, olive oil, or, still
better, glycerin, to a poultice, tends g^reatly to
promote its emollient action and to retard its
hardening.

As the continned medication of the part with
warmth and moistore^ or with snbstances applied
in the moist way, is the principal object to be
attained in the application of poultices, a fold or
two of lint or soft linen dipped in hot water,
Mther simple or medicated, and covered with a
piece of thin sheet gntta percha or india-rubber
cloth to prevent evaporation may be often con-
veniently applied in their stead. A very elegant
and useful substitute of this kind is sold under
the name of < spongio-jnline.' Its cleanliness,
lightness, and ease at application has led to its
extensive adoption by the medical profession.

The following formnlffi embrace all the cata-
plasms of the Pharmacopoeias :

Ponltice of Al'nm. Sgn. Cataplabxa alv-
imna, L. I>rep. (B. P., Ph. D. 1826.) Alum
(in powder), 1 dr. ; whites of 2 eggs ; shake them
together until they form a coag^nm. Applied
between the folds of fine linen to chilblains, sore
nipples, inflamed eyes, &c.

Ponltlee, Anodyne. (P. Cod.) 8fn. Cata-
FLA81CA AHOSYinni, L. Prep. Poppy heads, 1
oz.; dried leaves of henbane, 2 oz.; water, 24 oz.
Boil, strain, and add to the liquor 4 oi. of emol-
lient meals, to form a ponltice.

Ponltlee, Aitrlograt. (iby.) Sy>- Caxa-

FUIXA A8TBDr.anr8, L. Pnp. Catechu, 1 ob.;
powdered oak bark and barley meal, of each, 1
oz. ; cold water, q. a.

Ponltice of Belladonna. (Dr Sa»e».) £tya.
CAIAPLA8KA BSLLAOOiTirji, L. Prap. Bxtract
of belladonna, made m vacuo, 1 dr.; oatmeal,
i lb. ; boiling water, q. s.

Ponltice, Bran. Sgn. Catafx-abx A FUBimuB.
L. I^ep. Fine bran, with 1-lOth of Unseed
meal, made into a ponltice with boiling water.
Mr Fbyne recommends, as a cheap hospital ponl-
tice, 3i pecks of pollard, 14 lbs. of bruised meal,
and i lb. of lard.

Poidtiee of Braad. 8^ Cataflabva paxib,
L. Prep. From crumb of bread, soaked in hot
water, sfightly pressed, and then beaten up witii
a little lard, butter, or oil. Emollient See
PoiTLTiCB, LiirexKi) MuL {below).

Pooltieeof Cai<rot. Sgn. Cataplasica satoi,
L. Prep. 1. From the common esculent carrot
scraped fine, so as to form a pulp.

2. (Ph. D. 1826.) From the cnUarated eurrot
boiled with a little water until it becomes soft
enough to form a poultioe. Anodyne and anti-
septic Used in fonl and painful ulcers, bums,
contusions, &c. That from the first formula is
the more stimulant.

PonltiM of Char'ooaL Sgn. CatapIiABKa
OABBomg (B. P., Ph. L.), C. 0. LlOKi, L. Prep.
1. (Ph. It.) Soak bread, 2 oz., in boUing water,
i pint; to this add, by degrees, of linseed meal,
10 dr.; and, aftervrards, of powdered (recently
bomt) charcoal, 2 dr.; lastly, sprinkle on the
surface of the poultice powdered charcoal, I dr.
As an application to f gstid and gangrenoos sores;
frequently renewed.

2. (B. P.) Wood chai«oal, i oz.; bread, 2
oz.; linseed meal, 1) os.; boiling water, 10 oz.;
soak the bread in the water near the fire, add the
linseed meal and half the charcoal, slining to a
soft poultice, sprinkling the remainder of the
charcoal on the surface.

Poaltlee of (Silorine. <S^. Cataplasxa sodji
OELOBIHATX (B. P., Ph. L.). L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
L.) Boiling water, 6 fl. oz. ; linseed meal. 4) oz. ;
mix gradually, then add of solution of dilorinated
soda, 2 fl. oz. Applied to fonl ulcers, gangrenous
parts, Ac.

2. (B. P.) Solution of chlorinated soda, 1
part; linseed meal, 2 parte; boiling water, 4
parte; add the linseed meal gradually to the
water, stirring constantly, then mix the solution
of chlorinated soda.

Ponltioe, Compound Patina. Sf». Caiaplaoca
PASnrx OOKPOBITUK, L. Prep. Bye flour, 1
lb. ; old yeast, 4 oz.; salt, 2 oi.; hot water, q. s.

PonltiM, Cammln. (L. Ph. 1788.> Sgn. Cata-
PLABKA OUXIKZ. Prep. Cummin seeds, 1 lb. ;
bay berries, soordium leaves, serpentaria root, of
each, 3 oz. ; cloves, 1 oz. ; to be powdered together
and mixed with thrice their weight of honey.

Ponltiea, Dlsontient. 5jr». Caiaplabxa dib-
OUTIBNB, L. Prep. Barley meal, 6 oz.; fresh
hemlock, 2 oz. ; vinegar, q. s. Boil and add nJ-
ammoniac, 1 oz. (Fr. Uosp.) The same, with 2
dr. of aoetete of lead added.

Ponltice, Btbrveadng. Syn. Cataplasha
KPFBBVXBCTHg, L. Pr^, Fi«sh wort thickened
with oatmeal, and a spoonful of yeast added.

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1888

PonKlM, Xmitie. S^ Catapuiiu Rmri-
Oirif, L. Fr»p. Bruised groimdiel (Stneoio
vulffarit) applied over the stomach piodaces
vomiting.

Cktaplanut of Kg. Sffu. CatapIiUKI. noi,
L. Prtp. A dried flg. roasted or boiled (some-
times in miUc), is frequently applied to gam-
boils, toe.

P(natiee,7ozglor«(Jrr^{IaiHQ. Sgn. Cata-
FLABMA DlsiTAliiB, L. JVap. A strong decoc-
tion of foxglove, witii bread emmb, or linseed
meal, q. s.

Fooltice, OanMuinm. 8gn. CATAPLAfOCA OAi-
BAWI, L. Prep. Lily roots, 4 os.; figs, 1 oz.;
boil till soft, and braise them with 11 oz. of
onions and i oz. of g^hannm, tritarated with
yoUc of egg and a safficient quantity of linseed
meal.

Fonltloe, ealTanic. (Seoamitr.) Sy: Cata-
PLASKA SALYAinoux, L. It consists of cotton
wadding containing a layer of very thin zinc
plates, and another layer of copper ones. This
pad, conveniently qoilted, is enclosed in a bag,
one face of which is of qnilted calico, the other
of impermeable tisrae. The natoral perspiration,
eonflned by the impermeable tissue, excites gal-
vanic action between the metals.

VsnltiM «f Hamlook. Sgn. Catapi.asica
ooiai (B. P., Ph. L.), L. I»rap. 1. (Ph. L.)
Boiling water, 1 pint; linseed meal, 4} oz., or
q. s.; make a poultice, and on this spread of
extract of bemliock (Ph. L.), 1 oz., first softened
with a little hot water. Anodyne. In irritable
and painful cancerons. Scrofulous, and syphilitic
■ores, tumours, Ac.

8. (B. P.) Juice of hemlock, 1 os.; linseed
meal, 4 oz. ; boiling water, 10 oz. Kvaporate
the juice to half; mU well.

Ponltiee, Henbane. £fy«. CATAPi.AaicA hto-
BOrAio. The same as PoinaiOB op poppt.

Fwdtlee, Hop. (Dr IHttar.) fffn. Caia-
PIiABKA vmnTLl, ii. Hops softened with hot
water. To foul ulcers.

PonHlM, Iodine. Sgn. Cataplabka iosusb-
TVJC, L. To a common poultice add solntion
or tincture of iodine.

Ponltiee, Lead. 8gn. Cataplabka piiirxBi,
I<. Prtp. Chmlard water, 1 lb. ; bread crumb,
q. 8.

Ponltiee, Lily. Sgn. Cataplabka lilii, L.
The pulp ot the white lily boiled and bruised.

Ponltiee, lime. iS^. Cataplabka oaloib,
Ii. iViap. Slaked lime, 2 oz.; oatmeal, 8 oz.;
lard, 4 oz. Formerly used at Bath Hospital.

Poultice of Unseed IleaL Sgn. Cataplabka
jm (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Pr$p. 1. (Ph. L.) To
boiling water, i pint, add giadually, constantly
stilling, of linseed meal, 41 oz., or q, s. Emol-
lient. Used to promote the suppuiation or
'ripening' of tamoars. A little oil or lard
should be added, and some smeared over the sur-
face as well, to i)revent its getting hard. For
•mall 'gatherings,' as of the fingers, a little
chewed bread and butter is an efficient and con-
venient substitute.

8. (B. P.) Linseed meal, 4 parts ; boiling water,
10 parts ; mix the linseed meal with the water,
oonstanUy stirring.

06f. Linseed meal prepared from the cake,

from which the oil has been expressed, is less
adapted for poultices than that prepared from the
unpressed, whole seed.

Poultice, Malt. (Guy's Hosp.) Syn. Cata-
PLA8KA BTVM. Prap. Oronnd malt, with yeast,
q. B. to form a poultice ; to be applied warm.

Poultice of Xns'tard. Syn. Cataplabka
BiWAPis (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P., Ph. L.)
Linseed meal and powdered mustard, of each, 21
OS., or q. s. ; boiling water and lukewarm water,
q. s. Mix the mustard with 2 or 3 oz. of luke-
warm water ; mix the linseed meal with 6 to 8
oz. boiling water; mix both together.

2. (Ph. L. 1886.) As the last, but substituting
boiling vinegar for water. Used as a powerful
counter-irritant, stimulant, and rubefacient; in
low fevers, apoplexy, coma, &c., where there is a
determination of blood to the head ; in deep-seated
inflammatory pains, neuralgic pains, &c. It should
not be left on long enough to raise a blister. See
Plabtbxb.

Poultice, Onion. 8yn. CATAPLABKA OatM, L.
Prep. Onions roasted and mashed.

Poultice of Pop'py. Slyn. Cataplabka pa-
PAVBSIB, L. Prep. (P. Cod. 1889.) A strong
decoction of poppies, thickened with crumb of
bread. Anodyne.

Ponltiee, Potash, Acetate of. Sf». Cataplabka
POIABBX aobtatib, C. kbutbali, L. Prep.
Acetate of potash, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pint ; cramb of
bread, q. s. To ill-conditioned sores.

Poultice of Pota'to. Syn. Cataplabka
BOLAHi tubbbobi, L. Prtp. From the raw
potato, scraped or grated fine. A popular appli-
cation to fresh bruises, extravasations, burns,
scalds, Ac

Poultice of Potato Starch. (P. Cod.) Syn.
Cataplabka vBCULai, L. Prep. Potato starch,
2 oz. ; mix with a littie cold water, add to it 20
oz. of boiling water, and boil for an instant.
Cataplasms M rice and wheat starch are made in
the same manner.

Poultice, Pradler's. Syn, PnAsin's oata-
PLASKA ; Cataplabkb SB Pbasibb, FT. Prep,
Take of balsam of Mecca, 6 dr. ; rectified spirit^
16 oz. ; dissolve; next, separately, take red cin-
chona bark, sarsaparilla, and sage, of each, 1 oz. ;
saifron, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 82 oz. ; digest for
48 hours, and filter; mix the two liquors ; add to
them twice thdr weight of lime water. In gout ;
2 fl. oz. are sprinkled on the surface of a hot
linseed-meal poultice sufficientiy large to surround
the affected part. It is siud that the Emperor
Napoleon gave £2500 for this receipt.

Ponltiee of Pyroligneous Acid. (Dr Seece.)
Syn. Cataplabka aoidi PTBOLiaHoai, L. Prep.
Bran, 1 lb.; linseed meal, 1 oz. ; impure pyro-
ligneous acid, q. s. For sciofaloas ulcers ; occa-
sionally 30 minims of tincture of perchloride of
iron, and 8 dr. of extract or powder of hemlock,
are added.

Ponltiee of Sea-wrack. (Dr Sneietl.) Sym.
Cataplabka pvoi, L. Prep. Fresh bladder
fucus (sea-wrack) bruised. Applied to glandular
tumours, Ac.

Poultice, Simple. Syn. Cataplabka bikplbx,
L. iVsp. (Ph. D. 1826.) Powder for a cata-
plasma and boiling water, of each, q. s, to form a
poultice, the surface of which is to be smeared

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1884

POULTRY

over with olive oil. Emollient. Bread potiltioe
and linMed-meil ponltice are now generally cslled
by this name. See Powsxb (Poultice).

Fonltioe of Slippery Kim. Sgn. Cata? labka
1TUII, L. The powdered bark of the slippery elm
(Ulmut JUlva) mixed with a sofScient quantity
of hot water.

Fonltioe of Soap. S^ Cataplabiu baponis,
L. I'rep. From white soap (BCia})ed or sliced),
1 OS.: hiding water, i pint; dissolve and add
cromb of bread, q. s. As an application to scalds
and bums.

Ponltice, Sorrel. Sgft. Cataplabka ozaub, L.
Prtp. Braised sorrel leave*, mixed with oatmeal
and beer.

Fonltie^ Stifflnlatiiig. {2)r S*g\ SrnUk) %».
Catapiabiia aTrmTiiAirs, L. JPnp. Rye floor,
1 lb. ; old yeast, 4 oz. ; common salt, 2 oi.

Pooltiee, Sulphate of Lime. (BUtard.) 8y».
■ Catatuska oaloib Btof hatu, Xi. Prtp. Paris
plaster mixed with water to a soft paste, and
applied before it hardens. Formerly applied to
ulcers to form an artificial scab; now occasionally
used to afford mechanical support in some surgical
cases.

Poultice of Sulphate of Soda. {Kirklaiid.) By.
Cataflaskabodsbulfratib.L. Prep. Sulphate
of soda, 1 oc. ; boiling water, \ lb. ; crumb of bread,
a sufficient quantity.

Poultice to cause Buppuration. (E. Ph. 1774.)
Syn. Cataflabha tsvtwaiXi. To an emollient
cataplasm add braised onions, \\ oz.; basilicon
ointment^ 1 ok*

Ponltlee, Tamip. Sgn, Cataplabka kapi.
Pnp. Peel turnips, boil them till soft, beat
them to a pulp, and apply warm.

Ponltloe, Turpentine. (Dr R—et.) Sgu. Cata-
PLABMA "awtEonmsx. Pnp. Oil of turpen-
tine, 2 dr.; olive oil, 1 oz.; linseed meal, 1 oz.;
oatmeal, 4 oz, ; boiling water, q. s. To indolent
nlcers, and, with mwe turpentine, to deep bams,
scalds, and chilblains.

Pooltiee of Tin'egar. Syn. Cataplabha
AOiTi, li. Frap. From crumb of bread soaked
in vinegar. Applied cold in braises, extrava8a>
tiona, Ac, espeoally black eyee. Veijaioe is often
employed in the same way.

Pooltiea «f Walnut Leave*. (Petfaot.) Syn.
Cataplabka nraLAHsiB. Prap. The freah
leaves of walnut braised and mixed with honey.
Applied over the abdomen as a vennlfoge.

Poultice of Teast. ^». Cataplabka pib-
KBNTi (B. P., Ph. L.), C. P. oiBansLB, L. Prm.
1. (Ph. L.) Beer yeast and water at 100° F.,
<d each, 5 fl. oz. ; mix, stir in flour, 1 lb., and
place it near the fire until it rise*. In gangre-
noua or foul ulcers ; to correct tiie fetor of the
^*chan;e, and to hasten the sloughing.

2. (B. P.) Beer yeast, 6 parts ; flour, 14 parts ;
water (at 100° F.V 6 parte ; mix. PUce the mass
near the fire till it rises.

POULTBT. Domestic birds, which are pro-
pagated and fed for the table, and for their eggs,
leathers, Ac

The pooltrr of this country are the common
domectie fowl, the turkey, the duck, and the
goose; to which some writers add the g^uinea-
fowl and the peacock. Of these^ the first is the
most generally nsefaL Though a native of India,

it accompanies man through almost Byerj grada-
tion of civilisation and climate, and floarishas
almost everywhere, when properly secured from
the inclemency of the weather, and allowed an
ample supply of fresh air, with proper food. For
the production of abundance of eggs it most,
however, be well fed and warmly lodged. The
hen-roosts and poultry-houses should be well pro-
tected from the weather, and their tempsratare
should be duly maintained by proximity to the
stables, cowhouses, or dwelling-hoase, and, in
cold weather, by the employment, when necessary,
of artifieinl heat. The food sbcmld also contain
an ample supply of nitrogenous matter, for with-
out tUs how can it be expected that hens can
produce abundance of egg*, which are peculiarly
rich in nitrogen ? The ' greaves' of the tallow>
chandlers, and such like snbstances, are hence
excellent additions to the ordinary food of poul-
try. But it is not sufficient merely to mj^j
poultry with abundance of food and warmth ; it
IS equally necessary that they should have ample
space for exercise and recreation. This space
" should always contain living plants of varioos
lands, and some gravelly or sandy soil ; because
worms, snails, as well as, occasionally, grass and
herbage, form a part of the food of poidtry ; and
sand or gravel is swallowed by them for the par-
poae of promoting digestion. Hcnca^ no heathy
poultry can ever be reared in towns, however
much the natural food may be imitated by the
supply of animal matters, herbage, and suid"

).

Ponlti7-r«ariiu: in England is, except in a few
hands, very far from bmg the sdeoce it ought
to be, and it is little short of a disgrace that we
should import annually mora than £SfiO0flO0
sterling worth of eggs from abroad, and nearly
£600,000 worth of poultry of vaiions kindv In
France poultry-rearing is a great indnstzy, and
a bade jonmal state* that there are in the
country (1890) 45,000,000 of hens, which, at an
average price of 2 francs 50 centimes per head,
represent a value of 112,060,000 francs. One
fifth of the stock is annually consumed as food,
and is sold for about 22,600,000 francs. Two
millions of cocks, worth 6,000,000 franca, are
also sold as food. The number of laying hens is
put down at 85,000,000, and the annual value of
their eggs is 188,000,600 francs.

The following quotations from a letter which ap-
peared in the ' Standard ' newspaper Aug. S4s 18SK),
puts the main facts of the ease very clearly, and
the writer's stricture* on the caraleas, hapbaiard
wav in which poultry are reaced in England are,
unfortunately, only too well justified :

" Every one who knows anyUiing of ponltry
most admit that a hen, if properly bred and
managed well, will leave a handsome profit on her
keep at the end of the year ; and it is imposaible
for a chick, if kept growing from birth uid sent
to market as soon as ready, to die in debt. The
fact is, the poultry department of the farm is
looked upon by the owner as too trifling a matter
to need his attention, and it is left for the other
member* of the household to attend to when they
find it convenient to do so. In the ooone of a
year I visit some 60 farms, ranging £naa 60 to
450 acres, and in no single instenoe can it be

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USS

■aid that the ponhary bwinew is mMuged u it
■hooli bat althoagh, ■• loight be expected, wme
an batter than other*. I have good reawm to
believe that the ftrmen I hare alladed to are
&irly rapreaentative men of their claia in their
reipoctive ^tricta.

" Am one who haa had a ooniidarable experience
is poaltiy-keeping in variooa parti of the ooontry,
I eoatend that no dan of stock pays the farmer
better, and I further maintain that there is
BCaredy a holding in the coontry npoD which a
good stock of fowls may not be kept. Mr Wur,
Ui hi* second letter, oonnsels his correspondents
to ' ttiaii day land.' It is, I admit, an nnsatia-
faetory soil to deal with ; still, by selecting the
right breeds of fowls, and taking care to hatch
tboD at the proper season, much might be done
evea in sock a aitoation as this. But whatever
the litiiBtiQa may be, the manager mnat have a
propw system to work opon. It is not infficient
to let the hens manage the bosiness for them-
selves. In a state of nature the hen may lay a
batch of eegs eveiy spring, and hatch tbna ; no
more will bs farthooming nntil the next seaaon.
In the farmyard the hca should be laying or
ntting the best part of the year, and a good pro-
portion of the egga mnat oome at midwinter,
whaa prices are the best, or the balance-sheet will
be aa indifFerent one^ So with ebickena. Any
one can send cfaickaaa into the market when
prices are. at thtdr lowest in conseqneaee of the
abandaat supply, bat only tba oarerol breeder and
skilfnl raiser can share ia the proftts obtiUnable
daring the iint five miwtha of the year. The
average poalt>y>keeper doea not think sufficiently
about the future. To secure early chickens yon
must have winter eggs, and these can only be
forthcoming in any quantity from March and
April hatched pullets. The siaters of the brood
natuia mora rapidly than the cockerels j hence it
follows that the puUeta are too often sent into
the market for killing purpoaes, and the farmer
depends on later-hatched birds, which by no
.^■tcm of feeding can be brought to lay until the
ead of January or febraary, when eggs are
becoming plentiful. Again, no skill is shown in
the aelecKdon of stock hi^s. Anything in the shape
of a cock or hen is considered to be good enough
to perpetnato their species, and in-breeding is very
frequently indulged in. Under such drcumstauoes
aa Hiesa it is not suipriainf^ that indifferent layers
aie the nil*, or that detenoration of the stock in
othar respects is cften seen. Two instances of
this came under my notice not many months ago.
In one case, the season's pullets proved poor layers
juid indifierent sitters, although they were bred
from hens good in both pmnts, the explanation
bring that uie sire used was a Inrd of which the
punuaser knew nothing. In the other case, the
pallets, althoagh fine birds for table use, laid
wNtchedfy smdl eggs, and this must have been
the ontoome of iiqudidoas mating. The eggs, too,
ware so few in number that tiM hens could not
poariUy he kq>t at a profit.

" Before the farm poultry of oar country can
be said to be in a healthy state there must be a
waading out at the worthless specimens, and their
place Bust be iiUad by well-lmd birds of their
wapcetiva braada. Aa Mr Weiv ramarks, » well-

bred bird ei^ so mora than a mongrel, and tiie
returns from it are much bettac. It must not be
snppoaed, however, that any breeds will answer
the purpose, or that exhibition specimens are the
best to procure. What Uie farmer wants is a
class of fowl which is a good layer of large eggs,
producing chickens suitable fur the table, and at
the same time hardy. It may be doubted whether
there is any one breed which really answers tiiese
requirements. Mr Weir praises the Dorking, the
pnnoe of table fowk} bot the hens of many
strains are very poor liters, and soma strains are
unable to stand the odd and wet in exposed
rituatioos. For winter layers under such con-
ditions one of the Asiatic braeds will be most
suitable, and such hens crossed with a cock belong-
ing to one of the table breeds will produce very
useful chickens. Still no hard aad fast line can
be laid down, for whilst one farmer may iad it
most profitable to produce eggs only, another BMiy
b« able to do best with chickena. The owner,
then, should be careful to produce the artide
which is most in demand. Whilst advocating a
good proportion of sitting hens in each yard, I am
bound to admit it is desirahle to keep a good
number of non-sitters, for there is less danger
of egg' going wrong during the summer montiis,
when sitting hea* are so fond of stealing tbdr
nests.

" Few farmers, I believe, ever think of working
npon any recognised plan, and, in conaequenoek
the supply of eggs or poultry fluctuates very cQn>
siderably. Yet nothing is easier to manage when
the concern is once got into working ordar. I
have already alluded to the way in which winter
eggs are obtained. The supply of chickens can
be maintained by having two natcbing seasons in

eadi vear ; the first from January to May. the
second from July to September. I am here speak-
ing of Midland districti ; in tba southern counties
hatching may be carried on much later. The
spring-hatched chickens may be made to serve
&om April until the next batch is fit { and the
latter will keep up the supply nntil the spring lot
is again ready. In addition to table poaltiy, the
■ale of pullets almost ready for laying might be
made a profitable business, and in sporting dis-
tricU there would be a demand in the spring for
sitting hens, which might be met by selling the
pnlleU which have Idd all the winter. Other
kinds of poultry ought on no account to be
neglected. Turkeys should be kept whare the adl
is suitable : geese whenever there ia a good acre-
age of grass land ; and ducks if the water sopply
is not too abundant.

" Poultry-farming on a large soala has often
been reoonunended as likely to prove a lucrative
badness. Few people, however, who urge such
achemes are aware of the enormoos oatlay required
at the commencement in setting up houses and
runs. Nor do they take into account the risk of
disease when fowls are kept so thickly on the
groond. The oocnpier of 50, 100, or more acres
need not mak« this oatUy, for if his fences be
good he may make each field a poultry run, and
disease from foul ground mi|^t be avddad by
changing the fowls, with their hoose, into aaother
field whoi one pasture becomes tainted. Pozdy
com farms are not so wall adapted for tha bod-

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POUNCE— POWDEE

neis. StUI, by nnng the temporary paitnrea
daring the smnmer months, and removing the
hoiuea to the itnhblea aa soon aa the com is
carted, mnch might be done."

FOUHCE. Powdered gum sandarac generally
passes nnder this name. It is nsed to prepare
parchment for writing on, and to prevent ink
from spreading npon paper after eraanres. Pow-
dered cuttle-fish bone is occasionally employed in
the same way. Both are applied to the surface
by means of a cylindrical roll of list called a
' rubber.' Packers rnb the surface of porous and
greasy woods, as the heads of boxes, cases, casks,
oc., with whiting or powdered resin to make them
bear the ink. The coloured powders nsed by
pattern dnwers, for sprinkling over pricked
papers, are also called 'pounce.' For liquid
pounce, see MAXKnra Ink.

POVDXS. <%*. PmbTH, L. Powders are
divided by phaimaoentical writers into two
classes— simple and compound. The first are
prepared by simple pulverisation ; the second by
the admixture of two or more simple powders.
For Die the appropriate doses are separately
weighed, and placed in separata papers. They
are usually exhibited in a little honey, sugar,
milk, or enclosed in a cachet, either taken from a
spoon or made into an electuary or bolus, and
swallowed in the semi-solid form. Metallic and
other heavy powders are beat taken in the latter
state. Very active substances should be, in all
cases, mixed with some inert powder, aa that of
starch, gum, sugar, liquorice, or marsh-mallow, at
the time of 'dispensing' them.

"This form of preparing medicines is the
vmplest, and perhaps the least objectionable ; but
it is not applicable to all the articles of the Materia
Medica. Those remedies which are very unplea-
sant to the taste ; those which deliquesce rapidly
when ezposed to the air, or are very volatile ; and
those which require to be given in very large doses,
or whidi are not diflnied readily in water, cannot,
with propriety, be administered in the form of
powder. Some substances cannot be reduced to
powder unless they be very much dried, and the
heat necessary for that purpose alters their pro-
perties." Nor can we " be surprised that a great
alteration should be effected in a short time by
the action of the air on so great an extension of
surface as takes place in the operation usually
adopted for reducing drugs to a fine powder"
{A. T. Thommm).

In this ooontr^ oompotmd powders appear to be
a favourite form of medicine in the diseases of
infancy and childhood.

" It ia necessary that whatever we order to be
redaoed to powder should be rubbed through a
Une sieves so that the impurities and coarser parts
maybe separated; and it is needful that most
powders shoold be recently prepared, and not too
long kept" (Ph. L.).

As nearlv all powders snffer by exposure to the
air and light, they should be preserved in closely
corked opaque or green glass botties, or in tin
canisters from which the external air is carefully
excluded. See PrTLyBBiSATioir, &c.

Powder, Algaroth's. See Axtdcokt Qxt-

OHtOKISI.

Fowdar of Al'OM (Oompooad). 8gn. Pvxtib

ALois ooKPonm (Ph. L.), P. uois om
&VAU0O, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Soootrine or
hepatic aloes (in powder), 1^ oc. ; guaiacum (in
powder), 1 oa. ; compound cinnamon powder, \
oi. ; rub them together. A warm, sudorific pur-
gative.— Doie, 10 to 20 gr.

Powder of Aloes with Caaella. Sgn. Aioxno
FOWSKK, Holt Birrxxf ; Hinu FicKi.t, Pin.TiB
ALOKS 017K oaksllX, L. Prep. From powdered
Socotrine or hepatic aloes, 4 parts j powdered
white canella, 1 part. Uses and dose, as the
last.

Oil. Once a highly popular remedy. It was
originally made into an electuary with honey,
and in uiia form was frequently called 'hixba.
LoaAsn.' It is still a favourite in domertic
medicine and veterinary practice. The principal
objection to both this and the preceding prepara-
tion ia the nauseous flavour of the aloes, which is
ill concealed by the aromatics. The 'ehea
fioba' for fturiers is usually made with the
cheapest Cape aloes.

Powder of Aloes with Iron. (L. Ph. 1788.)

Sgn. PvlTia AIAITI0U8 OFIC FBBBO, L. frtf.

Aloes, ll'oz. ; myrrh, 2 oz. ; sulphate of iron, 1
oz. i dried extract of gentian, 1 oi.
Powder of Al'nm (Compound). By. Sttfuc

FOWSBB s PTJLVIS BTTPTICCB, P. ALUICnnB OOK-

posinrB (Ph. E.), L. Frep. (Ph. E.) Alum,
4 oz. ; kino, 1 oz. ; mix them, and reduce them to
fine powder. Astringent and styptic. — Doe*, 6
to 16 gr.; in diarrhcea, profuse menstruation,
&c. Externally, in hnmorrbagea, &c

Powder, Alum, Opiated. {Boaekariat^ Sgn.
PuLTiB AXVMnris OFIATVS. JPrep. AJum, 1
dr. ; sngar, 1 dr. ; opium, 4 gr. ; mix for 18
powders. 2 or 8 daily m obstinate diarrhoeas and
passive hnmorrhages.

Powder of Alvm with CapaieuB. (Dr Ttrm-
bull.) Sfn. PviTia ALUKiinB arm oafbioo, L.
Prap. Alum, 8 parta ; concentrated tincture of
capsicum, 1 part; mix, dry, and triturate again.
Applied to the tonsils.

Powder of Alnm with Ovm. (FranleL) Prep.
Alum, gum tragacanth, of each, equal parte.
Applied to sore breaste.

Powder of Alum with Btareh. (St Th. Hosp.)

8yn. PULTIB ALTnCIKIB CTTK AMTIO. Prep.

Alnm and starch, equal parts. In insufflation cl
rhinorrhosa.

Powder of Ambergria with Husk. (Bat Ph.)

^S. PlTLyiB AUXIBSBISKJI KOBOHATUB, L.

Prep. Ambergis, 6 dr.; musk, 1 dr.; oil of
cinnamon, 2 scruples; refined sngar, IH oi. ;
mix.
Powder, Ammoniated Aromatic. /^. Pcx-

TIB AMKOHIATUB ABOXATIOTTB, L. ; LlAYBOlr'B

AHKOinACAZ ooiXTBluit. Prtp. Muriate of
ammonia, 1 dr. ; slaked lime, 1 oc j charcoal, 16
gr. ; cinnamon, 16 gr. ; dovea, 16 gr. ; bole, i dr.
Put them into a bottle and moisten with a litUe
water.

Powder of Aneho'vy. Ara. Pttltib OLvram
BSOBABIOOLI, L. Prep. Found anchovies to a
paste, then rub them through a sieve, and add
enough flour to make a dough, which must be
rolled out into thin slices and dried by a gentie
heat in a stove i it is, lastly, powdered and
bottied. Colonring is frequently added. Chiefly

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POWDEB

1887

naed to make nvcM. Britiab ancbofriea are fre-
quently mlntitiited for the genuine fish.

Powder, Aathnkokall, Compound. ^. Pcii-
TIB ASTEBizoKAiJ, ooKFonTD. Prap. Anthra-
kokali, 2 gr. ; washed gnlphor, 6 gr. ; mix. For
1 dose.

Powder, Anthrakokali, Simple. {Prnfla.) Sjfm.

PVZYIB AITTEBAKOKAU BIMPLBZ, L. Prep.

Anthrakokali, 8 gr.; liqnorice powder, 6 gr. j
mix. For 1 dose.

Powder, AntlepUeptle. 8gn. 'Pxnxa ahxi-
BPiuinouB (E. Ph., 1744). L. Prop. White
dittany, paony, valerian, mistletoe of the oak,
equal ^rti.— Dow, 6 to 10 gr. {Beltrtndi). Prtp.
Valerian, 4 dr.; magnesia, muriate of ammonia,
oil of cajepnt, of each, 1 scrapie. — Dote. A tea-
spoonfnl three times a day. Dr Paris says the
following was used snccessfnlly by a Dutch em-
inric: — Sulphur, 1 scruple; sulphate of potash,
10 gr.; rhubarb, 5 gr.; nutmeg, 2 gr. ; mix
(Germ. Hosp.). Prep. Oxide of linc, 16 gr. ;
carbonate of magnesia, 48 gr. ; oleo-sacchamm of
cajepnt, 8 dr. Mix for 8 doses. Poudre dt
Sagolo. Oxide of sine, 10 gr. ; valerian, mistle-
toe, sogar, orange leaves, of each, 4 dr.; mag-
nesia, 8 scmplea; <A\ of oyeput, 2 scruples; a
teaspoonful three times a day. Pasquier pre-
scribes— Wall crop, 10 gr. ; gum-arabic, 10 gr. ;
1 to 4 powders daily for eight times. Soxkbb'b
BPBOniC consists of — Wall crop, 6 to 10 gr. ;
oleo-sacchamm of mint, 8 gr. ; one morning and
evening for six times. 8m Puitib Abtxmibix
Saoohakatub. The Poudre de Outtile consists
of mistletoe, 2 parts; white dittany, 2 parts;
pnony root and seeds, 2 parts ; prepared coral, 1
part; elk's hoof, 8 parts; seeds of orache, 8
parts. Qiven in doses of a few grains in convul-
■ sions of infants, or in larger doses for epilepsy.

Powder, Antlkydiopkobie. (Dr Mead.) Syu.
PuxTlB AXTlLYBSaB. Prep. Ash-coloured ground
liverwort {Peitidta eanima), i ox.; black pepper,
8 dr. ; mix, and give a fourth part every morning
for four times.

Powder, ABtlmo"niaL Syn. Fxm rowsnt,
LiBia>8 r., Jaxsb'b p.; PviiTib jtaoobi, Pitltib
ARTIKOVULIB (B. P., Ph. B. and D.), Pvxtib
AimxoHii ooKFOBiTVB (Ph. L.), L. Pfiap. 1.
(Ph. L.) A mixture of tersulphide of antimony,
1 lb., and hartshorn shavings, 2 lbs., is reduced to
powder, thrown into a crucible heated to white-
ness, and stirred constantly until vapour no
longer rises ; the calcined mixture is then rubbed
to powder, agun put into the crucible, and the
heat gradually increased to whiteness, and main-
tained so for two hours ; the residuum is, lastly,
reduced to a very fine powder.

8. (Ph. E.) From sulphide of antimony and
hartshorn shavings, equal weights; as the ust.

8. (Ph. D.) Tartarised antimony, 4 os., u dis-
solved in water, i gall., and added to solution of
phospbateof soda, 4 oz., in water, 1 quart; a solu-
tion of chloride of calcinm, 8 oi., in water, 1
qoart, and to which solution of ammonia (Ph.
D.), 4 fl. oz., has been added, is next poured in,
and the whole boiled for 20 minutes ; the preci-
pitate is then collected on a calico filter, and
washed with hot distilled water, nntil the liquid
which passes ceases to give a precipitate with a
weak solution of nitrate of silver ; it is, hmOj,

dried by a steam or .water heat, and redaced to a
fine powder.

4. (B. P.) Oxide of antimony, 1 part; pre-
cipitated phosphate of lime, 8 parts; mix. — Dote,
2 to6gT.

Veee, l(o. Febrifuge and diaphoretic. In-
tended as a substitute for the proprietary and
more expensive Jamsb's powsss. — Don, 8 to 10
or 12 gr., or more, repeated every fourth or fifth
hour until diaphoresis is set np ; in fevers, rheu-
matic affections, chronic skin diseases, &c. It is
a very uncertain and variable compound, unless
it lias been carefully prepared. Dr Elliotson ex-
hibited it tu doses of 100 gr. without producing
any sensible effect. A spurious article, made by
triturating 1 oz. of tartar emetic with 18 or 19
oz.of burnt hartshorn, is frequently sold for it in
the shops. See AirnvoiriouB Aon> and Jaxib'b

POWBBE.

Powder, Antiipasmodie. (P. Otd^ 8i/n. Pttl-
TXB AHTiBPASMOSiom. Prep. Cyanide of sine,
8 gr. ; caldned magnesia, 24 gr. ; cinnamon, 12
gr. ; mix. For 6 doses.

Powder, Antispaamodie. (Jourdan.) 8f. Pro-
TIB AimsPABKOSiova. ^^. Valerian, 1 oz. ;
oxide of zinc, 1 scruple ; musk, 8 gr. ; mix.

Powder, Aromaf Ic. See Powbbb, CoKPOOin)
CmrAKOir.

Powder, Araon'leaL See Powsib, Eboha-
Bona

Powder of AaanbM'M (Compound). SeeSsTm
(Cephalic).

Powder, Astrin'geat. /%•. Ptoth abtbiw-
SBNS, P. bttpticub, L. iV»p. From Aleppo
galls and burnt alum, in fine powder, equal
parts. Used in piles, soft polypt of the nose,
chilblains, &c.

Powder, Ba"klng. Prep. 1. Tartaric acid,
i lb. ; bicarbonate of soda and potato farina or
British arrowroot, of each, 1 lb. (each in powder);
separately dry them perfectly by a very gentle
beat, then mix them in a dry room, pass the mix-
ture through 'a sieve, and at once put it into
packets, observing to press it hard, and to cover
it with tinfoil or close-made paper, to preserve
it as much as possible from the air and mois-
ture.

t. (Delfortefe.) Powdered tartaric acid, i lb.;
powdered alum, | lb. ; bicarbonate of soda, i lb.;
farina, 1 lb. ; ^ separately, as before, mix, and
further add of sesqnicarbonate of ammonia (in
powder), 8 ox. ; lastly, closely pack it in tinfoil.

8. (Cfreen't.) Tartaric acid, 86 lbs.; sesqni-
carbonate of soda, 66 lbs. ; potato fionr, 1 cwt. ;
mix as before.

Usee, 4-e. Baking powder is chiefly employed
as a substitute for yeast. 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls are
mixed with the dry fiour and other ingredients,
which are then made into a dough, as quicklv as
possible, with cold water, and at once baked or
boiled as the case may be. By the addition of
about i dr. of turmeric powder to each pound of
the mixture it is converted into egg powder.
When intended to be kept for any length of
time it shonld be preserved in bottles or tins, so
as to prevent the absorption of moisture. We
have discovered traces of arsenic in some of the
baking powders of the shops, which we refer to
common washerwoman's soda being used in their

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1888

POWPSB

oompoution, iiutead of the pore CMrbonate «
Msquicarbonate.

Powder, BaUng, Alnm. Mr C. T. Petraeos, in
ut article on baking powders in the ' Fharmaoen-
tical Record,' states that burnt alum is the moat
perfect acid element that can he nsed in baking
powders, and for several reasons, viz. : — (1) when
exposed to the air it does not become moist;
(2) when mixed with bicarbonate of soda and
starch or flonr, burnt alum evolves no gas at
ordinary temperatures] therefore an alum baking
powder does not deteriorate in the package like a
cream of tartar powdn — its keeping quality ia
far above the latter; (8) thongb burnt alum
does not dissolve in water, during the baking
process it s^ free the gas from bicarbonate <n
soda slowly, and with greater regularity than
cream of tartar, and, therefore, does mnch bettor
and more effective work. He shows further that
80 gr. of bnntt almn decompoee as mnch bicar-
bonate (84 gr.) aa 188 ^. of cream of tartar, and
while the dry residue in the latter case weighs
210 gpr., in the case of the alum it is 110 gr. (71
gr. sulphate of soda, 22gr. sulphate of ammonia,
and 17 gr. alumina). T^e use of alum in baking
powder must not be confounded with its use for
' improving ' bad flonr. In the one case the alum
lemaios in the bread as alum, just aa it waa put
into the floor; bat when mixed with bicarbonate
of soda, as in baking powders, it is entirely de-
composed, and there remuna in the bread caiij a
few grains of insoluble alumina, which is quite
as harmless as would be a few grains of white
clay or any other inert material. For these and
other reasons Mr Fetraeus considers that alum
baking powders are the best, not only because a
given quantity will raise more bread than the
same quantity of cream of tartar baking powder,
but because of the small quantity and innocent
character of the residue theg leave in the bread.
A suitable formula for alum baking powder baaed
on the figures given above would be a« follows : —
Burnt alum (in fine powder), 8 ox.; bicarbonate
of soda, 8 OS. 8 dr. ; rice flonr, 1 lb.

Powder. BasU'ic. Sign. Botak fowskb. Cob-

JTAOHim'B p.; PULVIg BABILIOUB, P. COBHi.OHIHI,

L. Prep. From scammony, calomel, cream of
tartar, and diaphoretic antiinony, equal parts.
This is the formula generally adopted for this
compound, which has now long been omitted from
the Pharmacopoeias. It is still a favourite with
many practitioners, as an alterative purgative
and vermifuge for children. — Dou. For a child,
2 to 8 gr. ; for an adult, 6 to 20 gr. Compound
powder of scammony is now generally sold for it.

Powder, Mladwina, SMChanttad. ( WerbtUr.)
Sj/%. PuLTia vxLLijKansm bacohakatits. Prtp.
Belladonna root, 16 gr.; pure sogar, 1 dr.; mix.
For 78 powders. Oae twice a day, or oftener,
according to the age. In hoojung-cough.

Pewdw, Blaine's Dlitem'par. The basis of this
preparation is the 'aomm muaivum,' or bisnl-
phnret of tin {Dr Parit),

Powder, Blancwange'. Prtp. From sago meal,
1 lb.; essence of lemon, 16 drops ; maoe, 12 gr.;
mix.

Powdar, Bteash'tag. C!hloride or bypochlarite
of lime.

Powder, BIu. See Siuun.

Powder, Broni*. 9ee Sxaitkic Suu Hipi,
Bbovziks, kc.

Powder of Burnt Eartahoni. ^n. Pvivn
ooBiru OBKTnri ubti, L. Fr»p. From pieces of
hartshorn calcined to whiteness, and powdered.
It consists principally of phosphate of lim^—
Vote, 10 to 80 gr. ; in rieketik ic

Powder of Burnt Eartahom with O'piam. Sjfn.

FULTia OFIATUB, P. OOBVU V8TI ODX OFIO, L.

Prep. From powdered calcined hartshorn, 1 oa. ;
powdered opium and -cochineal, of each, 1 dr. —
2>o«f, 6 to 20 gr.

Powder of (Sunphor. Camphor may be nadily
pulverised by triturating it with the addition of
a few drops of rectified spirit or ether.

Powder, Camphorated >itre. (Sutditmt.) tfgm.
PVLTU iriTBO OAKPHOBATUB, L. Prtp. Hltre,
10 gr. ; camphor, 4 gr, ; gum-arabic, 24 gr, ; vix.
For two or uiree doses.

Powder, CapnoUn'. Avp. From powdered
cevadilla, parsley seed, staveaacre, and tobaooo,
equal parts. Used to deatroy pedicuU.

Powder, CaatUlon'i. Prep. From swo meal,
salep, snd gum tragaeanth, of each, 8 v. s PM-
pared oyster shells, 1 dr.; oocluneal, q. s. to
colour. Absorboit.— /)o«e, i to I dr., boiled in
milk ; in diarrhoea, Ac.

Powder of Cafeehn (Oompound). 8gm. Puitib
OATBOBD OOICPOBITVB (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prtp.
1. (Ph. D.) Take catechn and kino, of SMih, 8
ox. ; cinnamon and nutmeg, of each, i os. ; reduce
each to a fine powder, mix, and keep the prepared
powder in a well-stoppered bottie. Aramatic
and astringent, — I>ott, ^ dr. to 2 dr. ; in varioos
affections.

2, (B. P.) Pale catechu, 4 parU| kino, 8
parts; rhatuiy. 2 part*; dnnamon, 1 part; nut-
meg, 1 part ; mix, — JDotf, 16 to 30 gr.

Powder of Chalk (Coaponnd). Sfu. Pni>TiB
OBxrx ABOHACiom (B. P.), P. o. ooKFMinra
(Ph. L., E., and D.), r. oaxbokatib oaItOU ook-
KMUTua, L. Prif. 1. (Ph. L.) Prepared chalk,
i lb. ; cinnamon, 4 ox. ; tormentU and gam aeaci%
of each, 8 ox. ; long pepper, t ox. ; rob them sepa-
rately to a very fine powder, and mix them,

8. (Ph. B.) Prepared chalk, 4 ox.; cinnamon,
in fine powder, 1 1 dr. ; nutmeg, in fine powder, 1 dr.

8. (Ph. D.) Prepared ehuk, 6 oi.} cinnamon,
H ox. ; gum, 2 ox. ; nutmeg, | Ol.

4. (Aboilatio rowsBB o> ohajx — B. P.)
Chalk, 11 parts ; cinnamon, 4 parts ; natmeg, 8
parts ; safbon, 8 parts ; doves, H parts ; carda-
mom seed, 1 part ; refined sugar, 26 parte ; all in
powder; mix. — J)ott, 80 to 60 gr.

Utei, ife. Aromatic, astringents and antafiid^i—
Dow, 10 to 80 gr. i in aoidity, flatulence, heart-
burn, diarrhoea, fte. The following form is used
by many wholesale houses : — Prepared chalk, 4
lb*.; powdered oaasia, 2 lbs. ; powdered calamus
aromaticus, | lb. ; powdered gum, 11 lbs. ; long
pepper, i lb.

Powder of Chalk with Opium (Compound). 1^.

OPIATBD chalk POWSnS PlTLTIB OBBT J) ABOKA-
TIOUB OUX OPIO (B. p.), p. O. OOKPOSITUB oux

OPIO (Ph. L.), p. 0. OPIATUB (Ph. B. and D.), L.
PrtP' !'• (Ph. L.) Compound chalk powder, 6i
OS.; powdcKd opium, 80 gr.

8. (Ph. S.) Compound chalk powder, 6 w. ;
powdered opium, 80 gr.

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POWDSE

las*

8. {Pk. D.) Componnd chalk powder, 4 oc.

7 dr. ; oinnm, in fine powder, 1 dr.

4. (Wholesale.) Compound chalk powder, 81
oi.; powdered opium, i oz. Anodyne, antacid,
and carminatiTe. — l>ou, 10 to 80 gr.j in the
same casee u the preceding, than wUch it is
more actire. It nae long been a favourite
remedy in all cases of simple and even choleraic
diarrhoea.

6. Aromatic powder of chalk (see Povsis o>
Chaix (Componnd) 4), 39 parts ; opium, in
powder, 1 part; mix thorooghy, and pass through
a sieve. — Dott, 10 to 40 gr.

Powder, Chalk Kiztnre. l^/n. Pultis vbo
XISTimA caxia, L. iVsp. (SeatUf.) Pow-
dered gum acada, 6 ox. ; prepued chuk, 4 os. ;
white sngsr, 3 oc.; ml of cinnamon, 1) fl. dr. j
mix. 40 gr. of this powder, tritnrated with 1
fl. oz. of water.

Powder, Chol'era (Saline). Sgn. PciiYn
muLnrua AitnoHOLBBioua, L. Pnp. (Dr
CShoiyhuettjf.) Carbonate of soda, 6 gr.;
chloride of sodium, phosphate of soda, and snl-
phate of soda, of each, 10 gr. For a dose.

F«wd«r of Ctn'namon (Componnd). Sgn. Abo-

KATIO TOWSSB; PULTIB OUrNAKOKI C0]CF0BIT(7B
(B. p.. Ph. t.). p. ABOHATIOTS (Ph. E.), L.

-ZVep. I. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon, 2 oz.; ca^-
moms, 1) oz. ; ginger, 1 oi.; long pepper, \ oz. ;
rub them together so that a fine powder may be
made.

2. (B. P., Ph. E.) CSnnamon, cardamom seeds,
and ginger, equal {mrts ; to be kept in a well-closed
glass vessel.

8. (Ph. D.) Cinnamon and ^ger, of each,
2 oz. ; cardamom seeds (husked) and nutmegs, of
each, 1 oz. Aromatic and carminative. — Data,
10 to 80 gr. In the powder of the shops cassia is
generally snhstituted for cinnamon.

Powder, Cla'rUying. For clarifying alcoholic
drinks, Dieterich recommends a powder composed
of egg albumen (dried), 40 parts ; sugar of milk,
40 parts; starch, 20 parts. All the ingredients
must be in impalpable powder. Use 6 grms. of
the powder to a litre of the liquor (about 8 gr. to
1 oz.); let the mixture stand in a vrarm room
seveial days, shaking it at intervals. Finally
filter through paper.

Powder, Cockle. From the well-known shell-
fish Cardium edmle, Linn., as oyster powder.

Powder, Colbatche's Speciflo. Prep. From
solution of sesqnichloride of iron and acetate of
lead, of each, 4 oz. ; mix, evaporate to dryness,
powder the residuum, and preserve it from the air.
Astringent and htemostatic. — Dote, 3 to 8 gr.

Powder of Colo^ynfh. Sfu. Pvurw couh
OXBTUlDIB, L. That of the shops is generally
prepared from the whole of the peeled fniit, witlt
the seeds, instead of merely from the pulp, by
which its activity is greatly lessened. A factitious
article is also met with in trade, made by grinding
bryony root with about twice ita weight of
cofocynth seeds and a very small quantity of
gamboge-
Powder, Componnd Almond. (B. Ph.) Sjfn.

PlTLnS AlCtaVAUB OOXFOBITUB. I^. Steep

8 oz. of Jordan almonds in warm water till thrar
skins can be easily removed ; and, when blanched,
dry them fhonraghly with a soft cloth, and rub

them lightly in a mortar to a smooth oondstenoe ;
mix gum-arabic in powder, 1 oz, ; and refined
sugar, in powder, 4 oz. ; and adding them to the
pulp gradually, rub the whole to a coarse powder,
keep it in a lightly covered jar.

Powder, Compound Bark. (Qeneva Ph.) 8g%.
PuiiTiB onroHOHX ooirpoerrrs. Prep. Pera-
vian bark, 1 ox. ; rhubarb, !( dr. ; muriate of
ammonia, 1| dr. ; mix.

Powder, Componnd Belladonna. Prep. 1.
(Seeker.) Belladonna, 1 to. 8gT. ; musk, 6n.;
camphor, 6 gr.; white sugar, SOgr.; mix. For
8 powders.

2. (fofip.) Belladonna root, 2 gr.j ipecacu-
anha, 2 gr. ; sulphur, 82 gr. ; sugar of milk, 82
gr. Mix, and divide into 8 powders, three daily.
In hooping-cough.

Powder, Componnd Bisn»th. (Ferrier's Snuff.)
Sun, PiTLTis BiSKUTHi ooKPOSiTVB. Hydro-
chlorate of morphine, 2 gr. ; powdered acacia, 2
dr. ; snbnitrate of Usmn&, 6 it. Used as a snnlt
for cold in the bead.

Powder, Compound Cmrns*. (Ph. L., 1788.)
Sgn. PtTLTls cisuBX OOKFOBITUS. Prip. Car-
bonate of lead, 5 OZ. ; sarcocol, li ox, ; tragaeanth,
i ox. ; mix. For outward use.

Powder, Compound of Cyanldb of Hne.
(Onibourt,) S^, Ptltib Ssnrct OTAinrDi tou-
POSlTira. Prep. Cyanide of zinc, 2 gr. ; calcined
Inagnesia, 27 gr. ; cinnamon, lO gr. ; mix. For
6 doses, in cramp of the stomach.

Powder, Compound Fennel. (Bmiinr. Ph.)
Sifu. PvLTiB »xiriouLi OOICPOBITUB. Prep,
Carbonate of magneua, 1 oz. ; fennel seeds, i 01. ;
orange peel, 2 £. ; white sng^, 2 dr. Bednee
each to a fine powder and mix.

Powder, Componnd Knik. (Buss. Ph.) i^.
Pdxtib xobohi ooxfobititb. Prep. Musk, 8
parts; valerian, 10 parts ; camphor, 8 parts.

Powder, Componnd Opium. (B. P.) i^, Pitl-
viB OFii coKFOSiTUS. Prep. Mix thoroughly
1^ oz. of opium, in powder, with 2 oz. of powdered
black pepper, 6 oz. of ginger, 6 oz. of caraways,
and i oz. of tragaeanth. Pass the powders
through a fine sieve, rub them lightly in a mortar,
and keep the powder in a stoppered oottle. This
powder nearly represents the dry ingredients of
confection of opium. — Dote, 2 to 5 gr.

Powder, Componnd Silver. (Serre.) Sgn.
PuiiVls ASOKXTi ooKFOBlTtrs. Prep. Chloride
of silver, 1 gr. ; washed orris ptfwder, 2 gr.
Used in frictions, the same as oonvatnni fiOLS

POWDSB.

Powder, Componnd of Snlphata of Soda. /^,

PXTLYU SODA SVLPHATtB 001C708ITVB ; SBL DB

OimrDBli. Prep. Dried sulphate of sodik, 18 dr. {
nitrate of potash, i dr. ; potassio-tartrate of anti-
mony, 1 gr. A third part to be taken in water or
herb broth.
Powder, Componnd Snlphnr. %». Pmm

BVLFETTBIB OOUPOBITrB. KATIBB : — Sulphur, 1

oz. ; cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; white sugar, q. s.
Vak Mohb (antidysenteric powder): — Sulphur,
1 oz. ; fennel seed, 1 dr. ; white sugar, 2 oz. ; gum-
arabic, 2 oz.; mix. SWBDiAVB (pectoral powder):
— Sulphur, j oz. ; liquorice, 1 oz. ; orris, 2 dr. ;
benzoic acid, 1 scruple ; white sugar, 2 oz. ; oil of
anise and fennel, of mch, 10 drops.
Powder of Oontrayer'va (Conpoond). j^.

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POWDBE

PVLTtB COHTKATIBTA OOKFOBITUB, L. Prtp,
(Ph. L., 1824.) Powdered contrayerva root, 6 oz. ;
prepared oyster shells, H Ibs.j mix. A tonic
absorbent or antacid. — Doie, 10 gr. to i dr., •«
required.

Powder, Cooling. (G. Ph.) SIfm. Pitltis
TBICPBBAITB. I'rep. Nitrate of potash, 1 os.;
cream of tartar, 3 oz. ; sngar, 6 os.

Powder, Cora. See CoBH Solthit and
FowoBB, Wabt {btleitp).

Powder, Cosmetio. Sun. Ptltib cobicsti-
OTTB, L. Prep. (Ph. Hann. 1831.) Blanched
sweet almonds and beans, of each, 18 oz. j orris
toot,8oz. ; white Spanish soap, 6 01. ; spermaceti,
1^ oz.; dried carbonate of loda, 1 oz. ; oils of
lavender, bei^amot, and lemon, of each, 6 dr. ;
mix, and beat them to a powder. See PowsBB,
Haib, and Hahd (helot), Pasti (Almond),
PoWDBSs (Scented), &c.

Powder, Creasota and Staroh. fi^it. Pin.Ti8
OBIABOTI IT AKTU. Creasote, 10 minimsj starch,
1 oz. A osefnl dusting powder in cases of
erysipelas.

Powder of CiyitaL From qnartz, like pow-
DBBID ei>ABB (p. 706). Used to make fine glass ;
also for a drier for paints, and sold under the
name of ' diamond dust ' for razor strops.

Powder of Cnbebe with Alnm. {Matthieu.)

8^ PirLTIS OVBSBS CVK ALUMIKI. Frep.

Cabebs, 2 oz. ; alum, 4 dr. ; mix. For 9 doses.
Three duly, in gonorrhcea.

Powder, Cnriy. &fn. Ikdiah citxby fow-
SHu The samples or this compound prepared
by ditFerent houses vary so greatly from each
other in the proportions of the ingredients, that
it is difficult to regard any one as a standard.
The following are, therefore, merely giren as
examples:

Prep. 1. Corianders, 1 lb. ; turmeric, f lb. ;
black pepper, i lb.; scorched mustard, ^ lb.;
ginger, 2 oz.; cumin seed, 1 oz. ; capsicums, (oz.;
mace, j oz. (all in powder) ; mix weU.

2. Coriander seeds and black pepper, of each,
8 lbs. ; turmeric and cumin seeds, of each, 4 lbs. ;
allspice, | lb. ; mace, 1 oz. (aU in powder^ ; mix.
This receipt is employed by an eminent wnoleeale
bouse that does very largely in curry powder.

3. See p. 566.

Used as a condiment and flavouring ingredient.
The addition of a few heads of garlic gives it an
increased zest for Indian veterans.

P«wd«r, Onsfard. Prep. From sago meal, 2
lbs.; powdered turmeric, i oz. ; bitter-almond
powder, cassia, and mace, of each, i dr.

Powder, Cyproi. From dadonia rangiferina,
or reindeer moss. It has a very agreeable smell,
and, being extremely retentive of odours, is much
nsed as a basis for scent-powders, sachets, &c.
The lichen known as the ragged hoary evemia
also possesses nearly similar properties, and is
often substituted for it. See Fowdbbs (Scented).

Powder, Diapente. (Ed. Fb. 1744.) Sy*.
PuLTiB siAPBXTB, L. Prep. Aristolochia root,
gentian, bay berries, myrrh, ivory dust, of each,
8 oz. ; mix.

Powder, SisLnfeot'lag. Sy». Ptltib dibik-
wrsun, L. Prep. {Keiei.) Bisulphate of potassa,
41 parte ; sugar of lead, 7 parts; binozide of man-
ganeee, 8 parts; reduce them separately to a fine

powder, and, when wanted for use, mix s proper
quantity in any suitable vesseL For other formouB,
see DiBimrBCTiira CouFoxmss. The name is
generally applied to hypochlorite of lime.

Powder, Sinretie. (P. Cod.) Sgtt. Pvktis
DiUBBTicuB, L. Prep. Gum-arabic, 6 oz. ; sugar
of milk, 6 oz. ; nitrate of potash, 1 os.; marsh-
mallow root, 1 oz. ; liquorice root, 2 oz. ; mix.

Powder, Dover's. Sji*. Pultib Dotbbi, L.
Prep. (Original formula.) Nitre and sulphate
of potassa, St each, 4 oz. ; melt them together in
a red-hot crucible, reduce the cold fused matter to
powder, and add powdered ipecacuanha, liquorice,
and opium, fA each, 1 oi. This is the formula
adopted in the Paris Codex. Compouhs ipbca-
CUAHHA POWSBB is now Bold Under tlus name (see
beUno).

Powder, Duke of Portland's. S^n. Pulyib
AHTIABTHBITICUB, L. Prep. Bonnd birthwort,
gentian, tops of lesser centaury, tops of ground
pine, and germander, of each, equal parts. — Doia,
Idr.

Powder, Xgg. See Powsbb, Bakibo.

Powder of Xlaterin, Compound. (B. PK) ^a.

PULVTB BLATBBIHI COMPOBICUa, L. Prep. ]^a-
terin, 6 gr. ; sugar oi milk, 196 gr. Rub them
togetiier to fine powder. — Ztow, i gr. to 6 gr.
Powder, Emmen'agogne. iS^ Puxtib BM-

KENAOOOUa, P. HiBXATIBTTB, P. OOKTBA AltBHOB-

BHCKAK, L. Prep. 1. Saccharine carbonate of
iron, 8 parts ; powdered myrrh, ganger, and nut-
meg, of each, 1 part; divide into |-dr. papers.
One for a dose, twice or thrice daily.

2. {A%gtuti».) Myrrh, 12 gr. ; safEron, 8 gr. j
oil of cloves, 1 drop. For a dose, as the last.

3. {Klein.) Calomel, 4 gr. ; extract of yew, 10
gr. ; powdered savine, 1 dr. ; Quevenne's iron,
i dr.; loaf sugar, 2 dr. For 6 powders; aa
before.

Powder, Emulsive, of Gluten. {Taddei.) Sgn.
Pultib aLCTBiriB BKULsmrs, L. Prep. Fresh
vegetable gluten, 10 oz. ; soap, 8 oi.; water, 1
pint. Dissolve, evaporate the solution, dir it on
plates, and reduce to powder. As an antidote to
corrosive sublimate.

Powder, Sscharot'ic (Arsenieal). i^. PuiTis

BBCHAXOnCaB ABSBlriCAXIS, L. ; POUSBB SV

FBiBBB CosXB, Fr. Prep. 1. (Original formula.)
From white arsenic, 12 gr.; burnt hartshorn,
I dr. ; cinnabar, 1 dr.

2. (P. Cod.) Bed solphnret of mercury and
powdered dragon's blood, of each, 2 parts ; levi-
gated arsenious acid, 1 part ; ctu^ully mixed to-
gether. See Caubtio, Abbbvioal.

Powder of Sxtract of Cdl'oeyBth (Cofflpoand).

Sgn. PULTIB BXTBAOn OOLOOTHTHIDIB COX-

FOBin, L. Prep. From compound extract of
colocynth (Ph. L, 1886), dried by a gentle heat,
and powdered,

(At. This, like many other articles employed
by lazy dispensers, does not represent the prepara-
tion for which it is used as a substitute ; whilst,
from its peculiar character, it is very open to
sophistication — a practice, we regret to say, very
general with some druggists. Indeed, some of
these persons make this article by simply throning
the ingredients of the extract into a pan along
with a little water, and, when they have become
soft, stirring them together with a spatula, after

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POWDBR

1891

which they are deaiccmted and povdered. This
is then labelled by certain honses, ' Fulv. Ext.
Cioloc. 00. — P. L.,' and gold to their nnfortonate
customers as such, although no such an extract
has been in the Fh. L. since that of 1836.

Powder, Taynard's. The charcoal of beech
wood, flncjy powdered (Pom). Used in piles, and
as a styptic.

Powder, Pe'ver. See Fowscb, AirTncoirux
(above).

Powder of Flint. iSr^it. Silbx ooittsitub
(Flu L.), L. IVep. As powdered ghus (see
p. 796). It is ordered in the Fh. L. to be
employed, instead of magnesia, for the pnrpose of
mechuiiodly dividing the essential oils used in
the preparation of distilled water. It is also used
as an eschaiotic.

Pcwdcr, Ply. Prtp. From white arsenic,
6 oz. ] white sugar, 6 lbs. ; rose pink, 2 os. ; mix,
and pot 6 dr. in each paper. Used to kill flies.
It is poisonous, and should be employed with
great caution, partieolarly where there are
children.

Powder, Pn"iiilgattiig. j!^. Pulvis ytniAXJB,
L. IVsp. (Ph. Rdss.) Amber, mastic, and oli-
bannm, of each, 3 parts ; storax, S parte ; benxtnn
and labdanom, of each, 1 part; reduce them to
coarsepOwder, and mix them well. See FrmsA-

Powder of San* (Compouid). Sgu. Pcltib
OALiA ooxpOBrnTB, L. See Powsbb, AaTBnr-

Powder, Gascoign's. 8yt, Pultib iohilib
OOKTOBITUB. Prep. Prepared crab shells, I lb. ;
prepared chalk, S oz. ; prepared coral, 8 oz. ; mix.

Powder, Ooelis's Antihec'tio. 2V«p. From
burnt hartshorn, powdered nutmeg, black pepper,
and roasted laurel bwries, of each, 1 part;
liquorice powder, 8 parts. — l>oie, i to 1 dr. ; in
the hectic fever of scrofulous snlfjects.

P»wd«or,Oold. Sgn. FuxYia avbi. Tritoiate
gold leaf with 10 or 12 times its weight of sul-
phate of potash till bright particles are no longer
visible J pass it through a sieve; mix with boilmg
water, wash what remains on the filter, and dry
in a stove.

Powder, Sold (Compound). £^». Pultib aubi
OOXFOBITUS. iV»p. Anro-cUoride of sodium,
1 gr. i lyoopoiUum, starch, or washed orris powder,
1 scruple J mix. A i>^th part, gradually increased
to -(th part, of this powder to be rubbed on the
gums.

Powder of Oold and Iron. (Budiler.) Sgn.
Pultib aubi it nsBl. Prep. Pulverised
gold, 2 scruples; cleui levigated iron filings, 2
scruples ; gum-arabic in powder, 80 gr. ; mix.
For one dose, to be given in water acidulated
with a few drops of sulphuric acid, as an antidote
for corrosive sublimate.

Powder, Goulard. Effloresced sugar of lead.
Poisonous.

Powder, Gregory's. See Fowdeb o> Rhu-
BABB (Compound).

Powder, Gr^y. Mercurial powder.

Powder of Guarana, Compound. (Dr ChtereUe.)
^/n. PuLTn PAuixnris ooxpobitub. Prep,
CTuarana, 1 dr.; compound cinnamon powdmr,
4 dr. Mix.

Powder, Gum. (O. Ph.) 8gu. FuiTis anc-

KOBim. Prep. Oum-arabic, 8 oz.; liquorice,
8 ox. ; refined sugar, 1 oz. Mix.

Powder, Hanuwtaf ic. Sg». Pultib hlbmo-
8TATI0UB, L. Prep. 1. {ChLibourt.) Charcoal
and gum-arabic, of each, in powder, 1 part;
powdered resin, 4 parts.

2. (JfiaUs.) From powdered alum, gum
tragacanth, and tannin, equal parts. Used to
check local bleeding.

8. (P. Cod.) Renn, 4dr. ; gum-aiabic, Idr.;
powdered catechu, 1 dr. Mix.

Powder, Eair. Bgn. Pultib fbo obixb, L.
Starch reduced to a very fine powder, and then
scented according to the fancy of the artist; it is
lastly passed through a gauze sieve. In its simple
form, without any addition, it constitutes ' plain
hair powder.' In other cases it is distinguished
by the name of the substance added to perfume
it. Thus we have ' rose hair powder,' ' violet h.
p.,' Ac. Potato farina, well triturated, is now
commonly used for hair powder. Amongst the
lower classes, the contents of the ' flour dredger '
of the kitchen are frequently misappropriate to
this purpose. See Fowsbbb, Sobittbd (fielaw).

Powder, Hand. Prep. From almond powder,
1 lb. ; powdered cuttle-flsh bone and white soap,
of each, 4 oz. ; orris powder, 1 oz. ; mix. Used
to clean the hands and to render them soft and
white. See Powsbb, Cobmbtio.

Powder, Helvetlns's. Sgn. Pultib Heltb-
Tn, L. A mixture of powdered alum and
dragon's Uood (Dr Parit).

Powder, Herransehwand's Bpedfie. SeePATBtrr
Mbsichteb.

Powder, Hiera Pier*. Powder of aloes with
canella (see aiooc).

Powder, Hufeland's. Syu. Huvblahd'b quiir-
QuncA BAOiiOB, Pultib atsosasM vaotitiub,
P. BAUCIS OOKPOBITUB, L. Prep. From bennet
(the herb), calamus aromaticus, chestnut bark,
gentian root, and willow bark, equal parts ; re:
dnced to powder.

Powder, Hunfs. See Powsbb, Bbbaetabt.

Powder, Hunter's. See Powsbb, Wabx
(}>elotD).

Vawitnc of Ipecaenanlia (Componnd), S^
Dotbb'b powsbb, Coxpouitd fows^ o>
ifroacuakha with ofjux; fultib dotbbi,
Pultib ifeoaouahrx ookpobitub (B. P., Fh.

L., E., & D.), L. ; POUSBB S'lPXCAOUAHKA BT

d'opiuk, Fr. Prep. 1. (B. P., Fh. L.) Ipecacu-
anha and opium, of each, in fine powder,
1 dr. ; sulphate of potaasa, in fine powder, 1 oz. ;
mix them (thoroughly). The Edin. and Dublin
formuln are similar.

2. (P. Cod.) Nitrate and sulphate of potaasa,
of eacii, 4oz.; ipecacuanha, liquorice root, and
hard extract of opium, of each, 1 oz. This dosely
resembles the original formula,

3. (Wholesale.) From powdered ipecacuanha
and opium, of each, 1 lb. ; powdered sulphate of
potassa, 8 lbs. — Utet, Sfc. ' Dover's powder is a
powerful and valuable sudorific' — I>oee, 6 to 16
or 20 g^., followed by warm diluents ; in inflam-
matory affections, rheumatisms, coldi, &c.

Powder, Itch. Syn. Pultib abtitbobioub,
L. Prep. 1. Sulphur and potato farina, of
each, \ lb. ; essence of bergamot, i oz. ; mix.

8. (Poudre de KhoreL) A mixture of finely

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POWDEE

pnlveriaed ralphnrat Of Mlcium and f srins, _ in
neurW eqnsl qoantitie*. Used either a* a darting
powder or mixed with a little oil or tkt, and
nfbbed into the affected part.

8. (Fr. Hosp.) Flowen of snlpiiin', 1 ok. ;
acetate of lead, 1 oi. Mix.

4. Equal parts of snlphnr and charcoid.

Powder of Jal'ap (Compoimd). ayn. Pvltis
JALAPA 0OMPO8ITVB (B. P., Ph. L., E., ft D.),
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) JaHp, 8 at. ; bitartrate
of potaMa, 6 oz. ; ginger, 8 dr. j ruh ttiem
-separately into fine powder, then mix them.

a. (Fb. E.') As the last, omitting the g^ger.

8. (Ph. D.) Jalap, 2 oz. ; bitartrate of
potMsa, 8i OS. J ginger, | ox. (all in fine pow-
der) ; mix by careftd toitnration. — Dow, SfO to
60 gr. ; as a pnrgatire in habitual costWeness,
dropsies, Ac ; also in worms, the tumid bellies
of diildren, &c.

4. (6. P.) Jalap, in powder, 6 parts ; acid
tartrate Of potasb, 9 parts ; ginger, in powder, 1
part; mix. — Dote, 20 to BO gr.

6. (Pr£TiB untiTrroii; Svobi oraxqw nrx-
OATIv.) From refined sugar, } lb.; jalap and
cream of tartar, of each, 2 ot. ; oil of orange
peel, I oz. A popular purgative on tbe Conti-
nent.— Dote, 1 to 8 dr.

rowder, James's. 8ff». PveVib JAOOn, P.
nsBiTuauB JAOOBt, L. The antimonial pow-
der, or compound powder of antimony, of the
Pharmacopoeias (see dbov^ is the preparation
which asoally passes under this name ; but the
true James's powder is a nostrum, the pretended
secret of the preparation of which ia claimed to
be possessed by otuy two persons in the Vinedom.
The patent specification of the once oelemsted
Dr James runs as follows :

'"'hke of antimony, calcine it with a continued
protracted heat in a flat, unglazed earthen vessel,
adding to it, from time to time, a sufficient quan-
tity of any animal oil and salt, well dephlegmated ;
then boil it in melted nitre for a considerable
time, and separate the powder from the nitre by
dissolving it in water." On this it has been re-
marked that it yields a product totally different
from that wbidi Dr Jwmes and his successors
have sold under the name, and he has hence been
charged with concealing the real formula for his
powder, and publishing a false one in its stead.

According to Dr BoMnson the original formula
Yorthis nostrum, and that still adopted by the
vendors of the proprietary article at the present
day, is — ^tartarised antimony, 1 part'; prepared
burnt hartshorn and calx of antimony, of each, 6
parts ; carefully mixed together, and divided irito
21-gr. powders (• Phil. Joum. Pharm.,' vi, 282).

From analyses recently made of three speci-
mens of James's powder (' Newbery's,' ' But-
ler's,' and a sample of 60 years old obtained
by Mr Squire), it appears that autimonious acid
was present in different proportions, from about
45% to 88% , the amount Iwing greatest in the
old specimen ; teroxide of antimony was also pre-
sent to the extent of from 9% to less than 1% ,
the greatest qiumtity being again in the old pre-
paration ; the remainder in each specimen con-
sisted dUefly of phosphate of lime ; no trace
of tartaric acid was dKscovenAIe in any -Df tbe
samples.

Perhaps no nostrum ever received such ezten-
nve patronage from the thculty as James's pow-
der. Dr James himself was remarkably saeoess-
fol in its use; but whethei' his success depended
upon his powder or the mercurials and bark,
which he commonly employed st the same time,
is stiU undetermined.

Powder of Karmes with Camphor. (Gkm.Hosp.)
8gn. Pin.vi8 Knxsns one oampbobX. Prip.
Kermes mineral, 8 gr. ; camphor, 6 gr. ; wlute
sugar, 2 dr. ; mix. For 12 doses.

Powder of Kermes with Ipacaenaaha. fFr.
Hosp.) Syn. PvirTiB ksbxbtib cvu ipkilcv-
axhA. iSvp. Kermes, 2 gr,; ipecacuanha, 2
gr. ; crabs' eyes, 2 scruples; gum-arabic, 2
scruples; mix. For 12 doses. In hooping-
cough.

Powder of Ki'no (Compound), ^a. Pokvib
xnro ooKTOfliTUB (Ph. L.), L. lV«p. 1. t[Ph.L.)
Kino, 16 dr. ; cinnamon, 4 dr. ; dried opinm, 1
dr. ; reduce them separately to fine powmnr, and
then mix them. — 2)oie, 6 to 20 gr. ; in diurrhcea,
pyrosis, &c.

2. (B. P.) Sino, 8i (A.; dnnamon, 1 os.;
opium, i OS. ; mix. — Dote, 6 to 20 gr.

Powder, Tissisanne. JPnp. From nitre, 1} dr. ;
carbonate of magnesia, bitartrate of potassa, pre-
cipitated sulphur, and oleo-saccharom «f pep-
permint, of each, 4 dr. ; sugar ot milk, 1 oc
Iienitive and antidys«nteric.

Powder, Lax'ative. See Sraoin, Laxatttk.

Powder of Liqnoriee (Compound). Sf»- Pvxvu

OLTOTBBRIZX COMPOBITffB, L. Prqf. 1. (Ph.
Bor.) Liquorice rotft and senna leaves, of each,
6 oc. ; fennel seed and milk of sulphur (pore),
of each, 8 oz.; white sugar, IS oz, (all in fine
powder) ; mix. Pectoral and laxative.

2. (B. Ph.) Senna and liquorice root, Imth in
fine powder, of each, 2 oc. ; sugar, in fine powder,
6 oz. ; sublimed sulphur, 1 oz.; mix thoroughly,
and pass through a fine sieve. — 2>oie, | £. to
1 dr.

Powder ttl Kagm^sia and ShulHu-b. See
Powsan at Ccmrcmnt Rkttbasb (beiow).

Powder, Martin's Caneer. An American nos-
trum, composed of the powdered stems of the
Orohanehe Virgimiana, Linn., combined wUh a
very small quantity of amnioas acid. It ia
used as a sprinUe for open cancers and canoeroos
sores.

Powder, Keren"rlaL 8gm. Qbit Towdib

(HYSBABaTBUlf CUK OBBlil, B. P.), MbBCVBY

WITH OHAXX. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Momn, 1
part; prroared chalk, 2 parts; triturate till tbe
globoles disappear.— DoM, B to 8 gr.

S. Slercnry, 8 oc. ; powdered resin, { oc. ; pre-
pared chalk, S oc; rectified spirit, q. s.; make a
paste with the resin and a small quantity of the
spirit; add the mercury, which may be extin-
guished in a short time ; then the chalk and alcohol
gradually, so as to keep up the pasty consistence ;
lastiy, add sufficient spirit to dissolve oat the
resin, wash the powder on a filter, and dry it.
Rectified oil of turpentine may be stfbstitoted for
the spirit.

Powder, Horium's Ape"rleat. See Patut
MuDiciim.

Powder of Kngwort, Sacobaratad. \^rettir.)
Powdered mugwort root, 8 oz.; ngar, 8 oz,;

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POWDER

1893

a ieaapobnfnl four times a day in chorea and
epilep«y.

Powder of Kuh'room. Sjyn. Ptrcna asabioi.
F. A. saotrLBKTl, L. From edible musIiraomB,
dried by a gentle heat, and then powdered
along with a little white pepper, oloves, and
mace. Some cayenne is frequently added.

Powder of KiirMl. Prom the Mjfiilmt tdmU*,
Linn., at common moasel, in the same way as

POWSIB aw 0T8TIK.

Powder of Hyrrli (Componnd). %». Pvltib
i ittbbbA. ooKFoaiTUS, L. Prep. (Ph. L.,
17S8.) Myrrh, dried savine, dried me, and Rns-
sian castor, equal parts, rubbed to powder, and
then well mixed. Emmenagogne and antispas-
modic—i>0(e, 12 to SO gr.

Powdor, Hnnoiy. See Powsbb, Violbt
(belom).

Powder of Hu Yomiea (CompoMid). Si/n.
PuxTza Hircn tokios oomfobititss Voot's
BTOKAOHIO FOWSEB. Prep. Nux vomica, 18
gr. ; ipecacuanha, 24 gr. ; rhubarb, 1 dr. j pre-
pared oyster shell, 48 gr.j oleo-saccharum of
mint, 1 dr. Mix, and divide into 12 powden.

Powder, 0"piated. Powder of chalk with
opium.

Powder, Opiated Oulaonai. (Parstro.) %».
PtTLVis auAiAoi opiATUS. Prep. Qoaiacnm, 1
dr. ; orange leaves, i dr. ; acetate of morphia, f
gr. Mix, and divide into 6 powden. One every
two hours in articular rheumatism.

Powder of Oxide of 8iao with Stareli. (Cate-
nave.) 8^n. PV£TI8 ziiroi OZTDI cim miiO.
Prep. Starch, 1 oz. ; oxide of sine, 1 dr. ; cam-
phor, in powder, 1 dr. For excoriations and bed-
sores.

Powder of Oys'ter. 5jr<i. Ptlyis ogibbb, L.
Prep. Prom the common oyster {Oilrea edulU,
Linn.), pulped through a sieve, made into a
paste with wheaten ilonr and a little salt, and
then rolled out into thin pieces, and dried ; these
are reduced to powder, sifted, and packed in well-
corked bottles. Used to make sauce, about 1 oz.,
to water, 1 pint. Other shell-fish are treated in
the same way.

Powder, Parturlikeient. (B. Ph., 1744.) %».
P1TX.TI8 AD FABTUU. Prtf. Borax, 4 dr.;
castor, 1) dr. ; saffVon, 1| dr. ; oil of cinnamon, 8
drops ; oil of amber, 6 drops. Mix. — Dote, 20 to
30 gr. (This name, and also that of fultib
FABTVBIVAOIIKB, has been given to powdered
ergot.)

Powder, Pea. By*. Fba floub; Fabiita
FiBOBTW, L. Prep. From peas, in the usual
manner. Used to make extemporaneous pea soup.

Powder, Pearl, Prep. From pnre pearl white
and French chalk (scraped fine by Dutch rushes),
equal parts, triturated together. Some makers
add more French chalk. Used as a skin cos-
metic. This mixture is preferable to pearl white
alone, from being more adhesive.

Powder, Psase. Prep. From dried mint and
sage, of each, 4 oz. ; celery seed and white pepper,
of each, ^ oz. ; turmeric powder, i oz. ; reduced
to Ane powder. Used as a condiment and kitchen
spice.

Powder, Pee'toraL See Powdbb of Liqvob-
ICB, Ac.

Powder of PlioepkBte of Ume, Saceharated.

TOL. n.

Sy». PULTIB CALCI8 FHOSFHATIB BACCHA-

BATT7B. Prep. Precipitated phosphate of lime,
16 gr. ; white sugar, 86 gr. ; triturate and divide
into 20 packets. Two or more powders daily,
according to age of child. In rickets.
Powder, Piles. Syn. Pitlvib umssitOK-

BHOIDAUB, P. E.B)tOBBHOn>AIJ8, L. Prep. 1,

(Fr. Hosp.) Precipitated sulphur, 8 oz. ; cream
of tartar and black pepper, of each, 1 oz. ; oil of
cubebs, I dr. — Doee. A teaspoonful, in milk .or
honey, thrice a day.

2. (External.) a. From Aleppo galls, in very
fine powder, 2 oz.; opium, in fine powder, 1 dr.
A pinch to be applied occasionally.

1. From sesquloxide of iron, 1 oz. j powdered
acetate of lead, i dr. As the last.

Powder of Pitch, Compound. Sgn. PvLTid.
FioiB coKPOBinrBi DiBiNnoriNS fowdbb of
CoBHB Ain> DncAVZ. 100 parte of plaster of
Paris are triturated thoroughly with 1 to 6 parts
of coal tar. Used as an absorbent and disimect-
ant to fetid ulcers and wounds.

Powder, Plate. Syn. Pwna fbo absbhto,
L. Prep. 1. Jeweller's rouge, i Ib.j prepared
chalk or levigated burnt hartshorn, { lb. ; mix.

2. Levigated putty powder, i lb. ; burnt harts-
horn, i lb. ; prepared chalk, 1 lb. ; rose pink, 1 oz.

8. (Meboubiai^) From quicksilver with chalk,
1 oz.; prepared chalk, 11 oz. ; mix. Used to clean
and polish plate. See Platb.

Powder, FUte-boUing. iVep. From cream
of tartar, common salt, and alum, equal parts.
A little of this powder, added to the water in
which plate is boiled, gives to it a silvery white-
ness.

Powder, Flnmmer's Al'teratlve. See Ahti-
Moirf, Ethjofb of.

Powder, Fonl'tice. Sgn. Puxtib fbo oata-
FLABXATi (Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. From
linseed meiu, 1 part; oatmeal, 2 parts; mixed
together.

Powder, Purgative and Anthelmintie, (Boer-
kaave.) Sj/n. Pitltib fcbsabb akthblkiit-
TiovB, L. Prep. Jalap, 12 gr. (or agaric, 8
gr.) ; Ethiops mineral, 12 gr. ; for one dose.

Powder of Qniaine, ASrated. {Dr Meireu.)
Syn. PtTLTIB QVmUI AKBATVB, L. 2Vep. Tar-
taric acid, 16 gr.s disulphate of quinia, IJ gr.
Mix, and add bicarbonate of soda, 18 gr. ; refined
sngar, 80 gr. Mix for one dose, between the fits
of intermittent fever.

Powder of QniBine and Tobaeoo. (Bug.)
Sj/n. PuLTiB Qcnris bui^eatib bt tabaoi.
Prep. Disulphate of quinine, 12 gr.; snuff,
1 oz. To be used as a snuff for nervous head-
aches.

Powder, Bats. SeeRATB.

Powder of Bhu'barb (Compound). Sgn.
Qbboobt'b mixtitbb, Gbbsoby'b FOWSBB;
Ptri.TIB BRBI cOKFOsnVB (B. P., Ph. E. and D.),
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. £.) Calcined magnesia, 1 lb. ;
rhubarb, 4 oz. ; ginger, 2 oz. (all in fine powder) ;
mix, and preserve it from the air.

2. (B. P., Ph. D.) Calcined magnesia, 6 oz. ;
rhubarb, 2 oz. ; ginger, 1 oz.

8. Calcined magnesia, 8 oz. ; rhubarb, 8 oz. ;
chamomile, 2 oz. ; ginger, 1 oz.

Obt. An excellent stomachic, antacid, and
laxative.— />o«e, 80 gr. to 1 dr. Some droggisU

88

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1894

POWDEB

(nbstitnte the heavy carhonate for the caldned
magneiia ordered above, bnt thia altera the nature
of the preparation, and requires the doie to be
increaaed. Heavy calcined magnesia may, how-
ever, be employed with advantage.

Powder, Saoh'et. flee Sobittbd Powdkbs.

Powder, Saline' (Compound). 8y». Puins
baIiHtus couFOBirns (Ph. E.), L. Prap. (Ph.
E.) Pare chloride of sodinm and anlphate of
magnesia, of each, 4 oz. ; anlphate of potaah, 8 oc. ;
each aeparately dried by a gentle heat, and pnl-
verised, then tritnrated together, and preaerved
in well-cloaed vesaela. An excellent aaline pur-
gative.— J>ot», 2 to 6 dr., in 1 pint of water or
table-beer, in the morning, fasting.

Powder of Bcaaunony (Compound) . 8yn.
PtfLTiB scAXxoim oonrosiTua (B. P., Ph. L.,
E., k D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Scammony and
hard extract of jalap, of each, 2 oz. ; ginger, \ oi. ;
rnb them aeparately to a very fine powder, and
then mix them. — Don, 6 to 16 gr.

8. (Ph. E.) Scammony and bitartrate of potaaaa,
of each, in very fine powder, equal ports. — Dote,
7to20gr.

8. (Ph. D.) Scammony, in fine powder, 1 os. ;
compound powder of jalap, 8 oc. ; mix. — Dote,
18 to 80 gr.

4. (B. P.) Scammony, 4 parts ; jalap, 8 parts ;
ginger, 1 part ; mix, and reduce to fine powder. —
Dote, 10 to 12 gr.

0S<. The above are favourite cathartics in
worms, especially for children. They are com-
monly sold for basilic powder (see above).

Powder of Bcanunony with Cal'omeL S^.

PlTLTIB BOAJCKOini OTTX OALOMILAHI, L. Prep.

From scammony, i oz. ; calomel and white sugar,
of each, 2 dr. An excdlent vermifuge for
children.— i)oM. For an adult, 6 to 20 gr. ; for a
child, 8 to 8 gr. Sold for basilic powder, to which
it approachea nearer in compoaition thaa the pre-
ceding.

Powder of Scammony with Soot. S^ Pui.-
ru sotMxomi axm tttlisiki; Poudsb
s'AlLSAVT. Prep. Scammony, 1 dr. ; wood
aoot, 1| dr. ; resin, 2 dr. ; mix.— Dose, 4 dr. A
once fashionable purgative.

Powder, Bohmidfa Partaxiik"cient. Sgu.
Sohhidt'b fousbs ooytkhtb. Ft. Prep. Prom
powdered ergot of lye, borax, and oleo-sacchamm
of camomile, of each, 8 gr.j powdered sugar,
q. B. For a dose ; to be repeated every quarter of
an hour until aome effect ia produced.

Powder of Bcordlnm (Compoimd^. Sgn. Pui.-
TIS B BOOBSIO OOXPO8IC0B (L. Ph. 1746).
Prep. Bole, 4 oz. ; acordium, 2 oz. ; cinnamon,
li oz. J atyrax, tormentil, bistort, gentian, dittany,
galbannm, gum acacia, red rose petals, of each,
1 oz. ; long pepper, i oz. ; ginger, i oz. Make a
powder.

Powder of Soordivm with Opium. Sgn. Pul-
TiB I BCOBDio CTTM OFio. Prep. Add to the
preceding, 3 dr. of dry atruned opium, and powder
it with we other ingredienta.

Powder of Senna (Battley'a Oreen). Sgn.
PuLYIB atSJiM TisisiB, L. Prep. From senna
leavea, dried and heated until they turn yeUow,
then powdered along with a little (Une) charcoal,
to give a green colour.

Powder of Sen'na (CompoDsd). I^u. Ptri-

Tis tKfss ooxpoBmrB, L. , Prep. (Ph. h.
1824.) Senna and Utartrate of potaasa, of each,
2 oz. ; acammony, i oz. ; ginger, 2 dr. ; all in fine
powder; mix. — Dote, 20 to 80 gr. or more; aaa
purgative or anthelmintic.

Powder, Sil'vering. Prep. 1. Silver dust (fine).
20 gr. ; alum, SO gr. ; common aalt, 1 dr. ; cream
of tartar, 8 dr. ; rub them togetiier to a fine
powder.

8. As the laat, but substituting 86 gr. of nitrate
of ailver for the ailver dust.

8. Chloride of silver ia dissolved in a solution
of hyposulphite of soda, and the solution made
into a paste with levigated burnt hartahom or
bone duat ; thia ia next dried and powdered.

4. Silver dust, 1 oz,; common aalt and sal-
ammoniac, of each, 4 oz. ; ooiroeive anblimate,
i oz.

Obt. The above powders, made into a paste
with a little water, are used to ailver dial-plates,
statuettes, and other articles in copper, previously
well cleaned, by friction. The best silver powder
for the purpose is that precipitated from its mtric
add solutionis means of a copper plate. When the
product of the last formula is used, the articles
should be afterwarda made red-hot, and poliahed.

Powder of Soap. 8gn. Safo oomtkititb,
PuiiYiB BAFOim, L. Caatile soap, sliced or cut
small, dried by exposure to a warm atmosphere,
or by a very genUe heat, and then powdered.
Used in diapensing ; alao as a hand, shaving, and
tooth powder. As a cosmetic it may be scented
at wiU.

Powder, SpennaeetL Sgn. Pultib cttaoii.
Spermaceti ia pulveriaed aa camphor, by the aid
of a few dropaof spirit.

Powder of Spermaeeti with Sugar. Sfn.

PULTia OBTAOBI OUX 8A0CHABO. One part

of powdered spermaceti with two of sugar. Pec-
toraL

Powder of Sponge. £^. Pitxtib BPOHfiis,.
P. Btovais UBIJB, L. Prep. Let sponge, cut
into small pieces, be beaten so as to free it from
sand or stones ; then bum it in a covered iron
vessel until it becomes black and friable ; finally,
reduce it to powder. Deobstment. — i>0M,i to 3
dr. ; in glandular indurations and enlargements,
&c It should be of a brownish-black colour;
if over-burnt its efficacy is destroyed.

Powder of Squills. Sgn. Puxtib bouxs. L.
iVvp. Remove the membranous integuments
from the bulb of the squill, cut it into thin slices,
and dry it at a heat between 90° and 100° F. ;
next reduce it to powder, and keep it in well-
stoppered botties.

Powder, StaU's SeaoWent. Sjfn. Puvna bb-
BOLYBHB Starui. Prep. Antimonial powder,
nitre, prepared crabs* eyee, in equal parts.

Powder of Starch with Soda. Syn. Pitltib

AXTLI BI 80DX ; DBVBBaiB'B ALKAUITB K)WI>BB.

Prep. Mix 1 part of carbonate of soda in fine
powder with 10 of white atarch. For external
nae in aome skin diseases.

Powder, Stersn'tatory. See Swm (Medi-
cated).

Powder, Styp'tie. See Powsnt, Abtkihobiit.
Fatvasd'b p., Ac.

Powder, Tonqnin. Syn. Pultib aittiltbbiovb
ToirQiixnxBiBj Sa Q. Cobb'b TosQirnr powdbb.

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POWDERS

1896

iVwp. Mask, 16 gr. ; cinnabar, 48 gr. ; to be
mixed or washed down with arrack or other spirit.
Three doaes to be given on three alternate days,
and three more on the three next changes of
the moon.
Powder of Trag'aeanth (Compound). Sjfn.

PXTLYia TRLBA-CKBTSM CWKPOBITUS (B. P., Ph.

L. A E.), L. iV«p. 1. (Ph. L.) Chun tragacanth,
gam aMcia, and starch, of each, in fine powder,
1^ ox. ; powdered white sugar, S ox. The Edin-
burgh formula is similar. Demtileent. — Doia,
i dr. to 2 dr., in water or any simple liqnid ; in
hoarseness and catanhs, combined with sqnills
and henbane, to allay irritation ; in dysentery,
combined wiUi ipecacnanha ; in gonorrhoea, stran-
guy, ic., combined with acetate of potassa or
nitre.

8. _(B. P.) l^agacanth, in powder, 1 part ; gom-
arabic, in powder, 1 part; starch in powder, 1
part ; refined sngar, in powder, 3 parts; mb well
together.— Z)ow, 10 to 60 gr.

Powder of Taallla, with Sugar. (F. Cod.)

§^. PULTIS TABiUJE CVU 8A0OHABO ;

FoiTDBl SB TAJOLLX BTTOB^i. Vanilla is re-
daced to powder by cutting it in pieces, and
tritaisting it with 9 times its weight of refined
sngax.
Poiwder of Verdigris with Calomel. Sy».

PlTLTIB MHVBTSia OUK CALOKKLAHS. iVep.

Prepared Terdigris, 1 dr. ; calomel, 1 dr.; mix.
For external use.

Powder, Violet. Sgn. Nttbbbbt fowsib,
Skiit f. This is simply starch, reduced to a very
fine powder, and scented with orris powder or
essence of violets. The best kinds are also per-
fumed with a little musk or ambeigris, and are
now generally made with potato farina. The
commoner sort is only scented with a little essence
of bergamot, or essence of lemon. ' Plain violet
powder ' is, of course, unscented.

iV«p. 1. Powdered starch, 28 lbs. ; powdered
orris root, 1 lb. ; essence of ambergris and essence
of bergamot, of each, i oz. ; oil'of rhodium, i dr. ;
mix, and pass the powder through a sieve.

2. Powdered stu-ch, 14 lbs.; essence of ber-
gamot, i OS. ; oil of cloves, i oz. ; as last. Used
as a dusting powder in excoriations, &c. See
FowABBS, Cosmrio (belotp),

P«wd«r, Ward's Sweating. Besemblea Doybb's

POWDBB8.

Powdar, Wart. Sg». Coax powdsb, Cos-
XBTio OAtrsTic, &c. Frep. 1. Ivy leaves ground
to powder. A pinch is applied with a rag, the part
being first moistened with strong vinegar. Useful
for soft corns and warts.

2. (^Bunter'i.} From aavine and verdigris,
equal parts. See Cobk Soltbkt.

Powder, Warwick's (Earl of). 8yn. Pultib
CoBuns Wabwiobhsis, L. JPrtp. Prom scam-
mony, prepared with the fumes of sulphur, 8 oz. ;
diaphoretic antimony, 1 oz. ; cream of tartar, ioz.
— Dote, 16 to 30 gr.

Oit. This is a modification of CknwACHlHl'B
fowseb. It is represented in the present Phar-
macop(Bias by ooxFOUin> BOAMiiorr fowdbs.
" Coraachini wrote a whole book about his
powder, the proportions of the ingredients of
which he varied according to drcnmstances "
('Jtfed.Lez.').

Powder, Wash'ing. The nnmeroos compounds
vended nnder this name have for their basis the
soda-ash of commerce, blended with common
Scotch soda in variable proportions. The best of
them consist either wholly or chiefly of flie first
of these substances. The alkaline matter is re-
duced to coarse powder, and stirred np with liquid
size, or with a decoction of linseed, Irish moss, or
British gnm, and is then dried, and again crushed
or powdered, and at once put into the packages,
in which it is rammed tight, and covered up
immediately. The object aimed at by the manu-
facturer is to keep his commodity from the air
as much as possible, because exposure renders it
less caustic, and consequently less detorgent.

Powder of Tellow Bladder-wrack. (Ph. D.)
<%a. Pttltib qvbboAs hajbxsx. Prep. Tellow
bladder-wrack, in flower, is dried, cleansed, and
heated in a crucible with a perforated lid till
vapours cease to be given off, and the carbona-
ceous residue reduced to powder. — Dote, 10 g^.
to 2 dr.

POWSEBS. The following preparations have
been placed under this head instead of under
' FowSBB,' because some are invariably spoken of
in the plural number, and the others may be con-
veniently noticed in classes or groups :

Powders, Airated Sherbet (nr ova bottib).
Double reflned sugar, 14) oz. ; powdered orange
peel, 12 gr. ; bicarbonate of soda, 8} oz. ; essence
of cedra^ 12 drops ; oil of orange peel, 60 drops ;
tartaric acid, 4 oz. The powders must be care-
fully dried, mixed quickly, and afterwards kept
dry, in a bottle securely corked. A measore
holding nearly S dr. of the powder should accom-
pany each bottie.

Powders, EifervM'eing. Prep. 1. (PirLVBBEg
bvfbbtbbobitibb— Ph. E.) Take of tartaric acid,

1 oz. ; bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz. 64 gr. (584 gr.),
or bicarbonate of potassa, 1 oz. 2 dr. 40 gr. (6^
gr.) ; reduce the acid and either bicarbonate sepa-
rately to fine powder, divide each of these into 16
powders, and preserve the add and alkaline
powders in separate papers of different colours.

2. (Ptltebbb etsbbveboektes onBATi — Ph.
D.) Take of citric acid (crystallised), 9 dr.;
bicarbonate of soda, 11 dr., or bicarbonate of
potassa, 13 dr. ; proceed as last, dividing each into
18 parts.

3. (FULYBBBB BVFBBTB80BHTB8 TABTABIZATI

—Ph. D.) Take of tartaric acid (in crystals), 10
dr. ; bicarbonate of soda, 11 dr., or bicarbonate of
potassa, IS dr. ; reduce them to powder, and divide
them into 18 ports, as before (see belote).

Powders, Effervescing, wltii Iron. (P. Cod.) '
Syn. PULTIBBg effektesobntbs cvu fbbbo.
Pnip. Tartaric acid, 2] oz.; bicarbonate of soda,

2 oz. ; powdered sugar, 9 oz. ; dried sulphate of
iron, 46 gr. Mix the acid and the sulphate of
iron (previously reduced to coarse powder), add
the sugar, and lastly the soda, not in very fine
powder. All the ingrediente mnst be very dir.
Half an ounce of this powder is to be quickly
added to 2 pints of pure water (without air) con-
tained in a bottle, which is to be immediately
corked.

Powders fbr Gazogene. For 2 pints : — Powdered
tartaric acid, 14 scruples ; bicarbonate of soda, 17
scruples.

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17

Foi 8 innta: — Powdered tartaric acid,
scmples ; bicarbonate of soda, 21 ■crnplea.

For 5 pints: — One each change of 2 and 8
innta.

Fowden, Gin'ger Beer. Sgn. Pultbbbb epvkk-
TBBCBHTBB OTTK zivaiBBBB, L. Prep. 1. Pow-
dered white sugar, 1 to 2 dr.; bicarbonate of
soda, 26 gr. j finest powdered Jamaica ginger, G
gr. ; essence of lemon, 1 drop j mix, and wrap it
in bine paper. In the white paper pnt of pow-
dered tartaric acid, 85 gr., or of powdered dtric
acid, 80 gr.

2. Finest Januuca ginger, 1 dr. ; bicarbonate of
soda, 6 dr. ; white sngar, 16 dr. ; essence of lemon,
6 or 8 drops ; mix and divide it between 12 papers
(blue). For the white papers, divide tartaric
acid, 6 dr., in the same wa^. By taking the
drachms as ounces, the quantity will be sufficient
for 8 dozen. For use dissolve one of each colour
separately in somewhat less than half a glass of
water, mix the two, and drink the mixture whilst
effervescing.

8. (In one bottle.) a. The sugar and the saline
ingrecUenta are separately dried by a very gentle
heat, then mixed in a diy room with the ginger
and essence of lemon, and at once put into bottles.
b. By adding to the ' acidulated kali,' noticed
at page 921, about l-16th of its weight of the
finest powdered Jamuca ginger (t. «. ^ dr. to each
oz. ; 1 oz. to each lb.) at the time of mixing the
ingredients together. A dessert-spoonful, tkrown
into a tumbler 2-8rds filled with cold water, pro-
duces an excellent glass of ganger beer.

Powders, Ink. The article usually sold nnder
this name is noticed under Ihx. Another formula,
which we have adopted with considerable success,
is as follows : — Good black ink, 8 pints ; lump
sngar, 1^ oz. ; and gum-arabic, | oz., are put into
a clean iron pan, and evaporated by the heat of
boiling water, with occasional stirring, to dryness ;
the dried mass is reduced to powder, and divided
into 12 parts, which are enveloped in either tin-
foil or glazed paper, and kept diy. One of these
papers dissolved in \ pint of hot water forma
that quantity of excellent black ink, without
sediment, and which answers well with the copy-
ing press.
Powders, Lemonade'. Sgn. Lbkoh bbibbiit ;

LiHOirASVH SIOOUM, PULVTS PBO UKOKADO, L.

iV«p. 1. Powdered citric or tartaric acid, 12
gr. ; powdered white augar, | oz.; essence of
lemon, 1 drop (or a little of the yellow peel of a
lemon rubbed otF on a piece of sugar) ; mix. For
one glass.

2. White sugar, 4 lbs. ; citric or tartaric acid,
H oz. ; essence of lemon, i oz. ; mix well, and pre-
serve it in a bottle for use. 1 to 2 dessert-spoon-
fuls make a glass of lemonade. It is also put up
in papers containing about 21 dr. each.

8. (EFVBKTBBonro.) a. For the blue papers,
take of powdered white sugar, 1 lb. ; bicarbonate
of soda, i lb. ; essence of lemon, 1^ dr.; mix, and
divide it between 6 dozen papers. Next divide
tartaric or citric acid, 6 oi., between 6 dozen white
papers. Or the two may be kept in bulk, in sepa-
rate bottles.

b. (In one bottle.) As 'AOlDinjliBD KiU.'
Some makers slightly increase the quantities c^
acid and easenoe of lemon there ordered.

Powdw^ Onagtuia. Sg*. Akkatbd shbs-
BBT. Frep. Powdered sugar, 14ioz.; powdered
orange peel, 12 gr. ; oil of orange peel, 60 drops j
essence of cedrat, 12 drops ; bicarbonate of soda,
ai oz. ; mix, and put 145 gr. in each blue paper.
In the white paper put 82 gr. of tartaric acid (or
80 gr. of citric add). Or the alkaline and
acid powders may be pnt into separate bottles,
with a measure holding the proper proportions
of each. The orange peel may be omitted if
necessary.

Powders, Fol'Uhing. iVep. 1. (For brass and
copper.) a. From rotten-stone, 8 oz.; powdered

soap, 1 01. , , ,.

b. Prom rotten-stone. 7 oz.; powdered oxalic
acid, 1 oz. Both are uaed with a little water.
See Bbabs Pabtb.

8. (For gold.) Jeweller'a rouge. SeeSBSQUl-
ozn>B 01 Ibov.

8. (For ivory.) Pumioe-stone and putty
powder.

4. (For plate.) See Platb and Powdbb,
Platb.

5. (For silver.) As the last
Powders, PreservatiTe. The German Imperial

Health Department has ordered the examination
of various powders offered to the public for the
preservation of meat. The foUowing formuUo
are based upon the analytical results :

1. Chloride of sodium, 46 parU ; nitrate of po-
tassiom, 84 parts ; boracic add, 20 parts.

2. Chloride of sodium, 26 parts ; boracic add,
20 parts; dried sulphate of sodium, 40 parts;
sulj^te of sodium, 16 parts.

3. Chloride of sodium, 6 parts; borax, 94
parts. „ „

Powders, Scented. Prep. 1. Coenrric Pow-
sbbb. o. (Poudbb db chipbk.) Macerate oak
moss in running water for 2 or 8 days, then dry
and powder it. Used as a basis for other powders,
on account of ita being highly retentive of odours.
Reindeer moss and ragged hoary evemia are also
used for the same purpose. See Ctpbub Powbb*
{above). „ .

b. (POUDBB DB OEIFHB DB MONTPBLIBB.)

From poudre de chipre, 2 lbs.; musk, 30 gr.;
civet, 20 gr. (the last two powdered by means of
a little sugar) ; cloves, i oz. v •,,

C. (PotJDBB DB PLBUBfl D'OSAHOBB.) FTOm

starch or Cyprus powder, 25 lbs. ; orange flowers,
1 lb. ; mixed in a covered chest, and stirred twice
or thrice daily; the process being repeated, with
fresh flowers, a second and a third time. Or the
plain powder is scented by the addition of a litUe
neroli or essence of petit grain.

d. (PoUDKB DB PBAKGIPANI.) From poudre
de fleurs d'oranges and poudre de chipre, of each,
6 lbs. ; essence of ambergris, 1 oz. j dvet (pow-
dered with sugar), t dr. Ash-grey colour.

e. (POUDEB DB JASMIKB.) AB P017DBE DB

P1BUB8 B'oBAlfOBB, but Using jasmine flowers.

/. (PoTJDBB i. LA MABioHAiE.) From poudre
de chipre, 2 lbs.; starch powder, 1 lb. ; calamus
aromaticus, cloves, and cyperus perennis or ro-
tundis, of each, 2 oz. Or starch powder, 88 !<>•• J
powdered doves, 1 lb. ; powdered orris root, i lb. ;
essence of ambergris, 2 dr. . __ _.

a. (POUSBB k lA UOVBSVLTSt.) From OITis
root, 1 lb. J coriander aeed, 6 oi. ; mace and noMt

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POWDERS

1897

ebony, of each, 2 ok. ; mnak leed, cuna, clove*,
and aandal-wood, of each, 1 oi.

i. (FovsBX DB JOHQUHiLl.) From jonqnUa,

M FOUDBB SI tXSMXSE.

i. (PoiTDBi A l'(BILl>t.) From plain powder,
8 lb*. ; orria root and dried red rote leaves, of
eaeb, 1 lb. ) clove* and mnak leed, of each, 4 o>. ;
Msence of bergamot and esaenoe of petit grain, of
each, ^ dr.

k. (FousBi Di B08Ba oomniinM.) From pale
rose*, aa Fomna j>i vLiirBS d'obas&bs.

1. (PovoBB DM BoeBB xuBQUin.) From mnak
roie*, a* the last.

m. (PovsBB X LA. TAKiLLk.) From povdie de
chipre or cypma, 8 Iba.; vanilla, powdered by
mean* of angar, 2 dr.; oil of clovea and eaaenoe
of ambergria, of each, 20 drop*.

«. (POUSBB il LA TIOIiBTTB.) See POWSBB,

VlOlAT (above).

The above are need a* coametic powdet* for the
akin and hair; also, bnt lesa frequently, for
■achets, drawers, &c

2. Saoebt Powsbbs. The«e are nsed, along
with oottott-wool, to All acent>baga, eaaaolette*,
Ac.; and as acent powder for iMxes, drawer*,
and the like. The (cent ii added to tiie drr in-
gredient*, separately rednoed to powder, and the
whole is then paased thiongh a fine *ieve to
enaure perfect admixture.

(1) CA88IB Saohbt. Caaaie flower*, gronnd,
1 lb. ; powdered orria, 1 lb.

(2) Chtfib Saohbt. Oroond cedar wood, 1
lb. ; gronnd aantal, 1 lb. ; ground vanilla beans, i
Ih. ; gronnd Tonquin beans, 2 oz. ; powdered orria,
H Iba.; oL French geranium, 80 minims; ol.
bergamot, 16 minims; otto rose, 26 minima;
extract mnak, 1 os. ; mix well.

(8) Fbabsitabi Saohbt. Powdered orria, 8
lbs. ; grround vitivert, i lb. ; gronnd santal, i lb. j
gronnd vanilla beans, i lb. ; gronnd Tonqnin
beans, 2 ox. ; ol. neroli, 60 minims ; ol. santal, 40
minims; ol. bergamot, 60 minims; oL. Frwich
geraninm, 60 minims ; otto rose, 80 minims ; ex-
tract musk, 1 oz. ; extract dvet, i os.; mix well.

(4) Hbuotbofb Saohbt. Powdered orris. 2i
lbs.; gronnd rose leaves, 1 lb.; gronnd vanilla
beans, 6 oz. ; gronnd Tonqnin beaiia, 4 oz. ; extract
mask, 1^ oz. ; extract civet, i oz. ; ol. almonds, 7
minims; mix.

(6) Latbssbb Saohbt. Gronnd lavender
flowers, 2 lbs. ; powdered gum benzoin, 2 oz.; ol.
French lavender, 1 oz.; extract muak, 1 oz. ;
mix.

(6) Bo6B Saohbt. Powdered orria, t lb.;
gronnd roee leavea, H lbs. ; gronnd santal wood,
4 01.; gronnd patchooly, 2 oi.; extract dvet, i
oz. ; ol. French geraninm, SO minims; otto rose,
20 minims; mix.

(7) Hab^ohalb Saohbt. Qronnd santel
wood, i lb. ; ground rose leaves, i lb. ; powdered
orris, 1 lb. ; ground vitivert, 2 oz. ; gronnd doves,
i lb. ; ol. bergamot, 60 minims ; ol. French
geraninm, 60 minims; extract mnsk, 1 oz.

(8) MooBSBLAiBB Sachbt. Ground doves, 2
oz.; ground vitivert, 1 lb. ; gronnd aantal wood,
i tb. ; gronnd rose leave*, ^ lb. ; powdered orris,
1 lb. ; gronnd caasie leave*, | lb. ; powdered gnm
bensdn, 2 oz. ; ol. neroli, 6 minims; ol. Frwich
geraninm, 86 minims ; extract mnsk, 2 oz.

(9) JooxiY Ci>TO Saohbt. Powdered orri*, 3
lb*. ; gronnd *antal wood, i lb. ; ol. bergamot,
1 oz. ; otto rose, SO minims ; extract mnsk, 2 oz. ;
extract dvet, 1 oz.

(10) Ebb. Bouqubt Saohbt. Powdered orris,
4 lbs.; ground cassie leave* (flowers), 1 lb.;
gronnd rose leave* (flowers), 1 lb.; ground va'
nilla beans, 8 oz.; essence bergamot, 1 oz. ;
essence lemon, 1 oz. ; ol. French geranium, 60
minims ; extract muak, 2 os. ; extract ambergris,
i OS.

(11) Patohoulx Saohbt. Gronnd patchonly
leaves, 2 lb*.; powdered orris, | lb.; ol. patch.
only, 80 minims; ol. French geraninm, 80
minims.

(12) HtLLBVLBCB Saohbt. Gronnd Uvender
flowers, 1 lb. ; gronnd cassie flowers, 1 lb. ; ground
rose flowers, 1 lb. ; powdered orris, 2 lbs. ; pow-
dered benzoin, i lb. ; gronnd Tonqnin beans, i lb. ;
ground vanilla beans, 8 oz. ; ground aantal wood,
il lb. ; ol, bergamot, i oz. ; exbaot dvet, i oz. ;
extract mnsk, i os. ; gronnd doves, 2 oz. ; gronnd
cinnamon, 2 oz. ; ol. French geraninm, 80 minims ;
ol. patohouly, 10 minims ; mix.

(18) Opopohax Saohbt. Powdered orris, 8
lbs. ; gronnd rose leaves (flowers), 1 lb. ; gronnd
caasie leave* (flowen), 1 lb. ; ground Tonqnin, }
lb. ; ground vanilla, 3 oz.; gronnd mnsk pods, 1
oz.; ol. dtronella, 16 minims; ol. dtron, 80
minims; ol. bergamott 120 minims; ol. patch-
ouly, 80 minims; oL French geraninm, 60
minims; extract dvet, i os. ; otto rose, 6 minima;
mix,

(14) Liev Aua Saohbt. Powdered orri*,
34 lb*. ; ground *antal wood, i lb. ; nonnd vanilla,
i lb.; gronnd roee leaves, 1 lb.; M. lign aloe, 1
oz. ; ol. French geraninm, 40 minims; otto rose,
20 minims; extract dve^ 1 oa.; extract mnsk,

) OS.

(16) Vbbbbha Saohbt. Powdered orris, 8
lbs.; oL bergamot, 120 minims; oL verbena,
180 minims; oL Freneb geraninm, 80 minims;
essence mndc, i oz.

(16) PoT-FOTTBBi. Ground Uvender flowers^
1 lb. ; powdered orris, 1 lb. ; g^nnd rose leaves,
1 lb. ; ground cloves, i lb. ; ground dnnamon, i
lb. ; gronnd gnm benzoin, 1 lb. ; gronnd pimento,
i lb. ; gronnd table salt, i lb. ; of. lavender ang.,
60 tninim.. ol. santal, 60 minims; ol. French
geraninm, 60 minim* ; oL bergamot, 120 minima;
eeience lemon, 120 minims ; otto rose, 10 minims ;
gronnd vanilla beans, 8 oz. ; gronnd mnsk pods, 1
oz. ; extract ambergris, i oz. ; mix.

(17) YLABO-TLAira Saohbt. Gronnd rose
leaves, 1 lb. ; gronnd cassia leaves, 1 lb. ; gronnd
pimento, i lb. ; gronnd Tonqnin beans, 2 oz. ;
ground vanilla bMns, 2 oa. ; powdered orris, 8
lbs. ; oL pimento, 60 minims ; ol. bergamot, 120
minims; ol. Frrach geranium, 60 minims; ol.
ylang-ylang, 120 minims ; otto rose, 20 minims;
extract mask, 1 oz. ; extract dvet, i oz. ; gnm
benzoin (ground), 1 oz.; mix.

(18) vIolbt Saohbt. Powdered orris, 8 lbs, ;
essence bergamot, 30 minims; oL almonds, 20
minims ; otto rose, 20 minims; extract mask, 1 oa.;
mix.

(19) Nbv-xowh Hat Saohbt. Powdered
orns, 4 lbs. ; gronnd Tonqnin beans, i lb. ; (^nnd
vaniUa beans, i lb. ; ol. almonds, 10 minims; oL

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1898

POWDEBS

French geraninm, 120 minima j otto ro«e, SO
minimi] ol. bergunot, 60 minima i extract musk,
H oz. ; mix.

(20) SwxBT-BBlAB Saoeit. Powdered orrii,
4 iba. ; gronnd aantal wood, 1 lb. ; ol. French
geraninm, 30 minima ; ol. neroli, 65 minima ; ol.
verbena, 66 minima ; ol. bergamot, 40 minima ;
eaaenoe lemon, 60 minima ; otto roae, 80 minima ;
extract ambergiia, 1 os.; extract mnak, ^ ox.;
mix.

(21) RoirsBiiaiu Saohit. Powdered orris,
8 lbs. : gronnd lavender flowers, li Iba. ; ol. French
genmium, 80 minima ; ol. bergamot, 120 minima;
ol. cloves, 120 minima; ol. lavender ang., 2 dr. ; otto
roae, 20 minimi ; gronnd mask poda, 1 os. ; ex-
tract ambergria, 1 oz. j ground doves, ^ ox. ; mix
(' Chemiat and Dmggist')-

8. Fasvuic poirx les atttbib povdbbb. From
pondre d'ambrette, 12 lbs. ; civette, 1| oz. ; mualc,
1 dr. ; reduce the last two to powder by grinding
them with aome dry lamp aagar ; then mix the
whole together, and pass it through a aieve. Used
to perfume hair powder, sachets, Ac.

Powders, Beidlits. Sy», Pvltib bods tar-

TABJITX ■TVEBTISOIVB. Prtp. 1. Potssaio-

tsrtrate of aoda (Bochelle aalt), 2 dr. ; bicarbonate
of aoda, 40 gr. ; mix, and put it in a blue paper;
tartaric acid, 88 gr. ; to be put in a white paper.
For about i pint of water. Laxative.

8. (In one bottle.) From potassio-tartrate of
soda, 12 ox. ; bicarbonate of ditto, 4 oz. ; tartaric
acid, Si oz. j white sugar, 1 lb. (all in fine pow-
der) ; dry each separately by a gentle heat, add
of esaence of lemon, i dr. ; mix well, pass the
mixture through a sieve, and put it at once into
clean, dry bottles. — Vott. A desaert-apoonfnl,
or more, to a tumblerful of water.

Obt. The above mixtures, though now nni-
. veraally aold ai Seidlitz powder, do not, when
diaiolved, exactly reaemble the natural water,
which contains carbonates, sulphates, and chlo-
rides of calcium and magnesium. However, the
factitious article is equally eflective, and much
more agreeable.

Powdwa, SlierlMt. These are made of the
same materiala as lemonade powders, the flavour-
ing ingredient being varied to suit the particular
case.

Powders, So'da-water. £y». EmByxaoiiro

POWSBSa, E. BAIiIKB P., SODAIO P., AeBAXID
BODi. p. ; PVLTSBBB MIVIBTBSCBIITBB, L. Pnp.

1. From bicarbonate of aoda, SO gr. in each blue
paper; tartaric aoid, 26 gr. (or citric acid, 24
gr^ in each white paper. Otae of each ia dia-
iolved aeparately in about half a glaaaf nl of water,
and the two aolntiona mixed and drunk imme-
cUately. A cooling, wholeaome summer beverage,
but it ahould not be indulged in to exceas.

8. (Chalybeated.) By adding 1 gr. of dried
protoaulphate of iron to each paper of aoid.
Tonic.

8. [Midgelej/'t.) Made by adcUng | gr. of tar-
tariaed antimony to each paper of add. Befrige-
rant and diaphoretic. For the Ph. formula see
Fowons, EvnBTBSonrs (above),

Powdan, Soup. See Powsbb, Cubbt; Pow-
DKB, PlA ; Spiob, Ac.

Powders, Spruce Ba«r. Sgit. Pvltibu bp-
nRrmcMSfsa omc abi^tb, J^. Prep. Aa

^nger-beer powden, but anbstitnting eiienoe of
apruce, 8 to 6 drops, for the powdered ginger.

Powders, Toilet. Sg*. Fi.OB powdbbb. The fol-
lowing formula are the result of analyses, but
most not be taken as the absolute formnls from
which the powders are made, as perfumes have to
be added to suit the public taste ( IT. H. Snow).'^,

S«a» Dowm (manufactured by Henry Tetlow).
Zinc oxide, 88-9% ; orris root, 18-85% ; French
chalk, 42-76% .

Wrigift. A harmless face powder manu&c-
tured by Alfred Wright, of Rochester, N.T. ;
claimed by its manufacturer to be " entirely free
from lead or other poisonous minerals, and no
more hurtful in nae than common atarch." Upon
examination it proved to be — French chalk,
26-48% ; com starch, 83-78% ; bismuth oxide,
0-8% : caldnm sulphate, 40-19%.

Smuuier^ Bloom of IRiton. Saundera' pure
white face powder, or Bloom of Ninon, manufac-
tured by J. T. Sunders, Oxford Street, London ;
claimed by its manufiaetaier to be a "delicate
preparation for beai^tifying the complexion, free
from aiwthing which can pocubly injure the
skin." Each box holds 1 oz. 25 gr- We offer the
following formula: — Predpitated chalk, 23-00
parts ; French chalk, 23-76 parts ; bismuth sub-
carbonate, 6-64 parts ; zinc oxide, 16-60 parts ;
com starch, 80*00 parts.

Fononnet {Wkite). J. A. Posioni's com-
plexion powder, manufactured in St. Louis, Mo.,
states on the label that it " imparts a brilliant
transparency to the skin, removes all pimples,
freckles, and discolorationa, makes the akin
delicately aoft, perfectly hannleas, containing no
araenic or other deadly material." Found upon
examination to be — French chalk, 66-96% ; cal-
dum carbonate, 81*26% ; Umnth oxychloride,
12-8%.

Palmet't Zily White Tablet fox the com-
plexion, prepared only by Solon Palmer, New
York. Examination proved it to be — PMdpitated
chalk. 42-6% ; French chalk. 67-5% .

Palmer'M Invitible was found upon examination
to be a silicate of alumina, magnesia, potash, and
aoda, coloured with carmine, ^e natural ailicate
is probably French chalk.

Powders, Tooth. Sf». Pvltib SBBrmiioii,
L. The general prindplea which ahould be kept
in view in the selection of the materials, and in
the preparation of dentifrices, have been already
fully noticed under Dbxtifbicbb, and need not,
therefore, be repeated here. Care must be taken
that all the dry ingredients be finely pulverised,
and that the harder and gritty ones be reduced to
the statejof an impalpable powder, either by levi-
gation or elutriation. The mixture of the ingre-
dients mast alao be complete. Tliis is the most
readily effected by stirring them well together
until they form an apparently homogeneous
powder, and then passing this powder through a
very fine aieve. Tboae which contain volatile
aubatancea should be preserved in closely corked
wide-mouthed bottlea, and those which contain
addnlous or gritty matter ahould not be fre-
quently employed. The aelection of the tooth-
bmah likewiae deaerves attention. It should be
suffidently atdfl to effect ita purpoae completely;
but, at the same time, it ahould be ao fonaed- as

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POX

1809

not to eanie irritation or injnry to the gnmi
during its nse.

Prap. 1. Cnttle-flih bone and prepared chalk,
of each, 2 oz. ; oil of cloves, 80 drope. Tliis may
be perfamed at wiU, and medicated by any of the
mbstaneea referred to under DsirrirBioia.

8. To the last add ofpowdered Castile soap, 2 OS.

8. Prepared chalk, 12 ox.; cattle-6sh bone,
8 oz. ] oiris root, 4 oz.; dragon's blood, 1| oz. ;
oils of doves and cassia, of each, i dr.

4. Prepared chalk, 1 lb. j pumice-stone in im-
palpable powder, i lb.; orris root, 2 oz.; pure
looge, i 01. ; neroli, \ dr.

5. Yellow cinchona bark and myrrh, of each,
i oz. ; recently burnt charcoal, 8 oz. ; cloves,
1 dr.

6. Pnmice-stone, red coial, and powdered
rhatany root, of each, 2 oz. ; orris root, | oz. ;
essence of vanilla, i dr.

7. (Aboiutic tooth fovsbb.) From cuttle-
fish bone, 4 oz. ; calamus aromaticns, 2 oz.;
powdered Castile soap, 1 oz. ; oil of cloves, \ dr.

8. (Asiatic dutthbici,) From prepared red
coral, 8} lbs.; Venetian red, } lb. ; prepued chalk
and pumice-stone, of each, li lbs. ; China musk,
80 gr.

9. {,Cad«f$.) From lump sugar and charcoal,
of each, 1 oz. ; Peruvian bark, i oz. ; cream of
tartar, i oz. ; cinnamon, i dr.

10. (Camphorated.) See Caxphobatbb Chaix.

11. (Chabcoal dbftivbiob.) From charcoal,
preferably that from the willow or the areca nut,
either alone or combined with twice its weight of
prepared chalk. Scent or medidnals injure it
(see9, 19, and26).

12. (CoBAL dbhttfbiob.) Sco 16, 23, and 26
(beUwi).

13. (Oeschamps' AXKALnri dbktifbiob.)
From powdered talc, 4oz.; bicarbonate of soda,

1 oz.; carmine, 6 gr.; oil of mint, 12 or 15
drops.

14. (FliOBBirTDrB siirTnrBiOB.) From pre-
pared shells, 4 oz. ; orris root, 1\ oz. ; bitartnte
of potassa, | oz. ; Florentine lak«, q. s. to colour.

15. (QALTAinc saimFBiOB.) From gold, 8
leaves ; silver, 4 leaves ; triturate them witii alum
and sulphate of potassa, of each, li dr. ; then
add of dry common salt, pellitory of Spain, and
Peruvian bark, of each, 1 dr. ; prepared harts-
horn, 1 01. ; mix, and dther colour it blue with
smalts or red with lake. A useless compound.

16. (Oronwaof'*.) From red coral, 8 lbs.;
prepared oysier-shells, 2^ lbs. ; orris powder, ^ lb. ;
oil of rhodium, 25 drops. Bose pink is now com-
monly substituted for the coral.

17. (HtrngPt.) From onttle-flsh bone, 6 oz. ;
cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; orris root, i oz.

18. (' Lancet.') Bed bark and Armenian bole,
of each, 1 oz. ; powdered cinnamon and bicar-
bonate of soda, A each, | oz.; oil of dnnamon,

2 or 3 drops.

19. (XorJMr'f.) From charcoal, in very fine
powder, 1 oz. ; prepared chalk, 8 oz.; mix.

20. (Mialhe's batiohaii snmiBioB.) From
■agar of milk, 8 oz. ;- pure tannin, 3 dr. ; red
la£e, 1 dr. ; oils of mint and aniseed, of each, 7
or 8 drops ; neroli, 4 or 5 drops.

21. (MxBBH snrTtraioi.) From cuttle-flsh
bone, 6oz.; myrrh andorrisroot, of each, 2 oz.

22. (Pbabl ssntivbiob.) From heavy car-
bonate of magnesia, or precipitated chalk, 1 lb. ;
finest smalts, 8 dr. ; essence de petit grain, \ dr.

23. (Pelletier's QVltriHB dkstivbiob.) From
prepared red coral, 8 oz. ; myrrh, 1 dr. ; disul-
phate of quinine, 12 to 16 gr.

24. (Ph, BnsSf) Cinchona bark, 4 oz.; orris
root, 2 oz.; catechu and myrrh, of each, li oz. ;
sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. ; oil of cloves, 20 drops,

25. (POUDBB DBHTUBIOB— P. Cod.) Bed
coral, red bole, and cuttle-flsh bone, of each, 8 oz. ;
dragon's blood, li oz. ; cinnamon, \ oz. ; cochi-
neal, 8 dr. ; cloves, 1 dr. ; bitartrate of potassa,
4i oz. ; reduce them separately to very fine powder
before mixing them. This is the ' coral denti-
frice ' of the French.

26. {Rigninfft.) From charcoal, 1 oz. ; yellow
bark, i oz.

27. (BOBB DlRTmuoB.) From precipitated
chalk, 6 oz. ; cnttle-flsh bone, 8 oz. ; bicarbonate
of soda, 8 oz. ; red lake, i oz.; otto of rosea, 20
drops.

28. {SMpinfft.) From cuttle-flah bone, 8 oz. ;
Boman alum and orris root, of each, 1 oz.; cream
of tartar, 8 oz. ; oil of rhodium, 6 or 8 drops.

29. (ViouT TOOTH POWDBB.) From orris
root, 8 oz. ; cuttle-fish bone and rose pink, of
each, 6 oz. ; precipitated chalk, 12 oz. ; pure in-
digo, q. s. to give it a pale violet tinge.

80. (Zi«ttrt.) From finely powdered calcined
hartshorn and cuttle-fish bone, of each, 6 oz. ;
calamus aromaticus, cassia, and pellitoty of Spain,
of each, 1 oz. ; essence of vaniUa, 1 dr. ; essence
of ambergris, 10 or 18 drops.

81. Chalk, carbonate of magnesia, and pale
bark, of each, 1 oz. ; oil of peppermint, 6 drops.

82. Cream of tartar, sugar of milk, of eadi, 2
oz. ; carmine, 88 gr. (all in very subtle powder) ;
oil of peppermint, 4 drops.

P«wd«n, Worm. 8^. Ptn.yBBB8 akthbs-
XDrrioi, P. TBBicinrai, L. Pnp. 1. {S(»te\ar'
dot.) Vowdecoi Corsican moss and worm-seed,
of each, 5 dr.; calomel, 40 gr. ; rub them to-
gether.

2. (OolUer.) From powdered jalap and scam-
mony, of each, 1 dr. ; cream of taftar, 2 dr.;
Ethiops mineral, 8 dr.

8. {Ouibourt.) Sulphate of iron, 1 dr.; tansy,
8 dr. ; worm-seed, 8 dr.

4. (P. Cod.) Corsican moss and worm-seed, of
each, 2 oz.; rhubarb, 1 oz.; rubbed to a fine
powder, and carefnlly mixed.

POX. A corruption of a Saxon word, originally
applied to pustules or eruptions of any kind, but
now restricted to varicella, variola, vaccinia, and,
in its unqualified form, to sypliilis (see ftsJow).

Poz, CUck'en-. Syn. Watib-poz; Vabioblla,
L. An eruptive disease, consisting of smooth,
semi-transparent vesicles, of various sizes, which
afterwards become white and straw-coloured, and
about the fourth day break and scale off without
leaving any permanent mark behind them. In
hot weather the discharge sometimes becomea
purulent, and at others the eruption is attended
with considerable fever. Sometimes the vesicles
assume a pointed form, and the fluid .remains
clear throughout the disease ; it is then frequently
called the 'swine-pox.' When the vesicles are
large and globular, and their contents, at first

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PRAYER BEADS— PRECIPITATION

whey-colonred, afterwards turn yellow, it is
popularly known as ' hives.'

The treatment of chicken-pox consists in the
adoption of a light vegetable diet, and in the ad-
ministration of mild saline aperients and cooling
drinks.

The chicken-pox, except in children of a very
bad habit of body, is an extremely mild disease.
Like the smallpox, it rarely attacks the same
person more than once daring life.

Poz, Cow-. iSya. VAOcnrii, Vabioia taootha,
L. Tliis disease was proposed as a substitute
and a preventive of smallpox by Dr Jenner in
1798, and its artificial production (vaccination)
has rendered smallpox a comparatively rare dis-
ease in Britain. There appears no reason to doubt
that the pretensions of we advocates of vaccina-
tion have been fully justified by the experience of
more than half a century ; or that this disease,
when actively developed, evinced by the complete-
ness and maturation of the pustules, acts as a
prophylactic of smallpox.

The process of vaccination is similar to that of
Inoculation for smallpox. The point of a lance is
wetted with the matter taken from one of the
pustules, and is then gently inserted under the
cuticle, and the scratch afterwards rubbed over
with the same. Heamorrhage should be avoided,
as the blood is apt to wash away the virus, or
to form a cake, which shields the living tissue
from its action.

Poz, Small-. Sy». Vabioi.a, L. This disease
comes on with tiie usual symptoms of inflamma-
tory fever. About the third day red spots, resem-
bling flea-bites, make their appearance on the face
and head, and gradually extend over the whole
body. About the fifth day small circular vesicles,
depressed in the centre, surroimded by an areola,
and containing a colourless fluid, begin to form,
when the feverish symptoms abate j about the
sixth day the throat becomes sore; about the
eighth day the face is swollen; and abont the
eleventh day the pustules acquire the size of a
pea, and cease to enlarge; the matter which they
contain becomes opaqneund yellow, a dark central
spot forms on each, the swelling of the face sub-
sides, and secondary symptoms of fever come on ;
the pustules become rough, break, and scab over,
and a dark spot remains for some days, often fol-
lowed by permanent indentations, popularly known
as ' pock-marks.' At the end of the sixteenth or
eighteenth day the symptoms usually disappear.
In the confluent smallpox, a severer form of the
disease, the pustules coalesce, the eruption is
irregular in its progress, and the inflammatory
symptoms are more severe.

The treatinent of ordinary ca^ of smallpox
resembles, for the most part, that mentioned
above for chicken-pox. As soon as the febrile
symptoms become marked the patient should not
he suffered to lie in a hot bed, but on a mattress,
in a cool and well-ventilated apartment, and anti-
septic cooling drinks should be freely administered.
When convulsions occur, or great irritability
exists, small doses of morphine, opium, or camphor
may be administered, and obstinate vomiting
arrested by effervescing saline draughts. When
the skin is pale and cold, the pulse weak, and the
eruption languidly developed, the warm or tepid

bath is often serviceable. The assistance of a
competent medical practitioner should always be
sought, and his instructions carefully carried out.
Smallpox is an exceedingly infections disease,
aod every precaution should be taken to prevent
its spread throogh clothing or contact of the
healtiiy with the sick. Fortunately vaccination
has redoeed the terrors of this disease. Vac-
cinated persons are rarely affected, and if
attacked the disease generally takes a mild form,
and leaves little or no trace behind. In the nn<
vaccinated, years gone by, blindness and terrible
disfigurement were common results of the disease,
now happily rarely seen.
PKATXR BEADS. See Abbub.
FSECIP'ITATE. Any substance which has
separated from its solution in. a solid and, usually,
a pulverulent or flocculent form, not a mere tur-
bidity, is strictiy called a preciiutate. The sub-
stance by which such a diange is produced is
called the ' precipitant ; ' and the aet or operati<ni
hy which it is effected is called ' precipitation.'
The old chemists gave this name to several com-
pounds. Red precipitate, or precipitate per ta, is
the red oxide of mercury prepared by hei^ White
precipitate is the ammokiatkd kbboubt of the
B. P.

PSECIPITATIOV. The formation or sub-
sidence of a precipitate (see dbne). When the
precipitate is the chief o^ect of the process, it is
necessary to wash it, after it is separated, by
filtration. This operation requires littie atten-
tion when the substance thrown down is insoluble
in water ; but when it is in some degree soluble in
that liquid, great care is
required to prevent the loss
which might result from
the use of too much water.
Precipitates soluble in
water, but insoluble in al-
cohol, are frequently, on
the small scale, washed
with spirit more or less
concentrated.

Hie best precipitating
vessel is a very tall glass
jar, furnished with a lip and spout, and narrower
at the bottom than at the mouth, so that the pre-
cipitate may readily collect by subsidence, and
the supernatant liquor be decanted off with more
ease.

Heavy precipitates may be separated from

Fig. S.

Fio. 1.

liquids by decantation, and are also washed by
the same process ; the precipitate is shaken with

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PBBCIPrrATION

1401

diatilled water, allowed to Mttle, and when the
water ha* become quite clear it U poured off by
allowing it to run gently down a wet glau rod
which i» preaaed against the edge of the venel
(vidt fig. 2), the precipitate being left in the
yeMel.

Precipitate! in general are washed free from
adhering liquid after they have been placed on a
filter contained in a funnel according to the
following directiona : — " Support the f onnel
which contains the filter and the precipitate with
ita neck in a beaker or
flask, and blow in a Vto- S-

fine stream of distilled
water from the wash-
bottle (vids fig. 8), so
directed, by moving
the jet with the fln«
gers, as to stir up the
precipitate well ; in
this way fill the filter
to within a short dis-
tance from its edge ;
let this water run
thrODgh perfectly,
then nearly fill the
filter againin the man-
ner just described; re-
peat this procesa two
or three timea, letting

the liquid mn throngh perfectly each time before
patting in a freah quantity ; Uie water running
through from the uiird or fourth waahing will
nraally be quite taatelesa, and the precipitate and
filter will be freed from everything soluble in
water.

" A precipitate is often required in a dry con-
dition after it has been fil-
tered off and washed. It is
dried by placing the funnel
in a hollow tin cone or cy-
linder called the filter-drier
(«•<{« fig. 4), and supporting
this on a piece of wire game
npon a tripod stand over
the flame of a rose-burner
turned very low ; or the
filter-drier may be placed
on a gently heated sand-
bath. The funnel u then
heated by a current of hot
air, and rapidly dries the
filter and precipitate. Qreat care must be taken
to regulate the heat so as not to char the
filter. A more rapid method of drying a pre-
cipitate after it has drained for somtf time con-
rists in spreading the filter npon a piece of wire
gauze supported on a tripod stand ; a small flame
from a roae-bnmer is then placed beneath the
gauze, and the filter carefully watched to avoid
charring it. A precipitate ia partially dried by
opening out the filter upon aeveral dry filter-
papers; this procesa may precede those already
mentioned.

" When a small quantity of a moist precipitate
has to be taken from a filter to test its behaviour
or closely examine ita appearance, it is most readily
removed by dipping the end of a glass rod into
the predpitate ; by touching a watch-glass or the

Fio. 4.

Vn. t.

interior of a test-tnbe with the end of the rod a
small quantity of the predpitate is deposited for
examination.

" If the precipitate is to be removed from the
filter as completely as possible several methods are
av^lable; one or other must be choaen according
aa oircumatances render it suitable.

" a. The bottom of the filter may be pushed
out throngh the neck of the funnel with a glass
rod which is small enough to pass easily through
the neck, and the precipitate may then be washed
down into a vessel beneath with a fine stream of
water or other liquid from
the wash-bottle.

"b. Without breaking
the filter the fonnel may
be held with its neck hori-
zontal, and the rim just in-
side the edge of a porcelain
dish [vide fig. 5); the preci-
pitate is then washed out
by directing a fine stream of water against the
side of the filter.

"e. The filter and precipitate are allowed to
stand for some time, so as to drain off as mnch
water as possible ; the filter is then carefully taken
out of the funnel, partially dried if necessary by
laying it upon several folds of filter-paper, and
after removing the portions of paper which contain
no precipitate together with uie empty fold, it is
spread out inside a porcelain dish ; the liquid with
which it is to be treated is poured npon it, and by
shaking the dish so as to canse the liquid to move
round and ronnd, and occasionally carefully
stirring the precipitate with a glass rod, the pre-
cipitate is washed off the paper without tearing
the latter to pieces. The paper is then carefolly
removed by a glass rod.

" d. If it is undesirable to add a liquid to the
precipitate npon the filter, the filter and precipi-
tate, after draining for a short time, are removed
from the funnel ; the filter is spread npon a flat
piece of glass and the precipitate carefully scraped
off with a glass rod or a small spatula. If the
predintate is required dry, the filter, after re-
moval from the funnel, may be carefully opened
and spread upon several thicknesses of filter-paper
to drain. When there is a large quantity of the
precipitate a sufficient quantity may be removed
on the end of a glass rod or spatula without taking
the filter out of the funnel. This method is osoally
the most imperfect, but is froqnently the best for
other reasons.

" 0. A precipitate has sometimes to be dissdved
off the filter. The hot liquid used as a solvent
may then be poured npon the precipitate ; it will
ran through the filter into a vessel below, takiiig
with it the precipitate in solntion ; the liquid after
it has run throngh should be heated agun, and
once more poured upon the precipitate, if the
latter is not entirely dissolved ; this reheating and
returning of the liquid to the filter should be oon-
tinued as long as anything is dissolved; any re-
maining portion of the precipitate most then be
removed by a litUe fresh solvent.

"/. A precipitate, if small in qaantit>v, may
also be rinsed oft the filter with the Hquid with
which it is to be treated or dissolved. The funnel
is placed with its neck in a test-tnbe^ and the

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PBBGNANCY— PBESSUBE

precipitate i» qnickly stirred up with the liquid
with a glass rod thin enough to pass down through
the neck of the funnel j the bottom of the filter is
then pushed out ttirongh the neck by the glass
rod, and the liquid carrying most of the precipi-
tate will run through j if some of the precipitate
remuns on the filter, the same liquid is poured
through the filter again into the other tube, and by
thus pouring backwards and forwards from one
tnbe to another all the precipitate may be re-
moved" (Clowes' ' Practiod Chemistry').

FSEO'VAVCT. For the preservation of the
health, and the prevention of the numerous dis-
comforts and dangers which so frequently attend
this condition, nothiqg is so effective as exercise.
It is this that is so fitvonrable to the humble
peasant, and it is its absence that inflicts such
calamities on the wealthier classes. Exercise,
moderate and nnfatigning, when assisted by
regular habits, and a diet nutritioiu, but not too
liberal, is, indeed, capable of not only affording
pleasure and increasing the comforts of existence,
but is also generally sufficient to greatly lessen
the severity of the sufferings, and to ward off the
not nnfrequently fiital results which terminate
this interesting condition.

The sickness of pregnane may be greatly
ameliorated, if not removed, by the occasional
use of a saline aperient, and by effervescing
draughts formed with the bicarbonate of potassa
and citric acid. The oxalate of cerium is strongly
recommended by Professor Simpson, of Edin-
burgh, as a remedy for obstinate vomiting in
pregnancy. — Dote, 1 gr. to 2 gr. three times a day
in pills.

PBESCBI"Bnra (Art of). Besides a know-
'ledge of diseases and their treatment, much of
the success of the physician depends on <arcnm-
stanoes connected with the form in which the
remedies are exhibited. In writing a prescrip-
tion it is necessary to conrider the age, sex,
temperament, habits, and idiosyncrasy of the
patient, as well as the conditions of climate and
season, before the selection of the leading medi-
cament and the apportioning of the dose. The
most convenient form of exhibiting it, whether it
should be given alone or in some simple form, or
combined with other ingredients, the compati-
bility of the latter, and now far these are likely
to assist, impede, or modify its operation, must
also receive the consideratiou of the practitioner.
Without a careful attention to all these circum-
stances the most valuable remedies may be ren-
dered worthless, and the highest medical skill and
the best intentions frustrated.

A preseriptdon generally contains several medi-
cinal sabatencea, which are distinguished by
medical writers by names indicative of the office
which each of them performs. These are — 1.
The BASIS, which is the principal or most active
inpedient; — 2. The ABtJjyAxr, or that which is
intended to promote the action of the base ;— S.
The OOBBICTITB, intended to correct, modify, or
control its action, or to cover its odour or taste, aa
when we add carminatives or diaphoretics to
cathartics, or aroiaatics or liquorice to nauseoos
snbstanoes;— 4. The BXOiFmrr, or that which
gives the whole a commodions or agreeable form,
and which, oonseqoently, ^res the prescription

its peculiar character, as that of dnmght, mix-
ture, pills, Ac. To these, certun Continental
writers add a 5th, the dttbbicbdiuic, which is
the substance employed to unite remedies which
are not, by themselves, misdble with each other,
or with the excipient. Of this character are the
yolk of egg and mncUage, employed in the pre-
paration of emulsions.

The medicinal substances, with the qnantitiea
to be taken, generally arranged as above, are said
to form the ' inscription,' — the directions as to
their combination or dispensing, which usually
comes next, the ' subscription,' — and the orders
for the exhibition of the compound medi^e^
which follow these, the 'instructions.' These
distinctions are, however, in many cases more
technical than useful.

In choosing the form of a prescription it should
be recollect^ that solutions and emulsions
generally act with more certunty and rapidity
than powders diffused through water ; and these,
again, than the semi-solid and soM forms of
medicine, represented by electuaries, bolnses, and
pills. On these matters, however, the taste and
wishes of the patient should not be disregarded.
For this purpose the taste of nanseons medicines
should be disguised as much aa possible by the
judicious selection of an appropriate corrective or
excipient. Thus the disagreeable flavour of
Epsom salt may be in a great measure covend
by dissolving it in peppermint water ; that of
aloes by liquorice; that of castor cnl and copaiba
by orange peel ; and that of quinine by mixing it
with milk immediately before teking it ; wlulst
the bitterness of all bitter substances is concealed
by strong coffee.

In order that a prescription may be well made
it is not necessary to unite all the elemente above
referred to. The basis and the exciinent are the
only two which are absolutely necessary, since
there are many medicines which have no need of
an a^uvant. The agreeable flavour and odour of
some, and the mild and harmless natore of otben,
often render the intervention of a oorrigent on-
necessary when they are employed. A sin^e
substance may also " be capable of answering two
or more purposes. Thus the a^nvant may also
act as a corrigent, as when the addition of soap
to aloes, or to extract of jahtp, lessens their
griping properties, and at the same time promotes
thdr action. In the same way nentnl salte
correct the colic which follows i^e use of resinoos
purgatives, and accelerate their action." Accord-
ing to Oaubins, the number of ingiediente in a
prescription should scarcely ever exceed three
or four. See Dosb, Mxsionrfla, Ihooktaiiblh,
Piiu, &c.

FBXSCBIF^OHB. Bedpea or f ormniss f or
the preparation and exhibition of medi<anes
intended, generally, for immediate nse. See
PsBBOBiBiKa (above).

FBESEBVXB'. A general term, nnder which
are included the various fmita and vegetables
which are seasoned and kept in sugar or syrup,
more especially those which are so preserved
whole or in slices. See Cixomia, Jix, Mab-
XAIASB, Ac.

FBS88 (CorreeUag for the). See Pbooib.
PBB88UXB, BABOXITBIC, IsflBMiM o^ w tk*

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PBINCE'S MKTAL— FBINTING

1408

PhennMuoridfe. M.P.Bert contribated to the
' Comptes Bendas ' (' Journal Chemical Society,'
Tol. zzt) (Izxiii, 218, 608; Izziv, 617; Izxr, 29,
88) an accoant of the foUowing ezperimentel re-
searches on the influence of changes in the baro-
metric pressure on the phenomena of life :

He found that at pressures under 18 centimetres
of mercury animals die from want of oxygen ; at
a pressure of one to two atmospheres, from want
of oxygen and presence of carbonic acid ; at 2 — 6
atmoa^eres, tram the presence of carbonic acid
alrate; at &— 16 atmospheres, from the presence
of carb(nic acid and of excess of oxygen; and at
16 — 26 atmospheres, from the poisonous action of
oxygen alone.

Animals die from want of oxygen when the
•mount contuned in their arterial blood is not
snfScient to balance a pressure of 8*6% of oxygen
in the atmosphere. They die from poisoning by
carbonic anhydride when the amount eontuned
in their venous blood is sufficient to balance a
pressure of 26% to 28% of carbonic anhvdride
in the atmosphere in the case of sparrows, of 28%
to 80% for mammals, and of 16% or 16% for
reptiles.

As the pressure of oxygen in the surrounding
air depends on two factors, the percentage pro-
portion and the barometric pressore, the barome-
tric pressure may be reduced to 6 centimetres for
sparrows, if the proportion of oxygen in the air
is incresised ; and it may be raised to 23 atmo-
spheres without causing death, if the proportion
M oxygen is reduced by mixing the air with
nitrogen. ASronants might, therefore, ascend
highor than it has hitherto been possible to do by
t^ang with them a bag of oxygen to inhale ; and
the danger that threatens divers of being poi-
soned by the oxygen in the compressed air might
be averted by using a mixture of air and
nitrogen.

{<ram an examination of the gases in the blood
of »ni»»«i« confined in rarefied air the anthor
finds that both the oxygen and the carbonic an>
l^dride in the blood diminish. The dyspnoea
wnich is felt in ascending mountains is thei«f ore
doe to want of oxygen in the blood. The dimi-
nution in oxygen becomes diminished at 20 cen-
timetres pressure, yet this is the pressure under
which the inhabitants of the elevated Mexican
plateau of Anahuac live. The oxygen diminishes
more quickly and more regularly than the car-
bonic anhydride. Although there are but very
small quantities of gases simply dissolved in the
blood, the chemical combinations in. which they
take part are dissociated very easily and in a pn>-
greeaive manner under the infinence of dimin-
ished pressure, and this dissociation takes place
more easily in the organisms than in experiments
ta vacuo.

FBIOKLT ASK (Xantioaglum fl-aaintum).
The bark of this shmo is a stimulant, tonic, alte-
rative, and rialogogue. It owes its virtues to a
soft resin, a crystalline resin, a bitter principle,
and an acrid green oU. The drug is not used in
this ooontty, but is officinal in the United States
PhannacopoBia.

PSnrCI'S KXTAIk One of the names for
Dntoh gold. See Qold, Dutch.

rUBfUO (Aaartatte). A method of dneo-

graphy, patented in 1846, having for its object
the reproduction of drawings, engravings, and
letterpress, from coines however old. To describe
briefly the preparation of a plate or cylinder, let ns
suppose a newspaper about to be reprinted by this
means. The sheet is first moistened with dilute
acid and placed between sheets of blotting-paper,
in order that the superfluous moisture may be
absorbed. The ink resiste the acid, which attacks
the blanks only. In all cases where the letter-
press is of recent date, or not perhaps older than
half a year, a few minutes suffice for this purpose.
The paper is then carefully placed upon the plate
with which the letterpress to be transferred is in
immediate contact, and the whole passed under a
press, on removal from which, and on carefully
disengaging the paper, the letters are found in
reverse on the plate. A preparation of gum is
then applied to the plate by means of a roller,
after which the letten receive an addition of ink,
which is immediately incorporated with that by
which they are already formed. These operations
are eSiscted in a few minutes. The surface of the
plate round the letters is next bitten in a very
slight degree by dilute acid, and on the fresh
application of tiie ink it is r^ected by the sine,
and received only by the letters, which are charged
with the ink by the common roller used in hand-
printing. Each letter comes from the press as
clear as if it had been imprinted by type-metal ;
and the copies are f ac-similes, which cannot easily
be distinguished from the original sheet.

When pen-and-ink drawings are to be repro-
duced, they are made on any paper free from hairs
or filamente, and well siied. The ink nsed is a
preparation made for the purpose, closely resem-
bling lithographic ink, and may be mixed to any
degree of titickness in pure distilled water. It
should be used fresh, and slightly warm when a
fine effect is to be given. In muing or copying
a design a pencil may be used; but the marks
must be left on the paper, and by no means
rnbbed with india-rubber or bread. It 'is neces-
sary to add that the paper should be kept qaito
clean and free from friction, and should not be
touched by the fingers, inasmuch as it will retain
marks of very slight timches.

Before cloong this notice of anastatic printing
it may be proper to remark that the great pre-
tensions originally set up by the patentees luve
not been fulfilled by ite extensive adoption in
trade. The grave oqection to the process is the
practical destruction of the original by the acids
used. Photographic methods have entirely super-
seded the anastatic process.

PBXSrnrO (Letterpress). [The Editor is much
indebted to Mr J. E. Adlard for this interesting
article.] 8gn. TnoefRkVST. The art of col-
lecting together and amngingmoTeable types for
the purpose of printing, in one or more colours,
by pressure applied from a flat surface or by
means of a blinder biting the paper to be
printed, and which is inscorted between itself and
thatype.

In illustration of this section some specimen
types are appended, the greater portion being
from the well-known foundry of Messrs V. & J
Figgins, and should now be oaref uU^ read down
to render the further remarks inteUigible.

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1404

PBINTINO

The ordinary printing^

types are technically known as®
Book Founts — those more espe-'
oially adapted for newspapers * are*
Billed News Founts. Each fotmt ia^
divided into two distinct portions — the'
toman or upright letters fonning one part,'
aod tiie iialie, or sloping, (lie other. There ib,*
moreorer, an addition of smux oinrALa to tke ronuui*
Hotlonof the tTpe-fonndsn' Ull for » oomiilate (Ooat ot >*
% partloQlar welsht. The height ot a tjpe li rather mote 11
than 7-e of BO la^tb, thu glTiBt dapih el Iht ildM ttr loeklac-flp Iht U
tjpM. Th« maUMi foont cot b "»lllfi^"

^'s IAe J^Q/ne/iclatiLtie.-^*

1!

iltinting ^gpe» art
tw|nkallg nmti maxtnn^ to,"

first, the BODY, that is,'"
how many lineS) when"
PLACEO m CONSEGUTSUE "*

order, will make, by leasnrement, tke length of a "
FOOT. HAVING NOW DETERMINED »

THE NAME OF THE BODY, »

The SPECIAL OUT, or"

l?A©g, OS ADDl© TKHllSirr®, "
tbna ewapletliiv tbe VASn by whteb"

lype-Foundera and Typographere recognisa "
EACH DISTINCTIVE SIZE AND STYLE"
OF THE MAWHrARIED TYPES USED IN THE PRODUCTION "
of ttat Ivxaiy lAiah haa new beooma an appanat**
NECESSITY OF THE AQE— PRINTINQ. «

Baferencei to tlu above tjpea.— by reading aCTOia.

BOOT. aooKvoax lAca. DiirLAi vaoi.
> Qreat Fiiiier— Koman. ^* Ot. Primer Hanneript.

■* „ Ext. Ornamented.

>• „ Blaek.

" M Condenied Blade

u Pica AsUque.

" „ Clarendon.

» „ Bnstic.

" u Manow Gange.

" Long Primer Coudenud Sana.
•erir.

" Brevier Qrotcfgne.

M „ Extended.

" „ Open Sanewrif.

>* Nonpareil Kg^tian.

" „ HaiT-Une.

* „ Ornamented.

* „ Condenaed Oro-
tetqne.

" Pearl Clarendon.
•1 Diamond Sroteaqoa.

Soman.

• Engliah—
•Piea-

« Small Pica—

* Long Primes- Soman.

• Bougeoia— Komao.
' Breinar—

•Uinlou— Bom.fcltalie.
• Nonpareil—

WEnbT—

" Pearl—

^ Diamond— H^wn^i,

u Small Pica S-Une (Mo. 4 doablad) German lait.

The key is contained in itself by reading the
oolnmn as one continnons paragraph with the help
of the foot-notes. Some ides may thos be fanned
of the vast number of diatlnot kinds of type neoes-
saty to carry ont the reqnirements of the present
system of printing.

Mention there has been made that the name of
tbe body is determined by its number of lines to
a foot ; but this mnst be qnaliSed. The imperial
foot, or inch, or yard, is an arbitrary measnre of
length in reality as well as in name. When one
foimdiy was snfficient to supply all the types that
were required for nse in the early ages of printing,
then a name and its dimensions could be taken as
absolute. But with tbe increase of printing, type-
founders also increased ; and this has produced the
variations of bodies which are ao annoying to the
typographer, for one single letter or space taken
from a body larger than its own, yet of the same
name, will be enough to throw the column of type
out of a sti^ht line all tbe way through. Still,
when we look to the bet that, according to tiie
ancient masters, the large-sised type called Fiea
(Ko. S and Nos. 18, 19, 20, and 81) requires m
lines to the foot, and that Noitparml, half its size
(No. 9, and Nos. 86. 27, 88, and 29), requires 146
lines to the foot, and recollecting that the slightest
variation multiplied 146 times mnst produce a vary
sensible deviation, the wonder is that each of the
founders should approach each other ao closely as
they do. An attempt was made some years ago
to introdnce'a certain fixity of standard for each
body thronghont the trade, based on the French
system ; the difficulties of altering the standards
and matrices of each foundry were seen to be so
great that the effort was unavailing.

During the latter half of the present oentniy
there has been a growing dispontion to retora to
the cnt of the letters as used iy tbe early piinteis.
To meet this desire, nearly all the type-founders
have introduced Old-style faces, bnt yet mo-
demised as to their peonliarities. Considering
that this article would not be complete without
some such notice thereof, as well as to show the
contrast, the following is here introduced to the
reader.

Thefe Old-faced Types
CUT BY THE CELEBRATED
William Caslon, in or about the
years 1716-30, are even now viewed
with great satisfaction, and held in high
efteem, by judges of the typographic art
as mafter-pieccs of fhape and finif h.

To the list of tyx>es presented, and which give
a sufficient genersJ view, mi^ be added EmereUd
— between Minion and NompareU — for book-
work, and also for borders and flowers to be used
in neat and artistic work ; Qem and fisnu-JTon-
pareil for mosic; and Minikin, for music and
Oriental work.

The larger sixes of type are^ with very few ex-
ceptions, rimple multiples of the Pica; for in-
stance, 6-{m« Soman means a roman letter of the
depth of six lines of Pica ; 20-Une Antipia, an
antiqne of the depth of twenty lines ; and so on.

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PBorrmo ink

1406

Very little more need be aud on the names
•Twliad to the different facea. Letters nsed in
tiue-pag^ are especially cat for, and styled
TUUiig — Square, Ctmdtnttd, and if very mach
condensed in width, Oompratted or Narrow-
Oamge, On the other hand, when the letters
•eem pnlled ont right and l^t, they are styled
Sxt«nd«d.

If the reader will notice the type in which this
Tolnme is composed, he will ohserve that the
bottoms of the tetil letters are very close down
npon the tops of the tall letters, and all bat
toach : this is termed tolid. When a page or
book is required to look light and less wearisome
to the vision, the lines of type are removed from
each other, and a space-line inserted between
them ; the page is now termed leaded. These
space-lines nsed to be cat, by the compositor,
from milled lead, first in strips of the necessary
width, then of the required length; hence the
term leadt, by which name they are commonly
known. However, they were bnt poor appliances
at the best. Moolds are now nsed for casting the
metal to the specified thickness in strips of abont
9 inches long, then cat by a machine to a set
gaoge i by these means the thickness of the space-
Unea, or leads, is not only more nnif ormly secared,
bnt far greater regularity obtained in the lengths
cat. Here, as in the huge type, as above men-
tioned. Pica is the standud which regulates the
lead; in other words, leads are cast as 8 to a
pica — ^that is, 8 leads form the solid measurement
of the pica body ; 4-to-pica requires 4 leads, and
the body of the lead continues to decrease accord-
ing to the prefixed figure, which simply denotes
into how many parts the pica is to be divided.
Leads are cast so delicately fine that 16 form the
pica, but they are seldom nsed. In many of the
News offices brass space-lines have superseded
those cast from tjrpe-metal.

The method of manufacturing type is —

The face having been determined upon — flight
or heavy, ronnd or narrow, as well as the thick-
ness of the downstroke — a piece of prepared soft
iron is taken, and upon the tip-end thereof the
proposed letter is cut in relief; when this catting
is finished it is case-hardened, and afterwards
styled the punch. The strike is the next opera-
tion. The punch (the letter cut upon which, by-
the-bye, is backward) is now pondied, or struck,
into an oblong piece of copper, about 8 inches
long and | of an inch thick, the breadth such
as tiie size of the letter may require : this is the
matrix. A most particular part has now to be
perf orined, called justifying ; which means that the
matrices shall, when placed in the mould, deliver
the letters perfectly upright, and all to be true
on a line as fine as a razor^a edge. When the
process of justifying is accomplished, the matrix
u fixed at the bottom of a momd, of the shape of
a parallelogram, of the size of the body one way,
of the width of the letter the other, and the
depth the standard height of the type; the
molten metal is forced down this tube, either by
band or by a pump worked by hand or steam, the
metal filling the matrix (the sunk letter upon
which is now forward) receives the ahajpe of the
letter, which is once more reversed, or m a back-
wazd position, like as the original ponch was cat.

The castings are released from the mould by a
very ingenious method of opening from the two
diagonal comers. The types as cast are forwarded
on to the dressers to remove burrs and other
Buperfinities ; then are placed in long lines in a
frame for finishing; next turned face downwards,
and a grooving plane driven across the feet to in-
sure correctness in height; finally looked over
for blemishes, when all faulty letters are thrown
out; the process is completed by ranging into
lines of handy length, and tied up — ^ready for
delivery to the typographer.

FKIVTINO DTK. Frep. a. The tasitish.
Linseed or nut oil, 10 or 80 galls., is set over the
fire in an iron pot capable of containing fully as
much more; when it boils, it is kept stirred with
an iron ladle, and, if it does not take fire of itself
soon after the smoke begins to rise, it is kindled
by means of a piece of burning paper, stuck in
the cleft end of a long stick ; the pot is shortiy
afterwards removed from the fire, and the oil is
suffered to bum for about half an hour, or until
a sample of the varnish cooled upon a palette
knife may be drawn into strings of about i inch
long, between -the fingers ; the flame is now ex-
tingpnished by the apj^cation of a closely-fitting
tin oover, and, as soon as the froth of the ebul-
lition has subsided, black resin is added, in the
proportion of t lb. to 1 lb. for every quart of oil
thus treated; the mixture is next stirred until
the resin is dissolved, when dry brOwn soap, cut
into slices, 1) lbs., is further added (cautiously),
and the ingredients are again stirred with the
spatula until the whole is united, the pot being
once more placed over the fire to promote the
combination ; when this ia effected, the varnish
is removed from the heat, and, after a good
stirring, is covered over and set adde,

b. The IKK. Indigo and Prussian bine, of each,
in fine powders, H oz. ; mineral lampblack
(finest), 4 lbs.; vegetable lampblack, 8^ lbs. ; stir
them gradnslly into the warm varnish (a), and
submit the mixture to careful grinding, mther in
a mill or by means of a slab and mnller. On the
large scale, steam power is now generally em-
ployed for this purpose.

An extemporaneous superfine black ink may be
made by the following formula: — Take of balsam
of copuba (pure), 9 oz.; lampblack, 8 ox.; indigo
and Prussian bine, of each, i oz. ; Indian red, )
oz. ; yellow soap (dry), 8 oz. ; grind the mixture
to an impalpable smoothness by means of a stone
and muller. Canada balsam may be substituted
for balsam of copuba where the smell of the
latter ia objectionable, but the ink then dries very
quickly.

CoumsMj) ranrTiKS una are made in a simi-
lar way ttotn the following pigments : — Carmine,
lakes, vermilion, chrome yellow, red-lead, orange
red, Indian recC Venetian red, for red; orange
chrome, chrome yellow, burnt terra di sienna,
gall-stone, Roman ochre, yellow ochre, for orange
and yellow ; verdigris, Scheele's green, Schwein-
f art green, blues, and yellows mixed, for greens ;
indigo, Prussian blue, Antwerp blue, cobalt blue,
charcoal blue, for blue; lustre, bronze powders, &c.,
for metallic colours ; and umber, sepia, Ac, for
brown.

Oif . It is necessary to prepare two kinds, of

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1406

PEOOP

^/

s^

[Proof.]

As the vine, which has long

twined its graceful foliage

about the oak^ and been

lifted by it into aanahine, will,

when the hardy plant is riftA

ed by the thnnderC^bolt,

cling TOwaAfi it with its

7 ^;^ caressing tendrils, and bind

* ^ Alts shattered boughs up\

g . so is it ^ordered \beautifull3r^

io(*^/W by providence that woman,

18 *»/ ^Ijq ig tjig jnepg depend^t

18 ^ / and ornament of man in ^e

14 ^/ happier hours, should . his

16 1mm/ stay and solace^

^ when smitten by
y sudden calamity / winding
I herself J^ ^^^ ^^^ lagged
^ recesses of his Mature, ten-
derly supporting the droop-
;^ ing bead , and binding up
^ .itea^/titr the broken heart. [It also

21 j^ is/interesting to/notice how

22 /,^, some xiKDS seem almost to
28^.4^ create themselves, springing

24 2Z3 lip "^i^de^* '"^^ working their
— A

but irresistible way,

a thousand obsta-

Nature seems, &o.

mwiNG.

16
17
18

19

[The same corrected.]

AstheoifM, whichhu long twined itagracefnl
foliage aboat the oak, and been lifted bj it into
lonihine, will, when the hardy plant U nfted b;
the thunderbolt, cling ronnd it with ita careu-
ing tendrili, and bind up ita ihattered boughi,
■o is it beantif nlly ordered by Providence, that
WOMAN, who ii the mere dependant and
ornament of man in hi« happier hour*, should
be hii stay and solace when smitten by sadden
calamity j winding herself into the nigged re-
cesses of his natnre, tenderly sapporting the
drooping head, and binding np the Imken
heart.

It also is interesting to notice how «oai«
minds seem almost to create TEBKBBLyBS,
springing np under every disadvantage, and
working their "solitary, but irresistible way,"
tbroogh a thousand obstacles. Nature seems,
&c.

lEVINQ.

SaflanaKo* ef the marit :

1. When a letter or word is to be in italiet.

2. When a letter is turned upside down.

8. The sabstitution of a comma for another
pdnt or letter.

4. The insertion of a hyphen; also marked

5. When letters should be close together.

6. When a letter or word is to be omitted.

7. When a word is to be changed to roman.

8. 9. Two methods of marking a transposi-
tion : when there are meral words to be trans-
posed, and they are much intermixed, it is a
common plan to number them, and to pat the
asoal mark in the margin.

10. Sabstitation of a capital for a small
letter.

11. When a letter is to be changed from
small letters to capitals.

12. The transpositian of letters in a word.
18. The sabstitution of one word for another.

14. When a word or letter is to be inserted.

15. When a paragraph occurs improperly.

16. The insertion of a semicolon.

17. When a space or quadrat stands ap, and
is seen along with the type.

18. When letters of a wrong fount are osed.

19. When words crossed off are to remain.
80. The mark for a paragraph, when its

commencement has been neglected. Sometimes
the sign [, or f, or the word ' bna/i ' is used
instead of the syllables ' JTew Par.'

21. For the insertion of a space when omitted
or insufficient.

22. To change cafntals to small letters.

23. To change small letters to small cngi-
tals.

24. When lines or words are not straight.

25. 26. The insertion of inverted commas.
The apostrophe is similarly marked.

27. The insertion of a period when omitted,
or in place of another point or letter.

28. Sabatitotion of one letter for another.

29. The method of marking an omission or
insertion when too long for the side margin.

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PRINTS— PB00P8

1407

▼araish, Tarying in conriatence, from more or leu
boiling, to be occasionally mixed together as oir-
cnmatanoes may require; that which anawers
well in hot weather being too thick in cold, and
vie* varti. Large characters also reqnire a thinner
ink than imall ones. Old linseed oil is preferable
to new. Tellow resin soap is preferred for black
and dark-coloured inlu, and white cnid soap for
light ones.

A good Tamiah may be drawn into threads like
glue, and is very thick and tenacions. The oil
loses from 10% to 14% by the boiling. Mr
Savage obtained tlie large medal of the Society
of Arts for his black ink made a« above.

A tbihtkb'b nnc iasHiT bbxotbd kbov
WABTS FAFKB. The following process for the
preparation of a printer's ink tLit can be far
more readily removed from waste paper than
ordinary printer's ink has been patented by Kir-
sober and Kbner. Iron is dissolved in some acid
— snlphnric, hydrochloric, acetic, &c., will answer,
and half of the solution is oxidised with nitric
acid andjidded to the other half, and the oxide
precipitated from the mixture by means of soda
or potaah. The precipitate is thoronglily washed,
and treated with equal parts of aolutions of tannic
and g^lic adds, and the blnish-black or pure
black pigment formed is thoroughly washed and
dried, and mixed with linaeed-oil vaniiah, and can
then be immediately oaed for printing from type,
copper, wood, steel, .or stone. Waste paper
printed with it can be bleached by digesting it
for 24 hours in a lukewarm bath of pure water,
and 10 per cent, of caustic potash or soda, and
then grinding it well in the rag engine, and throw-
ing ^e pulp upon cloth and allowing it to drain.
It Ls then to be washed with pure water, contain-
ing 10 per cent, of hydrochloric, acetic, or oxalic
acids, or of binoxalate of potasaa, and allowed to
digest for 24 hoars, and may then be worked up
into paper, or it can be dried and used as a sub-
stibute in the manufacture of finer paper.

FBIHTS (Ackerman'a Liquor for). Prtp.
Take of the finest pale glue and white curd soap,
of each, 4 oz. j boiling water, 8 pints ; dissolve,
then add of powdered alum, 2 oz. Used to size
prints and pictures before colouring them.

PKIHT8, . To Bleach. Simple immersion of
the prints in a solution of hypochlorous acid (the
article remaining in the solution for a longer or
shorter space, according to the strength of the
solution) is generally all that is required to
wbitenthem. See EvsBAVlNe.
PBinSS. See Watsbclosbtb.
moot. See AOBTDIBTBy, Aiaoeosokbtbt,
Ac.

PXOOVS (oorreetlBg). The specimen of cor-
rected proof given on page 1406 has been so pre-
pared as to include all the usual errors which are
met with. It must not, moreover, be supposed
that any printer would send out a proof so foil of
errors, but in any large work some or all of them
may be met with, and the reader by referring to
this example will be enabled to correct ' proof '
in such a way that any printer will nndmtand
the exact nature of the corrections required. To
those who contemplate the printing of a book, or
even a small pamphlet, a brief outline of the
process by wUdi the manuscript is converted into

print may be useful, and it will be convenient to
discuss it in its various stages.

Thb xaktsobift should in every case be
written o» one tide of the paper only, and pre-
ferably on sheets of medium quarto size, in a
clsar and legible hand, with plenty of space
between the lines ; and if the original MS. con-
tains in itself many alterations, additions, and cor-
rections, a fair copy should always be made before
putting it in the printer's hands. Otherwise,
even in the most careful hands, mistidies will
occor, which may reqnire considerable labour and
time to set right. Printers have the repntation
of being able to read any handwriting wliatever,
and to unravel the most disorderly manuscript ;
but as their time and work have to be paid for by
the author who employs them, it is wdl to make
the task as easy as possible. Paper is cheap, and
there is no excuse for an author who aenda liia
work to the compositors written on small scraps
of paper of every imaginable size and quality, in
a cramped hand, and full of corrections and altera-
tions, unless he is prepared to encounter consi-
derable trouble in the correction of proof and
heavy expense in the production of his work.

Supporing the manuscript to lie complete, and a
fair copy sent to the printers, the kind of type, the
size and quality of paper determined on, an esti-
KAIB OF thb 0O8T 01 PEOf TUTS wiU be given, based
opon a calculation of the number of words in the
whole MS. This calculation is called 'casting
off,' and unlesa the MS. be nniform, and clearly
written, it is very difficult to form more than a
very approximate estimate of the space the woric
will occupy without actually connting the words,
which may be a serious and costly operation. It
should also be remembered that it coats more as
a rule to set small type than large ; and that
tabular work, e.g. tables of figures, tic., ia more
costly than mere letterpress, and that much of it
may add considerably to the total expenae of
printing a l)Ook. Tlw next thing to be done is to
decide upon the way in which the pboofs shall
be sent out. The most usual plan ia to set up the
type in long slips the width of the intended page
cut of variable length (called 'galley slips,'
after the special press on which they are generally
printed), each slip containing matter enough for
two or three pages. These proof slips are read
before they are aent to the author, and all gross
errors corrected, doubtful words marked, and the
author's attention called by the printer's 'reader '
to any redundancies of expreasion or any sen-
tencea which are not apparenUy intelligible. The
author now reada thia proof very carefnlly, and
makea all the neoeasary corrections, and, if he
thinks fit, altera the wording of passages, or
makes additions, following the directions given
in the example on page 1406.

It ia easy to make such alterations in galley
alipa, but all anch as do not appear in the ori-
ginal MS. must of course be paid for as extras.
In the most carefully prepared work some such
alterations always occur, and it is not until an
author has had aome experience that he can
realiae how hia manuscript will read in print.
The corrected proof ia returned to the pnnter,
and the typographical errora are aet right and
any new matter inserted. This done, a fireeh im-

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1408

PROPIONIC ACID— PBOPTMC ALCOHOL

preision ii taken and sent to the anthor, marked
' Bbyisb,' which he rectda and corrects as before,
and if perfect he will mark it legibly ' Maxb VB '
and return it to the printers. When snfficient
has been so returned it will be made up into
SHBara ; i. e. if the book is a quarto each sheet
will consist of eight pages, if an octaro of sixteen
pages. Each sheet (2irs Betibb) is again
examined by the author to see that no letters
or words have been dropped in the process of
making up, especially at the bottom of one page
and the top of the next; also that the type has
not shifted, and that the headings and number-
ing of the pages are correct. If there are no
serious errors the author will correct such as
there are, and return it to the printers marked
' ^iBB8 ;' it will then be finally corrected, and the
required number of copies printed from it on the
quality of paper decided upon originally, and the
^ype will then be broken up and 'distributed.'
I'M* process goes on until t£e last sheet of the
book is complete, when the whole is sent to the
binders and put into such a cover as the antiior
may wish. A book worked through the press in
the manner above described is less likely to con-
tain tgrpographical errors than one in which the
first ^oofs are sent out as made-np sheets, paged
and titled, but it is somewhat more costly. The
lattor plan can, however, only be adopted when
the anthor does not make any material altera-
tions in the text, for such alterations may cause
a great deal of trouble, especially when additions
are made. Suppose, for example, that after sheet
86 of this work had been passed for press and
worked off, and sheets 87 and 88 had been sent
out by the printers in obedience to the order
to ' make np ' written at the bottom of the galley
slips, the editor were to discover that a column
and a half of matter had been omitted from the
end of the article Potabbiux which must be in-
serted. The only way in which this could be
done would be by pulling to pieces all the
columns from page 1872 onwards, putting in the
new matter, and then reimposing sheete 87 and

88. In the simplest case this would cause page
1408 to end about this point, Psofiokio Acid
and Pboptlaminb being thus thrust into sheet

89. If it were a question of only a word or two,
the disturbance might not extend beyond a
column or even less of this work ; but in an ordi-
nary book, if the type be closely set and but little
broken up into paragraphs, an alteration of this
kind, even of a few wonls added, might possibly
make itself felt over many pages. The expense
of such alterations is obviously serious, and an
author who does not know his own mind, or who
does not correct his proofs carefully, may find the
printing of his works a very costly luxuiy indeed.
Type-written copy has this very great advantage,
that it is perfectly legible, may be sent to the
printers corrected as a proof, and the author is
enabled to see what his work looks like in print
before incurring the printer's bill.

The publication of a book even of veiy modest
pretensions is a more or less serious undertaking
to those who are not acquainted with the techni-
calities of printing, and as a consequence the
printers are often blamed tor what is after all the
result of the author's ignorance of press work.

Much useless labour and annoyaooe will be saved
by a careful study of the directions given for the
correction of proof, and the author who will take
the trouble to nuister the chief techidealities of
printing, and who will take the advice and help
which the printer will be only too glad to give
him, will find his way smoothed and his labour
lightened to an extent which he will perhaps at
first hardly credit.

FSOPIOBIC ACIS. C,H,.CO,B. Formed in
■mall quantity by the distillation of wood and by
the fermentation of various organic bodies. Prtp,
1. From ethyl cyanide and canstic potash.

2. By reducing lactic acid with hydriodic
acid.

Prop., 4^. Colourless liquid with a penetnt-
ing odour, somewhat resembling that of acetic
acid ; boils at 140° C. ; yields simple substitution
producte with the halogens, kc

PSOTTL'AXnrB (Bomml). Sf*. TxranA-
unra.

C,H.l
C(H^, or H VN. This compoand ortubsti-

Hj
tuted ammonia, in which one of the three atoms
of hydrogen is displaced by the radical pm>pyl or
trityl (C1H7), is isomorphous witii trimethylsjnine,
which has been often mistaken for it.

It has been proposed as a remedy for acute and
chronic rheumatism. Hence the commercial sub-
stance known under the name of ' propylamine,'
which has been proposed andemploy.ed as aremedy
for rheumatism, has been shown to be not propyla-
mine, but ito isomer, trimethylamine, or a mixture
of this latter in vaiying proportions witii am-
monia.

Pnp. Mendins's process : 86 grms. of cyanide
of ethyl, 600 grms. cf common alcohol, 200 gms.
of water, and 60 grms. of 20% hydrochloric acid
are allowed to act on excess of granulated sine,
and then distilled. The distillate is put back once,
and 400 grms. of hydrochloric acid are added.
The product is distilled to get rid of the alcohol,
then excess of alkali is added to the residue, and
the distillation eontinned, whereupon propylamine
and water come over. 86 grms. of the cyanide of
ethyl yield 0 grms. of pure propylamine. It is
dried by distiUation from solid potash.

It may also be prepared by the action of boiling
potash on the mixture of propyl isocyanato and
isocyannrate, obtained by distilling normal propyl
iodide with silver cyanate.

Prop., <f o. Propylamine is a bright, colonrless,
highly refracting, very mobile liquid, strongly
alkaline, possessing a peculiar, strongly anunonia-
cal odonr. It mixes with water, heat being gene-
rated by the mixture. It boils at 50° C, and has
a sp. gr. of 0-7288 at 0° C.

Propylamine combines with acids, and forms
crystallised salto. The chloride is a veiy deli-
quescent salt. The sulphate occurs in crystals,
and is also deliquescent. Isopropylamine is a
sweet ammeniacal liqnid, boiling at 82° C. ; it is
liberated from the formate (produced by the
action of hydrochloric acid on isopropyl cyanide)
by snccessive treatment with hydrochloric add
and potash. See TantwiRTL*Maa.

PBOPTLIC ALOOHOIi. C^H,0. %•. Pbopti.
A£0DXOI« HXSBAXaS OZn» OF PBOPTI, TUTTK

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PBOTBIDS— PBUSSUK BLVE

1409

A100HO&. There we two iwmeric m^lAcatdoiis
ct Ute three-eubon alcohol, viz. normal propyl
alcohol asd iaopropyl aloohol, psendopropyU, or
aeoondarv propyla. Normal propyl alcohol it an
mly liquid boiling at 96° C, sp. p. 0-8806 at
0° C, obt^ed by repeatedly rwti^ing the fint
prodacta of the diitilUtion of the fnud oil of
marc brandy. It stands to ethylic alcohol (ordi-
nary alcohol) in the nme relation in which the
Uttor itands to methylic aloohol (pyrozylic spirit).
By oxidation with a miztnre of aolphorio add
and potaaainm diohiomate it is converted into
propionic aoid.

Itofnifjil aleokol ii a oolonrlesi liquid having
» peculiar odour, a sp. gr. of 0^791 at 16* C,
•nd boiliDg at 88°— M° C., under a pressure of
789 mm. It does not act on polarised light. It
is prepared from acetone by the direct addition
of hydrogen evolved by the action of water on
•odium amalgam. It yields acetone by oxidation
with dilute chromic acid.

FB0TXID8. SeeALBUXiv.

PBOTXUr. The name given by M&lder to a
sabataace which he legaided as the ori^nal
natter Atom which aainud albumen, casein, and
fibrin WRB derived j but which is now considered
H a pradnct of the deeomposition of those impor-
tant priaeiples by uodemtely strong caustic

FBOtnO. A Mdnble, straw-ydlow subetanee,
formed, along with other products, by the action
of Strang eolation of potaisa on albumen, fibrin,
or oaaeia. See Ebtihbopbotisb.

VBOTO-. See KoMiHouTintB.

tWm'Vian (Fxtaervntlon of). SeePima-
JiCHOir.

FBun, TiBenniv. as», wiu) ohibst.

The bark of the Praaas VirgiifAtma is much em-
ployed as a remedy in the United States; it contains
smygdaline, and yields on distillation with water
•a sesential oil rich in hydrocyanic add. Both a
■ymp and tincture are used in this country as
sedatives, to allay cough in phtliisiB and bron>
«Mtis.

PSUnH. [Fr,] The fruit of cultivated
Tairieties of Prumu domtttiea, Linn. The dried
fruit (l^ircH rxasM or flvhs; pbuvuh—
B. P., Ph. L. I PBUHA— Ph. S. & D.) is cooling
and gently laxative, and, as such, is useful in
habitaal coativeness and fevers.

tnam. Palp of. fiya. PxnAxio canru;
PirxPA raianaamt, PxtrKux nxvi^kTVu (Ph.
L.), L. Prtp, The imported dried fruit is
binied gently for four hours with water, q. s. to
eorer them, and then pressed, first through a flue
cane sieve, and afterwards throogfa a fine hair
sieve; the pulp is, lastly, evaporated by the heat
of a water-bath to the consistence of a confection.
A better jrian is to use as little water as possible,
by wMeh the necessity of subsequent evaporation
U Mvoided. Used in the preparation of ooiifeotion
rfaenna.

PBU'IDTft varies aeeording to the kind of
ptaat or tree operated on uid the parUcnIar
abject in view, and its skUfnl performance mnit,
theMfore, greatly depend on the experience and
knowledge of the ga^ener. " In the operation of
ftmaiag, the shoots are cut o8 close to the buds,
or at a £stanee not greater than the diameter of
TOL. u.

the 'branch to be cut off; because without the
near proximity of a bud the wounds would not heal
over. In shoots which produce their buds alter-
nately the cut is made at the back of the bud
sloping from it, so that it may be readily covered
by the bark in the same or in the following year ;
but in the case of branches where the buds are
produced opposite each other, dther one bud must
be sacrificed or the branch must be out off at
right angles to its line of direction, which is
most conveniently done with the pruning shears "
(Zoadon).

F&U88IAV AL'KALI. Perrocyanide of potas.
num.

PSUB8IAS BLU8. (Fa,)4(Fe,),(C^N,)u. 8fn.

BBBZiUT BXilTB, IirSOLUBLB P. B., WiLUAJIBOH'B
B., PABIB B., FBBBOOTAVIDB OV IBOir, PBVBSIATa

07 I., Ctaitubbi OV I. This is the well-known
blue pigment of the shops. It was discovered
early in the 18th century by a colour maker
named Dieebach.

iVvp. 1. A clear solution of f errocyanide of
potassium is precipitated by a mixed solution of
alum, 2 parts, and green sulphate of iron, 1 part;
the dingy greenish predpitato that falls g^udually
baoomes blue l>y absorption of atmospheric oxygen,
which is promoted by enwsnre and agitation of
the liquor; as soon as it has acquired its full
colour, the sediment is repeatedly washed with
water, and is then drained and dried, at first in a
stove, but afterwards on chalk atones. Product
large, but inferior in quality.

To obtain pure Prussian blue repeatedly digest
and wash the predpitate obtained in process 1
in very dilute hydroohlorio add and then in pore
water ; dnun and dry it.

2. (Paris blue.) a. Neutralise a sdntion of
ferrocyanide of potassium with dilute sulphoric
add, predpiteto tiie liquid with a solution of any
per-salt or sesqui-salt of iron (as the persulphate,
nitrate, sesquichloride, or peracetate) ; well wash
the predpitete with water, and dry it as before.
A veiT ridi and intense colour.

b, (SocMStttr.) CrystalUsed ferrocyanide of
potassium and green sulphate of iron, of each, 6
parts, are each separately dissolved in water, 16
parts ; after the admixture of the solutions, and
frequent agitation, oil of vitriol, 1 part, and
fuming hycuochknic add, 24 parts, are stirred in ;
after some hours have elapsed a strained solution
of chloride of lime, 1 part, dissolved in water,
80 parte, is gradually added, the addition being
stopped as soon as an effervescence from the escape
of chlorine is percdved; the whole is now left for
5 or 6 hours, when the precipitate is thoroughly
washed in pure soft water, drained and dried.
The predpitate may be exposed to thedr, treated
with chlorine water, dilute nitris add, or bleaching
powder solution, and afterwards with hydrochloric
add to remove the ferric oxide which is formed.
These modifications of the method are now most
oommonly employed on the large scale. The pro-
duct is of tiie fineet quality,

8. (WUUamton.) By oxidising TnrnbuU's bin*
(t. «. ferrous f erricyanide, q. v.) by treating it with
nitric add or chlorine water.

4. {Sknmp.) By precipitating soluble Prosdaa
bine with ferric chloride.

Prvp. A deep blue powder, which on trituratioil

80

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1410

PRUSSIAN aBBSN— P8ILA BOSJB

anomes a bright oopper-Iika loitre. Iiuolable in
water and in dilate acidi, except tlie oxalic, in
eolations of which, and of ammonium tartrate, it
diwolTee freely when pnre ; oil of Titiiol dinolvei
it to a white patty man, which is again precipi-
tated of the niaal bine colonr by water ; alkaliee
instantly decompose it, and so do red oxide of
merenry and some other oxides when boiled with
it ; it bams in the air like tinder, leaving an ash
of oxide of iron. It is not poLsonons.

Pkr., ^e. The qnality of Prnssian bine may
be estimated l^ the richness of its colonr, and by
Ihe quantity of potash or sodareqi^red to destroy
this. It always contains a certain amount of
.water which cannot be driven off by heat with
decompoaStion. If it effervesces with acids, it
contMns chalk ; and if it forma a paste with boil-
ing water, it is adulterated with starch. It is
pore if, " after being boiled with dilate hydro-
chloric acid, ammonia throws down nothing from
the filtered Uqoid" (Ph. L. 1886). It u dis-
"tinguished from indigo by oxhibitmg a coppery
tint when broken, which is removed by rubbing
with the nails.

Gmalmding SemarJci. The commercial Pmsuan
bine is not pore f errocyanide of iron, but a mix-
ture of this salt with varying proportions of the
ferrocyanide of iron and potassium, which also
has a Une deep blue colour. The object in em-
ploying alom u to prevent or lessen the predpita-
tion of oxide of iron by the free alkali in the
ferrocyanide of potassium solution, bat a portion
of alumina is in consequence thrown down with
the blue, and tends to render it paler and to
increase the product. The qoantity of alum
employed may be varied according to the shades
of the intended blue. Samjdes containing this
contamination mast not be employed medicinally.
A solution of Prnssian blue in oxalic acid was
formerly much used as a blue ink ; it has, however,
now been replaced by the aniline colours.

Pnusian Blue, Bol'nble. E^Fe^C,N,)4Fe,. Ss*.
Fbkbio POTABsnrM vbbrootjlIiisb. Prep. By
precipitating a solution of a sesqui-salt or per:Salt
of iron (as the persulphate, pernitrate, peracetate,
orseaqoichloride) with a stronger solution of ferro-
cyanide of potassium, so that the latter may be in
considerable excess. A blue precipitate is formed,
which is treated as before. This variety is pre-
cipitated by alcohoL Both an freely soluble in
.pure water, but not in water which has the
slightest saline contamination. Hence it is that
lengthened exposare to the atmosphero and the
use of the common steel pen causes the gradual
precipitation of this substance from its solution
when used as ink. See Wbitiho Fluedb, Fo-

TA88IO-VBBBIO FXBBOOTAiriDS.

Praitiaii Bine, Bolable. The following is said
to be a rapid and easy process for preparing this
substance: — Pure Prussian bine, 6 dr.j ferro-
cyanide of potassinm, 2i dr.; distilled water,
g. s. Bab the two salts to a fine powder in a
mortar, add 2 to 4 pints of water, according to
strength desired. Digest for i an hour with
occasional agitation, then filter ('American
TextUe Record ').

WMIBSIAH asm. (FeJ,(Pe^,(aN^u.
Awp., i[c. (Peltmu.) A green hydrated pre-
dpitate obtained from a solution of potMnom

ferricyanide or ferrocyanide by the action of
chlorine gas in excess ; then heating the liqoid
to trailing, separating the precipitate which forma
and boihng it with pmssic acid. Decomposed
by caustic potash into a mixture of potassiain
ferri- and ferrocyanides and fenic hydroxide.
Heated to ISCf C. ; when dry it yields a violet
substance and gives off cyanogen.

PSUBSIC ACID. See Htsbootasio Acn>.

FSETJ'SO-KOS'PHIA. A snbstance of Utt1«
importance, occasionally found in opinm. It
differs from morphine chiefly in not decomposing
iodic acid. It is said to contain nitrogen.

PSILA TtOaX, Fabridns. (From ^iXic, bald,
as the head or forehead of tlus genus has only
a very few bain upon it.) Thb Cabbot Fkt.
Carrots are largely grown by farmers for horses,
and are a useful and most valuable crop. They
are also produced to a very large extent by market-
garden nrmers and by market gardeners proper,
in Essex, Bedford, Surrey, Kent, Middlesex, and,
in short, wherever vegetables are grown for
market. To market-garden farmers and to
market gardeners they aro sometimes most re-
munerative. As many as from SO to 40 acres aro
frequently cropped with carrots in a season upon
some of the lugest market-garden farms. As
much as £70 per acre is often returned for a
crop of carrots, from which, of course, there are
heavy expenses to be deducted (Report upon the
< Market Qarden and Market-Garden Farm Com-
petition in connection with the Royal Agricul-
tural Society's Show at Eilbum in 1879,' by
Charles Whitehead, Esq.,F.L.S., F.O.S.) ; itwiUbe
seen, therefore, that it is most important that these
should be well grown, and without spote and
blemishes. And carrotefor feeding and for stor-
ing should also be free from injuries, or thmrsale
is spoilt, and they will not keep.

The larv89 or maggots of the carrot fly, Ptila
rota, seriously damage carrot plants by working
their way into the roots and feeding upon their
substance. It is a very common occarrenoe to
flnd deep marks upon the roots of carrote all
round them. Some of them will be found to go
quite into the centra if the root is cut down
lengthways. When they an thus afliacted the
roots lose thmr bright red clear oohmr, and be-
come rusty — iron-mouldy, as the Germans have it.
In these ciroumstances the roots get shrivelled
after a time, and are no longer sweet and juicy.
The tops also change their colour, appealing as il
the plants wero dewL Thera can be no tnisttk-
ing the cause of this disorder, as npon palling up
a root the maggots will be seen within the holes,
protruding from these in many cases. CompUunts
of injuries to carrote by this &y have been made
from many parte of England, Wales, Scotland, and
Ireland during the past six or seven years. Curtis
spoke of this insect attacking carrote in 1846 in
Ireland, but it does not appear that Ite efCecte
were very serious until within the past ten yean.
Miss Orinerod describes it as having done much
mischief in 1880, 1881, 1888, and 1888, in many
parte of the United Kingdom (' Reporta of Obser*
vations on Iigurious Insecte, for 1880, 1881, 1882,
and 1888,' by Miss E. Ormerod).

When carrote are suffering from the attacks of
this insect, it will be found that thtir xo«ti«n

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PSTIiLlODES ATTENUATTO— PTOMAINES

1411

infMted by other inaeeU, lach as mlllipedei, which
delight to live in decayed vegetable matter, and
are freqoentlr accnsed of being the cames of the
miachic^. Other iniecta, as sings, are also
attracted by the nnhealthy state of the plants.

Tlua insect appears to be known generally in
Europe. Taschenberg and NOrdlinger speak of
it IS tronblesome to carrot plants ii> Qeimany,
KSllar also describes it. Ealtenberg says it was
▼eiy tronblesome in Swit^rland in 1861 (' Die
Pflanzen Fdnde,' von J. H. Ealtenbach). It is
not known in America.

lAft Biitorp. The Priio ro«« belongs to the
extenaiTe famiiy Mutpida of the order Diptiba.
It is nearly three lines, or a quarter of an inch, in
length, and its wings are close npon five lines
across; it is rreenub black in colour, with a
brassy tinge like that of the * bine-bottle,' or
meat fly. Its head is very round, and ochreons
in colour, with the front part bare of hairs. The
fly comes forth towards the middle of May, and
goes down into the ground and places its eggs
npon the roots of the carrots. From the eggs,
maggots or larvn are oniekly hatched, which
tiore into the roots and thus iqjure the plant, as
well as by living npon its jnices. The maggot
is yellowish white, and three lines in length.
It appears to have no head, and its body is
pointed or tapering at its fore-end. On close
wramination it will be seen that there are here
tiro tiny instruments for boring. The other end
of (he body is rounded off somewhat unevenly.
The maggots are found in the carrots np to the
time they are dug, and some of them remain in
tUs form daring the winter in the ground and the
roots when stored. But most of them change to
papa, or, rather, the larve acqiure puparia or
eases in which, after a time, the transformation to
the fly stage is Anally accomplished. There are
two or more broods daring the summer. In the
case of the earlier broods the insect remains in the
papal or semi-pupal -state about three weeks. In
that of the late broods the winter is passed in the

Pmeatum. It is very important to keep the
gronnd Arm round the carrot plants, so that the
mee may not be able to get down to lay eggs npon
the roots. After the process of hoeing out, or
•singling' the plants, it would be desirable to
aend men or boys to tread heavily on both sides
of the drills, or rows. This might be done almost
at ordinary walking pace. This is the most dan-
geroas time, after 'singling,' as the ground is
uoeened, and the first broods of flies are actively
hunting about for congenial sites for their
•gg*

In localities where these flies cause much in-
jnry, ashes, sawdust, or wood ashes, or sand satu-
rated with paraffin oil, at the rate of a quart of oil
to a hundredweight of ashes and sand, and two
quarts or more to a hundredweight of sawdust,
should be put into the drills with the seed. Peat
moss, as used for litter, well triturated, with the
coarser fibre screened out, might be adopted for
this purpose as a medium for the absorption and
retention of paraflin or petroleum oils. A top
dressing of an oil-satarated snhstance just after
the plants have been hoed is efficacions. Soot put
on at the rate of 16 bushels anaore has been tned

with conriderable advantage. This shonid be
sprinkled npon the plants in the drills or rows.
Where the seed is broadcasted, as is sometimes
the case upon market-garden farms and in market
gardens, the paraffin-saturated dressings may be
broadcasted before or Just after the seed is sown,
and harrowed in with it.

After an attack it is very essential that the
carrots shonid be cleared away in the early
autumn, and the ground well limed and. deeply
ploughed. Also that stored carrots from infested
fields should be consumed before the spring comes,
and not consumed npon the land.

Semediti. When the attack is established it
may be modified by top dressings of soot, or
goano, or nitrate of soda. These will stimulate
the plants and keep them vigorons.

If flies are seen while the plants are young, the
dressings should be at once put on, as these will
be more efficncioiu at this stage than when the
plants are older; and when the plants are large
the maggots, diidodged by this application, merely
move a fittle lower down.

In gardens the attack has been checked by the
use of water in which quassia has been inflised
at the rate of 9 to 10 lbs. to 100 gallons. This in-
fusion was poured from a water-pot close round
the plants. Garden engines might be employed
where there is an extensive breadth of plants
(' Reports on Insects Injurious to Crops,' by Chaa.
Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

PSTLUOSES ATTESTTATUS (or JLgromgta
frofUali* 1). Thi Hop ooirB-BTBia Mnrans.
Daring the last few years the hop cones in many
parts of the hop-yielding districts have become
rapidly red or rust-coloured some days before
they were ready to be picked, and after a short
time they have dried up, and their bracts have
fallen to pieces. This was at first attributed to red
mould or to red rust, but upon careful examina-
tion it has been found that nie strigs or stalks of
the cones had been bored or mined by an insect
throughout. Moreover, in many of these mines
little white maggots, the larve of an insect, were
found.

It is a moot point as to what kind of insect
these larvn belong to. Some are of opinion that
they are the larvn of a species of flea-beetle of
the tribe Psylliodes, either Piylliodta attenMoUu
or PiglUodet ckrytoeephaUu, which, to a casual
observer, resembles the common hop flea-beetle,
Saltiea eoneinna. According to Taschenberjg
the larvte of the latter commonly bore into bulbs
or stalks of plants. Others hold that they are
the larvB of a species of fly, A.gromyzafrontaUi,
which are also known to be leaf and stalk miners
('JEleport on Insects Iimirions to Crops,' by
Charles Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

FTIS'AK. Sj/n. Ftibaka, L. A decoction
made of pearl bsrley, licquorice, raisins, and
other like vegetable matters, either alone or so
slightly medicated as to be taken as a common
drink in fevers, catarrhs, &c. Those retained in
English pharmacy have been already noticed.
The French physicians often employ this form ()f
medidne. The 'tisanes' of tiie P. Cod. an
nnmeroas. See Dicocrioir, IirTtTSioN', JinJiF«

TUAITB, &c.
FTOKAlirBB. Bodies resembling alkaloids

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1412

PTTALnsr— PULVERISATION

and having many alkaloidal chemical reaction*,
prepared from decompoeing animal matten.
The poisonous characters of most of the ptomatnes
are intense, their chemistry is bat little under-
stood, but there is good reason for hope that re-
liamo.

CgHuK

CI,HaN

Parvoline , .
Eydrocollidine

Base . . . .

Base . . . .

CoUidine . .

.Nenridine • .

Cadaverine , .

Pntrescine . .

cent researches will throw much light on these
obscure bnt dangerous products of putiefaotion.
Ptomgjfnes are divided into two classes, those
which contain oxygen and those wluch do not.
The following have been described :
Soarce. Diicoreicr.

Uackerel and horseflesh .... Qautier ft Btaid.

-,„ „— - Bullock flbrine and cnttle-flsh

CgHuN . . Gelatine and ox pancreas . . .

CjHi^N, . . Albuminoids

CH,,!^ . . Bodies snlyected to prolong^ed putrefaction
C4H11M} . . Flesh of mammifers and herring brine
Ptomidnes containing oxy(^.

Nenrine . . . C,H,^(OH)

Hydrate of trimethylTinyl-ammonium.
Choline . . . C^HuNO, . —

Hydrate of trimethylhydroxethylenine-ammoninm.
Muscwin . . C,HttKO, . —

Clardinine . . C,HnNOk

rc,H„NA

•tCHoNA

Ouaverchi k Mem.
Neacki.
Brieger.
Brieger.

Brieger.

Bases.

:}

Brieger.

PTr'AUV. A peculiar animal ferment, analo-
gous to diastase, obtained firom the saliva. It is
soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohoL

Hialbe named ptyalin 'animal diastase,' and
regarded it as the principal agent in effecting the
digestion of starchy foods, by converting them
into soluble sflucose. One part of ptyalin, ac-
cording to Mialhe, was capable of tnnoforming
800 pui» of insoluble starch into sagnr. It has
been computed that the average diully secretion
of p^^n by an adult amounts to 116 grains. It
yeiy quickly decomposes, and in properties some-
what resembles sodic albuminate.

VUCBi. vXt. Sy». FATOHorut. Pach(p&tis
the dried foliaceons tops of Pot/ottemon PatohouU,
an Indian species of Labialee. It is much used
in perfumery, particularly for making sachets;
but its odour, although very durable, is not so
agreeable as that of many other snbstances, un-
less it is combined with lavender, bergamot,
ambergris, musk, or some other like perfume.

PUS'DIKOS. The instructions given under
C1XI8, PiBa, &c., will be found, with some slight
modifications, also to apply to puddings, and,
therefore, need not be repeated here. Soyer tolls
ns that every sort of pudding, if sweet or savory,
is preferably dressed in a iMsin instead of in a
doth. If boiled in a basin the paste receives all
the nutriment of the materials, which, if boiled
in a cloth, are dissolved out hy the water, when
by neglect it ceases boiling. To cause them to
turn well out, the inride of the basin should be
thoroughly ' larded ' or robbed with butter.

In the preparation of meat puddings the " first
and most important point is never to use any
meat that is tainted ; for in pudding, above aU
other dishes, it is least possible to disguise it by
the confined progress which the ingredients
undergo. The gradual heating of the meat,
which alone would accelerate decomposition, will
cause the smallest piece of tainted meat to con-
taminate all the rest. Be ^lartiealar, also, that
the suet and £st are not rancid, ever remembering
the grand principle that everything which grati-
fles the palate nonriskes."

" A pudding cloth, however coarse, ought never
to be washed with soap ; it should be simply dried
as quickly as possible, and kept dry and ttia from
dust, and in a drawer, or eapboard, free from
smell " (Soger).

FUS'SLINQ. Seelxoir.

PTHKOBITIS. inflammation of the longs.

P1TLP. agn. . PiTif A, L. The softer parts of
plants, more particularly of fruits, separated from
the fibrous and harder portions.

" Pulpy fruits, if they be unripe, or rqie and
dried, are to be ^aced m a damp rituation until
they become soft ; then the pulp is to be pressed
out through a hair sieve ; afterwards it is to be
boiled with a gentie bmt, frequently stirring;
and finally, the (excess of) water is to be evapo-
rated in a water-hatii, nntil the pulp acquire*
proper consistence.

"Press the pulpy fmits which are ripe and
fresh through a hair sieve, without boiling tbesn"
(Ph. L. 1836).

PULQUX. The national drink of the Mexi-
cans. It is produced by the fermentation of the
maguey, or Aj/ave AmericcuM. lot ages pulqoe
has been considered to have medional virtnea in
a high degree. Physicians use it as a tonic, stimu-
lant, and antispasmodic ; they recommend it to
weak, infirm, anemic, nursing mother*.

PXTIiSATnLA {Attenunt jnthaMla, Paaque-
flower herb, Ileadow Anemone, or Wind-flower).
It contains Anemormm or Pulsatilla camphor.
Mr Gerard Smith (' Lancet,' January 15th, 188?)
ssys this drug has a striking curative action in
inflammatory states of the testiole, epididymis,
and spermatic cord : the relief is so rapid that it
is even unnecessary to employ moiphiiie to subdue
the pain, while the swdling and heat sohside
more rapidly than under any other drug. Pnlaa-
tilla has been used with sucoe** in nasal, hirasi>
chial, vaginal, vesical, and conjunctival oatarrh,
and is recommended in amenorrhoea and dyanw
norrhcaa. A tinctnre (in 10 of proof spirit) is
given In 2 to 8 miidm dose*.

FULVESISAIXOT. The redaction of aiqr wab-
stance to dost or powder.

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FCMICE-STONB— FDMP

1418

On th« imtll (cala, polrarlntion ii ogoally per-
formed by meuu of a peatle and mortar j on the
]aig« Kkle, by (tamping, giinding, or ontting the
mbatanoa in a mill. A few soft ralMtancaa, aa
carbonate of magneaiam, earlranata of lead, &c.,
may be pnlTerised by limply rubbing them
through a fine liere, placed over a ibeet of paper,
whilst many hard, gritty snbitancea can only be
redneed to fine powder by porphyrintion or urn-
gation. £lntriation, or ' washing over,' ii adopted
for levaral sabitances, as chalk, antimony, &o.,
which are required to be redaeed to fine powder
on the large scale. For some articles which are
very toagh, fibrons, or resisting, a rasp or file is
employed. Wlucherer of these methods is adopted
the body to be powdered must lie very dry, and
where spontaneona drying is insnffieient, artificial
deaicoation in a stove or oven, gently heated, is
ampWed. To facilitate this, the substance
should t>e first out into pieces or crushed small.
On the other hand, a few substances, as rice, sago,
BOX vomica, and St Ignatins's bean, are often
soaked in water, or steamed, before being farther
operated on. Whenever a substance cannot be
dried onnpletely, without an alteration of its pro-
pertiesk an intoinedinm is had recourse to, by
which the moistiiie may be absorbed, or its state
of aggregation modified. Thns, sugar is employed
in pulverising civet, musk, nutmeg, and 'raniUa.
When camphor is to be pulverised, the addition of
a very small quantity of alcohol renders the
operation easy. In other eases the intermediam
is of so hard a nature as to assist in breaking down
the substance to be powdered j thns, gold-leaf is
reduced to powder by rubbing it with snlphate of
potassa, and afterwards removing this last by
means of water. Funble metals, as zinc and tin,
are powdered by pouring them into a mortar, and
stirring them rapidly whilst cooling; or by
briskly agitating them, in the melted state, in a
wooden hox covered ?rith chalk or whiting. Phos-
phorus is powdered by melting it in urine or lime
water, and then shaking the bottle until its con-
tents have become quite cold. Olass, quartz, and
silieated stone require to be heated reid-hot, and
in this state to be thrown into cold water, by
which they become sufficiently friable to admit of
pulverisation. Many salts which are reduced to
fine powder with very great difficulty, and do nob
dissolve in spirit of wine, are easily obtained in a
pulverulent form hy agitating their concentrated
aqueous solution with a connderable quantity of
rectified spirit; the diungaged fine crystallised
powder may then be dried, and further divided
by trituration. Fotasdo-tartrate of antimony
may be advantageously thns treated. A large
number of salts, including nitre, sal-ammoniac,
and carbonate of potash, may also be reduced to
powder by keeping their solutions in a state of
constant and violent agitation during their rapid
evtmoration.

The following rules should be observed in the
preparation of powders :

1. If possible, perfectly dry article* shonld
alone be operated on, and only in diy weather.

8. The nature of the mortar, and the mode of
operating, should be adapted to the nature of the
substance. Thus, woods and barks shonld be
^verised in. an iron mortar; si^ar, alum, and

nitre in one of marble or wedgwood-wwei and
ooROsiTe sublimate, only in one of glass.

8. The mortar shonld be provided with a oover,
to prevent loss and annoyance to the operator. If
much powder escapes, or if it is dangerous or dis>
agreeable when breathed, or if the sabstance is
rare or costly, the mortar should be covered with
a skin of leatiier, to which the pestle is attached)
so that the latter may be ft«ely moved without
causing the slightest opening for the escape of
the dust occasioned by the process. When aloei
or gamboge is powdmed, a few drop* of olive
oil are commonly added with the same intention.

4. The pulverised portions shonld be separated
from time to time by ^d of a sieve, the coarser
particles being returned to the mortar to be again
beaten and triturated ; and this alternate pulveri-
sation and sifting is to be repeated until the pro*
cess is complete.

The size of a powder is regulated by passing
through sieves ; a sieve having 80, 40, or 60 meshes
to the linear inch gives a powder called No. 80,
40, or 60. Powders for internal use, or for local
dusting purposes, should be extremely fine, or
what is termed impalpable.

FVKia-STOn. £ty«. Pnax, LiPiB
rmaoEua, L. pumon, L. Found in the neigh>
bourhood of volcanoes. Used, in the solid form,
to polish wood, paint, &o. ; also, when pulverised,
a* a polishing powder for gUus, bone, ivory, marble,
metals, &o.

PTTKILin. SnBUB Fnnun. (OIsmaPM
PumUionU, volatile oil distilled from the needles
of the Jf^jtiio, or Monniai* Phu.) Dr. Prosser
James calls attention ('Ijancet,' March 10th,
1888) to the valne of this preparation in disease*
of the respiratory mucous tracts. It is a very
pure essential oil, possessing in a high degree the
odour of the most fragrant variety of tiie pine,
and is less irritating than other fur oils. Sprin-
kled or sprayed about a sick-room hg means of a
Siegel's inhaler, or handball atomizer, it impart*
a lasting and grateful fragrance to the air, wUch
is not oppressive, and it seems to be disinfectant!
either of these methods may be utilised for main-
taining an atmosphere laden with pine odour, as a
substitute for that of Arcachon, Beichenhall, or
Bournemouth. The oil is admirably adapted for
inhalation by means of a respirator or steam
inhaler, and it may be given internally in doses
of 1 to 6 minims on sugar, or in loienges. It is a
very mild stimulant to the mucous membrane, and
an agreeable remedy for inhalation in relaxation,
congestion, and chronic catarrhal affections of the
respiratory tract. It is ita action on the bronchial
membrane during excretion thatrendersit valuable
in disease of this surface, being a stimulant, expeo-
torant, and disinfectant; hence|iudicated in chronic
bronchitis, dilatation of bronchi, bionchorrboea,
some state* of phthisis, and other afTections. Ex-
ternally, sprinkled on flannel or spongio-piline,
the oil is a cleanly, prompt, and useful stimulant
and counter-irritant, and sometimes appears to
possess slight anesthetic properties.

FTTlfP (for nse in Chemical, Paper, and
other Works). The Perreanx Pump Valve is
made of vulcanised India rubl>er, and is of the
form of the valves in the human body. It is of
the greatest, and, perhaps, the only really valuable

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14U

PUNCH— FUEGATIVKS

i^piroTement in Tftlvei applicable eqwUr to the
common band or jack pnmp,and Utemott dabotate
Qteobanioal oombination* for raiting water.

Tb9 Ttlve may be taken as the key of the
pomp; a perfect valve renders an indifferent
pnmp a valaable and effective machine, whereas
an imperfect valve, in an otherwise exoellently
oonstrncted pnmp, renders it practically useless.

The pnmp which Simon the tanner, of Joppa,
nsed for pnmping his pits, nearly two thousand
years ago, may be taken as the type of the common
hand pump in use to this day. Various mechanical
improvements have been made in iia form and
constrnction, but, practically, and eflectively.tbe
only real and valuable improvement is the Perreanz
valve, now under cansidMntion.
. Constructed of a flexible material, and made
in form, as nearly as may be, to the valves of the
hnman body, they nuy be said to be automatic in
their action, or self-acting ; npon the pnmp being
actuated, the least motion of the pnmp ensuring
a corresponding action of the valve, and the most
rapid action of the pump being equally responded
to by the pulsation of the valves.

Although the most perfect valves for pumping
clear water, because, what is mechanically termed
the duty of the pump is complete — in other words,
the quantity displaced is discharged absolutely
without loss, — ^yet their most valuable feature is
that they pnmp semi-fluids equally well as clear
water.

° For the pulps and stuffs in paper mills, for
bleaches, dyes, and corrosive liquors, for liquid
manures and other such semi-fluids, th^ stand
alone, they are absolutely nnchokable.

Used in coi^junction with cylinders or barrels
made of toughened glass, they form the most
perfect pump where Uie fluid to be raised is of a
caustic or corrosive nature, and where the fluid
would be destructive to or destroyed by its action
upon metals — such, for example, as the caustic
bleach used in the manufacture of paper, Ac.
See VAXTB8.

PUVCH. An acidulous, intoxicating beverage,
composed of water sweetened witii sugar, with a
mixture of lemon juice and spirit, to which some
aromatic, as nutmeg, mace, or cinnamon, is occa-
sionally added. Wine is sometimes substituted
for spirit. It is much less drunk than formerly.
Bum punch is the most popular amongst sailors,
who are now the principal consumers of this
beverage.

^»p. 1. Juice of 8 or 4 lemons s yellow peel
of 1 lemon; lamp sugar, f lb. j boiling water,
8i pints; infuse i an hour, strain, and add of
bitter ale, i pint ; rum and brandy, of each, } to 1
pint (or rum alone, 1| to 2 pints). More hot
water and sugar may be added if the punch is
desired either weaker or sweeter.

a. (Cold fvkoh.) From arrack, port wine,
and water, of each, 1 pint; Juice <k 4 lemons;
white sugar, 1 lb.

8. (Qui fvvcr.) From the yellow peel of i a
lemon ; juice of 1 lemon ; strongest gin, } pint ;
water, 1] pinU; sherry, 1 gUssful.

4. (lOKDFUNOB), From champagne or Bhenish
wine, 1 quart; arrack, 1 pint ; juice of 6 lemons;
yellow peel of 8 lemons; white sugar, 1 lb.;
soda water, 1 or 2 botUes ; to be iced as cream.

6. (Miu nnroB) VnDn.) Sttep the yellow
rinds of 18 lemons and 6 oranges, for S days, in
rum or brandy, 8 quarts; then add 8 quarts more
of either spirit; hot water, 8 quarts ; lemon
juice, 1 quart; loaf sugar, 4 lbs. ; 8 nutmegs,
grated ; and boiling milk, 8 quarts ; mix well,
and in two how* strain tha liquor through m
jelly-bag.

6. (Sovroix pmroH.) Take of French brandy.
80 quarts ; yellow peels of 18 oranges and 80
lemons ; infuse for 18 hours; add of cold water,
80 quarts ; lump sugar, 80 lbs. ; and the juice of
the oranges and lemons ; mix wpU, strain throngH
a hair sieve, add of new milk, 2 quarts, and in 9
weeks botUe in. Keeps well.

7. (OsAiraa pwch.) As No. 1, using oranges,
and adding soma orange wine, if at hand. A
little curaqoa, noyau, or maraschino imptoves it>

8. (Babfubby fuvob.) As the laat, bub
using raspberry juice, or raspberry vinegar, for
the oranges or lemons.

9. (Bbobht'8 fuhce.) From strong hot green
tea, lemon juice, and capillaire, of each, li pints ;
rum, brandy, arrack, and cursfoa, of each, 1 pint ;
champagne, 1 bottle ; mix, and slice a pineapple
into it.

10. (TBiL PTHfOH.) From strong hot tea, 1
quart ; arrack, i bottle ; white sugar, 6 ox. ;
juice of 8 lemons, and the yellow rinds of 4
lemons ; mixed together.

11. (Wnrs prtroH.) From white sugar, 1 lb. t
yellow peel of 8 lemons; juice of 9 lemons;
arrack, 1 pint ; port or sherry (hot), 1 gall. ; cin-
namon, i OS. ; nutmeg, 1 dr. ; mix.

12. (Yavkbb ptooe.) Macerate sliced pine-
apple, 8 ox. ; vanilhi, 6 gr. ; and ambeigris
(rubbed with a little sugar), 1 gr., in the strongest
pale brandy, 1 pint, for a few hours, with fre-
quent agitation; tiien strain with expressimi:
add of lonon juice, 1 pint ; lemon syrup, and
either claret or port wine, of each, 1 bottle ; with
sngar, ^ lb., diMolved in boiling water. If pints.
So6 Shsub

FUBa'ATTTSS. Sjfn. DmoioBU, Poxour^
Til, PuBOATm, li. These have been divided
into five orders or classes, according to thor par-
ticular actions. The following are the principal
of each class :

1. (LlXATITBS, IXHTHTSa, or XtLD OATHAB-

iios.) Manna, cassia pulp, tamarinds, prunes^
honey, phosphate of soda; castor, almond, and
olive oils ; ripe fruit.

2. (SiLiHB or oooLora UlXItitbs.) Epsom
salt, Glauber's salt, phosphate of soda (tasteless
salt), seidlitx powders, &c.

3. (AoTTVB OATHAxnoB, Occasionally acrid,
frequentiy tonic and stomachic) Bhnbarb,
senna, aloes, &c.

4. (DBABTIO or TIOLIHT 0ATEABTI08.) Jalap,

seammony, gamboge, eroton oil, colocynth, elate-
rium, Ac.

6. (MBBorauL vua»A.nrm.) Calomel, blue
pill, quicksilver with chalk, to.

In prescribing purgatives regard should be had
to the particular portion of the alimentary canal
on which we desire more immediately to act^ as
well as to the manner in which the medicine
effects its purpose. Thus, Epsom aal^ snlphate
of potassa, and rhubarb act cbi«fl^ on H^ iwf

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PPEL^PUBPIB DTBS

141&

danom ; aloea on tha rectum ; bloe pill, ealomel,
and jalap on the larger intertine* generally j and
tartrate and bitartrate of potana, and Bnlphnr on
the whole length of the intestinal canal. Again,
others are itimalant, aa aloes, croton oil, jalap,
icammonj', &c. ,- othws are refrigerant, as most of
the saline aperients; magnesiaand its carbonate
un both aperient and antacid; whilst another
class, including rhubarb, damaalc roses, &c., are
astringent, farther, some produce only serons
or watery dejections, without greatly increasing
the peristaltic action of the bowels : whilst a few
oocasion a copious discharge of the faces in an
IQiparently natural form. See Dkavsht, Mix-

TDBI, PiLU, FsBBCBIBIira, tc

VWJi. Prtp. To ale or beer, | pint, gently
warmed, add ot bitters, 1 wine-glassfnl, or q. s.
Some add a Httle spirit. A favourite bererage
with hard drinkers early in the morning.

TUS'PLE. A rich compound colour, produced
jby the admixture of pure blue and pure red. This
colour has always been the distinguishing badge
of royalty and distinction. The celebrated
l^rian purple was produced from a shell-fish
aJled mnrex.

Purple An'iUae. Syn. PaBKis'B pubfu,
Vawi. The snlpbate of a base called mauvine,
Cj/Sf^^, This valuable dye-atufl is prepared
under W. H. Ferkin's patent by mixing solutions
of sulphate of aniline sad bichromate of potash in
equivalent proportions, and, after some hours,
washing the black precipitate with water, drying
it, digesting it repeatedly in coal-tar naphtlia,
and, finally, dissolving it in boiling alcohoL It
may be further purified by evaporating the alco-
holic solution to dryness, dissolving the residue
in a large quantity of boiling water, reprecipitat-
ing by caustic soda, gashing with water, dis-
solving in alcohol, filtering, and evaporating to
dryness. Thus purified, mauve forms a brittie
substance, having a bronze-coloured surface. It
imparts a deep purple colour to cold water, though
dissolving sparingly in that liquid; it is more
soluble in hot water, and very soluble in alcohol.
'See PvBPLB Dtxs (below), and Tab Coloubs.

Purple of Caaalns. Syn. Pubplb fbeoipitatb op
CiMirs, OoiiD EUBPiiB, Ooia> pbxpabbd with

TIN ; AUBUM BTAinrO PABATUlf, PUBPUBA ICIHB-

baiiIB CABsn, L. A compound of gold, tin, and
oxygen, which is believed to be combined ac-
cording to the formula An]SnO|.Sn.SnO,.4H]0. —
iVsp. 1, Seven parts of gold are dissolved in aqua
regia, and mixed with 2 ^rts of tin, also dissolved
in aqua reg^; the mixed solutions are largely
diluted with water, and then a weak solution of
1 part of tin in hydrochloric acid is added till a
fine purple colour is produced. The addition of
salt assists the subsidence of the purple precijn-
tote.

2. (Frick.) Dissolve pure grain tin is cold
dilute aqua regia until the fiuid becomes faintly
opalescent, then take the metal out and weigh it;
next, dilute the solution largely with water, and
add, simultaneously, a dilute eolution of gold and
dilute sulphuric acid in such proportion that the
tin in tiie one shall be to the gold in the other in
the ratio of 10 to 86.

8. (P. Cod.) Terchloride of gold, 1 part, is
ditsolved in distilled water, 2Q0 parts; another

solution is made by disaolviag In the cold, poitt
tin, 1 part, in a mixture of nitric add, 1 p«rt»
and hydrochloric add, S parts; this last solvtion
is diluted with distilled water, 100 parts, and is
then added to the solution of terchloride of gold
until predpitation ceases to take place; the
powder is, lastly, washed by decantation, and dried
by a very gentle heat.

4. Silver, 150 parts ; e^ld, 20 parts ; pure grain
tin, 86 parts ; fuse them together under ohucoal
and borax, cool, laminate, and diwolve out the
silver with nitric acid.

Prop^ ^0. Purple of Cassius is soluble in
ammonia, but the solution is decomposed by ex>

Cire to light, becoming blue and finally colonr*
• metallic gold being predpitated, and bin>
oxide of tin 1^ in solution. Heat resolves it
into a mixture of metallic gold and Innoxide of
tin. It is used as a purple in porcelain painting,
and to communicate a ruby-ied colour to glass,
when melted in open vessels.

PUSPLE STES. The purples now in vogue are
the numerous shades of ' mauve ' and 'magenta '
obtained by the 'aniline colours.' (See above,
also Kbs.) Por silk and woollen goods no mor>
dant is required The proper proportion oi the
clear alcoholic solution is mixed with water
slightiy warm, any scum that may form is deared
olf, and the goods are entered and worked until
the required shade is obtained ; a small quantity
of acetic or tartaric add is added in some ease*.
For dyeing on cotton with the aniline colours, the
cloth or yam is steeped in sumach or tannic add,
dyed in the colour, and then fixed by tin; or it
may be steeped in sumach and mordanted with
tin, and then dyed. Purples were formerly, and
are still occasionally, produced by first dyaing a
blue in the ' indigo vat,' and then dyeing a cochi-
neal or lac scarlet upon the top. The purple dyea
which are now most commonly used are known
as Alizarin P., Ethyl P., and Begina P.

Purple, Aliiarin. Fast shades of purple are
obtuned on cotton from alizarin, either with or
without the use of oil. If prepared with oil, it
is mordanted in a solution of ferrous sulphate
(3°— 4° Tw. Sp. gr. 1016 to 102), and washed
after remaining overnight ; it is then dyed with
5% to 16% of aUzarin (10% ) ; it U afterwards
washed and soaped at 60° C. When oil is not
used, the cotton is worked in a cold eolation of
tannin (1 to 2 grms. tannic add per litre), mor-
danted with a solution of pepolignite of iron (1°
—8° Tw. Sp. gr. 1-006 to 1-016), washed, and
then treated as before with the alizarin.

PiirpIa,Xtbyl. 6B. (^ofT.) The bvdrochlo-
ride hexa-ethyl-para-rosaniline. It is the bluest
shade of violet at present known. In dydng
cotton the fibre is prepared with tannic acid and
tartar emetic, or with sulphated oil and alnmi-
nium acetate ; it is then washed and dyed at 46°
to 60° C. in a neutral bath. Wool is dyed at
60° to SV C. in a neutral bath, to which 2% to
4% of soap has been added. Silk is dyed at 60°
to 60° C. in a bath containing soap, then washed
and brightened in a bath slightiy addnlated with
acetic or tartaric add.

Farpla, Saglna, is closely rented to the rosa-
niline violets. Cotton is dyed in a bath slightiy
adddated with alum or sulphuric add, after

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FUBPVRATE OF AMMONIA— PnTBBFACTION

htving beea prepared with'tumioadd and tarter
tmetie. Wool ia dyed in a eoloor Mlntion. at 60^
to 80° C, aoidnlated with 4% ndphoiie add
(168° Tw. 8p. gr. 1-84). Silk ii dyed at 60° to
80° C. in a ^th containing 'boiled-off liqoor,'
■lightly addiUated with lalphnrie add {Bum-

rmymra o? Awn/'nA. see uv-

FVBPU'BIO ACID. See MiruzjLir.

FTOFUBnr. CmH,0,(OH),. Sign. Missn
PVBrLC. The name given by Robiqoet and Colin
to a beautiful colouring principle originally ob-
tuned from madder. It ie really trihydtozy-
anthraqninone.

Pnp. 1. Coarsely powdered madder is allowed
to f ennent with water, after wblch it is bdled in
a strong solution of almn, which dissolves only the
parpnrin; Ae deeoetion is next mixed with snl-
phnric add, and the resulting red precipitate is
pnrifled by one or more crystallisations from al-
oohoL

2. It is obtained artifldally by oxidising ali-
xartn with manganese dioxide and snlphnric
add.

Prop., ife. CryitalUne red needles, insolnble
in oold water, bnt solnble in hot waier, and in
slcohol, ether, and solutions of alum and alkalies.
It differs from aUsarin or madder red in contain-
ing 8 atoms less of carbon. In dyeing, it is used
like aliarin. Commercial samples contain alao
anthrapurpnrin and ilavopnrpann.

WVBXi. Syn. iKsuv tuxow. A yellow
snbstance imported from China and India, and
now extensivdy used in both oil and water-colour
painting. There has always been some donbt
about its origin. It was believed to be the urinary
sediment of the camd or buffalo, after the animal
had fed on decayed and yellow mango leaves, but
nobody was quite sure. Dr Hugo Mnller made
some inquiries at Kew in 1888, and the Kew
authorities set the India OfSce to work, with the
result that an official of the Bevenue and Agri-
eultnral Department of the Qovemment of India
proceeded to Monghyr, a town in Bengal, to see
how it was obtained. There is a purree— or, more
correctly, 'pinri'— of mineral origin imported
from London ; this, of course, differs materially
from the genuine article. The offidal found that
tiie latter is really obtained from the urine of
cows kept by a sect of gnalas, or milkmen, resid-
ing in a suburb of Monghyr, who are the only
people who manufacture the purree. They feed
the cows solely with mango leaves and water,
which increases the bile pigment and imparts to
the urine a bright yellow colour. The cows are
made to pass urine three or four times a day 1^
having the urinary organ rubbed with the hand,
and they become so habituated to this that they
cannot urinate unless this is done. The urine is
collected, and at night heated in earthen vessels,
whereby the yellow principle is predpitated. It
is collected, made into balls, and dried, first over
a charcoal fire, and then in the sun. A cow y idds
about 8 oz. per day, this quantity bdng the pro-
dnctof 8 quuts of urine.

7ITBBX1C ACD. Syn. Euxaktbio acid.
This snbstance is obtained from purree. It crys-
tallises in nearly colourless needles, which are

only sparingly ■elnhle in eeld water, and foriM
rich ydlow-ooloured compounds with th* aftsHea
and earths. Heat converts it into a Mwtnd,
erystallisable substance, called purrenone.

PUS. The eream-Uke, white or jallowidi
liquid secreted by wounded surfaces, abseeesea,
sores, Ac

JfUTKBFAC^OV. Sjfn. Pmiuono, Ii.
The spontaneous deeompedtion of animal and
nitrogenised vegetable snbstanoes, under tlie Jdnt
influenoe of warmth, air, and mdstnn. The solid
and fiuid matters are resolved into gaseous eom<
pounds and vapours, which escape, and into earlfty
matters, which remain. The moat striking chaiao-
teristio of this spedes of decompodtion is the
ammoniacal or fetid exhalations that constantly
accompany it.

The nature of putre&etion, and the conditions
essential to its occnnence, have been briefly
alluded to under fermentation, to whidi we must
refer the reader. It may here, however, be use>
f al to rdteiate that this change can onlv be pre-
vented by the abstraction or ezcludon of the con-
ditions eesential to its oconrrence. This may be
effected by reduction of temperature, ezdudon
of atmospheric air, or the abstraction of moistura.
The antiseptic processes in common use are effec-
tive in precisely the same decree as these preven-
tive means are carried out. rrosen meat may he
preserved for an unlimited period, while the same
substance will scarcely keep for more than a few
days at the ordinary beat of summer. Animal
substances will also remain unix^jured for a long
period if kept in veasels from which the dr ia
entirely excluded, as in the process now so ex-
tensively adopted for the preservation of fresh
meat for the use of our army and marine. The
third condition b fulfilled when nitrogeniMd
matter is preserved in alcohol, brine, or any dmi-
lar fluid, and when it is dried. Bi dtber ease
water is abstracted from the surface, which then
loses its propendty to putrefy, and forms an im-
pervious layer, which exdudes atmospheric oxygen
from the interior and softer portion of the sub-
stance. Creasote, and meet of the antlseptio
salts, also act in this way.

Among special antiseptic processes are the
following :

Atplioatiov 07 00£D. The aeeesabn of pntre-
fitction is prevented, and its pnwress arrested, 1^
a temperature bdow that at which water freexea.
In the colder climates of the worid, bntdien^
meat, ponltiy, and even vegetables, are preserved
from one season to the othor in the froxen state.
In North America milUnni are thus supplied with
animal food, which, we can state from personal
experience, is often superior in fiavonr, tender-
ness, and apparent freshness, to that from the
recentiy killed animal. In temperate climates,
and in cold ones during their short summer, ice-
houses and ice-safes afford a temperature suA-
dently low for keeping meat fresh and sweet for
an indefinite period. Snbstances preserved in
tills manner should be allowed to gradually assume
their natural condition before cooking them ; and
on no accoQttt should they be plun^d into hot
water, or put before the fire, whilst m the froxen
state.
BtroAimra. A rude kind of drying and smoking

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PUTKEJACTION

1417

taett, eat into thin dioM, piMti««d by hnntwi
in tiie pntirlM and fontti,

Dmiooaiios 07 DBYixa. In thit w»y every
article of food, both animal and Tegetable, may
be preaerved without the applioation of laltor
other foreign matter. The proper method in to
expose the labgtaneea, cat into iUom or imall
fNgnuttte, in the mn, or in a cnrrent of warm
dry air, tiie temperatoM of which ihonld be
nnder 140° F. Article! lo treated, when im-
mersed for a ihort time in cold watw, to allow
the albumen and organic fibres to swell, and then
boiled in the same water, are nearly as nutritions
as fresh meat cooked in the same manner. If a
higher degree of heat than 140° be employed for
•nmal substances, they beeome hard ami usipid.
Owing to the practical difficulties in the way of
ajiplying the above process to fresh meats, it is
asn^y employed in eoijnnction with either
salting or smoking, and, frequently, with both of
them.

£xoxu8i(»r aw axwosfhbbio ijs. This is
etCected by the method of preserving In sugar,
potting in oil, and, more particularly, by some of
the patented methods noticed below. Fresh meat
insy be preserved for some months in that state,
1^ keeping it in water perfectly deprived of air.
In practice some iron fllmgs and sulphur may be
placed at the bottom of the vessel, over which
most be set the meat ; over the whole is gently
poured recently boiled water, and the vessel
Is at once closed, so as to exclude the external
aix.

TmtiBBKMf or AXTitxstio uqvisb. Oneof
Om commonest and most effective liqnids em-
^oyed for this purpose is alcohol of 60% to 70% ,
to which a little camphor, ammonia, sal-ammo-
niac, or common salt is occasionally added. A
cheaper and equally efficient plan is to employ a
weak spirit holding a little creasote in solution.
A weak solution of sulphurous acid may be sub-
stitnted for alcohol. Weak solutions of alum, or
carbolic acid, with or without the addition of a
few grains of corrosive sublimate, or of arsenions
add, are also highly antiseptic. These are chiefly
employed for anatomical specimfns, Ac. A solution
eontahdng only -j^ part of nitrate of silver is
likewise very effective ; but from this salt being
pdaonous, it cannot be employed for preserving
articles of food. Butchers' meat is occasionally
pickled in vinegar. By immetnng it for one
hour in water holding f^ part of creasote in
eolation, it may be preserved unchanged for some
time even during summer.

Iirnoiioir o* Airaisapiio UQunia into the
vein* or arteries of the recently killed animal.
It is found that the sooner this u done after the
slaughter of the animal the more effective it
beomnes, as the absorbent power of the vessels
rapidly decreases by age. See Qaxital'b Pboohb
{below).

Jnxnra is a method of preserving flesh some-
times adopted in hot climates. It consists in
catting the lean parts of the meat into thin slices,
and exposing these to the sunshine until quite
4ry and brittle, when they are bruised in a mor-
tar, and pressed into pots.

FioxLnra nr mnsAB. In this method the
substances, rendered u dry as possible by expo-

sow to the air, are placed in glaas or stoneware
jars (not salt-ghued), or wot^n vessels, when
strong vinegar, either cold or bdUng hot, is
poured over them, and the vessel at onoe closely
corked or otherwise covered up, and preaerved in
a cool situation. Meat is occasionally thus treated j
vegetables frequently so. See PlOXXB.

Porrnro nr on. In this case salad or olive
oil is substituted for vinegar (see oioae), and is
always used cold.

Su/nsa acts chiefly by abs(a«otlng water from
the albuminous portions of the mwtf by which
its disposition to change is leasened.

Skozivs. This process, which, aa well as tiM
last, is referred to farther on, acts- both by the
abstraction of m<ustare and the antiseptie pro-
perties of certun sabstanoes (creasote, oc) con-
tained in wood smoke. Fresh meat and flah are
occasionally smoked ; but, in general, substances
intended to be thus treated are first salted.

In Donkin and Gamble's patent process the
substances, previously parboiled, are plaoed in
small tin cylinders, which are then filled up witii
rich soup ; the lids are next soldered on quite air-
tight, and a small hole is afterwards made in the
centre ; the cylinders are then plaoed in a bath of
strong brine, or a strong solution of chloride of
calcium, which is iCt once heated to the btdliuf^
point, to nearly complete the cooking process;
after which the small hole in the lid is hermeti-
cally sealed by covering it with solder while the
veswl still remains bdling hot; tiie tins are,
lasUy, again submitted to heat in the heated
bath, the duration of which is proportioned to the
quantity and character of their contents, die
'dressing' of which is to be perfected by this
operation. The ends of the tins, on cooling,
assume a concave form, from the pressure of the
atmosphere, withoot which they cannot be air*
tight, and the process has been nnsuceessfnl. To
determine this, the patentees expose the canisters,
prepared as before, for at least a month in an
apartment heated to about 100° F. ; when, if the
process has failed, putrefaction oommenees, and
the ends of the cases, instead of remaining con-
cave, bulge or become convex. Tlus is called the
' test.' By this process, which was invented by
M. Appert in France about the year 1808, fish,
flesh, poultry, and vegetables may be preserved
for years in any dimato.

Qoldner's process differs somewhat from the
preceding, in the employment of a higher degree
of heat, more hastily applied, and not prolonged
or repeated after the tins are soldered up.

Guinal's process, having for its olgeet the pre-
servation of butchers' meat in the fresh state,
depends on the peculiarly absorbent property of
the flesh of reoentiy killed animals, above referred
to. This process consists in injecting a solution
of sulphate of alumina, or, better, of chloride of
aluminium, of the sp. gr. 1-070 to 1-066 (ICP—lP
Baumj), into the carotid artery, by means of a
syphon, as soon as the blood ceases to flow from
the slaughtered animal ; both extremities of the
jugular vein being previously tied. 9 to 18 quarts
of the solution are snffiraent for an ox, and a pro-
portionate quantity for smaller animals. A less
quantity is also required in winter than sommer.
When the animal has been well bled, and the in-

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MIS

PDTTT— PYKNOMBTEB

jection ikilfolly (Mrformed, it it ae^iedj peroep-
tiUe that the animsl has nndergone any prepaia-
tion. The ii\jected animid i< cut up in the ninal
my ; and when intended to be eaten within two or
three weeks merely require* to be hong up in a dry,
airy ritoation free from flies; bat if it is to be
kept for a longer period, it is directed to be
washed with a mixed solution of common salt and
eUoride of aluminium at 10° Baumj, and then
simply dried and packed in clean air-tight barrels,
and kept in a cool dry place. If the air cannot
be perfectly excluded, it ahonld be packed in diy
salt, not for the purpose of preserving it, but to
prevent the vegetation of byssus, as, without this
precaution, the meat becomes mnsty from ex-
posure and the action of moisture. Meat pre-
served by this process may be kept for several
years, and merely requires soaking for 24 honrs
in water, for the purpose of swelling its pores, to
give it the appeaisnce and taste of fresh meat, fit
tor either roasting or boiling. For hot climates
a somewhat stronger solution, or a Ixrger quantity
of the usual one, may be injected. The use of
the strong solutions ordered in some recent works,
however, deprives the flesh of a portion of its
apparent freshness, and makes it more nearly
approach in flavour to that which has been slightly
salted in the ordinary manner.

In addition to the above it may be added that
both flesh and fish may be preserved by dipping
them into, or brushing them over with, pyro-
ligneoos add, and then drying them. This give*
them a smol^ flavour ; but if pure acetic acid
(Ph. L.) be need, no taste will be imparted. These
fluids may be applied by means of a clean painter's
brush, or even a stiff feather. A table-spoon Fnl
is sufficient to brush over r large suiface. Fish
and flesh so prepared will bear a voyage to the
East Indies and back uninjured.

Fifh may also be preserved in a dry state, and
perfectly fresh, by means of sugar alone. Freeh
fish may be thus kept for some days, so as to be
as good when boiled as if just caught. If dried
and kept free from mouldinesa, there seems no
limit to their preservation; and they are much
more nutritions in this way than when salted.
This process is particularly valnable in making
what is called ' kippered salmon ; ' and the fish
preserved in this manner are far superior in
quality and flavour to those which are salted or
smoked. Afew table-spoonfuls of brown sugar
are sufficient for a salmon of 6 or 6 pounds'
weight; and if salt be desired, a teaspoonfnl or
two may be added. Saltpetre may be nsed in-
stead of salt, if it be wished to make the kipper
hard.

The well-known proper^ possessed by ether,
alcohol, pyroxylic spirit, chloroform, and certain
other hydrocarbons, of averting putrefaction, has
been thus applied by M. Robin; — He encloses
the meat or other substances to be preserved in a
glass case, along \rith a sponge or a capsnle con-
taining the preservative liquid, which latter is
continually evolved in a vaporous condition, and
exercises the preservative agency. In this way
the vapours of hydrocyanic add are fonnd to be
very efficadous. Camphor is thus employed in
.the mnncT oabib in the British Museum.

It has been asserted by Mr Qeorge Hamilton

that in an almosphere of binoxide of nitrogen, in
the dark,' flesh preserves its natoral oolour and
freshness for abont five months ; and eats wdl pro-
vided it be boiled in open vessels, to expel nitrona
fumes. See CAirsYnra, Eaa, Fish, Fsmr, Mnx,
PiOKiiM, PoTTuro-, Pbsbbbvxs, Sxtataa, Shok-
nrs, Bxwrwisa, VseBTAaLH StranAHOM, Ac.

PDT^T. This name is given to the following^
preparations (when used alone, 'Qlaser's pat^
IS generally indicated) :

Putty, Glazier's. From whiting made Into a
stiff i>aste with drying oiL It is nsed to fix pane*
of glass in sashes, to fill holes and cracks in wood
before painting it, Ac.

Patty, Plasterer's. A fine cement used by
plasterers, made of Ume only. It differs from
' viHB Btvrs ' in the absence of hair.

Putty, Polisher's. Sg*. Putty powskb, CaXi-
oiH>; CnfiBiB BTAinri, SrAinri ozYsnif cbitduic.
It. A crude peroxide of tin, obtained by expodng
metallic tin in a roverberatory furnace, and raking
off the dross as it forms ; this -is afterwards cal-
cined until it becomes whitish, and is then reduced
to powder. Another method is to melt tin with
ratiier more than an equal weight of lead, and
then to raindly raise the heat so as to render the
mixed metel red-hot, when the tin will be inine*
diately flung out in the state of ' potty ' or ' per-
oxide. The products of both these processes are
very hard, and are nsed for polishing glass and
japan work, and to colour opaque wlute enameL
SeeTnr.

Putty, To Soften. Take 1 lb. of American pearl-
ash and 8 lbs. of quicklime. After slaking the
lime in water add the pearlash, and let the mix-
ture be made of a consistence about the same aa
that of paint. When required for use apply it to
both sides of the glass, and let it remain in con-
tact with the putty for 12 hours; after which
the putty will have become so softened that the
glass may be removed from the frame withont
any difficulty.

PUZZOLA'VA. PUOZZOLAITA, POZeOLAB-A, OT,

more correctly, Puzzoi^SA, is a volcanic ash
found at Puzzuoli, near Naples, and over a laige
portion of Central Italy, especially in the Roman
Campagna. The bhu^ variety is most esteemed,
and next to this the bright red qnality. When
mixed with lime it forms an exodlent hydraulie
cement. A good FACTiTiotTB fitzzolaha may he
made by beating a mixture of 8 bnshels of clay
and 1 bushel of fresh-shtked lime for some honrs
to redness {M. BrHjfire). See Cbkbht and

MOBTAB.

PTKHOKSTSS. S!fn. Pioboxbtbb. The
strength of a solution may be inferred from its
spedfic gravity. The spedflc gravity is aaoer^
tained by comparing the weights of equal vohunea
of water and of the solution at the same tem-
perature. For this pnrpose a light-stoppered
bottle or pienomeUr is used, capable of contuning
about 8 fluid oa. This is thoroughly dried and
counterpoised in a balance by placing in the
opposite pan a piece of lead, whidi may be out
down to the proper weight. Suppose the strength
of a solution of ammonia is required to be ascer-
tained. The bottle is filled with the solution,
the temperature observed with a thermometer and
recorded, the stopper is insertedi the outside

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PTBITB8— PYBOPHOBUS

1419

carefnllT dried, Mkd the whole wiped. It b
^en weU rinsed out, filled with distilled, water,
the temperature equalised with that of the am-
monia hy placing the bottle either in cold or warm
water, and the weight ascertained as before. The
specific gravity is obtained by dividing the
weight of the ammonia solution by that of the
weight of distilled water.

FTSITEB.. A term applied to several native
metallic sulphides. IBOH rxBirtxa is the best
known of these.

FT'SO-. The term is applied to several adds
that are obtained by the action of heat on other
substances ; as ftbosallio Aon>, ptbolissxous

A., &C

PTBOACBTIC flPntlT. See Spibit (F^ro-
acetic).

FTBOGALIIO ACID. C^^OH),. £^», Aoi-
OTTX PTBoeALLicuif, L. The old and pharma-
ceutical name of pyrogsllin, pyrogallol, or tri-
hydrozybenzene, as it is variously odled. — Pnp.
1. From either gallic or tannic add, heated in a
retort by means of an oil-hath, and steadily main-
tained at a temperature of about 42(r F. as
long as crystals are formed in the neck of the
retOTt, or in the recdver, both of which should he
kept well cooled. If a much higher heat is em-
>loyed, the product consists chiefly of metagallic

ployo
add.

2. (SfsttioKss.) By soblimation from the dry
•qneons extract of nut-galls, in a Uohr's appara-
tus, in the same way that benzoic add is obtained
from benzoin resin, observing the precautions
referred to in No. IJabovt). Nearly pure. The
product is fully 10% of tiie wdght of extract
operated on.

a. OalUc acid dried at 100° C. is mixed witii
3 times its weight of powdered pumice-stone, and
distilled in a retort through which a slow stream
of carbonic anhydride is passed, the beat being
supplied by an oil-hath, and kept at 210°— 220° C.

4. (As a developer in photography.) Heat 10
grms. of gallic ' add with 80 c.c. of glycerin
to 195° C. as long as terbonic add anhydride is
evolved, then make up to a litre with water.

Prop. Fine adcular crystals, which melt at
116° C, and boU to 210° C, and when perfectly
pure, are quite white; fredy soluble in water,
alcohol and ether, 2^ parts, but the solution can-
not he evaporated vrithont tnming black and
suflering decompodtion j it strikes a rich blackish-
blue colour with the proto-salts of iron, and re-
duces those of the sesquioxide to the state of
protoxide ; when heated' much above its boiling-
point, it is converted into mijiciixiiio Aon> and
water.

VtM, ^. Pore pyrogallic add being a strong
redodng agent, is now very extensivdy employed
in photography as a devdoper. A solution of
the crude acid mixed with a little spirit is used
to dye the hair, to which it imparts a fine brown
colour, but has the disadvantage of also staining
the skin when applied to it. A mixture of potash
and pyrogallic acid is employed to absorb oxygen
in gas analysis. When heated with phtbalic an-
byvide it yields gallein, which is osed as a red
dye.

PYTMQMr ACISB. Those generated by heat

mo^A. See Wnmn-asmr.

rxBOLicnnoTrs Acn>. <%•. vmaiBtnr

wooDf, Sfibit 6v w.t, Bxoxnrs uquoBf, Es-

SBKCB 0* BKOXBf; AOOtTIC PTBOLISirOSUlf, L.

Impure acetic add, obtained by the destructive
distillation of wood in close vessels. It comes
over along with tar, creasote, and other liquid
and gaseous matters. In this stete it oan>
tains much empyreumatic matter in solution;
but by separation from the tar, saturation with
slaked lime or chalk, defeeatioD, and evapoiation,
an impure acetate of pyrolignate of lime isob-
tuned, which, after being very gently heated, is
again dissolved and defecated, and than treated
with a solntitm of talphata of soda, when a solu-
tion of acetate of soda and a predpitate of sul-
phate of lime are formed by double decomposition.
The eolation is next evaporated to dryness, the
dry mass (pyrolignite of soda) dissolved In water,
and the new idntion filtered and recrystalUsed.
The crystals of acetate of soda, obtuned by tiie
last nroceas, yield nearly pure acetic acid by
distillation along with sulphuric add. See Aoano
Aon) and VmaAB.
PTBOUG'HXOUB SFIBIT. See Spibit (Pyrox-

ylie)-

FTBOXITIB. An instmment for measuring
high degrees of heat. WBDawooi/i PTBOunn
depends on the property which dav possesses of
contracting when strongly heated. Daxul's
PYBOXITBB connsts, essentially, of a small rod or
bar of platinum, which acts in a predsdy oppoute
manner to the prece^ng, viz. by its expandon.
None of the older forms give an exact measure-
ment of temperature, Those now used are based
upon the ezpanuoa of vapours and gases, the
spedfic heat of sofids, or upon the dectitcal pro>
perties of oertdn bodies. BboqubbbIi'b blictbio
PTBOXBXBB is an improved form of one devised
by Ponillet. Two wires, each 2 m. in length, and
1 sq. mm. in cross-section, one bdng of platinum
and the other of palladimn, are firmly tied toge-
ther for a distance of 1 em. with fine platinnm
wire. The palladium wire is placed in a thin
porcelain tube, the platinum wire being left out-
ride, then the whole arrangement is enclosed in a
larger porcelain tube. At one end of the outer
tuM is the junction of the wires, which is ad-
justed in the place the temperature of which is
to be investigated. At the other end the plati-
num and palladinm wires issue, and are soldered
to the copper wires connected with a magneto-
meter. These wires at the junction are placed
in a glass tube immersed in ice, so tiiat bdng
both at the same temperature they give rise to
no current. The angular deflection ci the mag-
netometer is observed, and the intensity of the
cnrrent and the temperature of the junction of
the palladinm and platinum wires are deduced
from pyrometric tables.

FTSOFH'OKUB. 8fn. Iivn-ZuirsBB, Qer.
Any substance that inflames spontaneously when
exposed to the air.

iV«p. 1. Neutral chromate of lead, 6 parts;
sulphur, 1 part; triturate them with wator, q. s.
to form a paste, and make this into pellets; dry
these perfectiy by a ^tie heat, then heat them
in a closed tube until the sulphur is all driven
off ; lastly, transfer them to a stoppered phiaL

2. (HoKBBBa'a pnoPBOBira.) From alum

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1420

PTROPHOSPHOEIC ACID— PTROTBCHNT

and Inown lagar, equal parte ; itir the mixtnre in
an iron ladle orer tiie fire nntil dry, then put it
into an earthen or coated glau pfaUl, and keep
it at a red heat to long aa the name is emitted;
it mnst then be carefully itopped up and cooled.

8. (Dr Sara.) Ijampblack, 8 parte; bamt
alnm, 4 parts ; carbonate of potaasa, 8 parts; as
the last.

4. [Otnf Zuttae.) From sulphate of potaasa,
9 parte ; calcined lampblack, 6 parte ; as No. 2,

6. Alnm, 8 parte ; wheat flour, 1 part ; aa
Ko.2.

6. (Lbad nsotRORVt—OBbal) Heat tar-
trate of lead to redness in a glass tube, and
then hermetically seal it. See Tabibatb' OT
Lias.

Obi. When the above are properly prepared,
a little of the powder rapidly becomes very hot,
and inflames on exposure to the air. The acces-
sion of the combastion is promoted by moisture,
as a damp atmosphere or the breath. With the
exception of the first and sixth, " they owe their
combustibilitT to the presence of sulphide of
potassium " (Oag Ltutae),

FTSOFHOSFHOBIC ACID. See Dibabio
Fbosfhobio Aon) (Phosphorus).

PTSO'SIS. 8sn. Blaoe watbb, Watsb
BRA8H, Watbb qcaui. An affection of the
stomach, attended by a sensation of heat and the
eructation of a thin sour liquid, often in con-
siderable quantity, especially in the morning.

The following pill will be found of service in
this affection : — Powdered opium, \ gr. ; sub-
nitrate of bismuth, 6 gr. ; extract of gentian,
sufficient to make into 2 pills. To be taken two
or three times a day, before meals.

The solution of bismuth and citrate of ammonia
(Liquor Bismuth! et Ammonim Citratis, B, P.),
in doses of ^ dr. to 1 dr., taken as above, is another
medicine which may be had recootse to, should
the above fail to give relief.

FTBOTAKTAS'IC AOD. H,C,H,04. Ob-
tuned by the destructive distillation of tartaric
acid. See Tabtabio Acid.

FTaOT£CH'HT. The art of making fireworks.
The three principal materials employed in this
art are charcoal, nitre, and sulphur, along with
filings of iron, steel, copper, or zinc, or with resin,
camphor, lycopodinm, or other substances, to im-
part colour, or to modify the effect or the dura-
tion of the combustion. Qnnpowder is used
" either in grain, half crushed, or finely ground,
for different purposes. Tlie longer the iron
filings are, the brighter red and white spote they
give ; those being preferred which are made with
a coarse file, and quite free from rust. Steel
filings and cast-iron borings oont^n carbon, and
afibrd a more brilliant fire, with wavy radiations.
Copper filings give a greenish tint to flame; those
-of zinc, a fine blue colour ; the sulphide of anti-
mony gives a less greenish blue than zinc, but
with much smoke ; amber affords a yellow fire, as
well as colophony (resin) and common salt; but
the last must be very dry. Lampblack produces
a very red colour with gunpowder, and a pink
one with nitre in excess; it serves for making
golden showers." When this substance is lightly
mixed with gunpowder and put into cases, it
throws out amall stars resembling the lowel of a

spur ; this eompoaitdon has henee been oallad ' spor
fire.' " The ydlow sand, or glistening mica, com-
mnnioates to fireworks goldmi radiations. Ver-
digris imparte a pale green ; snlphate of onipar
and sal-ammoniac give a palm-tree green. Cam-
phor yields a very white flame and aromatic {oinea>
which mask the bad smell of other snhstanoea.
Benzoin and storaz are also used, on account of
their agreeable odour. Lycopodinm hums with •
rose colour and a magnifltient flame; bnt it is
principally employed in theatres to represent
lightning, or to charge the torch of a Fury" {Ure).
See Fibbb (Coloured), Flaxb Coioubb, Gtrv-

POWDIB, SlABB, R00XXTS,ftc.

The following substances are in reqniution by
the pyrotechnist :

ZiNO. This metal is employed in the fonn of
fine powder, which is obtained as follows ; — The
metiJ, scarcely melted, is poured into a hot mortar,
where it is reduced to powder, being kept during
the operation at a temperature of 401° F. It is
then sifted to remove any particles which may
have escaped contect with the pestle.

COPFBB. This metal may be obtained in a
stete of minute division by precipiteting it from
a solution of sulphate of copper by means of iron,
the precaution being taken of using a large
quantity of iron. The precipitete, after being
well washed, is dried between folds of blotting-
paper, and kept in well-stoppered bottles.

IBOK-BAITD. A quantity of sulphur is melted
in a crucible over a slow firo, and when it is
quite fluid, iron filings are thrown lu while the
whole is being stirred. The crucible is removed
from the fire, and the contente are rapidly stirred
until cold. The material is then rolled on a board
till it is broken up as fine as corned powder, after
which the sulphur is sifted ont.

Soda Powsbb. This powder is prepared with
the same precaution as ordinary gunpowder, tbe
proportions which answer best being —

Nitrate of soda .... 630 parte.

Sulphur 125 „

Charcoal f 126 „

880 parte.
As tbe nitrate of soda is hygiometric,tbis powder
must be preserved in close vessels from the mois-
ture of the air.

Lbad Powsbb. This mixtnro is also prepared
like gunpowder, and the oonsUtuente are used in
the following proportions :

Nitrate of lead 12 parte.

Nitrate of potash .... 2 »
Charcoal ....... S «

17p«rtt.
In the manufacture of this mixturo on a large
scale considerable care is necessary, since the mix-
tnre of nitrate of lead and charcoal is very liable
to ignite by friction.

]^BFABBD Bioop. 460 to 600 grms. of zinc
is dissolved in 1340 grms. of hydrochloric acid
22° B., largely diluted with water, and filtered.
This solution is again diluted with ite ewn volume
of water, and mixed with fresh blood. The whole
is well stirred from time to time for 48 houn, and
-the clear liquor is siphoned off from the predpi-
tete. The precipitate is well washed with water.

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PTBOTECHNT

Ittl

dried, utd ndneed to powder, in wliieli lUte it
mn be kept for any lengpth of time.

TovoH Fapib. Thi* paper ii prepared by
immening purple or bine paper in a aolatton of
nitrate of potasb in Bpirita of wine or vinegar,
and carefnlly drying it.

When the touch paper ii nied with email
•rtiolee, a piece is tied round the ori&ce with
thread, leaving sufficient paper to form a small
tube at the end. This tube is filled with gun-
powder, and the paper twisted over it, when iH is
Nady for flring.

Toach paper tor capping ereiy description of
flreworks, eneh as sqnibs, crackers, Boman candles,
&C., is prepared in the following manner : — Dis-
■olre 2 OS. of the best saltpetre in 1 quart of
wann water, and take eare tut the water is very
dean.

After the mixtnre has stood for half an hour,
pour off H {dnts into a white basin, then out your
sheets of dark Une donble>otown paper in half.
The weight of the paper should be IS or 14 lbs.
per ream.

Place the paper on a slab sufficiently large to
give you room to use a small piece of sponge,
with which you use the liquor to wet your paper.
Cover each half-sheet with the liquor as quickly
•a possible, on one side only, and immediately thu
is done place it on a line, the wet side outwards,
and whcni nearly dry, if yon have a great number
of sheets, place them together as evenly as possible
under a press for one hour, then lay them out to
dry, after which they will be quite smooth and
ready for use.

In pasting this paper on the work, take care
that the paste does not touch that part which is
to bum. To use this paper correctly, out it in
strips sufficiently long to go twice round the
month of the case, or even more if requisite.
When you paste on the strips, leave a little above
the month of the case not pasted ; in small cases
a little meal powder is put into the month, and
then the paper is twistad to a p<nnt. In larger
caaea damp priming is used, and when dry, the
cuping process is proceeded with.

UU0KBB8. The following mixtures are used
for ordinary crackers :

Meal powder . parts 5 16 6 8 16
fine charcoal . „ 1 4 — 2 17
Coarse charcoal „ - — 6 - —
Sulphur ... „ - — 2 - 1
Saltpetre . . „ - — 16 1 7
Comporition for crackers with Chinese fire :
Meal powder . parts ... 9 6 16
Saltpetre . . „ ... 6 8 —
Sulphur ... „ ... 1 2 8
Charcoal. . . „ . . . U U 2
Kne iron . . „ ... 6 — 7

Sand — 6 —

Composition for crackers with brilliant fire :

Meal powder
Sniphar . .
Iron filings ,
Idthaive. ,
Stoel filings.

parts 8
2

8 86 18 32
Ii 1 1 8
21

„ 8 8 12

The paper generally nsed for cartridge is that
known as ' elephant or cartridge, the latter being
the more frequently employed.

Cartridge paper is employed in the preparattwt

of crackers, which vary from 12 to IS inches, and
8) inches diameter. One edge of the paper is
folded down about i inch in breadth, then the
doable edge is turned down about i inch, and the
single edge is bent back over the doable fold so as .
to form a channel ^ inch wide. This is filled with
meal powder, which is then to be covered by the
folds on each side, when the whole is to be pressed
very smooth and close, by passing it over the edge
of a fiat ruler. The part containing the powder is
to be gradually folded into the remainder of the
paper, each fold being earefnlly pressed down.
The cracker is then doubled backwards and for>
wards into as many folds of about %i inches as
the paper will allow.

The whole is pressed togetiier by means of a
wooden vice, a piece of twine is passed twice
round the middle across the folds, and the j<rfn-
ings are secured by causing the twine to take a
turn round the middle at every turn. One of the
ends of the folds may be doubled short under,
which will produce an extra report, but the other
must project a little beyond the rest, for the prim-
ing and capping with the touch paper. When
tiMse crackers are fired they give a report at
every tnm of the paper.

The crackers may also be made of two single
cards, rolled over each other and covered with
paper coated with paste. The crackers are par-
tisJly filled with the composition by means of a
tin funnel. Ordinary powder is then introduced,
and the remaining space is filled with a little
sawdust.

BxTOLTnra CBAOXEBa. These crackers are
oharged at each end with day to a depth of two
lines, and filled with a composition without gun-
powder. The clay prevents tbe fire streaming
out at the ends, and it escapes through two boles
placed opposite each other. The two holes are
united at tbe same time by connecting them by
means of a quick-match, and a rotatoty motion
is thus communicated to the cylinder.

Bksubh Pnr Whbiu. Pin, or Catherine
wheels are of very simple construction. A long
wire about A of an inch in diameter is the
former } on this wire are formed tbe pipes, which,
being filled with composition, are afterwards
wound round a small circle of wood so as to form
a helix or spiral line. The cases are generally
made of donble-crown paper (yellow wove), and
cnt into strips to give the greatest length, and of
width sufficient to roll about four times round
the wire, and pasted at the edge so as to bite
firmly at the end of the last tnm. When a
number of pipes are made and perfectly dry, they
are filled with composition. These cases are not
driven for filling, but are filled by means of a tin
funnel with a tube { of an inch long, made to
pass easily into the month of the case, which is
gradually filled by lifting a wire up and down in
this tube, the diameter of the charging wire being
half that of the tube. The dry composition
being placed in the funnel, the moment an action
of the wire takes place tbe composition begins to
fall into tbe case, which the charfpng wire com-
presses by oontinnous motion until yon have filled
the pipe to within | of an indi of the top. The
pipe is than removed, and tbe month neatly
Wisted, which will be the point for lighting.

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1482

PTROTBCHSt

When a nnmlier of pipea are ready, place them
on a damp floor, or in any damp ritnation, nntil
they become very pliant, bnt by no means wet;
then commence wmding them ronnd a circle of
wood whose anbstance must be eqnal to the thick-
ness of the diameter of the pipe ; and when wound,
secure the end with sealing-wax, to prevent its
springing open; after winding the required quan-
tity let them dry. Now cut some strips of crim-
son or purple paper -fj oi ui inch wide, and in
length twice the diameter of the wheel; then
parte all over thoroughly. Take a strip and paste
ft across the wheel diametrically, rub it down,
tbtfa turn the wheel over, and place the ends
down to correspond with the opposite side ; when
dry, the wheel will he ready for firing.

lley may be fired on a large pin or held in
tiie hand, but it is preferable to drive the pin
into the end of a stick, which will prevent any
accident, should a section of the wheel burst.

Squibs. These are either filled with grained
powder, or with a mixture consisting of — Oun-
powder, 8 parts ; charcoal, 1 part ; sulphur, 1 part.
The cases, which are about 6 inches long, are
made by rolling strips of stout cartridge paper
three times round a toller, and pasting the last
fold. They are then firmly tied down near the
bottom, uid the end is either dipped into hot
pitch or covered with sealing-wax. The

filled by putting a thimble-foll of the powder in,
and ramming it tightly down with a roller, this
operation being continued nntil the case is filled.
It is then capped with touch paper.

SlSFBHTB fMABBOON Squibs). A Suitable
case being ready, it is filled two thirds up with a
powder consisting of — Saltpetre, 16 parts; snl-
phur, 8 parts ; fine gunpowder, 4 parts; antimony,
1 part. This being rammed down into the
case tolerably tight, tiie remainder of the space is
filled with grained or corned powder.

Sfabkb. These fireworks differ from stars in
size, being very small and made without caaes.
The English method of preparing them is •■
follows. A. mixture of —

line gunpowder ... 1 part,
Powdered saltpetre ... 8 parts.
Powdered camphor . . . 4 „
is placed in a mortar, and some weak gum -water
in which a litUe gum tragacanth has been dis-
solved is poured over it, and the whole worked
np into a thin paste. Some lint, pnjiared by
boiling it in vinegar or saltpetre, and afterwards
dried and unravelled, is placed in the composition
so as to absorb the whole. This is then poured
into balls about the sixe of a pea, dried, and
sprinkled with fine gunpowder.

In Qermany the following compositions are
used:

1

2

8

4

6

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

18

14

Chlorate of potash . parts
Cihlorate of potash

and copper . . „
Chlorate of baryta „
Nitoate of potash . „
Nitrate of lead . . „
Nitrate of baryta . „
Calomel . . . . „
Sulphide of copper „
Sulphate of strontia „
Oxalate of soda . „

Chalk „

Powdered sine . . „
Powdered chamnal „
Sulphur . . . . „
Ghimlac . . . . „

8<»P »

Starch „

Sngar „

Rnesoot. ...»

24
24

12

1

40

16

8
8

12

10

1

1

20

40
18

18

1

18
8

12

14
6

26

28
11

40

28
28

8

10

21
28

12

8

4

21
28

12
12

8

4

14

4
6

6

6

20

1

4
20

8
2

96

18
72

18

1

40

•

87
8

The above miztnns are intended to giveoolonred
■parks, according to the numbers.

No. 1 gives a bluish-white colour.

„ 8 and 8 give yellow.

„ 4 gives green.

„ 6 mves green.

„ 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 give blue.

„ 11 and 12 give violet.

„ 18 gives red.

„ 14 gives purple.

The materials are mixed with a small qnantiigr
of a solution of starch, so as to form a thick

paste, which is forced through a perforated plate,
the holes in which are twice as large as it is in-
tended the sparksshould be on drying. The small
pieces fall on a pasteboard, to which the workman
gives a rapid horizontal motion-to round the grains.
Thev are then dried, and those' which are per-
fectly round are selected and' separated by sieves
of ddferent meshes to collect those of the same
siie together.

The iron-sand is moistened with a little spirits
of wine, and then mixed with the charcoal and
saltpetre, which have been previously incorporated
in another mortar.

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PyBOXTLIC SPIBIT— PYBOXTLIN

1428

CHnma Fibb.

Std Cki*»t» or Oerb» Fire.

Calibn of th« case.
12 to 16 lbs. .
16 to 22 „ .
22 to 36 „ .

Siltpetn. Sulphur. Cliarn»l.
. 1 lb. . . 8 OS. ... 4 oz. .
. 1» .. 8„ ,.,6„
. 1 » . . 4 „ . . . 6 „ . .

White Chinete Fire.

Inn-aasd, lit order.
7 oz.

7 » 8 drmi.
. 8„

Cilibra.
12 to 16 lb*. .
16 to 22 „ .
22to86 „ .

Sihpetn. BniKd Powder. Charcoal.
. 1 lb. . . 18 01. . . 7 01. 8 dnns.
•*» ••11,, . . S „
. 1 ji 11 »i ■• • 8 „ 8 „

Iron-nod, Srd ordar
. . 11 oz.
. . 11 „ Sdnna.
. . 12 ..

StKPLB SlAIHI or FiBlBAliLB. Theae are
generallT lued in combinstioii with other anuige-
ments, ic, and the composition of which they
aie made consiatsof — saltpetre, 16 parts; solphnr,
8 parts ; fine gnnpowder, 3 parts.

Theae matmials are mixed with gum and as
little spirits of wine as will suffice to make a very
atift paste. This paste is cut np into small squares,
which are rolled up into balls on a bo*rd oorered
'With gnnpowder.

The gnnpowder, which adheres, serves for the
pnipose of firing them . When perfectly dry they
are ready for nse.

Saltpetre. .
Snl^ar . . .
line charcoal

parts .

OrdinarT.
. 16
8
. 2

Chineae.

4
2

4

Saltpetre. . .
Snlphnr . . .
Fine small ooab

Pine soot . . .
Meal powder

>• •

. 2

4

16

Fine grm-powder
Cioarse cast iron

A portion of the cotton is softened in linseed
oil, and the materials prepared in a mortar with
wi^.

BoKur CAirsiag. These are made somewhat
like gerbea and filled with the same materials, the
only difference being that ttare are placed between
the different layers of snbstances. The materials
nmst not be too tightly rammed down or the stars
will be destroyed.

SucFLB Stabs or FuBBAXza. Take of salt-
petre, 16 parts ; sulpfaar, 8 parts ; fine gunpowder,
8 parts i mix them with gam and only just enough
spirits of wine to make a Teiy stiff paste. Cut
this up into small squares, and roll into balls
ooyered with gunpowder. When properly dry
they are ready for nse.

Mabboovb. These are «mall cnbical boxes
filled with an explosive composition which ex-
plodes suddenly, making a loud report. They
are generally used in combination with other
fireworks. The boxes are made of pasteboard,
the comers being made tight by pasting paper
over them, bnt leaving the top open until they
are filled. They are filled with coarse gunpowder,
when the top is closed with strong paper well
cemented, and the whole box is wrapped round
two or throe times with lind cord dipped in strong
glue. A hole is made in one of the comers, into
which a quick-mateh is introduced, and the mar-
toon is rmdy for action.

The reader who may be desirous of f nrther in-
formation on the subject of Pyrotechny, cannot
do better than consult the article on that subject
in 'Enapp's Chemical Technology,' edited by
Messrs. Bichardson andWatts, vol. ^ part 4, No. 1
(BulUire & Co.).

OBBBB8. These fireworks display themselves
as luminous jets of fire somewhat resembling a
waterspout. Previously to putting in the bril-
liant composition, put two scoops of first firing or
preparatory fire, for which the following will suit,
in cases not larger than i-lb. size : — 16 oz, meal
powder, 6 oz. saltpetre, 3 oz. sniphur, 8 oz. fine
coal. It is important to see that the interior of the
cases are quite smooth and free from wrinkles.

QOLD Radt. The larger rockets are filled witk
this material, which consists of small square*
mads in the same way as the simple stars. It is
compoeed as follows ;

Composition for immediate nas.

parts . . 4
„ . • 2
„ • • 1
.... 8
» . . 4

To this work we are indebted for mnch of the
material contained in the present papera. Se«

COLOUBBD FiBBS.

FTSOZTL'IC SPISrt. See Sfibit (Fyroz-
yUc).

FTSOZTLni. Sj/n. FvjjasAvaa oovtox,
QuK-ooTTON, CbUiUIOTBihitiov. A highly in-
flammable and explosive compound, discovered by
SchOnbein. It is obtained by the action of nitric
acid on cotton (cellulose, C|Hu)0,), in the presence
of sulphuric acid.

The action of nitric acid upon cellulose («. y.
cotton- wool, linen, paper, &c.) gives rise to sevenl
nitrates, mixtures of which are commonly called
pyroxylin, bnt the hexanitrate prepared according
to method 1 (see below) is the best for ffnn- cotton.
Ite compoaition is represented by <£e formula
CbH„(N0,1,0u,.

iVap. 1. {Aiel.) Purified, wall-dried cotton-
wool is placed in ten parte of a mixture of nitric
acid (kp. gr. 1*6), 1 pitrt ; snlphnric acid (sp. gr,
1-86), 3 parts; where it is left for 24 hours. The
wool is then thoroughly washed in such a washing
machine as is used in the manufacture of paper,
reduced to pulp, and then pressed into moulds
(' Caiem. News,* xxiv, p. 241).

2. Concentrated nilrio acid (sp. gr. I'GOO) and
concentrated sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1-846) are
mixed together in about equal measures; when
the mixture has become cold it is poured into a
glass or Wedgwood- ware mortar or basin, and
clean dry carded cotton. In as loose a state as
practicable, is immersed in it for 4 or 6 minates,
the action of the liquid being promoted by inces-
sant stirring with a glass rod; the atii is next
poured off, and the cotton, after being sqn«eM4

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1434

QUACK MEDIClNBS-QUARANTIirE

■a drf a> poaiUe, by meant of tho glass stirrer, or
between two plates of glass, is thrown into a large
quantity of dean soft water, and again squeezed
to free it from superfluous moisture ; it is then
washed in a stream of pure water until it be-
comes perfectly free from acid, and is, lastly, care-
fully dbied by the heat of hot water or steam, at
a temperature not higher than about 180° F.

8. {SciSninn.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-46 to
I'SO), 1 part; sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1*85), 8
parts (boui by volume) ; prooeel as above, but
after the cotton has been squeezed from the acid,
allow it to remain in a covered vessel for an hour
before washing it, and aftor washing it dip it into
» Mdotion of carbonate of potash, 1 oi., in pure
water, 1 gsU^ then squeeze, and partially dry it ;
next dip it into a weak solution of nitre, and dry
it in a room heated by hot air w ateam to about
160° F.

4. {Ton Lni.) The cotton, having been
thoioogUy daansed and dried, is spun into looae
yam aad steeped, as above, in a mixtuto of nitric
and ■■dphoric adds (the strongest obtainable in
eaanneree), squeezed as dry as possible, and im-
mersed in a fresh miztnie of strong acids, being
allowed to remain in this second mixture 48 hours.
It it then washed in a stream of water for several
weeks, and finally treated with a solndon of sili-
ca^ of potash (soluble glass). This is the cele-
brated Austrian gun-cotton. The treatment with
silicate of potash is adopted manly for the pur-
pose of retarding the combustion.

6. (' Bulletin de 8t FJtorsbonrg.') a. Take
ot powdered nitre, 20 parts ; sulphuric acid (1-830
to 1'88S), 81 parts; dissolve in a glass vesset and,
whilst tiie solution is still warm (182° F.), add
of diT carded cotton, 1 part, and agitato until this
last IS well saturated; then cover the vessel
wltii a plate of glan, and let it stand for 24 hours
at a temperature uf about 86° F. ; next well wash
the cotton, as above, first with cold and after-
wards with boiling water, and dry it carefully at
a ven' low temperature.

i. From sulphuric acid (containing 8 eqniv. of
water), 18 parts; nitric acid (monohydrated),
12 parts ; cwded cotton, 1 part ; the immersion
being limited to one hour at a temperature of
from 104° to 122° F. (See ' Pharm. Jonm.,' vol.
viH, No. 20

Brop,, 4^9. Gun-cotton can scarcely be distin-
guished in appearance from that of raw cotton.
It bnma very rapidly when ignited, and explodes
on percussion. It becomes powerfully electric on
ruoUng. Several modifications of pyroxylin are
known, varying considerably in compoaition,
though they are all more or less explosive except
when wet. The hexanitrate is insoluble in a
mixture of ether and alcohol, whilat others are
readily dissolved, forming Uie glntinont solu-
tion which It uied in anrgery under the name
Ot ' collodion,' and which is also extensivelv need
in photography and in the manufacture of small
bauoont. The best gun-cotton is of no use what-
ever for making collodion. The pyroxylin pre-
pared 1^ the formula 6 a (abow) u soluble in a
mistuN of 7 parts of ether and 1 part of alcohol ;
wUIat tiiepTMnctof 6 i, if prepwed by 2 hours'
digMtton instead of 1, it taid to be even solnble
In abaoluta aleohol.

Ob*. Gun-cotton is a powerful, reliable, safe,
portable, and oonvMiient explosive, aspedally
valuable for aubmarine operations. Genml von
Lenk, Sir Frederick Abel, and others have over-
come all the difficulties which have hitherto pre-
vented gun-cotton being used in place of gun-
powder. By spinning the gun-cotton into thread
or yam, and weaving thit Into weba, or by com-
pressing the wet pulpy mass into moulds, cart-
ridges can be made, which will produce the exact
amount of force required. The time needed for
the complete ignition of the oartridge can be
diminished or increased at pleasure by varying the
mechanical arrangement of the spun thnad).
Each kind of projectile reqnirw a cortain density
of cartridge. In general it is found that the pro-
portion of 11 lbs. at gun-eotton ocenpying 1 eobie
foot of space prodnoes a greater foroe tun gun-
powder of which from 60 to 60 Iba. oeenines the
tame tpaee^ and a force at the nature lequind to
ordinary artilleiy. See OouoDlOir, PhOIO*
aniPHT, and XruaDin t oonault alao AbePs re-
searchea in the ' Tranaactions of the Boyal
Society,' and the British Aaaodation Baporta.

QUACK KXDICDnS. See Paxixx Mdi-
onrBB, OiiriKBHi, PiLU, be.

QUAIL. The Cotumix mJgarU, a galUnaeaoot
bird, allied to the partridge, but of amaller size.
Its fleah is highly esteemed by epicures. It is im-
ported from Turkey, preserved in oil i aad fnna
Ital^ potted with clarified batter.

QUABASTIVB. The old tows of Quarantine,
aa the French derivation of the word indioatea,
compelled a vetael coming from the ahorea of a
country liable to, or ravaged by, an infections
disease, such as plague, to those of a region free
from contagion, to undergo 40 days' isolation
before it was unladen, or its passengers were
allowed to land at the healthy port.

In Europe these ancient enartmenttagaintt the
importation of infection are still more or less
vexationsly enforced in Spain, Portugal, Qniee,
and Tnrkqr ; and in a modified form at Malta and
some of the French and Italian porta, bi tba
Mediterranean porta, shixM coming from ooimtries
which lie in the southern or eastern sborea of that
sea are usually snijected to a quanmtine of from
6 to 16 days, during which period the fsaiiimait
are confined in a sort of barrack called a 'laaa-
retto,' the merchandise, letters, ftc., of the veasd
being in the meantime frsqnenily fumigated, or
otherwise disinfected.

The inconveniences to conmeree andthe neeea-
sary intercourse between nations attending the
too rigorous carrying out of quarantine liavc^
within the last 12 years, led to aseriea of aaaitaiy
International conferences between the BSnropean
Qovemmente, with the olrject of deviang aome
methods which, without wakening the aaibgnards
to the public health, should aa much a> pnaaibk*
reduce the inconvenlencea attending the esifctts-
ment of quarantine to a minimum. At tlie last
of theae conferences, which was held at Vienna in
1878, the members were almost unanimous in ad-
vising the abolition of quarantine on Soropean
rivers.

Until within the last 20 yean tha old onanui-
tine laws were pretty strictly enforoad la tkia

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QUARTAK-QUASSm

1426

oonntry. Since thii time, however, they have
been oonndenbly relaxed, or, we Bhoold rather
•ay, inperseded by the following ordinance!,
which, apon the authority of an order in council
of July Slat, 1871, can be enforced in the cue of
■nipected tmsbIb.

Thii ordinance declares that it is lawful for a
eanituT authority, having reaion to believe that
any ship arriving in its district comes from a
place ii^ected with cholera, to visit and examine
the ship before it enters the port.

Art. 8 provides that the master of a cholera-
Infected ship, or one that has even been exposed
to the inf ecnon of cholera, is to moor, anchor, or
place her in such a position as from time to time
the sanitwry authorities shall direct.

Art. 4 provides that no person shall land from
any such ship until after the examination.

Art. 6 provides for the proper examination of
all persons on board by a legally-qualified practi-
tioner, and permits those not suffering from
cholera to land immediately.

Another order in coondl, dated August Srd,
1874, empowers any enstom-hoose officer, or other
person having authority from the Commissioners
or Board of Customs, at any time before the
nnisanoe authority shall visit and examine the
•hip, to detain the ship.

" No person shall, after snch detention, land
from the ship, and the officer shall forthwith give
notice of the detention, and of the cause thereof,
to the proper nuisance (local) authority ; and the
detention shall cease as soon as the nuisance
au):hority shall visit and examine the ship, or at
the expiration of 12 hours after notice shall have
been ^ven to snch nniaance authority."

Another order in council, dated August 6th,
1871, directs that the master of a vessel, in which
cholera has existed, shall not be allowed to bring
his vessel into port until he has destroyed the in-
fected clothes and bedding.

Local Government Bmirds are also invested
with considerable executive powers, by which
they are enabled to enforce qoarantine during the
prevalence of any contagious disease in' other
countries. The main Act, however, relating to
quarantine, is the 6th of Qeo. IV., c. 78 ; and all
vessels having on ixMurd any person or persons
affected with a dangerous or infections disorder,
are to be deemed as coming within its provisions
(see < Public Health Act,' Schedule v,.part 8).
There is a land, as well as a sea quarantine.
Thus, for instance, in some countries, particularly
those of Eastern Europe, the former is still in
force on the frontiers of contiguous States, to the
great impediment of commerce andiaconvenience
of travellers.

The late ontbreaV of plague in Astralmn has
led to its being established and very strictly carried
oat on the borders of Russia, Austria, Hnngary,
and Oermany.

Becker, writing on the probable origin of
quarantine, remarks i — " The fortieth day, accord-
ing to the most ancient notions, has always been
regarded as the last of ardent diseases, and the
limit of separation between these and those which
are chronic. It was the custom to subject lying-
in women for 40 days to a more exact super-
intendence.
TOL. n.

" There was a good deal also said in medical
works of 40 days' epochs in the formation of the
foetus, not to mention that the alchemists always
expected more dnrable revolutions in 40 dajrs,
which period they called the philosophical month.
This period being generally held to prevul in
natuPal processes, it appeared reasonable to assume
and reasonable to establish it as that required
for the development of latent principles of con-
tagion, since public regulations cannot dispense
with decisions of this kind, even though they
should not be wholly justified by the nature of the
case. Great stress has also been laid on theological
and legal grounds, which were certainly of greater
weight in the fifteenth century than in modem
times J such as the 40 days' duration of the flood j
the 40 days' sojourn of Moses on Mount Sinai j
our Saviour's fast for the same length of time in
the wilderness ; lastly, what is called the Saxon
term, which lasts for 40 days."

QUAB'TAH. Occurring every fourth day.

QUABIATIOV. The practice, among as-
sayers, of alloying 1 part m gold with 3 parts of
silver, before submitting it to the operation of ^
' parting ;' in order that its particles may be too
&r separated to protect the copper, lead palla-
dium, silver, or other metals, with which it is con-
taminated, from the solvent action of the nitric or
sulphuric acid, as the case may he. See Abbatims.

QtTASTZ. Pure native siUca. It is an essen-
tial constituent of granite and many other rocks.
Its crystalline, transparent varieties are known
as rock crystal. See Glibs, Powdkb, &c.

QUA8S. Sgn. PoBOA ybitaub, L. iVsp.
Mix rye-flower and warm water together, and
keep the mixture by the flieside until it has
turned sour. Used as vinegar in Russia.

QTTAS'SIA. £lfn. Qvabbu.; Quassu Lia-
wn, QiTABBU WOOD (B. P.). The " wood of
Pienna {Pieratma) ajeoelia, Lindl.," or Jamaica
quatna; and also of the " Qkowm amara, Linn."
(Ph. E.), or Surinam quanta. The latter is the
original quassia, but it is no longer imported.
Quassia is characterised by its intense bitterness,
due to a crystalline substance named quaiti*. It
is reputed tonic and stomachic, assisting diges-
tion, and giving tone and vigour to the system.
Its name was given to it by Linnasus, in honour
of a negro slave who had long employed it as a
remedy for the malignant endemic fevers of
Surinam. When sliced, it forms the ' quassia
chips' of the shops. It is generally taken in the
form of infusion. This list, sweetened with
sngar, forms a safe and elfective poison for flies.
Injected in the rectum it destroys thread worms.
Sprayed on plants it destroys green fly and other
insects. — Doit (in powder), 10 to 20 gr.

ROABTBD QUABBUi, reduced to powder, is largely
employed, instead of hops, to embitter porter)
and the unroasted powder is used for the same
purpose in the adulteration of the bitter varieties
of ale.

QUAS'SOr. 8gn. Qitabbitb, Quabbwa. A
peculiar bitter principle, obtained by precipitat-
ing decoction of quassia with milk of lime, eva*
porating the filtrate, dissolving the residue in
alcohol, treating with animal charcoal, again
evaporating, dissolving in water, and crystallis-
ing. 8 lbs. of quassia chip! yield 1 dr.

90

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QUEBBACHO BABK— QUIXAHQTE

QtTXBBACEO BABX. Sgu. QTnBBi.oHO
OOBIBZ. Whitb (iiiBBRA.OEO BASK. The bark
of Aifidotptmta qu^acho, imported from
Chili In pieces from i in. to 1 in. thick, red-
dish coloured, fisenred and warty ; taste aromatic,
bitter. A substance called atpidotpermiTU is
sold as its active principle, but the researches of
Hamack, Hesse, and others show this to be a
mixture of aspidoiamin, quebraeiin, quebraeh-
amiii, atpidotpermatine, hj/poquAraehin, and <u-
pidoipermine. The Inrk has tonic and anti-
pyretic powers, used also to relieve asthma.
IHnctnre 1 in 6 proof spirit. — Dole, i to 1 dr.

Qnebracho Colorado. (Quebrackia Lorentxii,
Oriesh). A tree abundant in the northern ports
of the Argentine Republic. The wood is valu-
able for building, as it resists water perfectly.
It is of a red colour, and is used for colouring
wines and also for tanning.

QUEEN'S BLUB. Thumb bine. See Blui.

QUJSJSJN'S KBT'AL. A species of pewter used
fpr teapots, &c., made by fusing under charcoal a
mixture of tin, 9 parts, and antimony, bismuth,
and lead, of each, 1 part; or, tin, 100 parts;
antimony, 8 parts ; copper, 4 parts ; bismuth, 1
part. See Bbitaiwia Mbtal and I^wtbb.

QUEEH'S TEI'LOW. Snbsnlphate of mercniy.

QUEBCITBIir. The bark of the QHtrau Mae-
toria yields a neutral substance, to which the
above name has been given. Quercitrin may be
prepared as follows by the process of Roch-
leder : — The bark is boiled with water, the decoc-
tion is left to cool, and the impure quercitrin
which separates is collected, then rubbed to a
pulp with alcohol of 86° B., heated over the
water bath, collected on linen, and pressed,
whereby the principal impurities are removed.
The residue is dissolved in a larger quantity of
boiling alcohol, the solution is filtered hot, and
water is sdded to it until it becomes turbid, so
that the greater part of the quercitrin separates
before the liquid is cold. It is then collected,
pressed, and purified by a repetition of the same
treatment.

Another process, by Zwenger and Dionke, is
this: — The bark, in small pieces, is exhausted
with boiling alcohol, the alcohol is distilled off,
and the residue, while still warm, is mixed with a
little acetic acid, and then with neutral acetate
of lead ; the filtrate, freed from lead by sulphuric
acid, is evaporated, and the quercitrin which
crystallises is puri6ed by repeated crystallisation
from alcohol.

" Hydrated qnercitrin forms microscopic, rect-
angular, partly rhombic tablets, having their
obtuse lateral edges tmncated ; pale yellow when
pulverised. It is neutral, inodorous, tasteless in
the solid state, bitter in solution, permanent in
the air" (W^atti).

QUSB'CITBOK. A yellow dye-stuff, composed
of the shavings and powder of the bark of Qu«r-
au tinctoria, or Q. nigra, or Q. citri»a, a kind
of oak, a native of North America. It abounds
more particularly in Pennsylvania, Carolina, and
. Georgia.

In America qnercitxon is nsed for tanning, and
in Bnrope for dyeing only. When employed for
. the latter purpose it is nsed in the form of an
aqaeons decoction, mordanted with almn or chlo-

ride of tin. Leesching states that a dye posses-
sing greater colorific powder may be proeiued by
boiling the bark with dilute sulphuric or hydro-
chloric acid.

QUICK'SILVEB. See Mbbovst.

QUILLAI BABE. Sgn. QinLi.AT babk, 8ois
sjiSX. The Quillaia laponaria, which yields this
bark, is an evergreen tree, growing in tiie moun-
tainous parts of Chili, in South America.

It is believed to take its name from the native
word quilloj/, which signifies to wash. The inner
bark only is employed. When bmised and agi-
tated in water it imparts a lather to the water,
in the same way that soap does. This quality has
been found to be due to the existence in the bark
of lapotoxin or laponiu — the same principle which
confers a similar property on Sapouaria qffSeinaUt.
The bark is free from any bitter principle, as well
as from tannic acid. It is very generally nsed
amongst the inhabitanto residing on the western
side of South America, where it is employed for
removing grease from silk, and also in the form
of a wash for cleansing and preserving the hair.

When had recourse to for cleansing silks, qnillai
bark is said not to change the' colour of the fabric
It is sometimes g^ven as a febrifuge, and as a re-
medy for cold in the head. For this latter pur-
pose the powder is snuffed up the nostrils, when
it occasions sneering and pn^use discharge from
the nose. A tincture, 1 in 10 of rectified spirit,
is nsed as a solvent for coal tar. It is a usefnl
emulsifying agent for fixed oils ; a few iropa of
the tincture shaken with ood-liver oil causes it to
readily mix with water. •

QUIUiS. iVep. 1. The quills or wing-feathers
of the goose (goose quills) are separately plunged,
for a few seconds, into hot ashes, cinders, or sand,
of a temperature about equal to that of Ixuling
water, after which they are scraped with a blnnt
knife, strongly rubbed with a piece of flannel or
woollen cloth, and. gentiy ' stoved ' ; they are,
lastly, tied up in bundles by women or children.
A yellow tinge is often given to them by dipping
them for a short time into dilute hydrochloric or
nitric acid, or into an infusion of turmeric.

2. Suspend the quills in a copper over water
sufficiently high to nearly tonch the nibs; then
close it steam tight, and apply three or four
hours' hard boiling; next, withdraw the quilla,
and dry them, and in twenty-four hours cat the
nibs and draw out the pith ; lastly, rub them with
a piece of cloth, and expose them to a moderate
heat in an oven or stove. Quills prepared in this
way are as hard as bone, without being brittle,
and nearly as transparent a* glass. Crow qailla
and swan quills may be cured in the same
manner.

ftPITTA. See Quninix.

QUnrAJIIHE. 1^. QvisktasK. C„HmN^.
This alkaloid was discovered by Hesse, in 1872,
in the bark of Cinciona nKcirubra, cultivated at
Daijiling, in British Sikhim.

Dr de Vrij gives the following process for the
preparation of qninamine : — The mixed alkaloids
obteined from the red bark are converted into
neutral sulphates, and the solution treated witb
Bochelle salt, whereby the tartrates of quinine
and of cinchonidine are separated. After collect-
ing these upon a filter, the filtered liquid is shaken

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QUINCE— QITINIKE

1427

with eaastic loda and ether. By this process the
•morphoos alkaloid and the qninamine are dis-
loWed by the ether, with slight traces of cinoho-
nine, wMlst the balk of this last alkaloid remains
undissolved. After distilling the ethereal solu-
tion the residue is transformed into nentral ace-
tate, and the solution of this mixed with a solution
of sulphocyanate of potassium.

By this reaction the sulphocyanate of the
•morphoos alkaloid is precipitated in the shape
of a yellow, soft, resinous substance, whilst the
•nlphoeyanate of qninamine remains dissolved.
After subsiding and filtering, the solution ia clear
and quite colourless, and by addition of caustic
soda the qninamine is precipitated. It is then
collected npon a filter, washed, and dried. It can
BOW easily be obtained crystiUliied by dissolving
it in boiling spirit, from which it crystallises in
cooling. By this process the author obtained
0-38 per cent, of pure qninamine from samples of
red cinchona quill bark, which he had received,
through the Secretary of State for India, irom
the plantations in British Sikhim.

Qninamine fuses at 172° C, is sparingly soluble
in boiling water, abundantly in boiling ether,
benzol, or petroleum ether. Its solutions are not
flnoreaoent, neither does it give the thalldoqnin
test. Moistened with nitric add it assumes a
yellow colonr.

QUnrCX. SjfH. Ctdoitia, L. The fruit of
Oj/doma mtlgaru, or common quince tree. Its
flavour in the raw state is anstere, but it forms
an excellent marmalade (quince marmalade), and
its jnioe yields an agreeable and wholesome
wine. The seed or pips (cydonin seminss; cy-
doninm — Ph. L.) abound in gnmmy matter,
which forms a mncilage with water, and pos-
sesses the advantage of not being afFected by the
salts of iron or alcohol. See DBOOOiloir, Fxxx-
Tcraa, and JblTiT.

QUIUKTUX. Thealkaldds contained in the East
Indian red bark (0<Meho»a luecirubra) consist
of a large percentage of cinchonidine, cinchonine,
qninine, and amorphous alkaloid, besides a trace of
qninidine, the prei>onderating alkaloid being dn-
chonidine.

Dr de Vrij, of the Hague, has devised a process
by which these can be extracted in thdr entirety,
and to the mixed alkaloids so obtained the name
' qninetum ' lias been given.

It is affirmed of qninetum that it possesses a
remedial valne as a tonic and antiperiodic that
renders it, in many cases, superior to quinine,
ague being one of these ; also that it may be ad-
vantageously employed in affections in which
qninine would be inadmissible. A medical corre-
spondent informs ns that he has used it with
signal success in hay asthma. Another advantage
it lias over quinine is, it is much lower in price.
Qninetom, according to Dr de Vrq's process, as
well as a si^hate and hydrochlorate are prepued
by Mr Whiffen, of Battersea.

OUmciSE. An alkaloid obtained in 1853 by
Pasteur, by exponng quinine or qninidine, under
favourable drcumstances, to a temperature vary-
ing from 248° to 266° F., for several hours. It is
very probable that this alkaloid is either identd-
eal, or in very close connection, with the amor-
phona alkaloid solable in ether wUch occurs in all

barks, and particularly in the young barks of the
plantations in India.

QUmSIHE. CxB^0,TS,.2A.q. Si/n. Qui-
NimA, CoKOHniniB, &c. An alkaloid contained
in many species of dnchons, together with qtunine
and cinchonine, and therefore often fonnd in the
mother-liquors of quinine manufactures. It ia
identical with the j3 qninine of Van Heyningen,
and was discovered, in 1833, by Henry and
Delondre. As the cinchonidine discovered by
Winckler, in 1848, has been unhappily denomi-
nated qninidine by this chemist, there is still a
confusion about these alkaloids, and, therefore,
the qninidine of commerce was very often a mix-
ture of both, till Pasteur made, in 1863, a classical
investigation of this matter. He maintained the
name of qninidine for the alkaloid discovered
by Henry and Delondre, becanse it is isomeric
with quinine, and gives the same green colour
when treated with chlorine followed by ammonia,
and gave the name of cinchonidine to the alkaloid
discovered by Winckler, because it is isomeric
with cinchonine. He determined also the action
of the solutions of these alkaloids on the plane of
polarisation, and found that the qninidine turned
this plane to the right, its molecular rotation in
alcoholic solution beiug [o] — 250'75°^^g^ > ,
whilst he fonnd that the cinchonidine turned this
plane to the left, its molecular rotation in alcoholic

solution being [a] =144-61°-< ^^■

Prop., l[B. Many of the salts of qninidine are
very similar to those of quinine, but the normal
salt with hydriodic acid is not only very difliarent
from that of quinine, but also from those of all
the other dncbona-alkaloids. The normal hy-
driodate of qninidine is so very sparingly soluble
in water that 1 part requires, at 60° F., not less
than 1260 parts of water to be dissolved. There-
fore the presence of sulphate of qninidine in the
sulphate of quinine, which often occurs, either
from that article being carelessly made or from
wilful adulteration, can be easily detected by add-
ing a few minims of solution of iodide of potas-
nnm to the saturated solution of sulphate oS. qui-
nine in water of 60° F., whereby, if qninidine is
present, its hydriodate wiU be separated either
in the shape of a sandy precipitate or, if only
traces are present, in the shape of strits on the
sides of the glass where this has been rubbed by a
glass rod.

For an account of its medicinal properties the
reader should consult the recent report from India
npon the experiments made there by order of
Qovemment with all the four dncbona-alkaloids,
which experiments are very favourable to the
therapeutical action of qninidine compared with
that of quinine.

QUUIJIE. C^mNA + S^sO. 8ji*- Qi^nu,
Qvncu. Till recently it was found in Uie greatest
quantity in good CaJisaya bark, particularly in
that from Bolivia, but since it has been found in
great quantity in some other barks, espedally in
the bark of Cx%ch<ma qfflcinalit, for instance, in
the bark of that species grown in Ceylon. Bed
bark contains not only qmnine and cinchonine,
but also dncbonidine.

Prep. 1. By predpitating a solution of sul-
phate of quinine with a tl^ht excess of ammonia,
potasaa, or soda, and washing and drying the pre-

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1428

QUmiKS

eipitet«. By aolation in aloobol, ap. gr. '815, and
spontaneoui evaporation, it may be procored in
ciTstalB. CiyiteU may aUo be ob^ned from
" its aolation in bot water with a little ammonia."

2. (Direct.) By adding hydrate of lime, in
(light ezcesa, to a strong decoction of the ground
bark made with water acidulated with sulphuric
acid, washing the precipitate which ensues, and
boiling it in alcohol ; the solution, filtered while
hot, deposits the alkaloid on cooling.

Prop., S[a. Quinine, when prepared by pre-
cipitation, is an amorphous white powder, but
when this precipitate is left in the liquor it
assumes, after some time, the appearance of
aggregated crystalline needles; when slowly
crystallised from its solution, these needles are
remarkably fine, and of a pearly or silky lustre.
It is freely soluble in rectified spirit and in ether,
and of all the cinchona-alkaloids it is the most
soluble in ammonia. It is upon tliis fact that
Kemer'a method for testing the purity of sul-
phate of quinine is founded. Ite normal salto, if
dissolved in water, have a slightly alkaline reac-
tion upon red litmus paper. It is only sparingly
soluble in water, even when boiling j both the
fixed and volatile oils dissolve it wiUi the aid tA
heat, more especially when it has been rendered
anhydrous, or is presented to them under the
form of an ethereal solution. It fuses by a gentle
heat at 67° C. without decomposition ; forms crys-
talliaable salts, which are only slightly soluble in
water, unless it be acidulated, and, like the pure
alkaloid, are extremely bitter. It is precipitated
by the alkalies and their carbonates, by tannic
acid, and by most astringent substances.

Pw. See QunriKB, Suif hates ob, and Qui-

Tat*. Quinine is recognised by — 1. Ito ap-
pearance under the microscope. 2. Ita solubility
in ether, and in pure ammonia water. 8. Its
■olnbility in concentrated nitric add, forming a
colonrlesB liquid, which does not become yellowish
until it is heated. 4. The solubility of itself and
salts, when pure, in concentrated sulphuric acid,
forming colourless fluids, " which do not acquire
any coloration upon being heated to the point of
incipient evaporation of the sulphuric acid, bat
which afterwards become yellow, and finally
brown." {Fretetmu.) 6. Its solubility in con-
centrated sulphuric acid to which some nitric acid
has been added, forming a colourless, or, at the
most, only a faintly yellowish liquid. 6. It is
wholly destroyed by heat.

A solution of quinine in acidulated water, and
solutions of ite (»lta, exhibit the following reac-
tions:— 1. Ammonia, potassa, and the i&aline
carbonates, give white, pnlvemlent precipitates,
becoming crystalline aft^ some time (see above),
and which are soluble in ammonia in excess, and
which, when ether is added after the ammonia,
and the whole is agitated, redissolve in the ether,
whilst the clear liquid, on repose, presente two
distinct layers. 2. Bicarbonate of soda (avoiding
excess) gives a similar preci|ntate, both in acid
and neutral solutions of quinine, either at once
or after a short time. The precipitate is soluble
in excess of the precipitant, and is again precipi-
tated from the new solution upon protracted

ebullition. " Vigorous stirring of the liquid pro-
motes the separation of this precipitate. (JB\n-
*«M>M.) 8. If recently preparod chlorine be
added to it, and then ammonia, a beautiful eme-
rald-green colour is developed. 4. A concentrated
solution of f errocyanida ofpotassium being added
in excess, after the chlorine, instead of the am-
monia, a dark red colour is instantly prodooed,
which after some time passes into green, espe-
cially when freely exposed to the fight. Tiaa
reaction is not characteristic of quinine, for with
quinidine one geta the same reaction. 6. If
caustic potassa be used instead of ammonia (see
above), the solution acquires a salpbor-yeUow
colour. "These reactions are Nstrioted to this
alkaloid" (Z)r aarrod).

Fl&ckiger (in ' Jahrb. f. Fharm.,' April, 1878,
136; 'Ph. Joum., 8rd series, ii, 001) saya: —
"The most cliaracteristic test for ascertaining
the presence of quinine is the formation of the
splendid green compound called thalUioqniti,
which is produced if solutions of the alkaloid or
ite aalte are mixed with chlorine water, and then
a drop of ammonia added."

If one part of quinine is dissolved in 4000 parte
of acidulated water, and then about i^th of the
volume of the liquid, of chlorine water, and a
drop of ammonia added, a green xone will be
readily formed if the liquids are cantionaly placed
in a flask without shaking.

If the solution of qumine contain no more
tlian nfsT)' ^^ green of one may still be obtained,
but in more diluted solutions the success becomes
more and more uncertain.

From a practical point of view we m^y state
that tt/W <>' ^B alkaloid is the smallest quantity
whose presence can thus be discovered wi^
certainty; Kemer (1870) has succeeded with
Tuitjst but I was not able to corroborate thia
statement.

The author was also induced to try the action
of bromine in place of chlorine. The titUleiofU*
is then, indeed, produced in solution which contain
only inios o^ quinine. Yet the behaviour of
bromine displays some striking differences. Chlo-
rine alone, as already stated, causes no immediate
alteration of somewhat diluted solutions of qui-
nine, whereas they became terbid on addition of
bromine as long as there is about tAsjs <" more of
quinine present. Now, the predpitato which is
produced by bromine in solution of quinine does
not turn green if a little ammonia is subsequently
added, or, at least, the thalleioquin thus obtahied
is rather greyish. But in more dilute solutiona
of quinine bromine acta more readily than chlo-
rine. An excess of bromine is to be carefully
avoided.

This is easily performed if the vaponr of bro>
mine, not the liquid bromine itself, is allowed to
fall down on the surface of the solutions of
quinine; their superficial layer only must be
saturated with bromine by gently moving the
liquid. Then a drop of ammonia will produce
the green or somewhat bluish zone, which ia
much more persistent than that due to chlorine.

Consequently, for demonstration of the teat
under notice, chlorine is to be need in eompaim-
tively concentrated solutions. In solutions con>
taining so littie quinine (!•■■ Oun r^) *!>•( it

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QUmiNE

1429

is no longer preeii^tated by the vapoar of bro-
mine, the thaUeioqnln test snceeeds much better
trith bromine, and goes much farther, as shown
above.

The author also shows that morphine gives a
dark, dingy brown colour with chlorine and am-
monia, which is capable of more or less masking
the reaction of quinine.

Another test for qninine is the formation of its
iodosulphate, the so-called herapathite. For this
purpose the quinine is dissolved in 10 parts of
proof spirit, acidulated with ^ part of sul-
phuric acid, and to this solution an alcoholic
solution of iodine is carefully added, and the
liquid in the meanwhile stirred with a glass rod.
There appean either immediately or after some
minutes a black precipitate of iodosulphate of
quinine, which if redissolved in boiling proof
sjMt, forms in cooling the 1]eantiM crystUs of
herapathite. 100 parts of this herapathite, if
dried on a water-bath, represent 66'6 parts of
pnre quinine.

Dr de Vrij prefers the employment of the
iodosulphate of chimodine as a reagent tor the
detection and estimation of quinine. In a com-
munication to the ' Pharmaceutical Journal ' he
writes (3rd series, vi, 461): — "In estimating
qtunine in a mixture of cinchona-alkalcnds by
means of an alcoholic solution of iodine the re-
agent requires to 1>e added in slight excess, in
order to ensure complete precipitation. An un-
due excess of the reagent, howeVer, causes the
fbrmation of a compound richer in iodine and
mneh more soluble in alcohol than herapathite,
and thus renders the determination inaccurate."
For this reason the author suggests tbe applica-
tion of an alcoholic solution of iodosulphate of
chiniodine (so-called sulphate of amorphous qni-
nine) in place of free iodine. The reagent is
made as follows :

Two parts of sulphate of chiniodine are dis-
solved in 8 parts of water containing 6% of sul-
phuric acid. To this eUar solution, contuned in
a large capsule, a solution of 1 part of iodine and
2 parts of iodide of potassium, in 100 parts of
water, is ilotoly added with continuous stirring,
so that no part of the solution of chiniodine
comes into contact with excess of iodine. By
this addition an orange-coloured flocculent pre-
oimtate is formed of iodosulphate of chiniodine,
which either spontaneously, or by a slight eleva-
tion of temperature, collapses into a dark brown,
red-coloored, resinous substance, whilst the super-
natant liquor becomes clear and slightly yellow
eolonred. This liquor is poured oif, and the
resinoos lobstance is washed by heating it on a
water-bath with distilled water. After washing,
the resinous sulMtance is heated on the water-
bath till all the water has been evaporated. It
is then soft and tenacious at the temperature of
boiling water, hut becomes hard and brittle after
cooling. One part of this substance is now treated
with 6 parts of alcohol of 92% or 94% nntil it is
completely dissolved, and the solution allowed to
oooL In cooling, a part of the dissolved sub-
■tanoe is separated. The clear dark-coloured
solution is evaporated on a water-bath, and the
residue dissolved in 6 parts of cold alcohol. This
second solution leaves a small part of insoluble

substance. The clear dark-coloured solution ob-
tained by the separation of this insoluble matter,
either by decantation or filtration, constitutes the
reagent which the author has used for some time
under the name of iodosulphate of chiniodine,
both for the qualitative and quantitaiive deter-
mination of cryttallitablt quinine.

To determine a quantity of qninine contained
in the mixed alkaloids obtained from a sample
of cinchona bark, 1 part of the alkaloid is dis-
solved in 20 parts of alcohol, of 90% or 92% ,
containing 1-6% of sulphuric acid, to obtain an
alcoholic solution of the acid sulphates of the
alkaloids.

From this solution the quinine is separated by
adding carefully, by means of a pipette, the
above-mentioned solntiun of the iodosulphate of
chiniodine, as long as a dark brown-red precipi-
tate of iodosulphate of quinine-herapathite is
formed. As soon as all the quinine has been pre-
cipitated, and a slight excess of the reagent has
l)een added, the liquor acquires an intense yellow
colour. The beaker containing the liquor with
the precipitate is now covered by a watch-glass,
and heated on a water-bath till the liquid hegint
to boil.

After cooling, the beaker is weighed, to ascer-
tain the amount of liquid which is necessary, in
order to be able to apply later the above-men-
tioned correction. For although qninine-hera-
pathite is vety little soluble in alcohol, it is not
insoluble, and therefore a correction must be ap-
plied for the quantity which has been dissolved
Ixtth by the alcohol used for the solution of
the alkaloids and the alcohol contained in the
reagents.

The liquor is now filtered to collect the iodo-
sulphate of quinine on a small filter, where it is
washed with a saturated solution of herapathite
in alcohol. After the washing has been completed
the weight of the funnel with the moist filter is
taken, and the filter allowed to dry in the funnel.
As soon as it is dry the weight is taken again, to
ascertain the amount of solution of herapathite
which remained in the filter, and which left the
dissolved herapathite on the filter after the evapo-
ration of the alcohol.

This amount is subtracted from the total amonnt
of liquid, and for the remaining the correction is
calcuiated with reference to the temperature of
the laboratory during the time of the analysis.
The dry iodosulphate of quinine is taken from the
filter and dried on a water- bath in one of a couple
of large watch-glasses closing tightly upon each
other, so that the weight of the substance con-
tained in the glass may be taken without the
access of air.

When, after repeatedly ascertaining the weight,
it remains constant, this weight la noted down,
and to it is added the product of tbe calculated
correction. The sum of this addition is the total
amount of iodosulphate of quinine obtained from
the mixed alkaloids subjected to the operation,
and from this weight the amount of orifrtattiiabU
quinine can he calculated by the use of Hauer's
formula, 2C«Hj,N,048 (HO,SO,), 81 (old nota-
tion), which the author has found to be correct.
According to this formula, 1 part of iodosulphate
of quinine, dried at lOCC C., represents 0*6509%

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1430

qtriNiNE

gf anhydroas qninine, or 0*7845% of disalpliate
of qninine.

The accuracy of this determination may be seen
from the following examples :

0*24 grm. of anhydroas crystallised qninine
gave 0-^1 grm. of herapathite dried at 100° C.
_0'298 grm. of qninine.

AccorSng to Haner's formula, 0*5336 grm. of
herapathite » 0*294 grm. of quinine, which ought
to have been obtained.

1*048 grm. of bitartrate of quinine gave 1*224
grm. of herapathite =0*674 grm. of quinine.

According to the formula of the bitartrate,
CnHa,N,OnC4H,0, + Aq.s442; 1*048 of bitar-
trate represents (fdO of qninine, so that 1*256
grm. of herapathite should have been obtained.

Notwithstanding the different circumstances in
which the reagent was applied, the results are
satisfactory.

The two following experiments were made with
pure quinine, dried ait 100° C, at which tempera-
ture it still retuns water under identical circnm-
itances:

1-0664 grm. of hydrated qninine gave 1*7266
grm. of herapathite =164-6% .

1-065 grm. of the same hydrated qninine gave
1*7843 grm. of herapathite =164-8% .

The author further states that the iodosulphate
of quinine and of quinidine prepared by means of
his new reagent have an analogous composition,
and are identical with the compound described
by Herapath, whilst the iodosulphates of cincho-
nme and cinchonidine have a different composi-
tion from the former, and both require more
iodine to be converted into the optical iodo-
sulphates described by Herapath. Of all these
iodosulphates that of qninine is by far the most
insoluble in alcohol, and is precipitated first and
free from the others by a jndicions application of
the iodosnlphate of chinioidine.

Quinine is distingnished from both dnchonine
and quinidine by its comparatively free solubility
in ether ; the last of these being very sparingly
soluble, and the other wholly insoluble, in that
menstruum. The presence of cinchonine may
also be positively determined by reference to the
behaviour of that alkaloid. Qninidine is also
distinguished from quinine by the different crys-
tallisation, greater specific gravity, and freer
solubility of its salts in cold water. An extremely
elegant and highly sensitive method of testing
for qninine and quinidine by means of the micro-
scope, &c., is described at considerable length by
Dr Herapath, in the 'Pharm. Joum.' for Kovem-
her, 1863.
itHm. See QmiroMSTBT.
Utet, 1(0. Pare quinine is bnt rarely used in
medicine, bnt several of its salts are employed as
remedies on account of their great stimulant,
tonic, and febrifuge powers. As a tonic in dys-
peptic affections, and for restoring strength and
vigour to morbidly weakened habits, and as an
antiperiodic or agent to counteract febrile action,
it appears to be superior to all other remedies,
provided no abnormal irritability of the mnoous
membranes or of the circulatory organs exists.
The dose of the salts of quinine, as a tonic, is \
to 1 gr., twice or thrice daily ; as an antiperiodic,
2 to 6 gr., or even more, every second or third

hoar, daring the intervals of the paioz^snis of
ague, and of other intermittent or periodic affec>
tions ; also in acute rheamatism. The sulphate
(disnlphate) is the salt generally used ; this and
other salts are most effective when taken in
solution.

The nature of the influence exerted u^n blood
by qninine was, in 1872, made the snl^ect of a
fresh investigation by Schulte. ' N. Rep. Fhann.,'
XX. 639 (' Pharm. Joum.,' 8rd series, ii, 629). lU
extraordmary power of stopping fermentation
and putrefaction, by destroying low organisms,
snch as bacteria and fung^ has been before pointed
out. It is supposed to diminish the formation of
pns in inflammation by arresting the motions and
preventing the exit from the blood-vessels of the
white blo<^-corpascles, the accumulation of which,
accordiag to O^heim, constitutes pus.

By depriving the red blood-corpuscles of the
power to produce «zone, it diminishes the change
of tissue in the body, and thereby lessens the
production of heat. Ranke and Kemer have
shown the waste of tissue is reduced when la^e
doses of quinine are administered, as indicated
in the small proportion of uric acid and urea
excreted.

With the object of ascertaining whether thia
effect is referable to the direct influence of qninine
on oxidation in the blood, or to its indirect infln*
ence through the nervous system, Schulte em-
ployed a method, based upon the changes occnr-
ing in the alkalinity of the blood, olnerred by
Zuntz, who had noticed that a considerable forma-
tion of acid takes place in freshly-drawn blood,
and continues in a less degree till putrefaction
commences.

The amount of acid formed was estimated from
the diminished alkalinity of the blood, as com-
paratively shown by the quantity of dilute
phosphoric acid reqmrod for exact saturation.

A sufficient quantity of chloride of sodium was
added to the phosphoric acid to prevent the blood-
corpuscles from being dissolved, and interfering
with the reaction by their colouring matter. The
point of saturation was fixed at the point of
transient reddening of carefully prepared test
paper by the carbonic acid. Schulte has thus been
enabled to confirm the experiments of Znnti and
Scharrenbroich, showing that qninineandberberine
lessen the production of acid, and that quinine can
stop it both before and after coagulation ; that
sodinm nicropicrate has an action similar to, and
nearly as powerful as, qninine; while the action
of cinchonme is much less energetic. Harley ha*
shown that whilst qninine lessens oxidation in
blood, some substances, such as snake poisons, in-
crease it. Binz found that when putrid floida
were injected into the circulation of an animal,
the temperature rose ; but that this increase of
temperature could be more or less prevoited by
the addition of quinine to the putrid liqaid« or the
simultaneous injection of the quinine.

With respect to the infiuences of qninine on the
change of tissues, Schulte gives the result of some
careful experiments made by Znntz, who found
that after taking three 0*6 grm. doses of hydrocb-
lorate of quinine for two days the amount of urine
he excreted was increased by one third, and then
decreased as much, the specific gravity £tUiiig

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from 1018 to 1012 ; the area alao showed a marked
deerease.

The ults of qoinine may he made hy (imply
aatnrating the dilate acids with the haae, so that
I>art of the latter remuns nndisBolvcd, and
gently evaporating the solutions for crystals or
todiryneaa.

Qviiiine, Ac'etate of. Syn. Qunra acitib,
L. wPrap. 1. (P. Cod.) Mix quinine, 2 parts,
with water, 8 parts; heat the mixture, and add
of acetate acid, q. a. to dissolve the alkaloid, and
to render the solution slightly acid ; Isatly, decant
or filter the solution whilst boiling hot, and set it
aside to crystallise. The mother water, on eva-
poration, will yield a second crop of the acetate.

2. Effloresced sulphate of quinine, 17 parts, is
dissolved in boiling water, and mixed with crys-
tallised acetate of soda, 6 parts. The acetate of
quinine ciystaUises.

Prop., i^o. Satiny, acicular crystals, which
are rather more suitable in water than those of the
sulphate. — Dole, i to 6 gr.

Quinine, AiBe"niate of. Sgn. QunciB ab-
SVHIAB, L. Prtp. {Bouriiret.) Arsenic acid,
li dr. J quinine, 6 dr. ; distilled water, 6 fl. oz. ;
boil them together in a covered glass vessel until
the alkaloid is dissolved, then set the solution aside
to crystallise.

Utet, ifc. Recommended by Dr Neligan, and
others, as being more powerfully sntipeiiodic than
the otiier preparations of quinine. — Dote, -^ to
i gr., made into pills ; in agues, neuralgia, &c. ;
also in cancer.

Quinine, Ir'senlte of. Syn. Qmss abbhnib,
L. Prep. Snlphate of qoinine, 100 parts, is
dissolved in alcohol, 600 parts, and boiled with
arsenious add. 14 parts. The liquid is then filtered.
The poisonons salt is deposited in the crystalline
form as the liquid cools.

Usee, ifa. As the last.

Qniniae, C]ilo"rlde of. Hy drochlorate of quinine
(see below).

Quinine. Ci'trate of. By*. Quikx citbab,
L. Prep. 1. By mixing a hot solution of sul-
phate of quinine i^ith a like solution of citrate
of soda.

2. From quinine and citric add, as the acetate.
Needle-shaped prisms. — Dote, J^e. As the snl-
phate or disulphate.

Quinine, Dlanlphate of. Sulphate of quinine
{see belov).

Quinine, Ferrocy'anide of. ^it. Ctanisb op

HON Airs QCIiriNB; QUIir^S HXDBOVBBBOOTAirAS,
QriHS TBBBO-PBVBSIAa, L. Prep. (P. Cod.)
Sulphate of quinine, 100 parte ; ferrocyanide of
potassium, 31 parts ; distilled water, 2600 parts ;
boil for a few minutes, and, when cold, separate
the impure salt which floats as an oily mass on the
surface, wash it with a little cold WHter, and dis-
solve it in boiling alcohol ; the solution will deposit
crystals as it cools.

Obi. This compound is by some said to be
.the most efflcadous of all the salts of quinia.
Pelouze asserts that it is simply quinine mixed
with some Prussian blue. — Doie, 1 to 6 gr.

Qninlne, Farrosul'phate of. See QuuriirB aitd

IBOV, SCIiFHATB OV {bdow).

■ Quinine, Hydri'odate of. Syn. lODiv* Of
Qvmra ; QinKJt btbsiosab, Q. losiDim, L.

Prep. 1. By adding, drop by drop, a concen-
trated solution of iodide of potassium to a like
solution of acid sulphate of quinine, and dry-
ing the precipitate in the shade; or heat the
liquid nearly to the boiling point, and allow it to
crystallise.

2. (PorrwA.) Effloresced sulphate of quinine,
6 parts, dissolved in alcohol, and decomposed by
an alcoholic solution of 3 parts of iodide of potas-
sium, predpitates sulphate of potassa, and yields,
on cooling and evaporating, hydriodate of quinine
in flue crystalline needles (" 1 and 2 are not iden-
tical ; 1 IS an add salt which readily crystallises,
but 2 is a normal salt which I never saw crystallise
but always like a fluid resin, quite amorphous."
~{De Vrij.)

3. (losuBBTiBD — Sonrchardat.) From an
acid solution of quinia and a solution of iodide
of iron, containing a slight excess of iron, as
No. 1. B --6

Oil, The above are reputed alterative, tonic,
and antiperiodic. — Doie, 1 to 4 gr., in obstinate
intermittents, and in the scrofulous affections of
debilitated subjects.

Quinine, Hydrochlo"rate of. Syn. ChIiObisb
OP QunriKB, MuBiATB OP (jTJiiriirBt; Qiny.«

HTSBOCELOBAB, QUIK.S KUBIAB, L. Prep. 1.

By neutralising dilute hydrochloric acid with the
base, as above.

2. (Ph. Bor.) Chlorideof barium, 6 dr. {boil-
ing water, 1 lb. ; dissolve, add, gradually, of sul-
phate of quinine, 2 oz. ; boil gently for a few
minutes, filter the solution whilst hot, and set it
aside that crystals may form.

S. (QUIN.S mTBiAB— Ph. D.) Dissolve chloride
of barium, 123 gr. in distilled water, 2 fi. oz. j
add of sulphate of quinine, 1 oz., dissolved in
boiling water, 1^ pint j mix, evaporate the solu-
tion to one half, filter, and again evaporate until
spiculsB begin to appear ; next allow the liquid to
cool, collect the crystals, and dry them on bibu-
lous paper. The mother liquor, by further con-
centration and cooling, will yield an additional
product.

Obi. Hydrochlorate of quinine occurs in snow-
white groups of feathery crystals, of a mother-of-
pearl lustre, which are soluble in about 34 parts
water. On account of its free solubility in water,
without use of acid, it is preferred for eye lotions
and antiseptic injections to bladders.

Quinine and Iodide of Iron. Syn, QuisiE et
FBBBI lOSlDinf. (^BouehardatJ) Prep. Pour
a strong solution of acid sulphate of quinine into
a fresh solution of iodide of iron ; collect the
precipitate, dry it quickly by pressing it between
blotting paper, and keep it from the air.

Quinine, Ki'nate of. £^. Quism xnrAg, L.
Prep. By saturating a solution of kinic acid
with quinine, and purifying by crystallisation out
of alcohol. The kinate of quinine is obtained
in crystalline warts, soluble in 4 parts of water
and 8 parts of alcohol.

Quinine, Lae'tate of. j^i>. Qvivs -ulotas,
L. Prep, As the AOBTATB or ottbatb. By
spontaneous evaporation fine crystals may be ob-
tained. Said to agree better with dyspeptic
patients than the other salts of qoinine.

Qoinine, Ku"rlate of. Hydrochlorate of qui-
nine (see above).

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QUININE

doiaine, Hentntl Eydrobromate of. Sgn.

QVIVM ETDBOBBOXAB. (Af. BoiUe.) Thit Hllt
ia prepared by double decompmiHon of bromide
of barium and neutral aulphate of quinia, and is
thus easily obtained pure and free from chloride,
the great solubility of bromide of barium in
alcohol facilitating the removal of any chloride
which is soluble.

The two salts are dissolved separately in alcohol
and the solution filtered. The neutral sulphate of
quinia solution is gradually added, in slight excess
to the bromide of barium solution until a precipi-
tate ceases to form.

The solutions, diluted with water, are distilled
to recover the alcohol, afterwards filtered to
separate the sulphate of quinia which has been
precipitated by the water, and then concentrated
su£BcientIy to induce rapid crystallisation. The
addition of water is indispensable for the ooncen-
tration and crystallisation ; the hydrobromate,
being soluble in alcohol of all proportions, redis-
solvea as the alcoholic liquor is concentrated. H.
Boille claims for his neutral hydrobromate of
quinine its much readier solubility over the offi-
cinal sulphate, as well as its superior richness in
qmnine.

Quinine, Ki'trate of. Sgn. Qunrjt hitbab,
L. Pnp. As the ETDBOOKLOBATE, substituting
dilute nitric acid, or nitrate of baryta (F.
Cod.), for hydrochloric acid or chloride of
barium.

Qniaine, Htoa'pliate of. Sj/m. Qviss PHoa-
PHAs, L. As the AOiTATB. Silky, needle-
shaped crystals, with a pearly lustre. It has been
highly recommended in intermittents, &c., asso-
ciated with rickets and stomach affections.

Quinine, Salicylate of. Sgn. QunOB SAU-
0TLA8. This may be made by mixing an alco-
holic solution of quinine with an alcoholic soln-
tion of salicylic add to complete saturation, and
afterwards allowing the alcohol slowly to eva-
porate.

ftninine, Snl'phates of. The salt often called
' disulphate of quinine ' is now generally regarded
as the normal sulphate, while the soluble salt,
often called the ' neutral sulphate,' is considered
to be an acid salt. This change in nomenclature
results from doubling the atomic weight of the
alkaloid quinine :

i. aviiiine, Aoid Stdpbata of. (C^PM^a*^-
H1SO4. 7Aq.) Sj/n. SuifHATX o> QUivnrEf.

NbCTBAL SuLPBATB op QUINIBBt, SOLVBLB S.
OP <i.; QVII(.S BULFHA8 BOLUBILIB, L. Prep.

From sulphate of quinine, 1 oz., dissolved by the
aid of heat, in water, i pint, previously acidulated
with dilute sulphuric add, 6 fl. dr. ; the solu-
tion affords crystals on cooling, and more on
evaporation.

Obi. This salt possesses the advantage of being
soluble in abont 10 parts of water at 60° F. ; but
it is seldom used in the crystalline form ; still,
as the officinal sulphate ('disulphate') is gene-
rally prescribed along with a small quantity of
dilute sulphuric add to render it soluble, this
acid sulphate is, in fact, the compound which is
commonly given. It is the ' bisulphate,' ' super-
sulphate,' or ' acid sulphate of quinia' of Soabei-
ran and other Continental chemists.

ii. anloine. Sulphate of. ([CsHmN,0J,H^4)„

ISHjO. 8jf». Noaif AX emnwa <a vvraw,
DiBuxPHATB OP Q., QuimiB ; QviirjB vtarif
PHAB (Ph. L.), QvoTA aviPKAa (Pb. S. D., A
V. S., & p. Cod.), QrnHJB bvuhab (B. P.), h ;

SULPEATB SB QTTIBIKB, Ft. Prtp. 1. (Ph.

L. 1886.) Take of yellow dnchona bark, bruised,
7 lbs.; sulphuric add, 4i oi.; (diluted with)
water, 6 galls. ; boil them for 1 hour, and (trun j
repeat thU a seoond time for 1 hour, with a Iik«
quantity of add and water, and a^ain attain j
next boil the bark for 8 hours, in water, 8
galls., and strun; wash the residue witii fraah
quantities of boiling distilled water; to the mixed
decoctions and washings, add moist hydrated
oxide of lead to saturation, decant the supernatant
fluid, and wash the sediment with distilled water ;
boil down the liquor for 16 minutes, and (bBin,
then predpitate the qnina with liquor of ammonia
and wash the precipitate (with very cold water)
until nothing alkaline is perceptible; saturate
what remains with sulphuric add, i oi , diluted
with water, q. s. ; digest with animal diarooal,
2 oz., and strain ; \uuj, the charcoal bdng well
washed, evaporate the mixed liquor*, that OTatals
may form.

2. (Pb. E.) This process varies from the laat
one, in the bark (1 lb.) being first boiled in water
(4 pints) along with carbonate of soda (4 oz.) ;
the residuum, bdng pressed, is moistened with
water, and agun pressed, and this operation is
repeated a second and a third time, the object being
to remove, as much as possible, the adds, colonr-
ing matter, gum, and extractive, before proceed-
ing to extract the alkaloid. Carbonate of soda
is also used as the precipitant, instead (tf
ammonia, and the pred]ntate is formed into a
sulphate (disulphate) by bdng stirred with boil-
ing water, 1 pint, to wUch sulphuric add, 1 il.
scruple, or q. s., is subsequently added. Tlie txj»-
tala, after digestion with prepared animal char-
coal, i dr., are ordered to be dried at a heat not
higher than 140° F.

8. (Ph. D.) YeUow bark, 1 lb., is macerated
for 24 hours in water, 2 quarts, addulated with
oil of vitriol, 2 fl. dr. ; and th^ boiled for half an
hour, after which the fluid is decanted ; this is
repeated a second and a third time with water, 8
quarta, and oil of ritriol, 1 ft. dr. ; the decanted
(or strained) liquors are evaporated to a quart,
and filtered, and slaked lime, 1 oi., or q. s., added
to the solution until it exhibits a deddedly alka>
line reaction ; the predpitate is next collected on
a calico filter, and, after having been washed with
cold water, partially dried on porous bricka, and
subjected to powerfol pressure enveloped in blot-
ting-paper, is boiled for 20 minutes in rectified
spirit, 1 pint, and the liquid, after subsidence, de-
canted ; this is repeated a second and a third time
with a fresh pint of spirit, and the residuum
being well pressed, the mixed liquors are filtered
and the spirit removed by distillation ; the brown
visdd residuum is dissolved in boiling water,
16 fl. oz., boiled, and dilnte sulphuric add, i S.
oz., or q. s., added to render the solution neutral
or only slightly acid ; animal charcoal, i ox., is
next stirred in, the mixture boiled for about 6
minutes, filtered and set aside to crystallise ; the
crystals are dried on blotting paper by mere ex-
posure to a dry atmosphere.

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4. (B. P.) Tellow dnohoiuk bwk, in ooane
powder, 16 part* ; hydrooUmrie acid, 8 parts ; du-
tilled water, a mffioiancy ; lolDtioii li loda, 80
parta { dilate nUpfanric acid, a saffloiency. Dilate
the hydrochloric acid with 10 pints of the water.
Place the bark in a porcelain basin, and add to it as
jnaeh of the dilated hydrochloric acid as will ren-
der it thoroogbly moist. After maceration with
occasional stirring, for 84 hours, place the bark ia
a displacement apparatus, and percolate with the
dilated hydrochlono add until the solution which
drops throngh is nearly destitute of bitter taste.
Into this liquid (hydrocUorate of quinine) poor
the solution of soda, agitate well, let the precipi-
tate (qninine) completely subside, decant the
supernatant fluid, collect the precipitate on a
filter, and wash it with cold distilled water until
ihe washings cease to have colour. Transfer the
precipitate to a porcelain dish containing a pint
of distiUed water, and, applying to this the heat
of a water-bath, gradually s[dd diluted sulphuric
add until very nearly the whole of the precipi-
tate has been dissolved, ond a neutral liquid has
been obtained. (Or add about half the precipi-
tated quinine to some water in an eraporating
basin, warm the mixture and pour in dilated sul-
phuric add until the predpitate has dissolved
and the liquid is neutral or only faintly add, then
add the other half, stir weU, and again heat
Uquid.) Bllter the solution (sulphate oS quinine),
while hot, through paper, wash the filter with
boiling distilled water, concentrate till a film
forms on the surface of the solution, and set it
aside to crystallise. The crystals should be
dried on filtering paper without the application
of heat.

6. Those who are well acquainted with the
diemistry of the dnchona-alkiOcdda all agree with
me in oondemning the bdling of bark with dilute
acids. I prefer tiie following method, which can
also be used on a small scale for quinometry :

"Tellow bark, or any other bark in which
quinine prevails, like, for instance, that of CVo-
eioKa offleinaUt, 1 lb., is mixed with milk of lime,
made from 4 oz. of lime and 40 oz. of water.
After drying this mixture it is exhausted with
strong methylated spirit (the strongest possible)
and tiie slightiy coloured solution neutralised
with sulphurie add, so that the liquor lias a slight
add reaction upon blue litmus paper. After
filtering or subsidiog, the clear liquid is distilled
and the residue in the stiU dissolved in water,
carefully neutralised, so that the solution has a
slight alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper,
treated with charcoal and crystallised, &c." (De

(B. P. 1886.) The outlines only of a process
is given as follows : " The sulphate of an alka-
loid prepaied from tiie powder of various kinds of
dnebona and pemijia bark, by extraction with
•pirft after the addition of Ume, or by the action
of alkali on an addulated aqueous infusion, with
subsequent neutralisation of the alkaldd by sul-
phuric add and purification of the resulting
salt."

Ptvp. When pure, snlphate of quinine forms
very 1%^^ delicate, flezibfc, white nieedles, which
are efflorescent, inodorous, and intensely bitter ;
it ia soluble in 740 parts <rf water at 60^ and in

80 parts at 218° F. ; it takes about 80 parts of
cold rectified spirit for its solution, but u freely
soluble in boiling alcohol and in addulated water ;
it melts at 840° P., and is charred and destroyed
at a heat below that of redness. The crystals
contain 76-1% of quinine, 8'7% of sulphuric acid,
and 16*2% of water; of the last, they lose about
three fourths by exposure to dry air, and nearly the
whole when kept in a state of fusion for some
time.

Pmt. This may not be inferred from the form
of its eijstallisation, for the sulphates of qoini-
dine and of dndionidine may be obbdned in the
same form of crystallisation. As mentioned
already, the reaction with chlorine and ammonia
does not distingoish quinine from qnini(Une, as
both give the same green colour. " It is entirely
soluble in water (hot), and more readily so when
an add is present. Precipitated by ammonia, the
reddnary liquid, after evaporation, should not
taste of sugar. By a gentle heat it loses 8% or
10% of water. It Is wholly consumed by heat.
If chlorine be first added, and then ammonia, it
becomes green." Ita solution in sulphurie add
gives with ammonia in excess a white predpitate
of quinine soluble in ether and in large excess of
ammonia. 86 gr. of the freshly made salts should
lose 8-8 gr. of water by drying at 218° P. (100° C).
Ignited, with free access of ur, it bums without
leaving a residue.

Teit for Cinehouidint and Oiitehonint (B. P.).
Heat 100 gr. of the sulphate of quinine in 6 or 6
oz. boiling water, with 8 or 4 drops of sulphuric
acid. Set the solution aside until cold. Separate
by filtration the purified snlphate of quinine which
has crystallised out. To the filtrate, which should
nearly fill a bottle or flask, add ether, shaking occa-
sionally, until a distinct layer of ether remains un-
dissolved. Add ammonia in very slight excess, and
shake thoroughly, so that the quinine at first pre-
dpitated shall be redissolved. Set aside for some
hours or during a night. Remove the supernatant,
clear, ethereal fluid, which should occupy the neck
of the vessel, by a pipette. Wash the residual
aqneoas fluid and any separated crystals of alka-
loid, with a very little more ether, once or twice.
Collect the separated alkaloid on a tared filter,
wash it with a little ether, dry at 100° C, and
weigh. 4 parts of such alkaloid correspond to 6
parts of crystallised sulphate of rinchonidine or
of snlphate of dnchonine.

Tt$i for QatHitftM (B. P.). Recrystallise 50
gr. of tiie original sulphate of quinine as described
in the previous paragraph. To the filtrate add
solution of iodide of potassium and a little spirit
of wine, to prevent the precipitation of amorphous
hydriodates. Collect any separated hj^driodate of
quinidine, wash with a little water, dry, and
wdgh. The weight represents about an equal
weight of crystallised sulphate of quinidine.

Tut for Osprnns (B. P.). Shake the recrys-
tallised sulphate of qninine obtained in testing the
original sulphate of quinine for cinchouidine and
dnchonine with 1 oz. of ether and i oz. solution
of ammonia, and to this ethereal solution sepa-
rated, add the ethereal fluid and washings also
obtained in testing the original sulphate for the
two alkalddsjast mentioned. Shake this ethereal
liquor with i fl. oi. of a 10% solution of caustic

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QUININB

■ods, adding mter if any solid matter aeparatea.
Remove the ethereal lolntion, wash the aqueoai
aolatioii with more ether, and remove the ethereal
washiagi; add dilate anlphnric acid to the
aqueoiw fluid heated to hoiling until the soda ia
exactly neatraliied. When cold, collect any sul-
phate of capreine that has crystalliaed out on a
tared filter, dry, and weigh.

' Sulphate of quinine' should not contain much
more tiian 6% of sulphates of other cinchona
alkaloids.

Admit. Sulphate of quinine is said to be often
adulterated with starch, magnesia, g^m, sugar,
cinchonine, quinidine, &e. ; but, according to De
Vr\j, those with starch, magnesia, gum, and sugar,
are very rare if ever they were really observed.
Very frequent are those with the sulphates of
the other cinchona-alkaloids, and these become
even still more frequent, as very different kinds
of bark are used for the manufacture of quinine.
Salicin is, if ever, but very seldom used for adul-
teration of quinine. The best practical test for
the parity of sulphate of quinine is the following :
— A saturated solution of the salt is made at 60°
F., and 1 part of this solution is mixed with 2 or
8 minims of a concentrated solution of iodide of

rtassium, whilst another part is mixed with 2 or
minims of a concentrated solution of tartiste of
potash and soda. If the sulphate of quinine is pure
its solution will remain unutered by both reagents,
even after rubbing the sides of the test tube with
a glass rod and standing many hours. But if it
contains one or more of the other cinchona-alka-
loids there will appear either precipitates or strisi
on the glass where it has been rubbed by the glass
rod. Iodide of potassium indicates particularly
jhe presence of even traces of quinidine, but also
of cinchonidine and cinchonine, provided their
quantity be not too small. Tartarate of potash
and soda indicate, under these circumstancea, only
the presence of cinchonidine. The first three re-
main undissolved when the salt is digested in
n)irit ; the fourth is dissolved out by cold water ;
the fifth may be detected by its total insolubility
fa ether ; or by precipitating the quinine by solu-
tion of potassa, and ^solving the precipitate in
boiling alcohol ; cinchonine crystallises out as the
solution oools, but the quinine remains in the
mother-liquor ; and the last, by the greater solu-
bility and sp. gr. of the salt, &c.

Utu, ^e. The sulphate is more extensively
employed than any of the other salts of quinine,
and, indeed, to almost the exclusion of them. It
is the article intended to be used whenever ' sul-
phate ' or ' disulphate ' of quinine, or even ' qui-
nine,' is ordered for medicinal purposes, unless
the name is quaUfied by some other term. It is
a most valuable stomEwhic, in doses of ^ to 1
gr. ; as a tonic, 1 to 8 gr. ; and as a f ebriftige, 2
to20gr.

Quinine, Sniplio-tar'trate of. i^. QvnrjB
8VLPH0-TABTBA8, L. Prtp. From sulphate of
quinine, 4 parts ; tartaric acid, 6 parts ; distilled
water, 20 parts j mix, gently evaporate to dryness,
and powder the residuum.

Quinine, Tan'nate of. Sy». QvufM tannas,
L. Frep. Dissolve sulphate of quinine in
slightly acidulated water, and add a solution of
tannic acid as long as a precipitate forms ; wash

this with a little cold water, and dry it. The
Ph. Oreca order* infasion of galls to be nsed as
the precipitant. In intermittent neuralgia.

Qaiiii]ie,Tar'trat«of. 8gu. Qunrx tabtkas.
L. iV«p. (P. Cod.) From tartaric acid and
quinine, a* the acetate.

aii]iilii«,Yal«"Tlanateof. Sj/n. Qutkmyaim.
BIAHAS (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. As the acetate
or intrate.

2. (Ph. D.) Valerianate of soda, 124 gr. ; dis*
tilled water, 2 fl. oi.; dissolve; also dissolve
bydrochlorate of quinine, 7 dr., in distilled water,
14 fl. OS.; next heat each solution to 120° (not
higher), mix them, and set the vessel aside for 84
hours ; lastly, press the nuss of crystals thus ob-
tained, and dry them, withont the application of
artificial heat.

Prop., 4*0. Silky needles and prisms ; its solu-
tion suffers decomposition when heated much
above 120° F. It is powerfully antispasmodic,
antiperiodic, and nervine. — Dote, i gr. every S
hours, or 1 to 8 gr. twice or thrice daily ; in ein*
lepsy, hemicrania, hysteria, neuralgia, and other
nervous affections.

aUDmrX AHD COS-LIVXB on. Syn. Cod-

UTBB OIIi WITH QDIimn, QvanAXBTTBD COD-
IiITIB OIL; OlEUK KOXXHITf OITK QimrX,
OutUU nOOBIB A8BIXI OUK QCTIli, L. This

medicine is a solution of pure aidiydroas quinine
in pure cod-liver oiL

Prep. 1. Pure quinine (preferably recently
precipitated) is fused in a glass or porcelain cap-
sule by the heat of an oil or sand bath, carefully
applied, by which it assumes a brown colour and
the appearance of a resin; it is then allowed to
cool out of contact with the air, after which it ia
reduced to powder in a dry mortar, and added to
pure pale Newfoundland cod-liver oil, gently
heated in a closed glass vessel over a water-bath ;
the solution of the alkaloid is promoted by con-
stant agitation, and, when complete, the vessel,
still corked, is set aside in a dark situation to
cool ; when the ' quiniaretted oil ' ia quite cold it
is put into bottles, in the usual manner, and pre-
served as much as possible from the Ught and air.

2. The anhydrous quinine is dissolved in »
little anhydrous ether before adding it to the oil,
which in this case need not be heated, as the
union is affected by simple agitation ; should thia
not take place, it may he gentiy warmed for a
few minutes.

S. The anhydrous quinine is dissolved in anhy>
drous alcohol, and after being added to the oil,
the whole is genUy heated, in an open vessel, by
the heat of a water-bath, until the alcohol is ex-
pelled; agitation, &c., being had reooorae to as in
No. 1.

Prop., J^e. The above preparation reaembles
ordinary cod-liver oil, except in having a pale
yellowish colour and a dightly bitter taste,
similar to that of cinchona bark. It is said to
possess all the properties of cod- liver oil eom-
bined with those peculiar to quinine, by which
the tonic, stomachic, and antiperiodic qualities of
the latter are associated, in one remedy, with the
genial supporting, and alterative action of the
other. The common starength is 2 gr. of qninine
per oz.

aniBDra ASB naa. Xhew tm impoortant

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QUmmE— QUIKOIDIKB

IW

tnedicinkl agenta are oomMned together in variooa
vays. The following oomponnd salts are often
preacrifaed:

ftnialne and Iron, Cit'rate of. fTya. Citbatx
o* iBoir Avs quiviin ; Fbbbi it qvihjb orrBiJs
(B. P.), L. Pr»p. 1. (B. P.) Solution of per-
sulphate of iron, 4) parts ; sulphate of qoinia, 1
part; dilute sulphuric add, 11 parts; citric acid,
S parts ; solntioii of ammonia and distilled water,
of each a sufficiency ; mix 8 parts of the solution
of ammonia with 40 parts of the water, and to
this add the solution at persulphate of iron, pre-
vioosly diluted with 40 parts of the water, stir-
ring Uiem constantly and briskly. Let the mix-
ture stand for 2 hours, stirring it occasionally,
then put it on a calico filter, and when the liquid
has drained away, wash the precipitate with dis-
tilled water until that which passes throngh the
filter ceases to fire a precipitate with chloride of
barium. Uix the sulphate of qainia with 8 parts
of the water, add the su^huric add, and when
the salt is dissolved, predpitate the quinia with a
slight excess of solution at s'mmonia. Collect
the predpitate on a filter, and wash it with SO
parts of the water. Dissolve the citric add in
i parts of the water, and having applied the heat
of a water-bath, add the oxide of iron, previously
well drained ; stir them together, and when the
oxide has dissolved, add the predpitated qainia,
dontinuing the agitation until this also has dis-
solved. Let the solution cool, then add, in small
quantities at a time, 1^ parts solution of ammo-
nia, dilute with 2 parts of the water, stirring the
solution briskly, and allowing the qainia which
eeparatea with each addition of ammonia to dis-
solve before the next addition is made. Filter
the solution, evaporate it to the consistence of a
thin syrap, then dry it in layers on fiat porcelain
or glass plates, at the temperature of 100° F.,
remove the dry salt in flakes, and keep it in a
stoppered bottle. Solubility, 2 in l.—Tett.
Taste bitter as well as chalybeate. When burned
with exposure to air, it leaves a residue (oxide of
iron) which yields nothing to water. 60 gr., dis-
solved in an ounce of water, and treated with a
slight excess of ammonia, gives a white precipi-
tate (qainia) which, when collected on a filter
and dried, weighs 8 gr. The predpitate is en-
tirely soluble in pure ether, indicating absence of
qninidia and dnchonia. When burned it leaves
no residue. When dissolved by the aid of an
add it forms a solution wMch, after decolorisa-
tion by a little purified animal charcoal, turns the
plane of polarisation strongly to the left (cin-
chona turns it to the right). — Don, 6 to 10 gr.
as a tonic, three times a day, in solution or in
piU.

2. (Ph. U. S.) Triturate sulphate of quinine,
1 ox., with distilled water, 6 fl. oz., and having
added sufiicient diluted sulphuric add to dissolve
it, cautiously pour into the solution water of
ammonia with constant stirring, until in slight
excess. Wash the precipitated quinine on a filter,
and having added solution of citrate of iron, 10
fl. oz., keep the whole at a temperature of 120°
by means of a water-bath, and stir constantly
until the alkaloid is dissolved. Lastly, evaporate
the solution to the consistence of a syrup, and
spread it on plates of glass, so that, on drying.

the salt may be obtained in scales.— Dow, 2 gr.
to 6 gr.

fti^nine and Iron, I'odide of. i^it. QvniM
BT nKRi losiDUM, L. Pnp. From proiiodide
of iron, 2 parts ; hydriodate of quinine, 1 part;
rectified spirit, 12 parts ; heat them together, and
either evaporate to dryness or crystallise by refri-
geration. A powder or crystalline scales.

ftnlnine and Iron, Bnl'phate of. ^». Fbbxo>

BVLVBATB Of (iVtSlXX ; QuiVS VIBBO-BUIfHAS,

QuiHf BT vBKBi BULfHAB, L. i»rsp. From
solutions of the sulphates of iron and quinine, in
atomic proportions, mixed whilst hot, and the
crystals which form as the liquid cools carefully
dried and preserved from the ur.

QTTINIBE AHS KESCUST. See Msbovbio
ABS QunriKB Celobisb.

aUIBOA. The seed of this pUnt (a spedes of
Chtuopodium) is largely oonsumed 1^ the people
who dwell in the elevated regions of Chili and
Peru, in which countries it is found growing at a
height of some 18,000 feet above the sea-level.
Mr Johnston says there are two varieties of it, a
sweet and a bitter one. It is a highly nutritious
cereal, resembling ointment in properties. Accord-
ing to Voelker, quinoa has the following compo-
sition :

Qsinn M«ds dried Onisos
>t»S°F. lonr.

Nitrogenous matter . 22-86 . . 19

Starch 56-80 . . 60

Fatty matter . . . 6-74 . . 6
Vegetable fibre . . 9-63 . . —

Ash 6-06 . . —

Water — . . 16

aunrOIDlHE. Syn. AJCOBPHOTTSQTTiinin.CHi-

HOISINE; QUIKAAJCOBPHA, QUIBA IirT0BMI8,QVI-

KoroA, QuiNOiDiKA, QuisoiDnruM, Chinoisbvh,
L. A few years after the discovery of the quinine
by Pelletier and Caventoa, Sertuemer, a German
physician, and known as the discoverer of morphia,
obtained, by a peculiar method, from yellow bark,
an amorphous alkaloid which was csjled by him
Chinoidin (Sertaemer, 'Die nensten Bntdeck-
ungen in der Physik, Heilknnde, und Cheraie,'
Ster Band, 2te8 Heft, Seite 269 [1830]) (to which
the name amorphous quinine is improperly given),
and also fever-killer (Fiebertddter). Hefonndthat
not only this alkaloid itself, but also all its com-
pounds with acids, were equally amorphous. As re-
cent i nvestigations have proved thatthis amorphous
alkaloid occurs in all cinchona barks, and is found
particularly in many young Indian barks in great
quantity, it is quite natural that in the manufac-
ture of quinine the uncrystallisable sulphate of
this alkaloid should accumulate in the mother
liquors of the sulphate of quinine. From such
liquors it is precipitated in an impure state by an
alkali, and brought into commerce under the
name of qninoidine. As this amorphous alkaloid
has the property of preventing the crystallisation
of the salts of the other alkaloids, particularly
those of quinidine, it is dear that the quinoidine
of commerce very often contains quinidine and
also dnchonidine. Dr. de Vrij, for instance, found
sometimes more than 20% of quinidine in some
samples of qninoidine of commerce. Although
commercial quinoidine contains many impurities
which may have their origin partly in uie adnltera-

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14M

QTTIKOMETET

tion of the cinchona-alkaloids, miadnlterat«d
qntnoidine, no donbt, chiefly consists of the amor-
phous alkaloid discovered by Sertnemer.

The qninoidine of commerce ought never to be
used in medicine unless purified. For this puri-
fication there are two methods ; 1. That of Mr
Bullock, which gives the purer but the more
expensive product. Crude quinoidine is exhausted
with ether, which, after defecation, is distilled off,
leaving the purified quinoidine behind. This
process has been patented in England by Mr
Bullock. 2. That of Dr de Vr^', which consists
in boiling 9 parts of crude quinoidine with a solu-
tion of 2 parts of oxalate of ammonium in water.
By this process the alkalmds contained in the
qninoidine are dissolved whilst the imparities, and
amongst them the lime which is oftoi contained
in the crude qninoidine, remain undissolved. The
solution is mixed with a large bulk of water, then
filtered and the purified quinoidine precipitated by
• slight excess of liquor of soda.

Prop., S(e. In its crude form quinoidine some-
what resembles aloes ; in its purest state it is a
yellowish-brown resin-like mass, freely soluble in
alcohol and ether, but nearly insoluble in water ;
with the adds it forms dnrk-coloured, uncrystal-
lisable salts. It is powerfully febrifuge, but less
so than either qninidine or quinine, although it is
identical in chemical composition with ^th of
them.^ — Dote, 2 to 4 gr. for adults, i to 1 gr. for
children, given in wbie, lemonade, or acidulated
honey.

(HTIHOII'ETBT. 8yn. Cihoeoitohet&t. The
art of estimating the quantity of quinine in cin-
chona bark, and in the commercial salts of this
alkaloid. In addition to the following, other pro-
' cesses will be found under ClzroHOirAand QviNiin

SlTLPaAIE.

Proe. 1. For babk. a. (Ph. E.) A filtered
decoction of 100 gr. of hark, in distilled water,
2 fl. oz., is predpiteted with 1 fl. dr., or q. s. of a
concentrated solution of carbonate of sodaj the
predpitate, after being heated in the fluid, so as
to become a fused mass, and having again become
cold, is dried and weighed. " It should be 2 gr.
or more, and entirely dissolve in a solution of
oxalic acid." To render the result strictly accurate,
the product should be dissolved in 10 parts of
proof spirit, containing ^ of sulphuric acid, and
to this solution carefully added an alcoholic solu-
tion of iodine as long as there appears a brown
precipitate, which immediately turos black by
stirring with a glass rod. This precipitate, col-
lected upon a filter, washed with strong alcohol
and dried on a water-bsth, is Herapath's iodo-
sulphate of quinine, of which 100 parts represent
56'5 parts of pure quinine.

h. {fitbowdiain.) 100 gr. of the bark
(coarsely powdered) are exhausted with addu-
uted water, and the filtered solution rendered
alkaline with solution of potassa ; it is next shaken
with about one third of its volume of chloroform,
and then allowed to repose for a short time; the
chloroform holding the alkaloid in solution unks
to the bottom of the vessel in a distinct stratum,
from which the supernatent liquid is separated by
decantation ; the chlorof ormic solution, either at
once or after being washed with a little cold
water, is allowed to evaporate j the residuum.

when weighed, gives the percentage ridinen of
the sample.

Obi. A like result may be obtained with ether
instead of chloroform, in which case the solntian
of quinine will form the upper stratnm.

e. Instead of Rebourdain's process, Dr de Vrij
prefers that of Charles (' Journal de Pharmacie
et de Chimie,' 4e sjrie, 1. 12, p. 81, Aofit, 1870).
so far as regards the separation of the total mixed
alkaloids from the bark. To this mixture is ap-
plied the process mentioned above (a), viz. solution
in addulated proof spirit, &e.

2. For the OUTS. The above methods, as well
as several others which have been devised for the
purpose, may also be applied to the salts of quinine ;
but, nnfortunately, they are inapplicable when
great accuracy is required, owing to the non-
recognition of the presence of qninidine as such,
and which, consequently, goes to swell the amia-
rent richness of the sample in quinine. Hie fol-
lowing ingenious method, invented by Dr Ure,
not merely enables us to detect the presence of
dnchonine and qninidine in commercial samples
of the salts of quinine, but, with some triung
modifications, it also enables us to determine the
quantity of each of these alkaloids present in
any sample : — " 10 gr. of the salts to be exam-
ined " (the sulphate is here more especially re-
ferred to) " is put into a strong test-tube fur-
nished with a tight-fitting cork ; to this are to
be added 10 drops of dilute sulphuric add (1 add
and 6 water), with IB drops of water, and a gentle
heat applied to accelerate solution. This ^ving
been effected, and the solution entirely cooled, 60
drops of ofBdnal sulphuric ether, with 20 drops
of liquor of ammonia, must be added, and the
whole well shaken while the top is dosed by
the thumb. The tube is then to be doady
stopped, and shaken gently from time to time,
so that the bubbles of air may readily enter the
layer of ether. If the salt be free from dncho-
nine and qninidine, or confaun the latter in no
greater proportion than 10%, it will he com-
pletely dissolved; while on the surface, where
contact of the two layers of clear fluid takes place,
the mechanical impurities only will be separated.
After some time the layer of ether becomes hard
and gelatinous, and no farther observation is
possible."

"From the above statem^t respecUng the
solubility of qninidine in ether, it appears that
the 10 gr. of the salt examined may contain
1 gr. of quinidine, and still a complete solution
with ether and ammonia may follow ; but in this
case the quinidine will shortly begin to crystal-
lise in a layer of ether. The least trace of qnini-
dine may he yet more definitely detected by
employing, instead of the ordinary ether, some
ether previously saturated with quinidine, by
which means all of the quinidine contained in the
quinine examined must remain undissolved. It
is particnlarly requisite, in performing this laat
experiment, to observe (immediately), after the
shaking, whether all has dissolved ; for, owing to
the great tendency of quinidine to crystellisation.
it may become again separated in a crystalline
form, and be a source of error."

"liF more than 1-lOth of quinidine <» (any)
dnchonine be present, there wul be foond aa m-

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QVmOVlC ACID-~fiABfilT

14*7

•oloUe predpiiate at the limits of the two layers
of flaid. If this be qainidine it will be diaeolTed
on the addition of proportionately more ether,
while dnchonine will remain onaffeeted."

NoU. To Dr Ure'i test Dr de Vrij pref en. for
•evenl reaaoni, Dr Eemer's test, ' Zeitachrift fur
Analytische Chemie,' von Fresenini, 1st Jahrgf.,
1862; 'Deber Die Profong dea K&uBichen
Sohwefelsauren Chinins anf fremde ALkaloidea,'
ron Dr O. Kemer.

atmrOTIC acid. CuHhO^. This is insoloble
in water, also in chlorworm, and solnble with
dilBcalty in alcohol. It can be obtained from the
bmUaff alcoholic golation, by cooling in small
ciystus. In the leaves, bark, and wood of the
oindtonatree this add is contained, together with
qainovin, and it is this mixture which has been
recently applied in therapentics, as a powerful
tonie in cases of dysentery, &a. The miztare can
eMily be obtained from the leaves, bark, or wood
of cinchona, and even from bark which has
been ezhanatad by ebullition with water or diluted
adds, by cold maceration with weak milk of lime
by which it is dissolved, as it combines easily
with bases. It is only the qninovate of lime
which has till now been used in medicine. — Dote,
% toSgr. every two honrs.

amVOTIH. Ca,H^O,. agn, CnoHOTnr,
QvnrOTlA. A very bittw amorphous substance
contained in the genus CSnohona, and probably
in many other allied genera. It is insoluble in
water, very soluble in rectified spirit and in
diloroform, with which last liquid it forms, in
oonoentrated solutions, a jelly, U • current of
bydrochlorio gas is passed into its alcoholic solu-
tion the liquid becomes hot and the quinovin is
split ap into a pecnliar kind of sugar.

avnr'anulA. Dr de Vrlj states that the snb-
stanoe known under this. name is a miztnie of
hydrochlorate of dnehonidine Mid of dnchonine.
See CnroHOHA.

QUIH'nr. See Trboax Ansoxion.

aUIHTSS'SXHOX. Sg». QcnrTA MBanriA,
L. A term invented by the alchemists to repre-
sent a concentrated alcoholic solution of the active
prindples of organic bodies. It is still occasion-
ally employed in perfumery and tiie culinary art.
See Ebbbvci, Tihotube, Ac.

ftUITTOK. Oenerally shows itself at the
top or coronet of the hoof of the horse, in the
form of a fistulous opening (whence quittor is
also called 'the pipes'), filled with a pnrulent
discharge.

Quittor invariably points to the presence of an
internal ulcer, abscess, or some other irritating
canse, the discharge from which, accumulating
under the hard hoof, slowly works its way to the
snrfoce. The origin of quittor is generally some
ii\iury to the hoof, such as a com, a prick, or an
inequality of tread.

The first thing to be done is to remove the
animal's shoe, to cut sway any dead or discoloured
horn, so as to reach the seat of the suppuration,
and to allow it to escape by a more direct outlet.
Hot-water fomentations and poultices should
afterwards be applied for a few days. Should
the sores show an indisposition to heal, the parts
sbonid be washed with a tolerably strong solution
of sulphato of zinc, or of bichloride of mercnry—
25 grms. of the latter to an ounce of water. The
application of strong caustics is to be particularly
deprecated.

QUOTIS'IAV. Oecorring or returning daily.
SeeAara.

KAB'BIT. The Ltptu eumiaibu, Linn., of the
Cuvian order RoDiimA. The domestic rabbit,
when young, is a light and wholesome article of
food, approaching in delicacy to the common barn-
door fowl, but has less flavour than the wild
animal. The fat is among the 'simples' of the
Ph. L. 1618. Its hair and skin are made into
cheap fare, gloves, hats, Ac

OompoiUion of SabHet FUiX (Bastuht, ' Lancet,' March 89tb, 1878).

Babbit

Bibbtt

Babbit

Pe^

Ho.1.

Ko.S.

Mo-S.

A.Tcnge
Oraiiu.

csBtun.

Qnias.

araiBk

Qnias.

enias.

Water

6,982

6,628

7.816

6,640

78-17

Fibrin and Syntonin

1,143

1,247

1,898

1,261

1890

Gelatin

802

335

860

829

8-68

Fkt

240

272

346

286

816

Albumen

276

806

840

807

8-88

Alcoholic extract, indnding salts . . . .

106

119

186

120

1-88

Watery extract

102

108

126

112

1-28

Caldnm phosphates

Edible portion

16

19

26

20

0-28

8,167

9.028

10,089

9,076

lOOW

AdcUtional gelatin from stowing bones .

816

282

261

288

2-06

Bones, Ac, dissected out and stowed .

1,601

1,674

1,864

} 2,027

/ 17-88
1 waste.

Shank bones, fur and eyes, thrown away

818

868

882

10,201

11,286

12,616

11,886

• ••

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1488

BACAHOUT— RADISH

Babbit Fie. Cat up two yoang nbbita. Reason
with white pepper, uJt, a Uttle mace, and nut-
meg, all in fine powder ; add alao a Uttle cayenne.
Pack the rabbit with slices of ham, forcemeat
balls, and hard eggs, by tnrns in layers. If it is
to be baked in a dish add a little water, bnt omit
the water if it is to be raised in a crust. By the
time it is taken out of the oven have ready a
gravy of a knuckle of veal, or a bit of the scrag,
with some shank bones of mutton, seasoned wiui
herbs, onions, mace, and white pepper. If the
pie is to be eaten hot, truffles, morels, or mush-
rooms may be added, but not if intended to be
eaten cold. If it be made in a dish pat as much
gravy as will fill the dish, but in raised crusts the
gravy must be carefully strained, and then put in
cold as jelly.

Babbit Pudding. Cut a rabbit into sixteen
pieces, and slice a quarter of a pound of bacon ;
season with chopped sage, pepper, and salt; then
add potatoes and onions according to the size of
the family, and half a pint of water. Boil for
two hours. The meat and vegetables mnst be
well mixed. Bice may be sabstitnted for potatoes
if preferred.

Babbit, Bagont of. " Wash and clean a good-
sized Ostend rabbit j boil the liver and heart, chop
them, and mix with veal stuffing ; fill the rabbi^
sew it np, and tie it into shape. Pot a piece of
fiit beef and 1 lb. of bacon, cut in slices, into a
sancepan, with 1 os. of dripping ; pat in the rab-
bit to brown, tnming it over to brown both sides;
poor oft the dripping, and put in 1 quart of water ;
m it simmer gently an hour and a half. A
qnarter of an hour before serving skim off all the
fat, and thicken the gravy with a little oom floor;
season with pepper and salt, and, if liked, stew a
bonch of herbs and half an onion with it. Lay
the rabbit on a dish with the bacon ronnd it, and
ponr the gravy over " {Tegetmeitr).

BACAHOUT. Sgn. Raoahout sbb Asabbb.
This is said to be farina prepared from the
acorns of Q;uertnu ballota, or Barbaiy oak, dis-
guised with a little flavouring. The following is
recommended as an imitation : — Roasted cacao or
chocolate nuts, 4 oz. ; tapioca and potato farina,
of each, 6 oi.; white sugar, slightly flavoured
with vanilla, i lb. Very nutritious. Used as
arrowroot.

BACS'mC ACID. Afo. Pabatabtabio Aon>.
This compound was £scovered by Kestner in
1820, replacing tartaric acid in grape-juice of the
Department of the Vosges. Racemic acid and
tartaric acid are isomeric, and yield, when exposed
to heat, the same products; the racemates also
correspond in the closest manner with the tar-
trates. Racemic acid ciystallises in tridinic
prisms containing 1 molecnle of water, and fusing
at 802° C; it is rather lees soluble than tartaric,
and separates first from a solution containing the
two adds. A solution of racemic add precipitates
a neutral salt of calcium, which is not the case
with tartaric acid, A solution of racemic acid
does not affect a ray of polarised light, while a
solution of tartaric acid rotates the ray to the
right.

Dessargnes and Jungfleisch fonnd by ezperi-
ment'tha^ heated in a sealed tube to 176° C. with
.^ of its wdght of water, ordinary tartaric add

is readily transformed into inactive tartaric add
and racemic add, and the latter chemist thonght
to And in this fact an explanation of the produc-
tion of racemic acid.

"Bat observations oontinoed tbrongh many
years upon mother liquors from varions tartaric
acid factories showed that although more or less
inactive tartaric acid was present in all of them ;
racemic add was not, even when they had been
subjected to prolonged treatment, and its occur-
rence in appreciable quantity was confined to a
small num W of spedmens. In fact, some samples
of mother liquor from factories where evapora-
tion was carried on in a partial vacuum contained
more racemic add than others from factories
where evaporation was carried on over a Are.
Jnngfieisch has since noticed that the liqoon
richest in inactive tartaric add were also rich in
alumina, and the suspidon that alumina favoured
the conversion was confirmed by direct experi>
ment; also that the nentral aluminium snlphate
has bnt little action. Jungfldsch has come to the
condnsion that when there is an aecumolation of
alumina in the mother liquor, the oonditiona are
favourable for the production of a lanre proportion
of inactive tartaric add, and a small proportion
of racemic acid, although when the latter is
present in considerable quantity, it becomes the
most manifest through its oomparaUve insolu-
bility. Examination of liquors ^m which race-
mic add has been depodted has always shown
them to contun much inactive tartaric add. This
theory does not exdude the probability that cer-
tain rines under particular conditions prodnce
racemic add " (' Fharmaceotical Joornal }.

BACKIVG. See Cisbb and Wims.

BAmCAL. According to the Innaiy iheaiy
of the constitution of saline compounds, every adt
is composed, like chloride of sodium (NaCl),of two
sides or parts, which are termed its radicals. That
part of a salt which consists of a metal, or of a
body exerdsing the chemical functions of one, is
called the metallic, basic, or basylous radical ; whilo
the other part, which, like chlorine, t^ combining
with hydrogen would produce an acid, is den^-
nated tiie chlorous or acidulons radical. Every salt,
therefore, consists of a basic and of an acid iMical.
Sometimes radicals are elementary in thdr natnre,
when they are called timplei and sometimes they
are made np of a group of elements, when thay
are termed oompound. Some radicals, both untple
and compound, have been isolated, while many
have bnt a hypothetical existence. In the fol-
lowing formuln the vertical line separates the
basic from the add radicals, the farmer bdng on
the left, the latter on the right :
H ' F Hydrofinoric acid (JrlaorMi* ^J^dro-

Na CI Chloride of sodium.
K CN Cyanide of potasdum.
Ca CO, Carbonate of calcium.
NH4 CI Chloride of ammonium.
C,H, ' NO, Nitrite of ethyl.

In organic chemistry the organic radical may be
further defined as a group of elementa which
appear unchanged in the prodncts of a reaction,
and is, therefore, found on both aides of the
equation.
BAS'ISH. The common garden radirii (bjl-

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BAIN-QAUOB

14S9

PHAirro, L.) ii the root of Stnhamu lativui,
Linn., one of the Csuoivb&x. There are seTeral
varieties. They are all slightly diuretic and
laxative, and possess considerable power in ex-
citing the appetite. The seed is pressed for oil.
The horseradish (asxobaoia, L.) belongs to a
distinct genus.

SAIH-aAUGE. £^». Okboxbtib, Plvtia^-
KITIB, UsoxxTBB. An instrument for deter-
mining the quantity of water, which falls as rain,
at any given place. A simple and convenient rain-
gange for agricultural purposes is formed of a
wide-mouthed ftinnel, or open receiver, connected
with a glass tube furnished with a stopcock.
The diameter of the tube may be exactly 1-lOOth
tiiat of the receiver, and if the tube be graduated
into inches and tenths, the quantity of rain that
falls may be easily read off to the 1-lOOOth of an
inch. The instrument shonld be set in some per-
fectly open sitnation ; and, for agricultural pur-
poses, with its edge as nearly level with the
ground as passible. Another form of gauge is
romished with a float, the height of which marks
the amount of lignid. The diameter of the
gauge shonld range between 4 and 8 inches.
The quantity of water should be duly measured
and registered at 9 a.m. daily.

Mr Symonds, F.R.M.S., has drawn the follow-
ing code of instructions for the gnidance of
those registering the amount of ruufall at any
locality:

1. Site. A i^-gange should not be set on a
■lope or terrace, but on a level piece of ground,
•t a distance from shrubs, trees, walls, and build-
ings— at the very least as many feet from thrir
base as they are m height.
- TaU>gn>wing flowers, vegetables, and bushes
most be kept away from the gauges. If a tho-
roughly clear site cannot be obtained, shelter is
most endurable from north-west, north, and east;
less so from south, south-east, and west ; and not
at all from soutii-west or north-east.

a. Old Omigei, Old-established gauges should
not be moved, nor their registration discontinued,
until at least two years after a new one has been
in operation, otherwise the continuity of the
register will be irreparably destroyed. Both the
old and the new ones must be registered at the
came time, and the results recorded for com-
parison.

8. Level. The funnel of a rain-gange must be
set qnite level, and so firmly flzwl that it will
remain so in spite of any gaae of wind or ordi-
nary circumstances. Its correctness in this respect
•hooM be tested from time to time.
■ 4, SeigU. The funnel of gauges newly placed
shonld be one foot above grass. Information re-
specting height above sea level may be obtained
from O. J. Symonds, Esq., 64, Camden Square,
N.W., London.

6. llmtt. If the funnel of a japanned gaujje
become so oxidised as to retain the rain in its
pores, or threatens to become rusty, it should
IiAve a coat of gas tar or japan-black, or a fresh
funnel of dnc or copper shonld be provided.

6. IToat Qaugei. It the measuring rod is
detached from the float it shonld never be left in
the gauge; if it is attMsbed to the iloat it shonld
-be pegged or tied down, an4 only allowed to rise

to its proper position at the time of reading. To
allow for the wdght of the float and rod these
gauges are genendly so constructed as to ^ow 0
only when a small amount of water is left in
them. Care must always be taken to set the rod
to the sero or 0.

7. Can and Bottle Oange*. The measuring
glass shonld always be held upright. The read-
ing is to be taken midway between the two appv
rent surfaces of the water.

8. Date of Entry. The amount measured at
9 a.m. on any day is to be set against the previous
one, because the amount measured at 9 a.m. of,
say, the 17th, contains the fall during fifteen
hours of the 16th, and only nine hours of the
17th. (The rule has been approved by the
meteorological societies of EngUnd and Scotland,
cannot be altered, and is particularly commended
to the notice of observers.)

9. llode of Sntrif. It less than one tenth
('10) has fallen, the cipher must always be pre-
fixed ; thus, if the measure is full up to the
seventh line, it must he entered as '07 — that is,
no inches, no tenths, and seven hnndredtiis. For
the sake of clearness it has been found necessaiy
to lay down an invariable rule that there shall
always be two figures to the right of the decimal
point. If there be only one figrure, as in the case
of one tenth of an inch (usually written '1), a
cipher must be added, making it '10. Neglect of
tUa rule causes much inconvenience. AU columns
should be cast twice — once up and once down — so
as to avoid the same error being made twice.
When there is no run a line should be drawn
rather than a cipher inserted.

10. Caniion. The amount should always be
written down before the water is thrown away.

11. Small (^nantitiet. The unit of measure-
ment being '01, observers whose gauges are snffl-
cientiy delicate to show less than that are, if the
amount is under '005, to throw it away ; if it is
-006 to '010 indosive, they are not to enter it aa
•01.

12. Abtenee. Every olMerver should train soma
one as an assistant ; but where this is not possible^
instructions should be given that the gange should
be emptied at 9 a.m. on the first of the month,
and the water bottled, labelled, and tightly corked,
to await the observer's return..

13. SeavgRain*. When very heavy ndns occur
it is desirable to measure immediately on their
termination; and it will be found a safe plan,
after measuring, to return the water to the gauge,
so that the morning registration will not be inter*
fered with. Of course, if there is the slightest
doubt as to the gauge holding all the falls it must
be emptied^ the amount 'l>eing previously written
down.

14. Sum). In snow three methods may be
adopted; it is well to try them all: — (1) Melt
what is caught in the funnel by adding to the
snow a previously ascertained quantity of warm
water, and then, deducting this quantity from the
total measurement, enter the residue as rain. (2)
Select a place where the snow has not drifted,
invert the funnel, and, turning it round, lift and
melt what is enclosed. (8) Measure with a rule
the average depth of snow, and take l-12th as
the equivalent of water. Some observers use in

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ftAlSmS-BASB

•aowy weather a cylinder of the same diameter ai
the rain-gauge, and of coniiderable depth. If the
wind ia at all roagh all the snow is blown oat ol a
flat-funnelled rain-gauge.

16. OvtrflotB, It wonld aeem needless to
caution observers on this head, bnt as a recent
foreign table contains eix inrtanca i» ona dag
in which gauges were allowed to ran over, it is
evidently necessary that British observers should
be on the ilert. It is not desirable to purchase
any new gauge of which the capacity is less than
four inches.

16. SeeoHd Qtmgu. It is often desirable that
obaervm should have two gauges, and thnt one of
them should be capable of holding eight inches of
rain. One of the gauges should be re^^stored
daily, the other weekly or monthly, as preferred,
but always on the first of each month. By this
means a thorough check is kept on accidental
errors in the entries, which is not the case if hotX
are read daily.

17. D<» and Fog. Small amounts of water
are at times deposited in rain-gauges by fog and
dew. They should be added to the amount of
runfall, because (1) "they tend to water the
earth and nourish the streams ; " and not for that
reason only, but (2) because in many cases the
rain-gauges can only be visited monthly, and it
would then obviously be impossible to separate
the yield of snow, rain, &c. ; therefore, for the
sake of anif ormity, all must be taken together.

18. IMmbtfml Eutriat. Whenever there is
the least doubt respecting the accuracy of any
observation, the entry should be marked with
a F, and the reason stated for its being placed
there.

Obt. The height at which the rain-gauge is
elevated from the ground is a matter of consi-
derable moment. Thus one observer found the
fall of rain at York for twelve months (1838-4)
to be — at a height of 213 feet from the ground,
14-96 inches ; at 4A feeii 19*86 inebea ; and on
the ground, 86*71 inches.

Later experimentalists have conflnned tiiis
curious fact. Thus, Colonel Warde fonnd the
following to be the relative rainfall at diflferent
periods for the four years extending from 1864 to
1867:

Inches.
On a level with the ground . 1*07
At a bright of 2 inches . . 1*06
6 ,. . . 1*01

„ 1 foot . . 1*00

„ 2 feet . . 0*99

8 „ . . 0^

„ 6 „ . . 0*96

„ 10 „ . . 0*96

„ 20 „ . . 0-94

One of the caoses that have been assigned for
this singular phenomenon has been — the greater
exposure in elevated situations of the rain to dis-
perrive action of the wind ; a surmise which derives
some support from the circumstance that when a
rain-gauge is placed on a building, the roof of
wht^ is fiat, of large area, and wit£ few, if any,
chimneys to disturb the air currents, aa amonnt
of nun is collected equalling that obtained on the
snrfiMM of the groond.
KAI'am. Sgn, DSHD SBAnii Uvx (B.

P.), Utx biomtx, Urx (Ph. L.), Uvjt fasbx
(Ph. E. and D.), L. " The prepared fmit of nti*
vitnfera," Linn. (Ph. L.). The grapes are allowed
to ripen and dry on the vine. After being plncked
and cleaned, they are dipped for a few seconds
into a boiling lye of wood ashes and quicklime at
12° or 16° Baum£, to every 4 galls, of which a
handful of culinary salt and a pint of salad cnl
have been added ; they are then exposed for IS
or 14 days in the sun to dry; they are, lastly,
carefully garbled, and packed for exportation.
The sweet, fleshy kinds of grapes are those se-
lected for the above treatment ; and, in general,
their stalks are cut about one half through, or
a ring of bark is removed, to hasten their matura-
tion.

Baisins are nutritious, cooling, antiseptic, and,
in general, laxative ; the latter to a greater extent
than the fresh fruit. There are many varieties
found in commerce. Their nses as a dessert and
culinary fruit, and in the manufacture of wine^
&c., are well known, and are referred to elsewhere.
See OBJiPas, WiVBS, ko.

JtAMCHyjXY. The strong, sonr flavour and
odour which oleaginous bodies acquire by age and
exposure to'the air. For its prevention, see Fatb,
OoM (Fixed), Ac.

BAPEOIL. See Oiu (Fixed).

BASH. Erasmus Wilson notices four different
affections as included under this head :

1. St AwTMOxs'a hbi, or xbtbivbus, the
severest of them all, already refened to.

2. NiTTLa-BABH, Or VXTIOABU, characterised
by its tingling and pricking pain, and its little
white elevations on a reddish ground, like the
wheals caused by the sting of a nettle. This
efflorescence seldom stays many hours, audi some-
times, not even many minutes, in the same place,
and is multiplied or reproduced whenever any
part of the skin is scratched or even touched.
No part of the body is exempt from it, and when
many of them occur together, and continue for
an hour or two, the parts are often cimsiderably
swelled, and the features temporarily disfigured.
In many cases these eruptions continue to infest
the skin, sometimes in one place, and sometimes ia
another, for one or two hours together, two <nr
three times a day, or, perhaps, for the greater
part of the twenty-four hours. In some coD8ti>
tutions this lasts only a few days; in others
several months.

There are several varieties of nettle-rash, or
urticaria, noticed by medic^ writers, among which
xjsaoAxu. PBBBIUa, pbbsibtidii, and avutzDA.
are the principal.

The common cause td nettle-rash is some de-
rangement of the digestive functions, arising
either from the use ^ improper food or a dis>
ordered state of the nmvons or other systems of
the body. Lobsters, crabs, mussels, shrimps,
dried fish, pork, cucumbers, mushrooms, and
adulterated beer or porter, bear the character of
frequently causing this affection. In childhood
it commonly arises from teething. Oocasionally,
in persons of peculiar idiosyncrasy, the most
simple article of food, as i^onds, nuts, and
even milk, rloe, and eggs, will poodooe tUa
afbction.

The treatment way consist of the admiaiati*-

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U*l

tion of gentle saline aperients, and in severer
caaea a gentle emetic, followed by the oopions nse
of seidolated diluent drinks, as weak lemon-juice
•nd water, effervescing potassa draughts, &c.,
and, when required, diaphoretics. The clothing
shonid be light but warm, and the itching, when
severe, ma^ be allayed by the application of a
lotion of water to which a little vinegar or cam-
phorated spirit has been added ; the ktter must,
however, be employed with caution. A hot knee-
bath is useful in drawing the affection from the
face and upper part of the body. A ' compress,'
wrung out of cold water until it ceases to drip,
•nd kept in contact with the stomach by means
of a diy bandage, has been recommended to re-
lieve excessive irritation of the stomach and bowels.
It has been stated that decoction of Vir^nian
snake-root is particularly useful in relieving
chronic urticaria.

8. Bud-base, bis-bIiOTOH, or hbbt spot, is
commonly the consequence of disordered general
health, of dyspepsia, and particularly, in females,
of tight lacing. Sometimes it is slight and
evanescent ; at others it approaches in severity to
the nuldei forms of erysipelas, there being much

BolubU Matttr — ynu Ked.

Sugar 8-697

Free add (reduced to equivalent in malic acid) . l-dSO

Albuminous substances 0*646

Pectous substances, &c 1*107

Ash 0*270

ImoMU Matter—

Skins, ic". '.'.'.'.'.'. '.f ®'^^

Fectose 0*180

[jMkfivm i»toluhUmait«rinolmd«d in umghttgiom] [0*1 84]

Water 86-860

swelling and inflammation. Chaps, galls, excoria-
tions, and chilblains are varieties of this disease
produced by cold, excessive moisture, or friction.
The treatment is similar to that of nettle-rash.

4. BOBI-BASH, VAX8E VSASLS8, Or BOBSOLA,

is an efSorescence, or rather a discoloration of a
rose-red tint, in small irregular patches, without
wheals or papulae, which spread over the surface
of the body, and are ushered in by slight febrile
symptoms. There are several varieties. The
causes are the same as those which produce the
preceding affections, and the treatment may be
similar. In all of them strict attention to diet,
and a careful avoidance of cold applications or
exposure to cold, so as to cause a retrocession, are
matters of the first moment.

BASP'BEBBT. Sy». HnrsBBBBT. The fruit
of Subiu id€tiu, Linn., a small shrub of the
Nat. Ord. Bosackb. It is cooling, antiscor-
butic, and mildly aperitive. It is frequently
used to communicate a fine flavour to liqueurs,
confectionery, wine, las. See FBUm and Ycsi-

IABLS8.

Fresenins gives the following as the composi-
tion of raspberries :

Bed.
4*708
1-366
0-644
1*746
0-481

4*106

0*508

[0*296]
86-557

100*000

. 100*000

White.
. 8*708
. 1*115
. 0*665
. 1-897
. 0*818

. 4-620

0*040
. [0*081]
. 88180

. 100*000

SATATI'A. Originally a liquor drunk at the
ratification of an agreement or treaty. It is now
the common generic name in France of liqueurs
compounded of spirit, sugar, and the odoriferous
and flavouring principles of vegetables, more
particularly of tiiose containing the juices of
recent fruits, or the kernels of apricots, cherries,
or peaches. In its unqualified sense this name is
commonly understood as referring to cherry
brandy or peach brandy.

Bateflas are prepared by distillation, mace-
lAtion, or extemporaneous admixture, in the
manner explained under the head LiquBtTB. The
following list includes those which are commonly
pimared by the French Uqaoristes :

Batafla d'AngOlqse. From angelica seeds,
1 dr. ; angelica stalks, 4 oz. ; bluiched bitter
almonds, bruised, 1 oz. ; proof spirit or brandy,
6 quarts ; digest for 10 days, filter ; add of wator,
1 quart ; white sugar. Si lbs. ; mix well, and in a
fortnight decant the clear portion through apiece
of clean flannel.

Batafla d'Asls. See LiqinruB, Cosdiai, An-

SBBD.

Batafla de Banme ii Toln. From balsam of
Tola, 1 02.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve,
add water, 8 jpints ; filter, and farther add of
white sugar. If lbs. Pectoral and traumatic.
TOL. n.

Batafla de Bron da Noix. From young wal*
nuts with soft shells (pricked or pierced), 60 in
number ; brandy, 2 quarts j mace, cinnamon, and
cloves, of each, 15 gr. ; digest for 8 weeks ; press,
filter, add of white sugar, 1 lb. ; and keeping it
for some months before decanting it for use.
Stomachic.

Batafla de Cacao. Sgn. B. ss ceooolat.
From Caracoa cacao-nuts, 1 lb. ; West Indian do.,
i lb. (both roasted and braised) ; proof spirit, 1
gall.; digest for 14 days, filter, and add of white
sugar, 2i lbs. ; tincture of vanilla, 1 dr. (or shred
of vanilla may be infused with the nuts in the
spirit instead); lastly, decant in a month, and
bottle it.

Batafla de CafS. From coffee, ground and
roasted, 1 lb.; brandy or proof spirit, 1 gall.;
sugar, 2 lbs. ; (dissolved in) water, 1 quart ; as last.

Batafla de Cassia. From black currant juice,
1 quart ; cinnamon, 1 dr. ; cloves and peach ker*
nds, of each, i dr. ; brandy, 1 gall. ; white sugar,
8 lbs. ; digest for a fortnight, and strain throug{i
flannel.

WfltrB*^ de Cerise. From Morella cherries,
with their kemeU bruised, 8 lbs. ; brandy or proof
spirit, 1 gall. ; white sugar, 2 lbs. ; as last.

Batafla de Chooelat. Batafla de cacao (see
above).

91

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14JU

BATS— BECOMHENBAtlONS TO FABMEBS

BataiU da Coing*. From quince juice, 8
quart* ; bitter ilmonda, 3 dr. ; cinnamon and
coriander seeds, of each, 2 dr.; mace, i dr.;
dores, 15 gr. (all bruised) ; rectified spirit (qnite
flavourless), | gall. ; digest for a week, filter, and
add of white sugar, 3) lbs.

Batafla de Crime. From cr^me de noyeau and
sherry, of each, i pint ; capillaire, 1 pint; fresh
cream, 1 {dnt ; beaten togetiier.

Batafla de Cuafoa. Cnra^oa.

Batafia de Framboiaei. Baspberry cordial.

Batafla de Geniivre. From juniper berries
(each pricked with a fork), i lb.; caraway and
coriander seed, of each, 40 gr. ; finest malt spirit
(22 a. p.), 1 gall. ; white sugar, 8 lbs. ; digest a
week, and strain with expression.

Batafla de Qrenoble. From the small wild
black cherry (with the kernels bruised), 2 lbs. ;
proof spirit, 1 gall. ; white sugar, 8 lbs. j citron
peels, a few grains ; as before.

Batafla de Qrenoble de Teyaaire. From cher-
ries (bruised with the stones), 1 qnart ; rectified
spirit, 2 quarts ; mix, digest for 48 hours, then
express the liquor, and heat it to boiling in a
close vessel; when cold, add of sugar or capil-
laire, q. s.^ together with some noyeau, to flavour,
and a little symp of the bay laurel, and of gal-
angal ; in 8 months decant, and bottle it.

Batafla de Soyean. iSrom peach or apricot
kernels (bruised), 120 in number ; proof spirit or
brandy, 2 quarts ; white sugar. 1 lb. ; digest for a
week, press, and filter.

Batafla de (Elllets. From clove-pinks (without
the white buds), 4 lbs, ; cinnamon and cloves, of
each, 15 gr. ; proof spirit, 1 gall. ; macerate for
10 days, express the tincture, filter, and add of
white sugar, 2i lbs.

Batafia d'Ecorce d'Oraage. Crime d'Orange.

Batafia de neun d'Oruiger. From fresh
orange petals, 2 lbs. ; proof spirit, 1 gall. ; white
sugar, 21 lbs. ; as last. Instead of orange flowers,
neroli, 1 dr., may be used.

Batafla fc la Frovenfale. From striped pinks, 1
lb. ; brandy or proof spirit, 1 qnart ; white sugar,
} lb.; juice of strawberries, } pint; saffron, 20
gr. ; as before.

Batafla dee ftuatre Fruits. From cherries, 80
lbs. ; gooseberries, 15 lbs. ; raspberries, 8 lbs. ;
black currants, 7 lbs. ; express the juice, and to
each pint add of white sugar, 6 oz. ; cinnamon, 6
gr. ; cloves and mace, of each, 8 gr.

Batafia Bouge. From the juice of Uack cher-
ries, 3 qnnrts ; juice of strawberries and raspber-
ries, of each, 1 qnart ; cinnamon, 1 dr. ; mace and
cloves, of each, 15 dr.; proof spirit or brandy, 2
galls. ; white sugar, 7 lbs. ; macerate, &c., ss
before.

Batafla Bee. Take of the juice of gooseberries,
6 pints ; juices of cherries, strawberries, and rasp-
berries, of each, 1 pint; proof spirit, 6 qnarU;
sagar, 7 lbs. ; aa before.

Batafia i la Tiolette. From orris powder, S
oz. ; litmns, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 galls. ; digest
for 10 days, strain, and add of white sugar, 12
lbs. ; dissolved in soft water, 1 gall.

BATS. The common or brown rat is the M«t
decttmanat, Linn., one of the most prolific and
destructive spedes of the Rodbktia. It was in-
troduced to these islands from Asia, and has

since spread over the whole conntry, and mnlti-
plied at the expense of the black rat (Mut rat-
tut, Linn.), which is the old British species of
this animal, until its inroads on onr granaries,
our stores, and dwelling-houses have increased to
such an extent, that its extirpation has become a
matter of serious, if not of national, importance.
For the destruction of these noxious animals
two methods are adopted :

1. Trapping. To render the but more attrac-
tive, it is commonly sprinkled with a little of one
of the rat-scents noticed below. The trap is
also occasionally so treated.

2. Poisoning. The following are reputed the
most effective mixtures for this purpose :

ABSEincuii Fasti. From oatmotl or wheaten
flour, 3 lbs. ; powdered indigo, i oz. ; flnely pow-
dered white arsenic, i lb. ; oil of aniseed, i dr. ;
mix, add of melted suet, 2 J lbs. ; and beat the
whole into a paste. A similar compound has the
sanction of the French Qovemment.

AxaEKlOAL PowsBB. From oatmeal, 1 lb.;
moist sugar, ^ lb. ; white arsenic and rotten cheese,
of each, 1 oz. ; rat-scent, a few drops.

HiLLSSS' Bat Powsbb. From fresh oatmeal,
1 lb. ; nnx vomica (in very fine powder), 1 oz. ;
rat-scent, S or 6 drops. This is highly spoken of
by those who have used it.

MixiBAii Bat Poiboh. From carbonate of
baryta, i lb. ; sugar and oatmeal, of each, 6 oz. ;
oils of aniseed and caraway, of each, a few drops.

Philaittbofi MvoFBOBOir. A French pre-
paration, which, according to Mr Beasley, consista
of tartar emetic, 1 part, with farinaceous matter,
4 parts, and some other (unimportant) ingredients.

Phobfeob Pastb.

Bat-bobitts. The following are sud to be the
most attractive :

a. Powdered cantharides steeped in French
brandy. For traps. It is sud that rats are so
fond of this, that if a little be rubbed about the
hands they may be handled with impanitiy.

i. From powdered assafcstida, 8 gr.; oil of
rhodium, 2 dr. ; oil of aniseed, 1 dr. ; oil of laven-
der, i dr. ; mix by agitation.

o. From oil of aniseed, i oz. ; tincture of aasa-
f oetida, i oz.

d. From oil of aniseed, } oz.; nitrons acid, 2 to
3 drops ; musk (triturated with a little powdered
sugar), 1 gr.

BA'ZOBS. See Papebb, Paste, and SEAViira.

BBA'aSHTB. See Tbstb.

BBAl'OAB. This valuable red pigment is the
Usulphide of arsenic. It is f oond native in some
volcanic districts ; but that of commerce is pre-
pared by distilling, in an earthen retort, arsenical
pyrites, or a mixture of sulphur and arsenic, of
orpiment and sulphur, or of arsenious acid, sul-
phur, and charcoal, in the proper proportions. See

blBUIiFHrDE OF ABBBKIO.

BZCOHHEHSATIOHS TO FABHEBS. Aseriee
of valuable suggestions, intended for the guidance
of farmers in the purchase of manures and cattle-
feeding materials, have been issued by the Boyal
Agricultural Society of England. In substance
they are as follows : — In the purchase of feeding-
cakes, the guarantee of ' pure ' should be iqsisted
upon, since this means a legal warranty that the
article is produced from good clean seed. The

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EECTIFICATION— BED DTK

1448

terms 'beat' and 'genuine ' are of no valae, and
should be objected to. Forthermore, the sample
shonld be subjected to analysis. For this parpoae
a sample should be taken out of the middle of
the cake, whilst the remainder of the cake from
which the sample has been selected should be
sealed up and set aside for reference in case of
dispute.

The following advice is given to farmer^ ahoat
to purchase manures : — Baw bones or bone-dust
should be purchased as ' pure,' whilst they should
be guaranteed to contain not less than 45% of
triple phosphate of lim% and 4% of ammonia.
' Boiled bones ' should be purchased as ' pure '
boiled bones, guaranteed to contain not leas than
48% of tribasic phosphate of lime, and 1{% of
ammonia. Dissolved bonea vary so greatly that
the buyer should insist on a guariinteia of quality
under the heads of ' soluble phosphate of lime,'
■ insoluble phosphate of lime,' and 'nitrogen,' or
' ammonia ; ' also for an allowance at current rates
for each unit per cent, if the bones should prove
on analysis to contain less than the guaranteed
percentages, &c. It should be insisted that
minersl superphosphates are delivered dry and in
good condition, and be guaranteed to contain a
certain percentage of soluble phosphates at a cer-
tain price per unit per cent. No value is to be
attached to ' insoluble phosphates.' Compound
artificial manures, which are rarely used, should
be purchased on exactly the same terms. Nitrate
of soda shonld be guaranteed to contain 94% to
95% of pure nitrate. Sulphate of ammonia
should yield 35% of ammonia. Peruvian guano
'should be sold under that name, and guaran-
teed to be in a dry, friable condition, and to
contun a cerfaun percentage of ammonia.

In buying artificial manures the purchaser ia
recommended to obtain a guarantee that they shall
be delivered in a sufficiently dry and powdery con-
dition to allow of sowing by the driU.

Samples taken out of three or four bags should
be well mixed together, and they should be ana-
lysed not later tiaa three days after deliveiy.
Two tins, holding about half a pound each, should
be filled in the presence of a witness, sealed up,
one sent to the analyst, and the other retuned
for future reference.

BECTmCATlOV. The redistiUation, te., of
a fluid, for the purpose of rendering it purer.

BED. A tenn denoting a bright colour, re-
sembling blood. Bed ia a simple or primary
colour, but of several different shades or hues, as
scarlet, crimson, vermilion, orange-red, &c.

SKD AVILIIIE. C„Hi^^H,0. Sgn. Bo-
BAiriLlHB XAOBDTA. This artificial base is pre-
pared by the action of bichloride of tin, mercurial
salts, arsenic acid, and many other oxidising
agents, upon aniline. The amline reds of com-
merce, now so largely used for dyeing, are salts,
more or less pxire, of rosaniline, with 1 eqniv.
of acid. These compounds are known under the
names of 'magenta,' 'fuchsine,' 'roseine,' 'aza-
leine,' &c. In England the acetate of rosaniline
is chiefly used. In France the hydrochlorate of
rosaniline is most commonly employed. The free
base crystallises in colourless plates, but its com-
ponada with 1 equiv. of acid have, when dry, a
peautiful green colour with golden lustre, and

furnish with water and alcohol an intensely red-
coloured solution. See Pubplb (Aniline) and
Bid Dtb, alao Tab Coloubs.

BED DTE. The substances principally em-
ployed for dyeing reds are cochineal, lac-dye,
madder, and alizarin, which, under proper treat-
ment, yield permanent colours of considerable
brilliancy, the first and third more particularly
so. Extremely beautiful but fugitive colours are
also obtained from Brazil-wood, safflower, archil,
and some other substances. For purple-red or
crimsons (magenta, fuchsine, &c.), on sUk or wool,
the aniline reds (salts of rosaniline) are now ex-
tensively used (see Tab Coloitbs). The mode of
applying them is noticed under Pcbpi.b Dys,
SiLE is usually dyed of a permanent red or scarlet
with cochine^, safflower, or lac-dye ; wool with
cochineal and, still more frequently, with madder;
and cotton with madder (chiefly), Brazil-wood,
Ac. The leading properties of these substances
are given under their respective names, and the
metttods of employing them are generally referred
to in the artides DrBnra, Mobdabts, &c, and,
therefore, need not be repeated here. The fol-
lowing may, however, be useful to the readers

1. First, give the 'goods' a mordant of alum,
or of alum and tartar; rinse, dry, and boil them
in a bath of madder. If acetate of iron be used
instead of alum the colour will be purple, and by
combining the two as mordants any intermediate
shade may be produced.

2. The yam or cloth is put into a very weak
boiling alkaline bath, then washed, dried, and
' galled' (or, when the calico is to be printed, for
this bath may be substituted one of cow-dung,
subsequent exposure to the air for a day or two,
and immersion in very dilute sulphuric acid. In
this way the stuff gets opened, and takea and re-
tains the colour better). After the 'galling' the
goods are dried and alumed twice; then dried,
rinsed, and passed through a madder-bath, com-
posed of t lb. of good madder for every lb. weight
of the goods; this bath is slowly raised to the
boiling-point in the course of 60 or 60 minutes,
more or less, according to the shade of colour re-
quired ; after a few minutes the stuff is taken
out nnd slightly washed ; the operation is then
repeated, in the same manner, with fresh madder ;
it is, lastly, washed and dried, or passed through
a hot soap-bath, which carries off the fawn-
coloured particles.

3. (Adbiasopls bed, Tubxbz b.) This com-
mences with cleansing or scouring the goods by
alkaline hatha, after which they are steeped in
oily liquors brought to a creamy atate by a little
carbonate of soda ; a bath of sheep's dung is next
often used as an intermediate or secondary steep ;
the oleaginous bath, and the operation of removing
the superfluous or loosely adhering oil with an
alkaline bath, is repeated two or three times,
due care being taken to dry the goods thoroughly
after each distinct process ; then follow the dis-
tinct operations of galling, aluming, maddering,
and brightening, the last for removing the dun-
coloured principle, by boiling at an elevated tem-
perature with alkaline liquids and soap; the
whole is generally concluded with treatment by
stannic chloride. In this way the most brilliant
reds on cotton are produced.

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14M

RED aUH— RED FiaHENTS

Obt. Wool tekei from half ita weight of
madder to an equal weight to dye it red ; cotton
and linen take rather leas. On account of the
oomparative insolubility of the colouring matter
of madder this dye-stuff must be boiled along
with the goods to be dyed, and not removed from
the decoction, as is the practice in using many
other articles. Other dye-stnSs are frequently
added to the madder-bath to vary the shade of
coloar. Decoction of fnatic, weld, logwood,
quercitron, &c., are often thus employed, the mor-
dants being modified accordingly. By adding
bran to the madder-bath the colour is said to be
rendered much lighter, and of a more agreeable
tint. The red dyes of commerce are known under
the names anisol red, Barwood red, claret red,
Congo red, corallin r«d, fait red, French red,
imporial red, Magdala red, neatral red, peony
red, pbenetol red, &c.

Bed Syea from Snudl'-wood (-zele''). 8^.
BsAfii^i Lia'imc BRAZiusysB, L.; Boib si
BsisiL, Fr. A dye-stuff furnished by several
(pedes of trees of the genns Ceualplnia, and
much used in dyeing various shades of red. The
usual practice is to boil it for some hours in hard
spring water, and to keep the resulting decoction
for some time, or until it undergoes a species of
fermentation, as it is thus found to yield more
permanent and beautiful colours than when em-
ployed fresh. The following are examples of its
application :

a. ForcoTTOK. 1. The goods areflrst boiled in
a batli of sumach, next worked through a weak
mordant of solution of tin, and then run through
the Brai!l-b«th lukewarm. This gives a bright
ted.

2. The gooda are alnmed, rinsed, next mor-
danted with solution of tin, rinsed agun, and
then turned through the Brazil dye-bath. This
gives a rose colour.

b. For LISBH. This, for the moat part, is
similar to that adopted for cotton,

e. For siUC. The gooda, after being alnmed
in the aame way as wool, but at a lower tempera-
ture, are rinsed, and paaaed throngh the Brazil-
wood bath lukewarm.

d. For WOOL. The goods are flrat ateeped or
boiled in a weak mordant of alum and tartar for
one hour, and then allowed to lie in the cold liquor
for two or three days, with frequent moving about ;
they are lastly boiled in &e Brazil-wood baUi for
about half an hour.

Ob*. The shades of colour given with Brazil-
wood may be modified by varying the strength
of the bath, the mordant, &c. The addition of a
little alum turns it on the purple. A little alkali
added to the bath, or passing the goods, after
being dyed, through water holding a little alkali
in solution, produces what is called false crimson.
A deep crimson is obtained by adding a little log-
wood to the Brazil-wood bath. 1 lb. of Brazil-
wood, } oz. of alum, and 2 oz. of tartar, are suffi-
cient to dye from 20 to 28 lbs. of cotton, accord-
ing to the depth of shade required.

USD QVK. Syn. 'Evoij.mvi etrx ,• Onixi
BTTBBi, EvoAJiTfTi avioa, L. A ruby-coloured
exudation from the bark of Sucalgptut rottrata,
imported from' Australia. In properties and ap-
pearance it ia very similar to gum Idno; hence

it ia valued as an astringent and styptic. Red
gum is distinguished from Botany Bay kino bj
its greater solubility in water, or by sticking to
the teeth on chewing it.

On. Watery solution injected into the nose
stays bleeding, or checks discharges from the
vagina. Lozenges of the gum are valuable in
congested and relaxed sore throats. — Dote. Of
the gum, 2 to 10 gr.

BED-6UH. A slight eruptive disease of in>
fancy, occasioned by teething, and, less frequently,
by irritation from rough flannel worn next to the
skin. See Stbophulub.

BED LAVEirSEB. See TnrcmniB ov Latbv-
SKB (Componnd).

RED LIQITOB. The crude solution of acetate
or sulphoBcetate of alumina employed in calico
printing and cotton dyeing, as a mordant for pro-
ducing alizarin reds. It ia generally prepared by
mixing crnde sulphate of alumina witii about an
equal weight of crude acetate of lime, both being
in the state of solution.

BED FIQUEHTS. The preparation of the
principal red pigments is generally described
under their respective names. The following list
includes most of the reds in nse :

Arme'nian Bole. ^ti. Bou Abhbniav;
BoLTTg Abkxnis, L. Formerly imported from
Armenia, Portugal, Tuscany, &c. ; now generally
made by grinding together a mixture of whiting,
red oxide of iron, and red ochre, in nearly equal
proportions.

Car'minated Lake.

Car'mlne. A preparation from cochineal semi-
permanent in water and fugitive in oil.

Crlmion Lake. An extract of cochineal toge-
ther with alumina or oxide of inm.

Lakes (Various).

Beal'gar. Bisulphide of arsenic.

Bed, Brown. A mixture of red oxide of iron
and red ochre, in variable proportions.

Bed, Chrome. Sy», Diobbokatb op UUO,
Rbd chboxati of l.; PLinan diohbokib, P.
OHBOinrs BVBBUH, L. Prep. 1. Boil pure
carbonate of lead with chromate of potash, in
excess, until it assumes a proper colour; then
wash it well with pure water, and dry it in the
shade.

2. Boil neutral chromate of lead with a little
water of ammonia or lime water.

8. (Liebig and Wokler.) Fuse saltpetre at a
low red heat in a Hessian cmdble, and throw in
chromate of lead, by small portions at a time, as
Jong as a strong ebnlUtion follows upon each
addition of the pigment, observing to stir the
mixture frequently with a glass rod ; after stand-
ing for a minute or two, pour ofF the fluid part,
and, as aoon aa the aolid reaiduum ia cold, waah it
with water, and dry it by a gentle heat.

Obt. Qreat care muat be taken, in condncting
the laat procesa, not to employ too much heat, nor
to allow the saline matter to stand long over the
newly formed chrome red, as the colour is thus
apt to change to a brown or orange. When well
managed the product has a crystalline texture, and
so beautiful a red colour that it vies with native
cinnabar. The liquid poured from the crudUe ia
reserved for manufacturing chrome yellow.

Bed, In'diaB. By: Pvbflb ochxi ; Oohba

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BEDUCTION— BEFBIGERATION

1448

FUBFinUU PBB8I0A, TrBBA. PIBSIOA, L. Thil U

a tuttive prodoction, broaght from Ormiu. It ia
a hffimatite or peroxide of iron mixed with earthy
matters. A factitiona article ia prepared by cal-
cining a mixtore of colcothar and red ochie.

Bed. light. From yellow ochre, by careful
calcination. It works well with both oil and
water, and produces an admirable flesh-coloor by
admixture with pnte white. All the ochres, both
red and yellow, are darkened by heat.

Bed, Orange. Sgn. Sajtbix. Obtained firom
white-lead by calcination. Very bright.

Bed, Tene^tian. a^. BoLtrs tsnbta, L. A
species of ochre, brought from Italy.

B^ Bole. See Asihniah and Vivbtiah
BoLi (Ochres).

Bed Chalk. A clay iron ore, much used for
pencils and crayona, and, when ground, also for
painta.

Bed-lead. 8fn. Momnr. The finest red-
lead ia prepared by exposing ground and elu-
triated massicot, or drosa of lead, in shallow
iron traya (about 12 inchea aquare, and about 4 or
5 inchea deep), piled up on the hearth of a rever-
beratory furnace, to a heat of about 600° to
650° F., with occasional atirring, until it aoquirea
the proper colour. The furnace employed for the
preparation of maaaicot dnring the day usually
posaesaea sufficient reaiduary heat dnring the
night for thia proceaa, by which fuel ia saved.
Lead for the above purpose should be quite free
from copper and iron. See Lbab Oxidbb.

Bed vchre. A natural product abounding on
the Mendip HiUa.

Bed O/piment. Sj/n. Bbs absbhio. Ter^
■nlphide of arsenic.

Bom Fink. This is whiting coloured with a
decoction of Brazil-wood to which a little pearl-
ash has been added. A very pretty colour, but
it does not stand. It is always kept in a damp
■tate. The colour may be varied by aubstitnting
alum for pearlaah, or by the addition of a littk
stannic chloride.

Vermil'loit. See under that word.

BBDHCTIOB. Sgn. RBViviviCATioir. A term
in its fullest aense applied to any operation by
which a subatance ia restored to ita neutral atate ;
but now generally restricted, in chemiatry, to the
abatraction of oxygen, and hence frequently
termed deoxidation. Thia change ia effected by
ritber heating the aubstance in contact with car-
bon or hydrogen, or by expoeing it to the action
of aome other body, such aa pyrogallic acid, &c.,
having a powerful affinity for oxygen.

BEfl"KIBQ. A term employed in commercial
chemistn and Tnetallnrgy synonymously with
purification. The separation of the precioas
metals from those of less vslne, as in the opera-
tion of parting, conatitutea the bunness of the
'refiner.' See Gold. Silvbb, &c.

JOSTRAfynOS (of Ught). The deviation of a
ray of light from its original path on entering a
medium of a different density. For the practical
application of this property, see Obmb.

BE7BI"aEBAHT8. Medicines or agents which
tend to lessen the animal temperature without
causing any marked diminution of aensibility or
nervona energy. Among internal refrigeranta.
cold water, weak acidnlons drinks, and saline

aperients are those which are probably the best
known and' the most useful. Among external
refrigeranta are cold water, evaporating lotiona,
weak aolutions of subacetate of lead, &e.

BEFBIGEBA'TIOV. The abatement of heat;
the act or operation of cooling.

Among the purpoaea to which refrigeratory
proceaaea are applied in the arta, the prindp^
are — the oondenaation of vapoura, the cooling of
liquids, the congelation of water, and the pro-
duction of extreme degreea of cold in chemical
operationa. The firat of theae ia referred to
under the heada Distiixatiov, Sttill, &o., and
the aecond under Wobt. It ia. therefore, only
necessary to notice here the third and fourth
applications of cold, artificially produced, above
referred to.

The ref rig^eratory proceaaea at preaent employed
depend upon the greater capacity for heat wmch
the aame body poaaeaaea aa ita denaity leaaens, or
ita attenuation increaaea; aa exhibited in the
sodden liquefaction of solidSi the rapid evapora-
tion of liquids, and the almost instantaneous re-
turn of atmospheric air. or other gaseous body,
from a highly condensed state to its normal con-
dition. The loss of sensible heat in the first
example is the basis of the varions processes of
producing cold by what are commonly called

' TBIBZIKa ' or ' FBIGOBmC XIXTUBBB.' all of

which act upon the principle of lique^ng solid
Bubatancea without supplying heat. The beat of '
liquidity being in theae cases derived from that
previously exiating iii the solid itself in a aenaible
atate, the temperature maat neceaaarily fall. The
degree of cold produced depends upon the quan-
tity of heat which ia thus diffused through a
larger maaa, or which, aa it were, diaappeara ; and
thia ia dependent on the quantity of aolid matter
liquefied, and the rapidity of the liquefaction.
Saline compounds are the anbatancea moat fre-
quently employed for thia purpose; and those
which have the greateat affinity for water, and
thua liquefy the moat rapidly, produce the greateat
degree of cold.

Similar changea occur during the evaporation
of liquida. When heat paaaee from the aenaible
to the inaenaible or latent state, aa in the. forma-
tion of vapour, cold ia generated. Thia may be
shown by ponring a f6w drops of ether or rectified
spirit on the palm of the hand, when a strong
aenaation of cold ia experienced. A atill more
familiar illuatration of thia fact ia exhibited in
the rapidity with which the animal body loaee
heat when enveloped in damp or wet clothing.
The evaporation (^ water producea a degree of
cold which ia greater than that of other liquida,
in exact proportion aa the insenalble or latent
heat of ita vapour exceeda tbeira. In the attenu-
ation or rarefaction of gases similar phenomena
occur.

It has been fonnd that evaporation proceeda
much more rapidly from the aurface'of fluida in
a vacuum than in the atmosphere. Water may
be eaaily frozen by introducing a anrface of aul-
phnric acid under the receiver of an air-pump,
over which ia placed a capaule filled with water,
80 that the vapour arising from the latter may be
immediately absorbed by the former. After a
few strokes of the piston the water is oonverteil

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1M6

BEFRiaEEA.TION

into a aolid cake of ice. The acid operates by
absorbing the aqueoag Tapoorg as soon aa gene-
rated, and thns maintaining the vacnum. Pro-
fessor Leslie found that, when air is thus rarefied
260 times, the aorface of evaporation was cooled
down 120° in winter, and when only 50 times, a
depression of 80° or even 100° took place. Sul-
phuric acid, which lias become dilnted by the
absorption of aqueous vapour, may be reconcen-
trated by heat. Any substance having a great
tendency to absorb moisture may be substituted
for the sulphuric acid. Fused chloride of calcium,
quicklime, nitrate of magnesium, chloride of
zinc, and oatmeal (dried nearly to brownness
before a common fire) have been used for this pur-
pose. Again, instead of employing an air-pump,
a vacnum may be produced by the agency of
steam, afterwards condensed by the affusion of
cold water.

A pleasing illustration of the evaporative power
of a vacuum is the ' obtophostjb,' or 'pbobi-

BSAUB,' of Dr Wollaston. This initmment con-
sists of two small glass globes united by a tube,
one of which is partly flUed with water. The
whole apparatus is perfectly free from air, and is.

6

^

consequently, filled with attenoated aqneons
vapours, ifo sooner is the pressure removed, as
by plunging the empty ball into a freezing mix-
ture (which condenses the vapour), than r^iid
evaporation commences, and the water in the
other ball is frozen in two or three minntea.

In hot climates ice may be produced under
favourable circumstances by evaporation. Ota
the open plains, near Calcutta, this is edlected by
exposing a thin stratum of water to the atmo-
sphere during the fine clear nights of December,
January, and February. The pans are made of

TabIiB axiibiting aftm of the ntoit ut^flU FsiooBmo Miztubbs.

Thennometer aisks. Deg. F. of ooU produced.

{Isgredienta.
Snow or pounded ice .
Chloride of sodium
r Snow or pounded ice .
< Chloride of sodium
I Sal-ammoniac
"Snow or pounded ice .

Chloride of sodium
^Kitrate of ammonia .
f Snow

, Hydrochloric acid (eoneentrated)

' Snow

Ciystallised chloride of caldam
Sal-ammoniac .

Nitrate of potash

, Water

f Nitrate of ammonia .

■^Water

" Nitrate of ammonia . .
Carbonate of soda

Water

Phosphate of soda
Nitrate of ammonia .
Dilnted nitrous acid ' .
Sulphate of soda .
Hydrochloric acid

■ Snow

^Dilated nitrons add' .

Snow

Sulphuric acid ' ,

, Water

/"Snow

' . Crystallised chloride of csldnm

" Snow

Crystallised chloride of calcium

r'Snow

\ Sulphuric add .
LWater

2parts '

1 „ ^
6 ..

2 »
1 »

12 „

6 „

6 „

8 .„

6 „

8

6

6

16

9
6
4
8
6
8
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
8
8
5
5

1

}
}

If

• to -5°

.to-12°

, to - 26°

From + 82° to -27°
From + 82° to -60°

From+60°to + ltf'

From + 50° to + 4°

From + 60° to + r'

From + 60° to -21°

From + 60°toO°
From ff" to - 46°

From -20° to -60°

From0°to-66°
From -40° to -78°

From -68° to -91°

82°
40°
46°

er

71°

80°
46°

40°

66°
38°

» Fuming "nitrous acid," 2 part»; water, 1 part j l«r weight.

» Professor Pfaundler has shown that an acid containing 6619 per cent, of HjSOt is the moat
advantageous to employ for this purpose ; one part of an add of this strength with 1-097 parts
of snow forming a refrigerating mixture which will reduce the temperature to - 87° C. ( - 86^.).
For prMtical purposes it is suggested an excess of snow would be better, since the refrigerating
value of the mixture is thereby largely increased, though the lowest temperature is not obtained.

SeeXoB.

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BBQULATOBS

1447

porous earthenware, and water is poured in to the
depth of abont 11 in. A large nambor of these
vessels are arranged in an excavation in the
ground, 30 or 40 feet sqnare and 2 feet deep, the
bottom of which is covered, to the depth of 10 or
12 in^ with sugar-canes or the stallcs of Indian
com. At snnrise the pans are visited, the ice
separated from the water, and packed as tight as
possible in a deep cavity or pit, well screened
from the heat.

Several machines have recently been invented
by which water is frozen in large quantities by
exposure to condensed air in the aot of its subse-
quent expansion. They are worked 1^ either
hand or steam power. Others depend upon the
lique&ction and evaporation of ammonia and
similar substances.

For the production of an extremely low tem-
perature, such as is required for the Iiquefaetion
of some gases, Faraday employed solid carbonic
acid mixed with a little ether.

In the production of ice or an extreme deg^ree
of cold by saline mixtures, the salts should be in
the crystallised state, and as rich as possible in
water of crystallisation, but without being in the
least damp. They should be coarsely pulverised
at the time of using them, and should not be
mixed until immediately before throwing them
into the liquid ingredients. The mixture should
he made in a thick vessel, well clothed, to pre-
vent the accession of external heat; and the sub-
stance to be acted on should be contained in a
very thin vessel, so as to expose it more fully to
the action of the mixture. The preceding table,
though founded on experiments made many years
•go by Mr Walker, gives full and accnrate infor-
mation on the subject of freezing mixtures. See
page 1446.

Obt. The materials in the first column are to
be cooled, previously to mixing, to the tempera-
ture required in the second, hy the use of other
mixtares.

The following are some other very convenient
freezing mixtuNs for laboratory
purposes:

a. 8 oz. of sodium sulphate,
and 4 fl. oz. of common hydro-
chloric acid.

b. 6 parts by weight of potas-
dnnt solphooyanide and 4 parts
by weight of cold water.

e. Equal parts by weight of
sal-ammoniac and nitre, dis-
solved in its own weight of
water.

BEOTJLATOBS, GAS. There
are many purposes for which
artificial heat at a steady and
onifoim temperature is re-
quired— hot-ur ovens for disin-
fection, incubators, cultivation
chambers for bacteria, and other
laboratory purposes. Where gas
is avulable and the temperature
required is not much above that
of bmling water, regulators de-
pending for their action on the
expansion of mercury may be Bnnsen's flis
employed with great advantage, Be(nUt«r.

and, if properly constrocted, perform the work
required of them with absolute certainty. One
of the earliest forms was Bunsen's (see atgr.),
which had, however, the very grave defect that
not only was the supply of gas ^ected by the ex-
pansion of the mercury, but also by variations of
atmospheric pressure acting on a volume of air in
a closed space above the surface of the mercury.
This might appear at first sight to be so trifiing
a matter as to be of no account, bnt in practice
the irregularities produced are so serious as to
render the instrument quite untrustworthy for
scientific purposes.

The best and aim*
plest form of gas re-
gulator is undoubtedly
Page's, the construc-
tion of which will be
obvious from the an-
nexed out. The long
bulb is filled with
eUa» mercury up to
within an indi of the
T piece. On the top
of the straight limb
is fixed, by means of
corks, a wide tube
through which a fine
tube passes into the
straight limb of the

< ~>

I INCH

A,

Fife'i Kegnlator.

bulb tube; the lower end of this is cut at an
angle, so that the rise of the mercury shall gra-
dually close the end and cut oft the gas. Only
a part of the gas is controlled in this way ;
a small quantity regulated by a tap is allowed to

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144S

BEaiTLTTS— BESIN

pan conatantlr to the bomer, which thus never
gfoea oat, as might happen if the whole of the gaa
paued through the regulator.

The two tubes in the figure connected by the
brass stopcock are best made of brass or other
perfectly rig^id material, and connected with the
glass regulator by good robber tubing.

Zb Set theStgmlator. Bring the ba^, incubator,
ftc., up to the required temperature, place the regu-
lator in position freely immersed up to the T piece
in the heated air or water, turn the stopcock
until the burner shows a flame large enough to
keep the bath within a little of the required tem-
perature, then bring the Internal tube down to the
surface of the mercury until the end of the tube
is just completely blocked and no gas passes, by
applying a gentle screwing motion to the outer
tube and corks; on being left to itself the tempe-
ntnre of the bath will fall to such a level as the
gas, which finds its way to the burner by way of
the stopcock, will allow. The mercury will then
begin to contract, and so expose the end of the
tube B, allowing a certain further supply of gas
to find its way out through the T piece to the
bnmer, thns mainbdning a constant temperature.
In large towns care most be taken to guard against
the increased pressure of gaa which is usually put
on in the evening. For a regulator for use with
paraffin lamps see Ikottbatob.

SEOlnUS. A term applied by the alchemists
to various metallic matt^ obtained by fusion ;

as BBOULXTB O; AHTIMOirT, AB8IHI0, OC. It is

now almost obsolete.

SEIi'ISHSS. See Sauobs.

B£1I£])£ES, FISSBXTGDrOTTS. Bob. Frey-
g*i>g:

StbbIi bbahdt is an ordinary clear brownish
brandy, containing a very little bitter matter,
like the stomachic bitters of the apothecaries, and
mixed with about 1% of sugar. 10,000 parts
contain about 1^ parts oxide of iron.

Stbbl btoicachio BITTBB8. This is more
aromatic, bat otherwise similar to the steel
brandy ; 10,000 parts contain \ part iron oxide.

StbbIi uqvbtjb is a clear, agreeable-tasting
liqueor, of the colour, and containing much of
the juice of raspberries. 10,000 parts contain
nearly 1200 of sugar and only 1 of iron oxide.

Stbbl bybup (Syrup ferruginenx de Qnin-
quina). A clear, slightly violet-coloured, thin,
sweet fiuid, containing spirit and sugar, of which
cinchona Inrk may be an ingredient, though it is
appreciable by neither taste nor tests. It contain^
li parts iron in 10,000 parts.

Stbbl bonbohs contain a trace of iron oxide.

The iron present in the above preparations is in
the form of citrate {Mager).

BEKHIEirr. A term applied to fevers, and
other ^senses, which exhibit adecided remission in
violence during the twenty-four hours, but without
entirely leaving the patient, in which they difler
from intermittents or agues.

BENHET. Sgn. BmrNBi, Pbbfabxd calf's
KAW. The fourth or true digesting stomach of
the calf, freed from the outer skin, f a^ and useless
membrane, washed, treated with either brine or
dry salt for a few hours, and then hung up to dry.
When well prepared, the dried ' veils ' somewhat
resemble parchment in appearance.

Utei, ^0. Bennet is employed to curdle miDc
A piece of the requisite size is cut off and soaked
for some hoars in whey or water, after which the
whole is added to the milk for curdling, slightly
wanned, and the mixture is slowly heated, if neces-
sary, to about 182° F. In a short time after this
temperature has been attained the milk separates
into a solid white ooagulnm (cord), and into a
yellowisb, translnoent, liquid whey. Two sqnai*
inches from the bottom of a good 'vdl are
sufBcient for a cheese of 60 lbs. It is the gaatrie
juice of the stomach that effects these changes.
The stomachs of all sucking quadrnpeds possesi
the same properties. See Ceibbb.

Bennet) Eaience of. Prtp.l. One calf s rennet;
syrupy lactic acid, 1 dr.; glycerine, 1 oi.;
sherry, 2 oz. ; water, to 86 oz. Chop the rennet
small, and macerate with the salt (about 3 a>.),
used to preserve it, in the liquids for ten days ;
then flUo-, and coloor with a Uttle liqind ooehi-
neaL

2. Take 24 lbs. of dried rennet, cut small, freed
from salt, and sifted — ^Ko. 4 sieve. To djy the
rennets, take them and sprinkle well on both sidea
with salt, lay them singly on trays in a drying
room heated to about 120° F., and they will be
ready in a week. And also teke salt, 12 Iba. ;
rectified spirit, 4 galls. 82 fl. oz. ; sherry, 1 gall.
32 fi. oz. i aqua, 18 galls. Macerate seven daya,
shaking, drain on a fine sieve and filter; then filter
again through fuller's-earth to brighten it. One
teaspoonful to 1 pint of lukewarm milk will enrdle
in a few minutes.

Bennet, Liquid. Sya. Ebbbbob o> xbiiibx.
Prep. 1. From fresh rennet (cut small), 18 or. ;
common salt, 3 oz.; knead them together, and
leave the mixture at rest, in a cool place, for
five or six weeks; then add of water, 18 oz. ; good
mm or proof spirit, 2 oz. ; lastly, digest for 24
hours, filter, and oolonr the liquid with a little
burnt sugar,

2. Fresh rennet, 12 oz. ; salt, 8 oz. ; proof spirit,
2 oz. ; white wine, a quart ; digest for 24 hoars
and strain. A quart <d milk requires two or three
teaspoonf uls. Witlm directs 10 parts of a calfs
stomach ; salt, 8 parts. The membnme of the
stomach is to be cut with scissors and kneaded
with the salt, and with the rennet found in the
interior of that organ ; the whole left in a oool
place in an earthen pot till the cheesy odoor is
replaced by the proper odonr of rennet, which
will be in one or two months. Then add 16 parts
of water and 1 of spirit. Filter and colour with
burnt sngar.

8. The German Pharmacopoeia gives the follow-
ing formula for liquid rennet:-— 3 parta of the
mucous membrane of fresh calfs rennet, mace-
rated for three days in 26 parts of white wine,
1 part of table s^t being added.

OBm. Two or 3 teaspoonfnls will curdle a quart
of milk. Some persons nse white wine iii«t-«»«<
of water, with simple digestion for a day or two.
BBBTB. 8jin. Besbta, L. This name is
applied to many vegetable principles compoaed
of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The resins (bbbik2b) cannot be very accoimtdy
defined, but we may in a general way deaoxibe
them as substances which are solid at ordinary
temperatures, more or less transparent, inflaoa-

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BESmOIDS— BESHBATION

i4M

maUe, rauUly fiuibIe,do not ToUtiUae unchanged,
become negatively electrified by rubbing ; are in-
Bolnble in water, bat lolnble in alcohol ; mostly
inodoroos, and readily incorporated with fat<7
bodiea by fusion. Their gp. gr. varies from '9 to
1'2. According to Liebig, they are oxidised
enential oils. Common resm, rosin, or colophony,
and the shellac of which sealing-wax is made, are
familiar examples of these substances (see below).
Batla, Black. 8g». Roanrt, Black B.t,

COLOPHOHT; BsBIirA. mSBA, COLOPHOHU, £.

What remains of turpentine after the oil has
been distillad. When this substance, whilst still
fluid, is agitated with about l-8th part of water,
it forms the yellow resin of pharmacy. Used
for violin bows, dark-coloured ointments, var-
nishes, &c.

Sadn, Tdlow. Sfit. Tbllow soBiHt,
Whitb b.J; Ewiwa njiVA., BBsntA (Ph. L.),
L. Detergent. Used in ointments, plaaters, Ac.
(see abova).

BSSlVOIDS. 8gn. RKsnrouB extsaots,

COHOBHTKATBDB.; EXTBACTA BB8IHS, L. Under

this head the so-called ' Eclectics,' who form a
nnmerous class among American physicians, place
their most important 'concentrated remedies,'
" Viewed as pharmaceutical preparations eligible
for use in medicine, though not purified so as to
tank as distinctive proximate principles, these are
very appropriately named 'resinous extracts' or
' resins.' The term ' resinoid,' so commonly used,
is less appropriate to the class, implying, as it
does, a resemblance in resins, while aU ot these
are either resins, oleo-resins, or more or less
mixed proximate principles possessing no real
resemblance to the class of resins" (Parrith).
Host of them are prepared from plants indigenous
to North America, by precipitating a strong
alcoholic tincture with water. They are all
brought to the condition of powder, those which
•re naturally soft and oily being mixed with a
■nfficient quantity of sugar of milk, or other dry
materiaL Several of these eclectic remedies
have been introduced into regular practice. See

POIK>PHTIJ.Iir.

BESOr or SOSnf OIL. This is a product of
the dry distillation of resin. The apparatus used
consists of an iron pot, a head-piece, a condensing
arrangement, and a receiver.

In distilling the resin a bright oil first comes
over, and with it some acetic acid and water. As
soon as a cessation in the flow of the distillate
occurs the receiver is changed, and the heat is
raised, when a red-coloured and heavy rosin oil
comes over. The black residue remaining in the
pot is used as pitch. The light oil, called ' pino-
line,' is rectified, and the acetic acid water pass-
ing over with it is saturated with calcium
hydrate, filtered and evaporated to diyneas, the
calcium acetate thus obtuned being employed in
the jnannfactnre of acetic add. The rosin oil,
obtained after the light oil has passed over, has a
dark violet-blue colour, and is called ' blue rosin
oil.' The red oil is boiled for a day with water,
the evaporated water being returned to the
vessel ; next day the water is drawn off, and the
lemainii^ rosin oil is saponified with caustic soda
lye of 3^ Baumj, and the resnlting solid mass is
aistUled so long as oil passes over.

The product obtained is 'rectified rosin cH,'
which is allowed to stand in iron vessels, pro-
tected by a thin layer'of gypsum, whereby after •
few weeks a perfectly clear oil is obtained free
from water. Oil of the first quality is obtained
by a repetition of the foregoing operation upon
the once rectified oil. The reddue of both opera-
tions is melted up with the pitch ('Kngler's
Polytech. Joum./ ccvi, 246).

Bosin oil is empWed in the mainfacture of
axle grease, the oil being previously converted
into a soap by heating with slaked line.

Tut*. A characteristic violet cobiation with
anhydrons stannic chloride. Allen recommends
that the test be applied to the first fractions which
come on when distilled if it is mixed with fatty oils.
The presence of 10% of rosin oil in non-drying
oils delays their solidification by the ehudin test.

The admixture of rosin oil with mineral oil is
detected by the polariscope {vid* 'Diogler's
Polytech. Joum.,' cceliii, p. 418). It is also
shown by the increased solubility of the sample
in glacial acetic acid. The differeaces in the
iodbie and tannin absorptions of resin oils and
mineral oils are also distinguishing features.

SESOLVEHTS. Sg*. DiscmiBirTg ; Rbboi-
YBHTIA, L. Substances or agents which discuss
or resolve inflammatory and other tnmours. Bee
DiaBsrrvBS.

SSSOBCnr. Syu. MBTA-SIHTSItOXTBBVZOL.
C,H4(0H)r It was first obtained by HUsiwetc
and Barth by melting together gum-resins of
ammoniacnm, assafoetida, galbanum, &c., with
potassium hydrate; from this circumstance arose
its name ^rom Oreimm retina). It is now
prepared directly from benaole itself by com-
paratively simple steps. When pure it forms
colourless, or more often pale yellow, tabular or
columnar crystals, with a funt urinous smell and
an nnpleasant tickling taste ; m.-p. 118° C, b.-p.
276° C. It is readily and abundantly soluble In
water, alcohol, and ether, but very sparingly in
cold benzol or chloroform. In its therapeutical
action resordn closely resembles phenol, but is
without its poisonous properties. Externally in
substance or in concentrated solution it has been
used as a p^nless caustic, particularly in diph-
theria; in ointment form (1 : 6) for skin diseases ;
in solution (1% to 2% ) for nrethral ii^jection ; in
dilute solution as an eye-donche. For the treat-
ment of wounds it was employed in solution, and
in wool or ganze form. Internally, it has been
recommended as an antifermentative in acute
and chronic disordera of the digestive tract. The
dose is from 3 to 20 gr. several times a day in
mixture, or powdert^d in wafers or capsules.
Any brown spots formed on the skin by contact
with tesorcin can be removed by the application
of citric acid.

Dr Unna recommends the treatment of erysi-
pelas of the head by resorcin in the form of a
lotion (1% or 2%). When the infiammation
spreads beyond the scalp he recommends the edge
oif the inflammatory zone to be gentiy rubbed
with eqnal parts of resorcin and line paste
(' British Medical Journal ').

BKSPIBA'TIOK. The process by which air
enters and leaves the chest for the oxygenation
and purification of the blood in the lungs.

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1460

BEVALmTFA ABABICA— BHEUMATISU

The chest i( • doaed carity bounded behind by
the ipinal colnmo, in front by the ttemnm, at
the odea by the ribs extending between,these two,
below by the diaphrag;m, whilat above the cavity
i« doled by the approximation of the upper riba
to the atructoret which paaa through, viz. the
trachea, oasophagus, great blood- vesaela, &c. The
lungs are suspended in this cavity, lying against
the wall of the thorax but not adhering to it, so
that if the cavity of the thorax be enlarged the
lung must follow it, and air will enter the lung
through the windpipe. The chest is enlarged in
three directions :

1. From before backwards by the nusing of
the ribs.

2. From side to side by the eversion of the
ribs.

8. From above downwards by the descent of
the diaphragm.

The number of air-vesicles in the lung is cal-
culated at about 786,000,000, with a superficial
area of about 90 square metres, or about 100
times the whole surface of the body.

The lungs are never completely emptied in
respiration, and the air which moves in and out
is classified as follows :

Jleridual air = the volume of air which re-
mains in the chest after the most complete expi-
lation (100 to 130 cub. in.).

Satene air => volume of lur expelled from the
chest (tfttr a quiet ex}nration (about 100 cub.
in.).

IHdal air — volume of air which passes in and
out of the chest in quiet respiration (about 20
cab. in.).

Complmuntal air = air which can be forcibly
taken into the chest over and above the amount
taken in an ordinary quiet respiration.

Changea in oompoaition of air by respiration :

Carbonic add
Oxygen. Kitrogen. (b^ volume).
Atmospheric air, 20-96 . 79-02 . 004
Bespiredur . 1603 . 7902 . 400

Respired air is warmer and contains more
moisture than atmospheric air.

As a result of this change of the air in the
lung the ' venous blood ' which entered the lungs
from the right side of the heart has lost its
dingy hue, and has acquired the rich florid colour '
which is characteriatic of 'arterial blood.' In
this state it is returned to the left side of the
heart, and is propelled by that organ to every
part of the body, from which it passes by the
cajnllaries to the veins, and by these again to the
heart and lungs, to undergo the same changes
and circulation as before. The carbon and hy-
drogen of the blood, ultimately derived from the
food, are, in this course, gradually converted into
carbonic acid and water by a species of slow
combustion ; but how these changes are effected
is not definitely ascertained.

Bespiration, Artificial. See Dbowhino.

BETALEB'TA ABABICA. A mixture of the
red Arabian or Egyptian lentil with barley flour,
and a little sugar or salt ('Lancet'). See Lektil.

BEYEBB'iiBATOBT PUBITACE. See Fus-

NAOE.

B1!TI"VEB. iVep. 1. (Black bbtitbe,
Pabib'8 ahiioabdivk.) a. Blue galls (bruised).

4 oz,; logwood and sumach, of each, 1 oz. ; vine-
gar, 1 quart; macerate in a closed vessel, at a
gentle heat, for 24 hours, then strain off the clear,
add iron filings and green copperas, of each, loc.,
shake it occasionally for a week, and preserve it
in a corked bottle.

b. Oalls, 1 lb. ; logwood, 2 lbs. ; boil for 2 homs
in water, 5 quarts, until reduced to a gallon, then
strain, and add of green copperas, i lb. Used to
restore the colour of faded black doth.

2. (BLua BiviTiB.) From soluble FmsBiaii
blue, 1 oz.j dissolved in distilled water, 1 quart.
Used for either black or blue cloth.

BHAH'BOr. Prep. Express the juice from
buckthorn berries scarcely ripe, whidi is to be
r^ected ; boil the cake or residue with water, strain
with pressure, and filter the liquid whilst hot ;
crude rhamnin will be deposited as the liquid cool^
which, by solution in boiling alcohol and filtration,
may be procured in crystals.

ObM. Buckthorn juice (succus rhamni)," the
juice of the fruit of Shammu eathartietu, Linn.,"
was officinal in the Ph. L.

BEAT'AST. 8g». Bhatamt boot,- Sju-

MKBLB BADIX (B. P.), EbAKBBIA, BhATAHS

BASIX, L. " The root of Kramaria triamdra,"
and of Xraneria ixina. It is stomachic, and
powerf^y astringent and styptic. — Dote, 20 to
60 gr., either in powder or made into a decoction
or infusion. It is much employed in tooth pow-
ders, to fix the teeth when they become loosened
by the recession of the gums, and also for im-
proving the natural red colour of the lips and
gums. A saturated tincture of fimd extract, made
with brandy, forms the ' wine-colouring ' used by
the Portuguese to give roughness, colour, and tone
to their port wine. Hard extract of rhatany is
also much employed for the same purpose.

BHEIH. <%•. Chbtbophaitio acid. The
yellow colouring principle of rhubarb.

BHEUKATIC and GOUT PILLS. {W. Cfrott,
Cardiff.) Pills weighing 2 grms. roltod in lyoo-
podium, the essential ingredients of which are
quinine sulphate, gamboge, jalap, resin, and a little
rhubarb (Soffer).

BHEUIIATISK. i%». Bebtwakisxvs, L.
An affection of the joints, and of the extmial
muscular, tendinous, and fibrous textures of the
body, attended with swelling, sti&eas, and great
pain. Acute rheumatism or rheumatic fever, —
arthritis, inflammation of the synovial membrane,
or rheumatic gout, — sciatica, or rheumatism of the
cellular envelope of the great sciatic nerve, affect-
ing the hip, — and lumbago, or rheumatism of the
loins, are varieties of this disease.

The treatment of rheumatism consists in the
administration of purgatives and diaphoretics or
sudorifics, accompanied by tonics, as buk, quinine,
Ac. Calomel wiUi opium, and iodide of potassium,
have also been frequently and succes^ully em-
ployed in this complaint. Of late yean the
administration of the bicarbonate, citrate, or nitrate
of potassa, in rather large doses, has been strongly
recommended, and in numerous cases adopted with
success. The salicylates of soda and potash have
amost marked effect inacute rheumatism, reducing
the temperature and relieving the pun in a very
short time, and greatiy diminishing the risk of
subsequent heart troubles. Lemon juice, liberally

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BHODITTM— BHOPALOSIPHUM BIBI8

1461

taken, hH also proved naefnl in suddenly catting
sbort severe attacks of certain forms of rhen-
mstiim. The componnd powder of ipecacnanha,
taken at night, will generally promote the
ease and sleep of the patient, and, hy its soporific
action, tend considerably to hasten a cure. Where
possible, a dry atmosphere and a regular tempera-
ture should be sought, since a damp atmosphere,
and, indeed, exposure to damp under any form,
are the principal causes of rheumatism. Stimu-
lating embrocations, blisters, frictions, and, above
all, uie hot or vapour bath, are also frequently
serviceable in rheumatism, especially in lumbago
and casual attacks arising from cold. The daily
nse of oranges, or of lemon juice diluted with
water, has been found, in the m^'ority of cases,
to lessen the susceptibility of those who employ
them to attacks of rbenmatism and rheumatic gout
ariring from a damp situation or exposure to the
weather. See Lbxon Jiticb.

Bheumatic patients should abstain from ales,
beers, stout, and champagne.

BHO'SrUK. A whitish metal discovered by
Wollaston, in 1803, associated with palladium in
the ore at platinum.

It is chiefly employed for tipping the nibs of
metallic pens (' rhodiom ' or < everlasting pens ').
A very small quantity added to steel is said to im-
prove its closeness, hardness, and toughness, and
to render it less easily corrodible by damp.

SHOFAIOSIFHTTK BIBIS, Eoch. (From the
Greek words signifying 'club' and 'siphon,' or
'tube.') Teb CirBSAin: Apeib. In the description
of the cherry aphis, Mgtui ctrati, it was shown
that it also frequently was found upon currant
bashes. There is yet another species of aphis
which is common to these fruit bushes, namely,
the Shopalotiphum ribu, and as this is quite dis-
tinct in species, habit, and appearance, it is im-
portant to give its history, and point out the
cUstinction between these two species of aphides.

The Shopalotiphum, or currant aphis proper,
makes galls or swellings form upon the npper
surfaces of the leaves both of black and red cur-
rant bashes. These swellings look like blisters
raised by the snn, and are mainly of a red colour.
Upon examination of the under surface of the
leaves companies of larvcs will be seen actively
sacking sway at the leaves, and making them
blister, curi up, and eventually drop off. Although
this aphis does not do so much barm as the Myau,
or not so much apparent harm, it often weakens
the bushes considerably, so that the currants drop
or ' run ' off, and the bunches ' shank ' like grapes
in vineries from the exhaustion of the jnices of
the leaves, and consequently of the vital power of
the bashes. It has been noticed that the bushes
npon the poorer spots of the land of fruit planta-
tions, or where the drainage is bad, or in what
are known in Kent on the greensand soils as
' pinnocky places,' are more liable to receive in-
jury from this aphis than those where the soil is
good. This is probably because the bushes give
np or become exhausted sooner npon indifferent
luid.

As there is no honey-dew from these aphides,
the larva being without the anal tubercles peca-
Uar to many other species of aphides, their pre-
sence is often unsuspected and undetected, the

grails and changed colouring of the leaves being
attributed to conditions of weather or soiL Kal-
tenberg points out in his 'Fflanzenfeinde' that
this aphis is well known in Germany as a foe to
the currant bushes. Taschenberg also describes
it as forming lumps (BeuUn) upon their leaves,
and making them curl up (' Praktische Insekten
Kunde,' von Prof. E. L. Taschenberg). Prof.
Lintner, in the ' First Annual Beport of the En-
tomology of the State of New Tork,' alludes to
the characteristic bulges and blister-like eleva-
tions upon currant leaves caused by it in American
fruit plantations. Mr Saunders speaks of it as
" an importation from Europe, whrae it has long
been it\}arions to the currant" ('Insects Iigurioos
to Fruit,' by W. Saunders, Philadelphia,' 1888).

Life Hitiory. — Somewhere about the 12th of
May the wingless female, viviparous, or bringing
forth living young, may be found upon the leaves,
and, after the manner of aphides in general, soon
begins the long and fertile series of partheno-
genetic production. In an incredibly short space
of time — ^in a day or two — the under surfaces of
the leaves are covered with larvsD, whose continu-
ous pumping with their club-shaped siphons dis-
arranges the delicate economy of the leaf -tissue,
and sucks out the very life-blood of the bush.

Compared with the winged females and the
winged males this progenitrix is large. It is of a
yellowish or yellowish-green colour, and of a
somewhat oval shape.

After a time, determined by circnmstances not
as yet accurately defined, the larvn, or some of
the larvE, put on pupal form, and soon the winged
female speeds from the colony npon long trans-
lucent wings to deposit living young on other
currant bushes. It is prettily marked, having a
yellow body with black and green bars and spots.
The thorax is black. The legs are yellow with
black extremities, while the antenne are very long
and black.

Very similar to this is the winged male, though
rather smaller. The wingless, oviparous (egg>
laying) female, with which the male pairs at the
end of August, is rather darker in colour, and
smaller than the wingless viviparous female, the
direct product of the eggs. These are long, large,
and peculiarly shaped, being fastened to the stems
and twigs of currant bushes by a glntinoos liquid,
and carefully placed under the tbin exfoliated
layers of bark, or, more properly, skin, as it is so
delicate.

PrevtKtion. Black currant bushes infested
with aphides must be cut very ' hard ' in the
autumn, and all the cuttings should bo removed
far from the plantation. If eggs are found upon
the stems that are left these should be washed
over with a solution of soft soap and paraffin oil
of thick consistency, or with a solution of soft
soap and petroleum put on with a large paint-
brush worked well up and down.

Bed currant bushes may be treated similarly,
care being takeik to work the solution well into
the joints between the 'snags,' or little twigs
upon which the fruit comes.

SemtdUt. Washing or syringing with soft
soap and quassia is the sole remedy that can be
resorted to with any advantageous results, but
tills is obvionsly a delicate and a difSeolt opera-

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146S

BHTTBABB^BICE

tion, as the bnnchM of fruit hang immedi-
ately under the leavei, and in such thick clusters
that the wash would drip into them and he retained,
to the injury of the flavour (' Reports on Insects
Injurious to Crops,' by Chas. Whitehead, Esq.,
F.Z.8.).

SHTJ'BASB. Sjfn. Bhbi basix (B. P.).
Bhbttii, L. The root of ShevrnpaUnatum, Linn. ;
Shetun qffloinaU, Bullon ; and probably other
species. Collected and prepared in China and
Thibet.

Three principal varieties of rhubarb are known
in this country :

Bussian or Turkey rhnbarb is the produce of
six-year-old plants of the mountain declivities of
Chinese Tartary ; imd its principal excellence de-
pends on its more careful preparation, and sub-
sequent garbling, both before its selection for the
Bussian market, and after its arrival at Kiachta,
and again at St Petersburg. At Kiachta-all pieces
of a porous, grey, or pale colour are rcgected, the
whole being p<ured and perforated, the better to
determine the quality of the interior portion. At
St Petersburg the pieces are again carefully ex-
amined and garbled, and are, finally, packed in
dose cases or chests, which are rendered air-tight
by the application of pitch on the outside.

East India or Chinese rhubarb is the produce
of the locality just referred to, as well as of other
parts of China. It is obtained from younger
plants, and its preparation and subsequent selec-
tion or garbling is conducted with leas care.

English rhnbarb is principally produced at
Banbu:^, Oxfordshire, from the JBi«vm rhaponti-
cum. It is cut and dressed up after the manner
of Turkey rhubarb, for which it is sold by itine-
rant vendors, habited as Tnrks.

Adult. I>r Haisch ('American Journal of
Pharmacy,' xliii, 259) says the presence of tnr-
meric may be detected in powdered rhnbarb by
the following method:— A small quantity of the
suspected rhubarb is agitated for a minute or two
wiUi strong alcohol, and then filtered, chryso-
phanic acid being sparingly soluble in this men-
struum. The brown yellow colour of the filtrate
is dne to the resinous principles of rhnbarb mainly;
if adultemted with turmeric, the tincture will be
of a brighter yellow shade j a strong solution of
borax produces in both tinctures a deep red-brown
colour.

If now pure hydrochloric acid be added in
large excess, the tincture of pare rhubarb will
instantly assume a light yellow colour, while
the tincture of the adulterated powder will change
merely to a lighter shade of brown-red.

The test is a very delicate one, and is based on
the liberation of Ix>racic acid, which imparts to
cnrcmnine a colour similar to that produced by
alkalies, while the principles of rhnbarb soluble in
strong alcohol yield pale yellow solntions in acid
liquids.

Qual. Bussian or Turkey rhubarb occurs in
irregular plano-convex or roundish lumps, per-
forated with a circular hole; i£ possesses a yellow
colour outside ; when recently broken, the inside
presents a rich mottled appearance, and evolves a
peculiar and somewhat aromatic odour. It is
firm, compact, heavy, perfectly free from moisture,
and easily grated. Its taste is bitter, s%htly

astringent, and subacid ; and when chewed it
feels gritty, and tinges the saliva of a beantifnl
yellow colour. It breaks with a rongh, hackly
fracture, is easily pulverised, and its powder is ci
a bright bufF-yeUow colour.

East India, Canton, or Chinese rhubarb is in
flat pieces, seldom perforated, and its taste and
odour are stronger than the other. It is also
heavier, tinges the saliva of an orange-red hoe,
and when pulverised the powder is redder than
that of Bnssian rhubarb.

English rhubarb possesses all the preceding
qualities in a greatly less degree. It is light and
spongy, does not fed gritty between the teeth, its
taste is mucilaginous, and its powder has a pecu-
liar pinkish hue not present in either of the other
varieties of rhnbarb. As a medicine it possesses
little value, and is chiefly employed to adulterate
East India and Turkey rhubarb.

Prop., Jfo. Bhuborb is astringent, stomachic,
and purgative. In small doses its operation is
principally or wholly confined to the digestive
organs; in larger ones, it first acts as a mild
aperient, and i^terwards as an astringent ; hence
its value in diarrhcea. It has also been used ex-
ternally to promote the healing of indolent sores.
— Dote. As a stomachic, 1 to 6 gr. ; as a purga-
tive, 10 to 20 gr. It is most effective when
chewed, or in the form of powder produced by
grating it.

Bhnbarb, Boaat'ed. 8gn. Bubht bhvbasb;
Bhkuk vbtuk, li. Prep. 1. Bhnbarb. in coarse
powder, is carefnlly and regularly heated in a
smooth shallow iron dish, with constant stirring,
until its colour has changed to a moderately
dark brown, when it is allowed to cool out of con-
tact with the air; when cold, it is rednoed to
powder, and at once put into a well-closed bottle.

2. (SobU/n.) Boast powdered rhubarb in aa
iron vessel, constantly stirring, until it beoome*
almost black ; then smother it in a covered jar. —
Dote, 5 to 10 gr. ; as an astringent in diarrhoea,
and a tonic in dyspepsia, &c. Professor Procter,
the well-known American pharmaceutist, recom-
mends the rhnbarb to be only roasted to a ' light
brown.'

BETPOFH'AOOK. Prep. From yellow soap,
sliced, 1 oz. ; soft soap (finest), S oz. ; melt them
by the heat of hot water, then allow them to cool
a little, and stir in of oil of cloves, i dr. ; essence
of ambergris, 10 drops. It is kept a month
before sale. Used for shaving.

BICE. Sy». Obtza, L. The seed of Oryxa
tatiea, a plant of the Nat. Ord. Obakiitacbs.
Several varieties are known in commerce, dis-
tinguished by the name of the country or district
which produces them. The finest is that imported
from Carolina. It reaches this country in a decor-
ticated condition. ' Paddy ' is rice with the huak
upon it. Dr Letheby estimates that it affords
nourishment to not less than a hundred milliona
of people.

As an article of diet, rice is highly nutritions
and wholesome when combined with iresh animal
or other nitrogenised food ; but, owing to thevery
small qnanti^ of 'albuminoids' which it con-
tains, and its comparative destitution in saline
matter, it is totally unfit to form the principaJ
portion of the diet of the working chuses, or the

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ftlCS

1468

poorly ted, at lext in tliu dSmate. " It doe* not
appear ao well calculated for Earopean constitu-
tiona as the potato, for we find the poor constantly
reject it when potatoes can be had." This pre-
ference evidently depends on something more than
mere whim or taste, for some years ago, when
rice was snbstitnted for potatoes in some of oar
onion workhouses, the most serious consequences
followed. In one of these, nine or ten deaths
from scurry and allied diseases occurred in a
■ingle fortnight. Large quantities of rice are

annually imported into Brit^

, and used bv dis-

tillers in the manufacture of spirits.

Letheby gives the following as the composition

of rioe:

Nitrogenous matter

. 6-3

Carbo-hydrates

. 79-6

Fatty matter .

. 0-7

Saline matter

. 0-6

Water ....

. 18-0

lOO-O

Fis. I.

Fie. 1.

Xienueopie Apptaramce of Siee,
Fia. 1.— Tnurers* lactios of the hnik of rice.

Fio. S.— Appeamica of hnik u wen in a tnnsparant modimn of gljeerln and nm :— «. Siliceooi giannles arrangad In
iland tiaaBTeruridgea, perforated by opeDingi—atomata, BomehaTin- *^"' "^ ' - "

riongitndinal, brittle, rongh-edged llbrea.
dalicata membrane of large cella, <.

longtindinal and traaaTcru ridgea, perforated br opeoingi— atomata, aome baring bails orer them, i, e. Transreras
' ' ' " /. A Ine membnue of truUTene angular cells ; these orerlie a rery

Pa^e ^ves the following as tbe compodtion
of dried nee :

mtrogenons matter

. 7-66

Starch .

. 88-66

Dextrin, to.

. 1-00

Fatty matter

. 0-80

Cellulose .

. 1-10

Mineral water

. 0-90

100-00

Ash of rioe:

Potash

. 18-48

Soda .

. ia67

Lime .

. 1-27

Magnesia

. 11-69

Oxide of iron

. 0-46

Phosphoric acid .

. 63-86

Chlorine

. 0-27

Silica .

. 8-86

99-64

Umi, To Cook. If rice

is boiled it should be

d?

5

©

9

^

V%'^

jAr

Uiooacopic appearance of ground rice-flonr.

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14M

EICININ— ROASTING

■al^jected to a low temperataTe. The best way of
cooking rice, however, is by thoroughly steaming
it. By this method, it is said, the loss of nitro-
genods matter is prevented, and the grun con-
seqaently suffers no diminution of nutritive power,
as in the case of boiling.

SICISUT. The poisonoaa principle of castor-
oil seeds. It is an albuminoid, one of the phytal-
bomoses, and belongs to the class of unorganised
ferments. Boiling destroys its activity. It can
be prepared from the shelled seeds by percolating
with a 10% salt solution. The percolate is satu-
rated with sodium and magnesium sulphates, when
there separates a white precipitate, which is puri'
fled by dialysis. The shiny mass is scraped from
the septum and dried i» vacuo over sulphuric acid.
The product when powdered is white, and eon-
tains 10% to 20% of ash, which does not interfere
with its physiological action. It is a very poison-
ous substance.

SICIKO'L£IC ACQ). A variety of oleic acid
discovered in saponified castor oil.

BICS'ETB. Sjfn. Baohitib, L. A disease,
generally confined to childhood, characterised by a
large head, prominent forehead, protruded breast-
bone, flattened ribs, tumid belly, emaciated limbs,
and great general debility. The bones, more
particularly those of the spine and legs, become
distorted, and exhibit a deficiency of earthy
matter ; the stools are frequent and loose, a slow
fever succeeds, with cough, painful and difficult
respiration, and, unless the child rallies, atrophy
is confirmed, and death ensues. When recovery
takes place there is always more or less deformity
left.

The common causes of rickets are bad nursing,
exposure to damp and cold, insufficient nutri-
tion, and more especially improper food, «. g.
meat, potatoes, and alcohol given to infants a few
months old. Bickets, like caries of the bones, is
a disease which is scarcely known amongst in-
fants whose pap is made of pure wheaten bread,
and whoee mothers or nurses consume the same
themselves.

The treatment of rickets depends more on
proper domestic management than on direct medi-
cation. Careful nursing, warm dry clothing,
thorough ventilation, moderate exercise, and, above
all, a light natritious mixed diet abounding in
myogenous matter and the phosphates, will do
much to effect a cure. To these may be added
the administration of the milder chalybeate tonics,
Inrk, or quinine, with occasional doses of some
mild aperient, as phosphate of soda, or, when
there is diarrhoea, of rhnbarb or some other tonic
purge. The administration of small doses of
phosphate of lime or of dilute phosphoric acid,
frequently repeated, is often useful. See Bbias,
Fabdta, Nubsinq-, Ac.

BIHG'WOBM. B!^. SoaiiD-hba]); Pobbioo,
L. The common ringworm, the Fossiao goviT7-
LATA of medical writers, is a disease that appears
in drcnlar patches of little pustules, which after-
wards form scabs, leaving a red pimply surface,
and destroying the bulbs of the hair in its progress.
It spreads rapidly, and is very infectious, often
running through a whole school. It chiefly affects
the neck, forehead, and scalp of weakly children,
•nd frequently arises without any apparent

cause, bat in general may be traced to nnclean-
ness, or contact with parties suffering from the
disease.

The treatment of ringworm consists in shaving
the part, and keeping it clean with soap and
water, at the same time that an occasional mild
saline aperient is administered, and a light, nutri-
tious diet, of which the red meat and ripe fraits
should form a portion, be rigorously adhered to.
When the scabbing commences, dressings of tar
ointment, or of the ointment of nitrate or red
oxide of mercury, or a mixture of equal parte of
the first and either the second or third, shoold be
applied, in each case diluting the mixture with
sufficient lard to adapt it to the state of irritability
of the part. Daring this treatment the head
should be covered with an ordinary nightcap, or
some simple bandage, and not enveloped in a
bladder or oil-skin case, as is commonly the prac-
tice, since the complete exclusion of atmospheric
air tends to aggravate the disease.

BI"PE]nKa. See Bbbwihs, Mau; Liquom.
WisK, Ac.

BOASTISO. Alexis Soyer recommraids, "as
an invariable role," that " all dark meats, soch as
beef and mutton, should be put down to a sharp
flre for at least fifteen minutes, until the oatside
has acquired a coating of osmazome, or condensed
gravy, and then removed back, and allowed to
cook gently. Lamb, veal, and pork, if young and
tender, should be done at a moderate fire. Veal
shoold even be covered with paper.

" Very rich meat, if covered with paper, does
not require basting. Fowls, &c., should be placed
close to the fire, to set the skin, and in about ten
minutes rubbed over with a small piece of batter,
pressed in a spoon. Meats, whilst roasting, should
be dredged with flour, just at the time when the
gravy begins to appear j the flour absorbs it, and
forms a coating which prevents any more coming
out. Hares and small game should be treated in
the same manner."

Under ordinary circumstances as to the fire,
and the distance between it and the joint, beef,
mutton, and veal take about i hour per lb. in
roasting. Lamb, poultry, and small game require
only 12 to 14 minutes per lb. ; whilrt veal take*
fully 15 minutes, and pork takes fnnn i hoar to
20 minutes, as they must always be well done.
The flesh of old animals requires more cooUng
than the flesh of young ones ; and inferior, tough,
and bony parts than the prime joints and pieces.

Boasting is not an economical method of cook-
ing pieces of meat abounding in bone ortendinoos
matter, since the natritious portion of these is
either destroyed or rendered insoluble by the heat
employed. Thus the raw bones fi?om a joint are
capable of affording a rich and excellent baain of
soup, highly nutritious ; whilst the bones from a
corresponding joint which has been roasted are
nearly worthless when so treated. The same
applies with even greater force to the gristly and
tendinous portions. A dry heat either destroys
them or converts them into a horny sabstanoe^
unflt for food ; whilst by boiling they are trans-
formed into a highly succulent and nutritions
article of food, besides affording excellent sonpiff
jelly. Hence the policy of ' boning ' meat before
roasting or baking it ; or, at all events, of remov*

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ROB— BOSEHABT

1466

ingfhe bony portion which irould he moit exposed
to the action of the fire. See Boirs and Jbljlt.

BOB. Sgn. Boob. A term, derived from the
Arabic, formerly applied to the inspissated juice
of ripe fmit, mixed with honey or sugar to the
consistence of a conserve of thin extract. Bob
of elder-berries (elsbb bobj boob bakbuci),
juniper berries (jUBif bb bob ; boob jttnipbbi),
molberriee (inriBBBBT bob; boob siakobuk),
and walnuts (wauiut bob ; boob staoajbtov j,
with a few others, are still found in some of the
forugn Pharmacopoeias.

BOCK. The popular name of a sweetmeat
formed of sugar boiled to a candy, and then
poured upon an oiled slab, and allowed to cool in
the lump. It is variously flavoured.

HOCK CBTSTAIi. Native crystallised silica.
See QvABiz.

BOCK Dili. See PsTBOLBirx.

BOCK SOAP. A native silicate of alumina;
used for crayons, and for washing cloth.

BOCKETS. (In pyroteehms^ Prep. The
0ABB8. These are made of stout cartridge-paper,
rolled on a mould and pasted, and then throttled
a little below the mouth, like the neck of a phiaL
The diameter should be exactly equal to that of a
leaden ball of the same weight, and the length
should be equal to 3| times the external dia-
meter. Above the spindle there mnst be one
interior diameter of composition driven solid.
They are filled with the following mixtures,
tightly driven in, and when intend^ for flight
(bxt-booxbtb) they are ' garnished.' and affixed
to willow rods to direct their course.

The ooMPoaiTiOK. 1. {Manh.) a. For 2-oz.
rockets. From nitre, 541 parts; sulphur, 18
parts ; charcoal, 27i parts ; all in fine powder,
and passed through lawn.

i. For 4-oz. do. From nitre, 64 parts ; sul-
phnr, 16 parts ; charcoal, 20 parts ; as the last.

e. -For i-lb. to 1-lb. do. From nitre, 62i
parts ; sulphur, 16} parts ; charcoal, 21| puts,

2. {Snggieri.) a. For rockets of }-incb dia-
meter. From nitre, 16 parts ; charcoal, 7 parts ;
sulphur, 4 parts.

i. For i-to l)-inch rockets, use 1 part more of
nitre.

e. Forl}-inchrockets,a8e2part8moreof niti:e.

d. By using 1 part less of charcoal and adding
respectively 3, 4, and 6 parts of fine steel filings,
the above are converted into ' bbiujant fibbs.'

e. By the substitution of coarse cast-iron bor-
ings for fllings, and a further omission of 2 parts
of charcoal from each, the latter are converted
into ' CEnrBSB vebb.'

Haitd-booeets and &BOt7in>-BO0KBTB are
nsnally loaded with nothing but very fine meal
gunpowder and iron or zinc filings or borings.

After 8KX-BOOEIT8 and watbb-booebts aro
charged, a piece of clay is driven in, through
which a hole is pierced, and the 'head' or 'gar-
niture ' filled with stars, and a little corn powder
is then applied. See Fibb8, Stabs, and Ftbo-

TIOHITT.

BOLL (Wine). Prep. Soak a French roll or
sponge biscuit in raisin, marsala, or sherry wine,
surround it by a custard or cream thickened with
eggs, and add some spice and ornaments.

BOLLS. A variely of fancy bread, generally

in the form of small serai-cylindrical cakes, pre-
pared by the bakers, and intended to be eaten
hot for breakfast. They differ from ordinary
fine or French bread, as it is called, chiefly in
containing more water. Some are wetted up with
milk and water, and are hence called ' milk rolls.'

BOOT. Sy». Radix, L. That part of a
plant which imbibes its nourishment from the
soil or medium in which it grows. In popular
langnage, bnlbt, conns, tubers, &c., are impro-
per^ included nnder this term.

B0PE8 ASS KirOTS. The art of tying a knot
nnder every imaginable condition, which shall be
secure and perform the work required of it, is
almost unknown except to sailors, or to those whose
lives are spent in the constant use of ropes and
cordage. There are very few accessible books in
which any detailed description of knots is to be
found, and, in the belief that such description
will be of great practical utility, the following
cuts, kindly lent by Messrs Cassell, are inserted.
The reader who requires further information on
the subject should consult the weekly periodical
' Work, published by this firm, vol. iii, Noa. 109,
lis, 117, &c. (See pages 1456—1469.)

BCTHrsSS. see Mai.t Liqvobb and Wdibs.

BOSE. Sgn. BOBA, L. The typical genus of
the Nat. Ord. Robaobs. It includes numerous
species greatly prized as garden plants.

Bose, Cabbage. Sg». Huksbbd-lbatbd

BOSS ; RoaS OBNTIFOIJA FETAIiA (B. P.), RoflA

OENTITOLIA (Ph. L. and E.), L. "The fresh
petals" (Pb. L.) of this species are used in medi-
cine. Odorous and slightly astringent and laxa-
tive. See Watbbs and Sraup.

Bose, Dog. The £ota canina, or wild briar.
See Hits.

Bose, French. Sy». Rbs boss ; Boba oal-

UOM PETALA (B. p.), BoBA aAXLIOA (Pb. L. E.
and D.), L. " The fresh and dried unexpanded
petals" (Ph. L.) of this species are officinal.
The white claws of the petals are removed before
drying them.

Usee, 4*0. The red rose is an elegant astrin-
gent and tonic, and, as such, is used asjthe basis
of several pharmaceutical preparations. See
COirPBCTION, HONETB, IlTPUBIOU, and Sybup.

Bom of Jericho. Syn. Ababtatioa eiibo-
OEUKnoA, L. An annual plant from the deserts
of Arabia and Egypt. After withering, its
spreading bianchea roll themselves up in a ball,
and the whole plant is detached and blown about
by the wind, the branches expanding again with
the first rainfall. By this means the seeds aro
easily dispersed.

BOSEILABT. Sgn. BosuABiBrs (Ph. L. E.
and D.). The flowering tops of Soemarimu <(^
ainaUe, Linn., or the common rosemary of our
gardens, are officinal in the Ph. E. and D. ; as is
also the oil (oleum rosmarini) in the B. P. and
Ph. L. The odour of both is refreshing, and
they are reputed carminative, emmenagogue, and
neurotic. The dried leaves are occasionaJly used
by the hysterical and hypochondriacal as a sub-
stitute for China tea. Tlie oil is an ingredient
in Hungary water, and is mach used in various
oosmeldc compounds, under the presumption of
its eneonraging the growth of hair and improving
its quality.

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1466

BOPES AND KNOTS

Otbbhaitd Ehoi.

FovBVOLD oyxBHAKS Ekot, made by paning the end
of the rope several times through the bight, often
termed a ' blood knot.' nied for whip thongs, Ac

FLnoaH OB FiauBi-ov-siaHT Kvot.

The Same drawn tight.

Tn Sailor's Knot, Tbub Ekot, or Ban Esos
for uniting two ropei <ff tie tame rite ; will
«o< answer when tiiey are of different thick-

Bin Esoi HAii> xAsa.

Ban KiroT hattxbd BiausHT.

GKurmr Kiror.

Wbatbb's KiroT Hixr itAoa.

OaAxxT Evoi oxosas.

WaATBB'g Ehot oumbs.

""^SSS^S!

FisaaBMAK's Kiroi.

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ROPES AND KNOTS
ITS KVOTS.

Cjubbbb's Etb.

KTTKiriNa Knot.

1467

FiBHBBMAir'S EYB.

OPBir-EXlTD Etx.

FutldSE Etb.

BumraHa Bowunb on Bioht.

1. — BmrNiKS Khdi
.->. WITH Two Ends.

2. — Same fastened.

TOL. II.

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1468

ROPES AND KK0T8
HITCEE3 AMD VXKDS.

Two Hals Hitchi8.

TlKBliB HiTOE.

BviLDBB's Knot.

Cabbick Bbks.

ROLLINO HiTOH.

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ROPES AND KNOTS

146d

Shbbt Binds.

BAOznra Httoh.

Blaokwalii Hitoh.

McDSHiPiciH's Hitoh.

MiBUHBBPiKB Hitoh.

Statiodbb's Khot.

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1460

BOSS PINE— BUB

BOSl PUK. See Rid Piaiams.

BO'Sm. See Bsbin.

BOST-DSOP. See AoKi.

BOT. Sgn. Obbat-bot, Htsbofhio bot,
Skus-bot, Wbt-bot. a disease pecnlisT to
theep, prodoced by the presence ia the liver of the
]>i*toma iepatiea, ft pftnsite commonly known
under the name of a ' flnke.' Bot prevails dur-
ing very wet or rainy seasons. The leading
^fmptoms are loss of flesh and vivacity ; the lips
and tongue look vivid, and the eyea sad and
glassy : the pelt comes off on the slightest poll ;
the breath is fetid, and the urine highly coloured
and scanty ; and there is either black purging or
ohatinate costiveness. The treatment consists in
a change to a dry, warm, elevated situation, and a
dxy diet, consisting of oats, barley meal, tiul-
wheat, ke., to which some turnips, carrots, or
mangel-wurzel may be added, with a liberal
supply of common salt, and a few grains of bdI-
phuT, daily. These last two sabstances form the
active ingredients in Flesh's 'Patent Restora-
tive.' 8m Fluki, Nbma.toi>a, Wobiu. '

BOT (ia Timber), See Dbt-bot.
^ BOTATIOB (of Crops). The rotation or succes-
sion of crops is absolutely necessary for the suc-
cessful and economical cultivation of the soils.
Crops have been divided by agriculturists into
exhausting crops, restoring crops, and cleaning
crops. The most exhausting crops are usually
considered to be those of com, but all those that
are allowed to ripen their seed and which are
carried off the ground are also exhausting, but in
different degrees. Even clover, tares, and grass
cut green are considered as exhausting, but in a
less degree than those that are allow^ to ripen.
Restoring crops are such as are allowed to decay
upon the ground, or are consumed upon it by
domestic animals. Cleaning crops are sach as are
grown in drills, and undergo the usual operations
of weeding, hoeing, &c. ; the migority of these
may also be regarded as exhausting crops. An ex-
hausting crop should always be followed by a
restoring or a cleaning crop ; or, where poasiUe,
hj both combined. Crxips should also succeed
each other in such a way that the soil may not be
exhausted of any one particular kind of nutri-
ment. This is best effected by so rotating the
crops that plants which are nearly allied should
not succeed each other on the same soil, or, at all
events, not more tium once. See Aobiodiivbb,
Sons, Ac. 1

BOT'TBV-STOn. See Tbipou.

BOUGE. Syn. Toilkt boitobj BovaBTlSB-
TAL, BonoB D'BsPAOKB, Fr. Prep. Wash
iafflower (any quantity) until the water comes off
colourless ; dry and pulverise it, and digest the
powder in a weak solution of crystallised car-
bonate of soda J then place same fine cotton-wool
at the bottom of a porcelain or glass vessel, ponr
the filtered tinctorial solution on this, and throw
down the oolouriag matter, by gradually adding
lemon juice or white- wine vinegar, until it ceases
to produce a precipitate; next wash the prepared
cotton in pure cold water, and dissolve out the
colour with a fresh solution of soda; to the new
solution add a quantify of finely powdered talc
or I^rench chall^ proportionate to the intended
quality of rouge j mix well, and preoiintate

with lemon juice, as before; lastly ooUeet the
powder, dry it with great care, with as little heat
as possible, and triturate it with a very small
quantity of oil of olives, to render it smooth and
adhesive.

Obt. According to the best anthoritiek, this is
the only article which will brighten a lady's com-
plexion without injuring the skin. The relative
fineness and proportion of talc employed deter-
mines the quality of the rouge. It is applied by
means of a camel-hair pencil, a small ' powder
puff,' or a hare's foot. It is also employed under
the form of ' pommade ' and * crepons.' The last
of these consist of pieces of white woollen crape,
upon which the colouring matter of the carthamus
has been precipitated, instead of upon the talc^
noticed above.

The following articles also pass under the name
of rouge, and are used for tiie purposes named
aft« each:

Bouge d' Athene*, Vert. Sgn. Pubb BovaB.
See Cabthakiitb.

Bouge, Brown-rsd. Jeweller's louge.

Bouge, Chinese Card. This is said to be a
' carthamate of soda ; ' it is colourless when
applied, but, being decomposed by the acid secre-
tions of the skin, acquires a most beautiful roie-
like tint ((yShaughfUMiy).

Bouge, Indlenne. The terra persica, or Indian
red ; imported from Ormuz.

Bouge, Jeweller's. Sesquioxide of iron prepared
by calcination. Used to polish gold, &c.

Bouge, Liquid. The red liquid left from the
preparation of carmine; or a solution of ear-
mine in weak carbonate of potash water, or of
pure rouge in alcohol acidulated with acetic
add.

Bouge de Pmne. Light red or burnt ydlow
ochre. See Ris 'Piavxam.

Bouge, Spanish Lady's. This is cotton-wool
which has been repeatedly wetted with an ammo-
macal solution of carmine, and dried. It la
applied like ' rouge crepons.'

BOUGH'BBUra. See Wihbb.

BTJBBEB, OUATEHALA and WEST IISIAV,
from OcutiUoa lUutiea, Cerv. One of the largest
forest trees of the north-east coast of Mexico, and
found also in Honduras, Nicaragua, Guayaquil,
&o. It is the V16 of the natives. The plant has
been introduced into India, Ceylon, and other
countries.

BUBEPA"CIEHTS. Syn. Rubevacibktia, L.
Substances or agents which, when applied for a
certain time to the skin, occasion a redness and
increase of heat, without blistering. They act aa
counter-irritants. Mustard, powdered ginger
(both made into a paste with water), liartshorn
and oil, and ether and spirit of wine (when their
evaporation is prevented), are familiar examples
of this class of remedies.

BUBE'OLA. See Hbablbs.

BXTBrACIV. An orange-oolonred substance,
obtained from madder.

BTTBISTUK. [Eng., L.] A metal belonging
to the alkaline group discovered by Bnnsen and
Kirchhoff by means of spectrum analysis. It
is found in many mineral waters associated witti
cs9sium.

BU'BY. See Qikb and Pabtbi.

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BUM— BUTHEKrCTM

1461

Bint. Slf». BVTiB VOZIA. BVTA (Ph. L. &B.)>
L. "The leaf Suia graveoUiu" (Ph. L.). A
powerfnl antUpasmodic, diuretic, and itimnlant.
It is al«o reputed nervine and emmena^g:ae.
The freah leave* are powerfully acrid, and even
vesicant; but they become milder in drying. —
Dote, Of the powider, IS to 30 ST., twice or vStiee
daily ; in hysteria, flatulent couc, &o. See Ih-
ruaioy and OniS (Volatile).

Bini. Sjfm. SpiBirDB Jaxaicbkbib, SpmnrB
BACCHABI, L. An ardent spirit obtained by dis-
tillation from the fermented skimmings of the
sngar-boHers (syrup scum), the drainings of the
sugar-pots and hogsheads (molasses), the washings
of the boilers and other vessels, together with
sufficient recent cane juice or wort, prepared by
mashing the erushed cane, to impart the neces-
sary flavour. The sweet liquor before fermenta-
tion commonly contains from 12% to 16% of sac-
charine, and every 10 galls, yields from 1 to 2
galls, of rum.

The average strength of rum, as imported into
this country, is about 20 o, p. Iiike all other
spirits, it is colourless when it issues from the
still, but owing to the taste of the consumer the
distiller is compelled to colour it before it leaves
his premises.

Obt. Bum is imported from the West Indies.
The best comes from Jamaica, and is hence dis-
tinguished by that name. Leeward Island rum
is less esteemed. The duty on rum is 10*. 2d.
per proof gallon if imported direct from any of
the British colonies (ct^onial rum), but 10«. 6^. if
from any other part of the world (foreign rum).
The consumption of mm has long been declining
in England, its place being chi^y supplied by
gin. Ram owes its flavour to a volatile oil and
butyric acid, a fact which the wary chemist has
availed himself of in the manufacture of a butyric
compound (essence of rum) for the especial pur-
pose of enabling the spirit dealer to manufacture
a factitious mm from malt or molasses spirit. In
Jamaica it is usual to put sliced pine-apples into
the puncheons containing the finer qualities of
mm, which is then termed pine-apple rum. See
AlooHOi,, Sfibit, &e.

BUK, BAT(B.Bother'tT«mnIafbr). Accord-
ing to an American authority, true bay mm is
made from Pititenta aerU (ifyrica aoru, Schwartz ;
MyrUu aerit, Willd.), and not tnm'Launu nobilii,
as commonly supposed ; the method of its distilla-
tion not being known outside the West Indies, it
has been customary to make it extemporaneously
with the oil of bay distilled from the leaves of
the former plant. This preparation is inferior in
fragrance, however, to the genuine article. The
following formula of R. Bother is said to give
very good results: — Take of oil of bayberry, 1
fl. oz. ; Jamaica nm, 1 pint ; strong alcohol, 4
pints ; water, 8 pints. Mix the rum, alcohol, and
water, then add the oil ; mix and filter.

BinCICIH. A resinous powdered extract ob-
tained from the root of Sumex eritpiu, yellow
dock. A tincture, 1 in 10 of proof spirit, is used
as well as the resin, acting as tonic, astringent,
and antiscorbutic. — I>o*«. Tincture, 2 to 10
minims ; resin, 2 to 6 gr.

BUPEBT' B DS0P8. These are made by letting
drops of melted glass fall into cold water. By

tliii means they assnme an oval form, vith a tail
or neck resembling a retort. They possess this
singular property that^ if a small portion of the
tail is broken oft, the whole bursts into powder
with an explosion, and a considerable shock is
communicated to the hand.

BDPIA. This is an aifection of the skin attended
by the formation on it of vesicles, that develop
into ulcers which copiously discharge a foul, rat'
healthy, and reddish matter. After a time this
matter hardens and forms a thick incrustation
over the sores.

The best treatment is to put the patient npon a
generous diet, including wme, and to administer
iodide of potassium wiui sarsaparilla or quinine.
The scabs should be poulticed.

BUPTUBX. See Svs&bbt.

BUBKB. Prep. From 4 eggs ; new milk and
warm water, of each, i pint ; melted batter and
sugar, of each, i lb.; yeasl^ S table-spoonfuls ;
beat well together with as much flour, added
gradually, as will make a very light paste ; let it
rise before the fire for half an hour, then add a
little more flour, form into small loaves or cakes
5 or 6 inches wide, and flatten them ; bake these
moderately, and, when cold, cut them into slice*
of the size of rusks, and put them into the oven
to brown a little. A nice tea-cake when hot, or
with caraways to eat cold. PLAnr bubxb are made
by simply cutting loaves of bread into slices, and
baking them in a slow oven to the proper colour.

BUS'KA. An arsenical iron pyrites, found in
Galatia, which, when reduced to powder, and
mixed with half its weight of quicklime, is used
by the Turldsh ladies to make their ' PBUxyrHXOirB,'
or compounds to remove superfluous hair. See
Dbpiutobt.

BUST. Syn. BvBioo, L. The ooating or
film of oxide or carbonate which forms on the
surface of several of the metals when exposed to
a moiat atmosphere ; more particularly, that which
forms on iron or steel (pebbi htdbati; ht-

DBATXD BBSQUIOXISB OP IBONJ PXBBDOO, PBBBI
BVBIOO).

To prevent iron or steel g^ds rusting, it is
merely necessary to preserve them from damp or
moisture. In the shops, small articles in steel
are, commonly, either varnished or enclosed in
quicklime finely pulverised; large articles are
generally protected with a coating of plnmbagd,
or of boiled oil, or some cheap varnish, applied to
them, previously gently heated. Surgical instm-
ments are frequently slightly smeared with a
little strong mercurial ointment with the same
intention.

Spots of rust may be removed from the surfkce
of polished iron or steel by robbing them with a
little tripoli or very fine emery made into a paste
with sweet oil ; or, chemically, by a mixture of
polisher's putty powder with a little oxalic arid,
applied with water. When the last is employed,
the articles should be afterwards well rinsed in
pure water, then wiped dry, and finished off with
a warm and dry rubber, in order to remove every
trace of acid.

BUTHE'HIDII. Bu» 108-6. A metal dis-
covered by Clans, associated with iridium, in the
residue from crude platinum, which is insoluble
in aqua regia. It has recently been found in

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1462

BTE

Borneo in a mineral called lanrite. It foms imall
angular maMes, with a metallic liutre ; ia very
brittle and infanUe ; resista tiie action of acids,
but alowly oxidises when heated in the air. Sp.
gr. 12-261 at 0°.

In Fremy's process for separating osminm
from the residaes of platinnm ore, mthenium
occurs as the dioxide. By heating this dioxide
in a cnrrent of hydrogen, the metal may be
obtained in the form of a powder of dark grey
colour.

With oxygen, rnthemnm forms six com]]Ounds,
of which the first three need only be noti<^.

Entheninm Konoxlde. BnO. A dark grey
powder insolnble in adds.

Bnthenlom Diozida. BuO,. Small green
ciystals obtained in the extraction of osminm
from the residne of a solntion of platinnm in
aqua regia.

Bnthsniiim Triozide. BnO). S^n. RuTHKino
ANHTDBIDI. Is known only in combination.

Snthenic Sesqnloxide. Bn^O,. Occors in the
anhydroos form when the metal is ignited in a

cnrrent of air. It is the most stable of the basic
oxides of the metal.

Butheniom Sesqtdchlorlde. Bn,Clf. By
evaporating a solntion of the correspondmg hy-
droxide in hydrochloric acid. A deliqnescent
astringent mass.

Batheninm Tetrachloride. BnCl|. By eva-
porating a solution of the corresponding hy-
droxide in hydrochloric acid. A redcUsh-brown
hygroscopic mass, soluble in water and alcohol, to
which it imparts a bitter taste.

2V(<«, ^0. Concentrated solntion of potaasinm
chloride and ammonium chloride precipitates the
ruthenic salts dark red, and on boiling with
water the characteristic black drug, finely
divided oiychloride, is formed. Sulphuretted
hydrogen first colours solutions of ruthenium
compounds blue, and then the brown sniphide is
thrown down ; this is nearly insoluble in ammo-
nium sniphide.

Butheninm is estimated quantitatively as the
metal like other members of the gold group.

BTE. Sfu. SlOAU, li. The seed cf Aeofe

Fis.l.— TruuTcne leetion of testa, kc. x 108.

Tie. S.— Cotti in tit* from withont. x 170. a, Sxtamal : i, Middle ; e. Internal coat ; d. Starch grains.

X 108.

cenale, a gramineous plant, the native country
of which is undetermined. It is a more certain
crop and requires less culture and manure than
wheat, and ia hence largely cultivated in Ger-
many, Bnssia, and in the northern parts of
Europe, where it is extensively employed for
bread. When roasted it is occasionally used as a
substitute for cofiee. It furnishes an excellent
malt for the distillation of spirit, and is much
used in the making of hollands.

Bye bread is very likely to cause diarrhoea in
those unaccustomed to partake of it. By con-
tinued use^ however, this inconvenience disap-

pears. Bye bread is acid and dark in colour.
It is about equal in nutritive power to wheat. It
is less abundant than wheat in fibrin, bat richer
in casein and albumen.

The foregoing plate represents the microscopic
appearance of rye.

Sommer recommends the microscopic examina-
tion of rye flour to be conducted as follows : —
The flour is placed on a glass slide and moist-
ened with water ; a single drop of oil of vitriol ia
added, and a small disc is laid upon it. If, now,
it be viewed with a magnifying power of 200,
the starch grains of wheat and rye are seen to

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SABADILIiA— SACCHAROHETEB

1468

diMolre in a nniform minner, bnt tlie gfrains of
barley starch, after loaing their external coat,
break up into a number of pplyhedra before their
■olotian is completed.
Bye, Bpwred. See Ebsoi.

BABASILliA. 1^ CiBASiELA, CavADiLLi,
8ASASILLA (B. p., Ph. E.), L. The dried fniit
{Atagrma offleinalit). A drastic and dangerous
eathurtic, occasionally nsed in tapeworms and,
externally, to destroy pedicnli, bnt even for this
pnrpose, when the snip has been dennded or
ulcerated, it has sometimes caused death. It is
now nsed chiefly as a source of ybbaibiitb.

SA'BU. The Mu$Mla ZtbtWrnt, Linn., a
■mall qnadmped of the marten-cat family, found
in Northern Asia. Its fur is remarkable for its
fine quality and rich colour, and for the hairs
turning with equal ease in every direction. The
skins of the rabbit, cat, &c., dressed, painted, and
Instred, are sold under the name of ooxxoh ot

XOOK BABIiJI.

aiBOTlSBE. [Fr.] An apparatus of pecu-
liar construction, employed by the French con-
fectioners for making ices. It consists of a pail
to contain a freezing mixture, and an inner vessel
for the creams to be iced. It may be used with
a mixture of pounded ice and salt, or any other
freezing mixture. The pail and cream vessels
being loaded and closely covered, an alternate
rotatory motion is given to the apparatus by
means of the handle for ten or fifteen minutes,
care being taken to occasionally scrape down the
frozen pcotion of the cream from the sides by
means of a wooden spoon. See loss and Rimi-
e-KBATioir.

8A0CHAB1C ACID. Sgn. OZAiiHTDBioAOlDf.
A componnd residting from the action of dilute
nitric acid on ingar.

SACCHABD. Syti. SAccHAKDnm, BxirzoTi.-

BUXPBOKIO IXIOII, or BlHZOIO BITLFRnflDB,

Glvbidvic, Qlcbidi. This componnd is remark-
able for its powerful sweetness. It is made from
toluene, of which huge quantities are produced
in the manufacture of coal-gas. The toluene is
treated with sulphuric acid, yielding Ortho- and
para-toluene snlphonic acids. These acids are
converted into calcium salts, and, further,
into sodium salts, by treating with sodic carbo-
nate. The next step is to act on them with
phospboms trichloride and a current of chlorine,
the product being a mixture of snlphonic chlo-
rides.

These chlorides are separated by crystallisation,
ortho-sulphonic chloride being retained. The
ortho-compound is next treated with ammonium
carbonate and steam, being thus converted into
toluene-sulphonic imide> which, by oxidation with
potassium permanganate, yields saccharin, having
the formula

«.=^©

NH.

Saccharin is a white minutely crystalline pow-
der of intensely sweet taste. It is sparingly
solnble in water ; moderately soluble in alcohol,
ether, chloroform, and glycerine. It unites with
alkaline carbonat<M and hydrates to form salts,
which are freely soluble in water, retaining their
chamcteriBtic tweet taste. Fused with potash

saccharin gives salicylic add, a solution of which
gives a purple colour with ferric chloride.

It is generally estimated that the sweetening
power of saccharin is 800 times that of sugar ; u
one grain of saccharin be dissolved in one gallon
of water, sweetness is plainly perceptible.

Reports were published that tiie use of saccharin
was injurious s but Dr Thoe. Stevenson reports
that (1) saccharin is quite innocuous when teken
in quantities largely exceeding what would be
taken in ordinary dietary; (2) saccharin does
not interfere with or impede the digestive pro-
cesses when taken in any practicable quantity.

Prap. 1, (Liquor saccharin! ; solution of sac-
charin.) Take of saccharin, 612 gr. ; bicarbonate
of sodium, 240 gr.; alcohol, 4 fl. oz. ; water, suffi-
cient to produce 16 fl. oz.

2. (Elixir saccharini, B. P. C. [the unofficial for-
mulary of the British Pharmaceutical Cktnferenoe] ;
elixir of saccharin.) Take of saccharin, 480 gr. ;
bicarbonate of sodium, 240 gr. ; rectified spirit^
2i fl. oz. ; distilled water, a snficiency. Bub the
saccharin and bicarbonate of sodium in a mortar,
with half a pint of distilled water gradually
added. When dissolved, add the spirit, and filter
with suficient distilled water to produce one pint
of elixir. Each fluid diachm represents three
grains of saccharin. — Dott, 6 to 20 minima.

Ute». Mainly as a anbstitate for sugar. Es-
pecially useful in cases of diabetes for sweetening
the patient's food. It also possesses an anti-
septic action.

SACCHABIHS FE&KSBTATIOB. This occurs
during the gpermination and kiln-drying of g^rain
in the operation of malting, and in the mashing
of malt in brewing. The sweetening of bread
during its exposure to heat in the oven is also in-
cluded under this head by many writers.

The substance which most powerfully exdtes
the sugar fermentation was first shown by Payen
and Persoz to be a peculiar principle, to which
they have given the name of 'siabtabi.' This
is always present in good malt, and possesses the
singular property of converting btaboh suc-
cessively into gum (dextrin) and sugar, at a
temperature ranging between 149° and 168° F.
During the action of this substance on starch it
is itself decomposed; and when the sugar fer-
mentation ceases it is found to have entirely dis-
appeared. It is the presence of diastase in malt
which alone converts the starch of the grain into
sugar during the operation of mashing with hot
water; and hence the absolute necessity of em-
ploying water at the proper temperature, as on
this depends the strength and sweetness of the
wort, and, consequently, its fitness for under-
going the vinous fermentation, and for making
beer. Vegetable albumen and gluten also possess
the property of exciting the saccharine fermen-
tation, but in a conriderably inferior degree to
diastase.

The sugar formed during the germination of
seeds contuning starch results from the action of
diastase, and disappears as soon as the woodj
fibre (lignin), which has a similar constitution, is
developed, forming the skeleton of the young
plant (lAtbig). See Bwrwiira, Diabtabi,
Dbxtbik, Ac.

SACCEAXOICETIiB. An instrument similar

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1464

SACHET— SAFFRON

in principle to tlie common spirit hydrometer,
but Bo weighted and gradnated as to adapt it for
the indication of the richnera of malt worfai in
sugar or saccharine, expressed in pounds per
barrel, or the excess of gravity over that of water,
the last being taken at 1000. See BsBWlxa,
Sybttp, Woet, &c.

SACE'ET. Sjfn. SACOiTLtrs, L. Sachets (fu.c-
OTTLi) are little bags containing dry snbstaiices,
lued for the external medication of parts, or for
commnnioating agreeable perfomes to wearing
apparel, drawers, furniture, &c Those belong-
ing to perfumery are commonly filled with mix-
tures of fragrant vegetable substances, reduced
to coarse powder, and differ from those employed
for pot-pourri chiefly in being used in the dry
state. Sacculi are now seldom employed in this
country in legitimate medicine. See FowsasB
(Scented), &c.

Sachet, Ammoniaeal. Syn. Sacottlitb ax-
KOHIAOAUB. Prap. Equal parta of sal-ammoniac
and quicklime are mixed, and sprinkled between
cotton wadding, which is to be quilted in
muslin.

Sachet, Anodyne. (Quincy.) Sj/n. Sac-
OULUB AsovYtrua. Pnp. Chamomiles, 1 os.;
bay berries, 1 oz. ; lavender flowers, i oi.; hen-
bane seed, 1 dr. ; opium, 1 dr. To be dipped in
hot sjnrits.

Sadiat, Anti-phthiaic. Sgn. Saoctlub ahti-
PHTBIBIOUB, L. Frep. Dissolve of aloes, 1 oz.,
in strong decoction of fresh rue, i pint ; next fold
a piece of soft muslin in eight folds large enongh
to cover the chest and part of the stomach ; steep
this in the decoction, and diy it in the shade ;
lastly, place in a small bag, one side of which is
formed of scarlet silk or wool, and the other, in-
tended to be worn next the skin, of the finest net
or gauze. A celebrated domestic remedy for con-
sumption and asthma. It is intended to be con-
stantly worn on the chest.

Sadiet, Besolv'eat. Sgn. MKLTnra bao;
SaoovIiVS kksoltbhb, L. Prap. 1. (Ihr
Srttlau.) Iodide of potassium, 1 part; sal-
ammoniac, 8 parts; dry, and reduce each sepa-
rately to fine powder ; mix them, and enclose (
oz. to 1 OS. of the mixed powder in a small bag
of linen or silk. Used as a resolvent to indolent
tumours, especially goitres and scrofulous indu-
rations. It should be worn on the part night
and day for some time. The part next the ddn
should be well pricked with a needle, and the
powder shaken up and readjusted every two or
three days ; and it should be renewed about once
a fortnight.

8. (TVoMMSK and SeveiL) Iodide of potas-
sium, 1 part ; burnt sponge, 4 parts ; fine sawdust,
6 parts ; as before.

Sachet, Sponge. <%«, Saoouxub bpohoh,
CoiXIBB DB MoKAlTD. Prep. Muriate of am-
monia, chloride of sodium, burnt sponge, of
each, 1 oz. ; mix ; sprinkle the powder on a piece
of cotton-wool, and quilt between muslin, in the
form of a cravat. To bo worn constantly in
goitre or bronchocele, renewing it every month.

Sachet, Stomachic. {I^Uer.) Sgn. Sao-
C17XUB. Prap. Ilint, 4 dr. ; wormwood, thyme,
red roses, each, 2 dr. ; balastines, angelica root,
caraway seed, nutmeg, mace, cloves, of each, 1

dr. Coarsely powder the ingredients, and pot
them into a bag, to be moistened wiUi hot r«d
wine when applied for flatnlenoe.

BACK. [From BBO, Fr., dry.] A wine used
by onr ancestors, supposed by some to have been
Bhenish or Canary ; but, with more prohabili^,
by others to have been dry mountain — ^rin d*&-
pagne, vin sec (Howell, 'Fr. and EIng. Diet.,'
1660). Falstaff (in Shakespeare's day sack was
occasionally adulterated with lime, as we learn
trom Falstaff's speech to the Drawer : " Yon
rogue, there's lime in this sack ") calls it ' sherris
sack ' (sherry sack), from Xeres, a sea town of
Corduba, where that kind of sack (wine) ia
made (Blount). At a later period the term came
to be used as a general name for all sweet wines.

SAfFIiOWZB. S^». Babtau) BArwmas,
Dtsb'b b. ; Cabtbaxvb, L. The florets of Oar-
tiamut tiuetoriut, a plant cultivated in ftiain,
Egypt, and the Levant. It contuns two coloar-
ing principles, the one yellow, and the other
red. The first is removed by water, and ia
rejected. The second is easily dissolved oat by
weak solutions of the carbonated alkalies, and ia
again predpitated on the addition of ao acid.
"Hiis property is taken advantage of in the
mann&cture of rouge, and in dyeing silk and
cotton.

The most lively tints of cherry, flame, fleah,
orange-red, popOT, and rose-coloar are imparted
to iSk. by the following process, modified to suit
the particular shade required :— The saflBower
(previously deprived of its yellow colouring mat-
ter by water) is exhausted with water containing
either carbonate of sodium or of potassium, in
the proportion of about 6% of the wdght of the
prepared dye-stulf acted on; the resulting liquid
u next treated with pure lemon juice until it
acquires a distinct and rich red oofonr; the silk
is then introduced and tamed about as long as it
is perceived to take up colour, a littie mcie
lemon juice being added as may appear neoea-
sary ; for deep shades this is repeated with one or
more fresh baths, the silk being dried and rinsed
between each immersion ; it is, lasUy, brightened
by turning it for a few minutes through a bath
of warm water, to which a littie lemon juice haa
been previously added. For flame-colour the ulk
should receive a slight shade with annotta before
putting it into the safflower bath. For the
deeper shades, when expense is an object, a little
archil is commonly added to the first and second
bath. See CABTBAjcnr.

iKSVBOS. Sj/n. Cbocvb. The prepared
stigmata or stigmas of the Croeui ttUieut, or
saffion croons. There are two principal varietiea
known in commerce :

1. (Saifbon, Hat b.; Cboovb ik ksro, C.
HiBPAXioirB, Cbooi ansMATA, CBOom — ^B. P.,
Ph. L., E., and D.) This conristed of the stig-
mas, with part of the styles, carefully pckel
from the other parts of the flowers, and then
dried on paper by a very gentie heat, generally
in a portable oven constructed for the purpoae.
Saffron owes its value to a beantiful colouring
matter caUed pofyeiroita.

2. (Caxb BAvrBOV; Cbooub nr FLAoami.)
This, professedly, merely varies from the last,
it being compressed into a cake after it has

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SAQAPENUM— SAOO

1466

beeone lotieBed by the fire, and being then
dried in that condition. The ' cake nflron ' of
eomnierce Js now, however, moetly, if not en-
tirely compoeed of aafflower made into a paste
with lome sugar and gnm water, rolled ont on
paper into oral cakes 10 to 12 inches long, 9 or
10 broad, and abont l-8th of an inch thick, and
then dried. "I can detect neither saffron nor
marigold in them " (fir Pereira).

Pmr, Saffron, of all the articles of commerce
except French brandy, is, perhaps, the one most
largely and constantly adulterated. Abroad it is
frequently mixed with safflower, and in England
with ' prepared marigolds,' or ' French (mock)
saffron.' These frauds may be detected by the
inferiority of the colour, and by soaking the
leaves in water, when the stigmas of the Oroemi
sativui may be readily distinguished from the
florets of safflower and the petals of marigolds.
Winckler and Grfiner proposed to detect these
Bobstances by means of a solution of nitrate of
silver or of sesqnichloride of iron. The infusion
of true saffron is not altered by those reagents,
but that of either of the above-mentioned adnlte-
ranta is rendered opaque, and is at length pred-
pitated. " It consists of tripartite filaments, of
an orange-red coloor, with the small filaments
towards the apex dilated" (Fh. E.). Old and
dry saffron is ' freshened np ' by rubbing it be-
tween the hands slightly oiled, and then repick-
ing it.

The late Mr D. Hanbory, F.B.S., found that
the article known in commerce as alicante saffron
was largely sophisticated with carbonate of lime,
which he says had been made to adhere to the
thread-like saffron without in the least altering
its general appearance. To ascertain the amount
of earthy matter thus f randulently added, he sub-
jected several specimens of saCfton to incineration,
each having in the first instance been dried in
warm air nntil it ceased to lose its wright.
The result indicated that while good Valentia
saffron yields from 4% to 6% of ash, the alicante
furnishes from 12% to 28%. The method of
taJung a sample of saffron for earthy adulteration
which Mr Hanbury recommends is this : — Place
in a watch-glass a small quantity (say 1 gr.) of
the saffron, and drop upon it 8 or 10 drops of
water; lightly touch the saffron with the tip of
the finger, so as to cause the water to wet it. If
the drug is free from earthy matter, a clear
bright yellow solution will be immediately ob-
tained; if adulterated, a white powder will
instantiy separate, causing the water to appear
turbid ; and if a drop of hydrochloric add be now
added, a brisk effervescence will take place.

Mr Hanbury says that saffron almost always
contains a few of the pale yellow stamens, acd-
dentally gathered; but the pollen from them
which IS detached when the drug is wetted, but
which is minute in quantity, is easily distinguished
from carbonate of lime by not cQssolving when
hydrochloric acid is added. Moreover the form
of pollen-grains may be easily recognised under
the microscope.

Mr Hanburyf nrthermore states that an effectual
method of examination is to scatter a very small
pinch of saffron on the surface of a glass of warm
water. The stigma of the saffron crocns imme-

diately expands, and exhiUta a form so character-
istic uat it cannot be confounded with thefiowerets
of safflower, marigold, or arnica, or with the
stamens of crocns itself (' Fharm. Joum.').

Prop., ^e. Saffron is anodyne, cordial, em-
menagogue, and exhilarant; but is now seldom
employed, except as an adjuvant, in medicine.
Amongst cooks, confectioners, and liquoristes it ia .
largely used on account of its fine colour.

Saffiron, Kead'ow. See COLCBicillf.

SAGAFS'BXriC. This sabstance is described in
the London Pharmacopceia as a gnm-rerin, the
production of an uncertain species of Fanila. Its
botanical source is unknown. The mass of the
sagapennm sold to the retail trader is, however, a
factitious article, formed by softening a mixture
of assafoetida, 8 parts, and galbanum, 16 parts,
over a water or steam bath, and then stirring in
about l-17th of their weight of oil of turpentine,
with a little oil of juniper. This mixture is
labelled ' Gnm. Sagapeni Opt.,' an inferior sort
being made by adding snndi^ portions of yellow
resin and paste of gum tragacanth to the above.

PbBFABBS SASAf BITUX (BAOAPBinnC PBSPABA-

TUK — Ph. L.) is ordered to be prepared in the
same manner as ' prepared ammoniacum.'

Ob*. S^^pennm is the feeblest of all the fetid
gum-resins. — Don, 6 to 16 gr., made into pills;
as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue.

SA'OO. Sg». Saso (Ph. L., £., and D.), L.
" The fscula (starch) from the stem of Sagiu
Javit, 8. SumphU, and, perhaps, of other species
of palms " (Ph. L.). It forms the principcJ por-
tion of the pith of the sago palms, the Gommnti
palm, the Talipot palm, and other allied trees. Its
properties and uses, for the most part, resemble
those of arrowroot. It is used for making pud-
dings, jellies, &c.

Under the microscope the starch-grains of sago
present an elongated form, rounded at the larger
ends, and compressed at the smaller. They differ
altogether in appearance from potato starch.

The hilnm of the sago starch-grains is a point,
or, more freqnentiy, a crop, slit, or star, and is

Sago of commerce, magniled 147 times.

seated at the smaller end, whilst in the marsanta
arrowroot the hilnm is situated at the larger end.
Rings are more or less clearly seen.

Sago, To Prepare. Wash an ounce of pearl sago
in cold water; then boil it very gentlv in a pint
of fresh water, stirring it frequenOytOl dissolved.

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ST VITUS' DANCE— SALADS

It nifty be flavoured with wine, apices, and imgar.
For cbildren, and for conBumptiTe and debilitated
persons, it will be found advantageona to Bnbsti-
tnte milk for water. Tbe common sago being in
larger grains, more time is required to dissolve it,
and it is usoally steeped for some hours before
boiling it.

Sa'go Kilk. See above.

Sa'go Posset. (For invalids.) Macerate a
table-spoonful of sago in a pint of water for 2
hours on the hob of a stove, then boil for 15
minates, assiduously stirring. Add sugar, with
an aromatic, such as ginger or nutmeg, and a
table-spoonful or more of white wine. If white
wine be not permitted flavour with lemon juice.

ST TITUS' SASCE. See Ceosba.

SAL. [L.] Salt. A word much used in com-
pound names, handed down to us from the old
chemists.

Bal Absin'thii. Carbonate of potassium.

Bal Acetosella. Binoxalate and qnadrozalate
of potassium.

Sal Alem'broth. Ammoniated mercury (white
precipitate).

Sal Anmio"liiao. Chloride of ammonium.

Sal de Bnobna. Sulphate of potassium.

Sal Dinre'ticas. Acetate of potassium.

Sal £nix'mn. Crude bisniphate of potassium.

Bal Oem'ma. Bock or fossil salt (chloride of
sodium).

Sal Kar'tis. Sulphate of iron.

Sal Mineralis. A mixture of salts representing
the constituents of Carlsbad, Friedriebshall,
Fullna, and other mineral waters.

Sal Mirab'ile. Sulphate of sodium.

Sal Ferla'tnm. Phosphate of sodium.

Sal Folychresf ni. Sulphate of potassium.

Bal Prunella. %». Sobx-ihboat bai.t,
Cbtbtal miriBAij FoxABas hiibab tvoa,
NiTBTJX TABUiiATTTU, 8xL FBUiTBUiX, L. From
nitre fused in a Hessian crucible, and poured out
on a smooth surface, or into moulds, to cool. Its
usual form and size is that of an ordinary musket
bullet, with the tail, in which state it is known in
the drug trade as 'sal pmnellsBglobosum.' When
in cakes it is often called ' sal. p. in placentis,' or
's. p. tabulatum.' A small portion allowed to
dissolve slowly in the mouth, the saliva being
slowly swallowed, often removes indpient inflam-
matory sore throat.

Sal Batnm'i. Sugar of lead (nentral acetate of
lead).

Sal Selgnette'. BocheUe salt (tartrate of
potassium and sodium).

Sal Tolat'ile. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia.
The name is commonly used as an abbreviation
of aromatic spirit of ammonia. See Spibits
(Medicinal).

SAL'ASS are generally made of esculent vege-
tables, either singly or mixed, chosen according to
taste or time of year, and ' dressed ' with oil,
vinegar, and salt, and sometimes also with mustard
and other condiments. Sliced boiled egg is a
common addition.

Sydney Smith's recipe for salad dressing :

To make this condiment your poet begs

The powdered yellow of two hard-boiled

Two boiled potatoes passed throngh Idtcben

sieve
Smoothness and softness to the salad give;
Let onibn atoms lurk within tbe bowl.
And, half suspected, animate the whole ;
Of mordant mnstard add a single spoon
(pistmst the condiment that bites too soon) ;
But deem it not, thon man of taste, a fault
To add a double quantity of salt;
And, lastly, o'er the flavoured compound toaa
A magic toupfou of anchovy sauce.
Oh, green and glorious ! Oh, herbaceous treat !
'Twonld tempt tbe dying anchorite to eat ;
Back to the world he'd turn his fleeting sool.
And plunge his finger in the salad bowl;
Serenely full the epicure would say,
" Fate cannot harm me, I have dined to-day."
(The poet has inadvertently ignored the oil
and vinegar.)

Another recipe for salad dressing : — Tolk of two
eggs ; table salt, i oz. ; salad oil, 4 ox. ; mnstard,
Joz. ; best vinegar, 6 oz.; isinglass, 1 dr. ; soluble
cayenne, 10 grms. (' Phann. Jonm.').

Cold mea^ poultry, and game, sliced small,
vrith some encumber or celery, and a little onion
or chopped parsley, or, instead of them, some
pickles, make a very relishing salad. Fish are also
employed in the same manner.

Mr C. J. Bobinson, writing to ' Nature ' (Aug.
18th, 1870) on our salad herbs, says : — " There is,
perhaps, no country in the world so rich as Eng-
land in native materials for salad making, and
none in which ignorance and prejudice have more
restricted their employment. At every season of
the year the peasant may cull from the field and
hedgerow vholesome herbs which would impart a
pleasant variety to his monotonous meal, and save
bis store of potatoes from premature exhanstion.
Besides, there can be no question that in hot
seasons a judicious admixture of fresh green food
is as salutary as it is agreeable. Much has been
said lately about the advantage which the labour-
ing man would derive from an accurate acquaint-
ance with the various forms of fungus ; he has
been gravely told that the FitMina hepatiea is
an admirable substitute for beef-steak, the
jigarictu gamhonu tat the equally unknown veal
cutlet.

" But deep-seated suspicion is not eauly eradi-
cated, and there will always be a certain amonnt
of hszard in dealing with a class of products in
which the distinctions between noxions and in-
nocuous are not very clearly marked.

" There is not this difficulty with regard to
salad herbs, and we conceive that the diffusion
of a little knowledge as to their properties and
value would be an unmixed benefit to our misl
population.

" The first place must be sssigned on the score
of antiquity to the sorrel plant {SMmex acetota),
which in some districts still preserves the name
of ' green sauce,' assigned to it in early times,
when it formed almost the only dinner vegetable.

" Its acid is pleasant and wholesome, more
delicate in fiavour than that of the wood-sorrel
(OffoZit acttotelld), which, however, is used for
table purposes in France and Qermany. Chervil
{AtUhrUau ctrefolium) is often found in a wild

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SiXEP— SALICIN

1467

state, and is an sdminble additilm to the lalad
bowl ; and it is nnneceasaTy to enlarge npon the
Tirtaes of celeiy (Apium graeeolent) when im-
proved by cultivation."

John Bay, writing in 166S, eayi that "the
Italians use aeveral herbs for sallets, which are
not yet, or have not been used lately, hat in
England, viz. StlUri, which is nothing else bat
the sweet smallage ; the young shoots whereof,
Trith a little of the head of the root, cat off, they
eat raw with oil and pepper ;" and to this we may
add that the alexandws (Smyrmam oUuatrum) is
no bad suhstitate for its better known congener.
The dandelion, which in France is blanched for
the purpose, affords that amearis aliqtiid which
the professed salad maker finds in the leaves of
the endive, and the same essential ingredient may
be supplied by the avens (^G^enm urbanvm), the
bladder campion {SiUne inJUtta), and the tender
shoots of the wild hop. Most people are familiar
with the properties of the water-cress {Ntufurtium
qffieinale), garlic hedge-mustard (^Erytimum
alUaria), hut it may not be generally known that
the common shepherd's-pnrse {Cap$ella burta-
pattoru) and ^e lady's-smock {Cardamins
pratmaii) are pleasant additions, whose merits
have long been recognised by our foreign neigh-
bonis. In fact, there is scarcely an herb that
grows which has not some culinary virtue in a
French peasant's eyes. Out of the blanched shoots
of the wild chicory (Ciakorimn iutgiiu) he forms
the well-known harbt da Capaeiui, and digpniflee
with the title of SaUtde ie Chammiia our own
neglected corn-salad {Fedia oUtorxd). It would
be venr easy to extend the dimensions of our list
of native s^ad herbs, for there are, perhaps, some
palates to which the strong flavours of the chives
{Allium tchanopranm) and stonecrop (Stdum
refietum) may commend themselves ; but enough
hu been said to show that Kature has not dealt
niggardly with us, and that only knowledge is
needful to make the riches she offers available.

If the British peasant can he taught to dis-
cover hidden virtues in these plants, with whose
outward forms he has had lifelong familiarity,
we do not despair of his acquiring the one secret
of salad-making, viz. the jndicions employment
of oil, so as to correct the acrid juices of the
plants, and yet preserve their several flavours nn-
unpainsd.

Salad, Lef tuee. Prep. Take 2 large lettuces,
vemove the faded leaves and the coarser green
ones; next cut the green tops off, pull each leaf
off separately, rinse it in cold water, out it length-
ways, and then into 4 or IQ pieces ; pnt these into
s bowl, and sprinkle over them, with your fingers,
1 small teaspoonful of salt, i do. of pepper, 3 do.
of salad oil, and 2 do. of English or 1 of French
vinegar ; then with the spoon and fork turn the
salad lightly in the bowl until thoroughly mixed ;
the less it is handled the better. A teaspoonful
each of chopped chervil and tarragon is an im-
mense improvement.

Ohi. The above seasoning is said to be enough
for i lb. of lettuce. According to Soyer, it is
"such as the Italian count nsed to make some
years since, by which he made a fortune in dress-
ing salads for the tables of the aristocracy." The
alMve may be varied by the addition of 2 eggs.

boiled hard and sliced, a little esehalot, or a few
chives or yonng onions. Several other salad herbs,
especially endive, water-cresses, and mnstard-and-
cress, may be ' dressed ' in the same manner ;
always remembering that the excellence of a salad
depends chiefly on the vegetables which compose
them being recently gathered and carefully
cleansed.

To improve the appearance of the above and
other salads, when on the table or sideboard, before
being used, the gay flower of the nasturtium or
marigold, with a little sliced beetroot or radish,
and sliced cucnmber, may be tastefully intermixed
with them.

Salad, Iiobs'ter. Prep. {Soger.) " Have the
bowl half flUed with any kind of salad herb yon
like, as endive, lettuce, ac. ; then break a lobster
in two, open the tail, extract the meat in one
piece, break the claws, cut the meat of both in
small slices aboat a quarter of an inch thick, and
arrange these tastefully on the salad ; next take
out all the soft part from the belly, mix it in a
basin with 1 teaspoonful of salt, i do. of pepper,
4 do. of vinegar, and 4 do. of oil s stir these well
together, and pour the mixture on the salad;
lastly, cover it with 2 hard eggs, cut into slices,
and a few slices of cucumber." " To vary this, a
few capers and some fillets of anchovy may be
added, stirred lightly, and then served either
with or without some salad sauce. If for a
dinner, ornament it with some flowers of the
nasturtium and marigold."

SAL'S?. Syn. Salop, aiioop. The tuberous
roots of Orckit mateula, and other allied species,
wsshed, dried, and afterwards reduced to coarse
powder. That imported from Persia and Asia
Minor occurs in small oval gnuns, of a whitish-
yellow colour, often semi-translucent, with a faint,
peculiar smell, and a taste somewhat resembling
gum tragacanth. It consists chiefly of bassorin
and starch, is very nutritious, and is reputed
aphrodisiac. It is employed in the same way as
sago. A decoction of about 1 oz. of this substance
in a pint of water was formerly sold at street
stalls. A tea made of sassafras chips, flavoured
with milk and coarse brown sugar or treacle, was
also sold in the same way, and under the same
name.

Fbivoh SkJMt is prepared from the potato.
Dr Ure says that the Orehii mtucula of our own
country, properly treated, would afford an article
of salep equal to the Turkey, and at a vastly
lower price.

Ihsiah Btum is known in the Indian bazaars
as Salib miiri} it fetches a high price, and is
derived from certain species of Hnutpia.

SALICIB'. CuHigO,. A glucoside discovered
by Le Boux and Bnchner in the bark and leaves
of several species of Salis and Popuhu. It
occurs most abundantly in the white willow
{Salix alba) and the aspen {Salix btlije), but is
also found in all the bitter poplars and willows.
From willow bark which is fresh, and rich in
salicin, it may be obtained by the cautious eva-
poration of the cold aqueous infnsion.

Prep. 1. {Alerek.) Exhaust willow bark re-
peatedly with water, concentrate the mixed liquors,
and, while hoiling, add litharge until the liqnid
is nearly decolonrised ; filter, remove the dis-

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1468

SALICTL— SALICYLIC ACID

•olred o:dde of letd by treatment with snl-
phoretted hydrog>en; filter and eTaporate, that
cryatali may form ; the crystals muat be pariAed
by re-iolution and re-cryBtallisation.

2. To a strong filtered decoction of willow bark
add milk of lime, to throw down the colonr;
filter, evaporate the liqnor to a sympy consistence,
add alcohol (sp. gr. 0'847), to separate the gnmmy
matter, filter, distil off the spirit, evaporate the
residanm, and set it aside in a cool place to crys-
tallise ; the crystals are purified by solution in
boiling water, agitation with a little animal chai-
coal, and re-crystallisation.

Prop., See. Salicin forms Intter colourless
prisms, melting at 230° F., with decomposition ;
bums with a bright flame ; is soluble in about 80
parts of cold water ; dissolves readily in alcohol,
bnt is insoluble in ether. When fermented by
emulsion or human saliva its aqueous solution
yields glucose and saligenin. It is tonic, like
Bolphate of quinine, but less liable to irritate the
stomach. It is given in indigestion and inter-
mittent diseases in from 5- to 10-gr. doses.

Salicin has lately been used with considerable
advantage in acute rheumatism.

Dr Madagan (' Lancet,' March 4th and 11th,
1876) states that he found when administered in
doses of 10 gr. to i dr., every two to four hours,
the pain and fever ceased in the course of forty-
eight hours. The results are stated to have been
quite as favourable as those following the employ-
ment of salicylic acid. It was found to eSect
with certainty a great rednction in the bodily
temperature.

TuU. 1. When strongly heated it is wholly
dissipated, and if kindled, bums with a bright
flame, leaving a bulky charcoal. 2. Its solution
is absolutely neutral to test-paper. 8. Concen-
trated sulphuric acid causes it to agglutinate into
resin-like lumps, with the accession of an intense
blood-red colour. 4. When its aqueous solution
is mixed with some hydrochloric acid or dilute
sulphuric add, and the mixture is b<»led for a
short time, the liquid suddenly becomes turbid,
and deposits saubbtiit, under the form of a
granular crystalline precipitate. This is charac-
teristic. 6. Oives a blue colonr with ferric
chloride. See SaiiIOTlio Acid.

SALICTL. C^H^O. A compound radical,
forming the basis of the so-called 8AIJ0TI. OOK-
TOTmna, or sauotx sbbibs. It is known only in
combination.

SALICYLIC ACID. C,H<.OH.CO,H. iS^.
OBTHO-ETSBOZTBBiizoiO AOXD. Although this
acid was discovered fifty years ago by Fir^ {vide
' Annales de Chimie et de Physique,' vol. Ixix), it
is only within comparatively recent times that its
value and most remarkable properties have been
recognised.

It occurs, according to LSwig, in the blossoms
of the meadow-sweet, Spiraa ulmaria, in certain
members of the genus Viola, and as Uie methyl-
ether in the oil of winter-green, which is ex-
tracted from &mUheria procumbent, one of the
Korth American heaths. For a long time this
plant remained the only source of salicylic acid.

Frep. 1. From winter-green oil, by acting on
it with a strong and hot solution of potash, and
afterwards separating the acid by treatment with

excess of hydrochloric acid and snhseqaent csya-
tallisation. This oil is salicylate of methyl.

2. Salicin, a glucoaide extncted from tite bark
of the willow, is melted with potassium hydrate^
and then converted into nitro-salicylicacid by tbe
action of dilute nitric acid ; this is then melted
up with a fresh portion of potassium hydrate at a
gentle-heat, and yields anthranilic aad. When
the temperature of the latter operation is raised
salicylic acid is produced (Marehand and 0«r-
hardt, 'Ann. Chem. Fharm.,' lii, S4S).

3. The greater part of the salicylic acid of
commerce is now obtained by a method invented by
Eolbe. This process, which consists in acting on
sodium carbolate with carbonic anhydride, is thus
described in the ' Archiv der Fharm.,' Srd aeries,
V, 446 (' Fharm. Journal,' Srd series, v, 421) : — In
a strong crude soda liquor of known strength is
dissolved a snflSciency of previously melted crys-
tals of carbolic acid to saturate the soda.

The solution is then evaporated in an iron
capsule, stirring constantly, and brought to a dry
powder. The sodium carbolate so obtained is
gradually heated in a retort to a temperatnre of
from 180° to 200° C. in a continuous current of
dry carbonic anhydride.

The reaction is ended when at the aboTe-men-
tioned temperature no more carbolic acid pasaea
over. It might have been expected that, the re-
action going forward in this manner, a molecule
of carbonic anhydride would have been intro-
duced into the molecule of sodium carbonate,
and thus a molecule of sodium salieylate be
formed.

This, however, is not the case, only half the
sodium carbolate being converted into salicylate.
The reaction proceeds according to the foUomng
equation :

2NaC,H50 + CO,=.Na,CjH«0, + HC,.H,0.

The disodic salicylate is dissolved in water and
decomposed by hydrochloric add. Salicylic add
then separates in crystalline films, and may be
purified by re-crystallisation out of its solntion in
hot water.

Eolbe's process is the basis of moct modem
methods of manufacturing salicylic add; thus
Robbe's patent depends upon it; Lantermann has
also invented a synthetical process, for which
consult ' Ann. Chem. Fharm.,' cxv, 201.

Propt. White acicular crystals ; melts at from
166° to 156° C. ; it dissolves in about 1800 parU of
cold water, but is more soluble in boiling water,
as well as in alcohol and in ether. When heated
it breaks up into phenol and carbonic anhydride.

Frofessor Eolbe surmised that from tiie oon-
stitntion of salicylic acid, as revealed by his tyn-
tbetical process, it would split up with heat
into carbonic anhydride and carbolic add, and
hence that it might be employed as an antiseptic
and antiputrefactive agent. He quotes the fol-
lowing experiments as confirmatory of his views
on this point : — Mustard meal, which, in a few
minutes after being mixed with warm water, gave
off a strong smell of mustard oil, formed with
water a scentless mixture when a little salicylic
acid had been previously added. No fermenta-
tion was set up by yeast in a fermentation of
grape sugar to which salicylic add had been
ad<Ud; whilst in a sugar solntion already in fer-

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SALICTLIC ACID

14«9

mentoUon the action stopped after the addition
of Bome lalicylic acid. The preiervatiTe inSoence
of this rfcid upon fresh meat is also recorded.

The following, among other experiments, in
their reaolts lUnstrate the physiological action of
salicylic acid :

Solntion of amygdalin mixed with emnlsion of
sweet almonds developed no smell of bitter al-
monds if some salicylic acid was added. Beer,
to which salicylic acid, in the proportion of 1 to
1000, was added, was thereby prevented from
being spoiled by f nngoid growth.

Fresh pore cow's milk, mixed with 0*04% of
salicylic acid, and allowed to stand in an open
vessel at a temperature of 18° C, curdled thirty-
six hours later than a similar quantity of milk
standing by the side of it, but containing no sali-
cylic aad. The milk remained of a good flavour;
the small quantity of salicylic acid present was
not perceptible to the palate.

Some fresh urine was divided into two por-
tions, and placed in separate vessels after some
salicylic acid had been added to one portion.
The urine containing the acid was on the third
day still clear and free from ammoniacal odour,
whilst the other portion was far advanced in
putrefaction.

Professor Thiersch has investigated the anti-
septic action of this acid specially in relation to
soigery. He has fonnd that as a powder, either
alone or mixed with starch, it destroys for a long
time the f cstid odour of canceroos surfaces or un-
eleansed wounds without setting up any inflam'
matory symptoms. ▲ solution of 1 part of
aalicyUo acid and 3 parts of sodium phosphate in
60 parts of water promotes the healing of granu-
lated surfaces.

According to Dr Rudolph Wagner, salicylic
acid may be applied to the following industrial
purposes:

11 a concentrated aqueous solution of salicylic
a<ad be applied to fresh meat, and the meat be
then placed in well-closed vessels, it will remain
perfectiy fresh for a long period. This solntion
is also very useful in the manufacture of sau-
sages and such food. Butter contiuniDg a bitter
salicylic acid will remain fresh for months, even
in the hottest weather. The same acid prevente
the moulding of preserved fruits. In the manu-
facture of vinegar this acid is of great utility.

The addition of a littie salicylic acid renders all
kinds of glue more tenacious and less liable to
decompose. The acid also prevents decomposi-
tion in gut and parchment during their manu-
facture.

Skins to be used for making leather do not
undergo decomposition if steeped in a dilute
solution of salicylic acid.

Albumen may be preserved by the same

This add is a very delicate test reagent for
iron.

The methyl ether and amyl ether of salioyUc
acid are used as perfumes. The calcium salt on
keeping and distilling with water yields a liquid
which has a strong odour of roses.

In order to preserve syrups such as are used in
the manufacture of airated waters, &c., it is
sufficient to add a qoaatity of saliqrlic acid

equivalent to 1- 1000th the weight of sugar con>
tained in the syrup.

One part of salicylic acid in ten thousand parts
of 1>eer or wine is soffieient to prevent decom-
position.

Tattt. Dr Muter grives the following method
for estimating the value of commercial samples
of salicylic acid, and of detecting it in milk and
similar organic solutions : — A standard solution
of pure salicylic acid (1 gr. of acid dissolved in
1 litre of water, so that 1 c.c. represenU 1 mgm.
of acid) is prepared ; the indicator solution con-
sists of a solution of pure neutral ferric chloride,
of such a strength that 1 c.c. added, drop by
drop, to 60 cc. of standard add, just ceases to
give any increase in intensity of colour ; 1 grm.
of the commercial sample is then dissolved in
1 litre of water, and 60 cc. is put into a Kessler
tube; to this 1 cc. of ferric chloride solution is
added, and the colour observed after standing for
five minutes ; some of the standard add is also
poured into another tube, and made up to 60 c.c
with water, and the 1 c.c. of ferric chloride
added. When the colours are exactly alike in
tint the amount of pure acid present in the
sample is equal to the amount of pure add added.
All mineral acids should be absent ; even acetic
acid affects the reaction. To detect the presence
of salicylic acid added to beer or milk, 4 oz. of
these liquids are dialysed for twelve hours in a
pint of distilled water; if after that time sali-
cylic add is still fonnd to be present, the dialysis
must be continued for forty-eight hours. The
amount present is determined in the manner
above stated.

Allen says, in his ' Commercial Organic Analy-
ns,' voL iii, part 1, published in 1889, " The most
delicate reaction for salicylic add is that of f srric
chloride,- which produces a beautiful violet colour."
Nearly aU the new methods are based upon the
action of this reagent^ the use of which was first
noticed by Fagliani.

To detect the acid in beer, Hoom recommends
(a) that the suspected sample should be acidified
with, sulphuric acid, extracted with a mixture of
light petroleum and ether, and the extract ew
porated and examined with the ferric chloride
test ; (i) after addif ying, distil, and collect the
liUier portion of the distillate for examination as
before f ■ Bee. Trav. Chim.,' \-ii, 41).

For tiie examination of wines, Wright recom-
mends 60 cc. of the sample to be agitated with
60 c.c. of chloroform; after standuig, the layer
of chloroform extract is separated off and passed
through a dry filter. A perfectiy fresh solntion
of ferric chloride having been prepared (the pro-
portion being 1 in 1000), 10 cc. is added to 80 cc.
of the chloroform extract, and the mixture shaken
up, when, if salicylic acid be present, the usual
violet coloration will be noticed. When it is
desired to make this test a quantitative one, ether
should be substituted for chloroform, and a
Schwartz's extractor should be used (' Mitt. Chem.
Physiol. Versuchs - stat.,' Klostemenberg bei
Wien, V, 64).

A general plan devised by Elion is as follows :
— The acid should be extracted with ether, about
three times the volume of the solntion under
examination being used ; the ether layer is then

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1470

SALIVA— SALOL

■eparated oft and shaken with a little soda (olu-
tion ; this takes np the acid. The soda solniioii is
next heated with a little hydrochloric acid, and
then the ferric chloride test is applied (' B«c.
Trav. Chim.,' vii, 211).

OS*. iW< salicylic acid is not known to he
really poisonous in its effects ; as much as 60 gr.
have been taken by a patient in twenty-fonr
hours. It is said by Eiersch and Godeffrey to
be three times more powerful than carbolic
acid in preventing putrefaction, and, since it is
free from taste and smell, it is an excellent
material for use in the preservation of food and
drink.

There is no doubt that impure salicylic acid
prodnces bad effects, and much of the artificial
acid used to contain impurities; but this need
not be the case now, and there can be no rational
objection to the use of the pure acid, especially
in the exceedingly small quantities which are
found effective in retarding or preventing fer-
mentation.

It will prevent the development of bacteria in
fluids containing it, will kill or paralyse the
action of tomla, and will hinder most of those
changes which are initiated by the action of
vegetable ferment.

When salicylic acid is prepared from phenol
withont sufficient care, other homologous com-
pounds derived from the higher phenols may
contaminate it and render its nse injurious.

Swell and Prescott have devised two new pro-
cesses for detecting foieign acids, Ac. ('Trans-
actions of the Pharmaceutical Society ' [3], xix.

a. Titrate 1 grm. against an alkali of centi-
normal strength, using phenol pbthalein to indi-
cate the 'end-action.' The foreign adds are
calculated as hydrocytomeric acid.

b. Distil the sample with lime ; this converts
the salicylic acid and any of its homologues
present into phenols, which are then estimated in
the ordinary way. The percentage of other im-
parities is then calculated by difference.

aAUCVA. See Mabtioation.

BALIX NI&SA. Syn. B1.AOE wiuAW babk,
PUBBT wiliIiOW. A tree growing from 15 to 20
feet high, indigenous to uie Southern States of
America; has been used with success in cases of
ovarian hypertesthesia and uterine neuralgia. It
acts as a powerful sexual sedative, similar to but
without the depressing qualities of bromides. —
Vote. Liquid extract, i to 1 dr.

BJlJM'OS. Sgn. Saimo, L. The Salmo
lalar, Linn., a well-known, soft-flnned abdo-
minal fish. Its normal locality is at the month
or estuary of the larger rivers of the northern
leas, which, during the breeding season, it
ascends, sooner or later, in the summer months,
against all obstacles, for the purpose of depositing
its spawn.

The Sainton is an excellent and highly es-
teemed fish ; but it is rich, oily, and difficult of
digestion, and therefore ill adapted to the deli-
cate or dyspeptic. When pickled, salted, or
smoked, it is only fitted for persons of very strong
stomachs, although in this state it is regarded as
a great delicacy by epicures.

Salmon has the following composition :

Nitrogenona matter . . . 16*1

Fat 6-6

Saline matter . . . 1'4

Water 77-

100-0
Salmon is preferably cooked by b<^ling. One
weighing 10 lbs. will require to be g^tly sim-
mered for about an hour, reckoning from the
time the water commences boiling. For fish of
other wdghts, from 6 to 7 minutes per lb. may
be allowed. See Fish, &c.

BALOL. A phenyl ether of salicylic add
(HCjH^Oi), the radical phenyl (C,H() replacing
a hydrogen atom of the acid, thus giving C(H(.
C,H,0„ or more correctly C,H<(0H)C00.C4H,.
Since the publication of a note on the substance in
the ' Chemist and Druggist ' (June 26th, p. 626) its
action has been further investigated by Dr Sahli, of
Berne, and also by Professor LOwenthal, who com-
municates a paper on the snbject to the ' Senuune
Medicale.' It is well known that salicylic acid
and its salts produce many untoward effects when
administered internally, which greatly militate

rinst thdr undoubted value in the treatment
acute rheumatism, and many diemisis and
therapeutists have long umed at produdng a
substance which will possess the better properties
of salicylic add, especially its power of warding
off endocarditis, withont its liability to prodnoe
secondary effects. It would appear from experi-
ments which have been made, ^though tiiey are
yet imperfect, that salol is such a substance. As
already stated, it is a white crystalline powder, of
feebly aromatic odour (reca^g oil (rf winter-
green) and almost tasteless. Merck states that
it can also be obtuned in rhombic crystals, mdt-
ing at 42° C. to a clear, colourless liquid, which
can be cooled much below that point without
solidifying, unless it be touched with a glass rod.
Its freedom from taste appears to be due to its
insolubility in water ; it dissolves, however, per-
fectly and tapidly in alcohol, benzol, and ether.

Salol has been administered in doses up to 8
K^yii- (5>j) P^' ^7r withont bad results, and
noise in the ears has been sddom observed.
The dose, however, must be modified to the case,
just as that of salicylic add is ; for example, in
phthisical cases doses of 0*5 grm. shonld be lued
at first, because it is undesirable in these cases to
lower the temperature too quickly. It is sup-
posed that salol is unaffected in its passage
through the stomach, and that it is not decom-
posed until it reaches the duodenum and is a<^ed
upon by the pancreatic secretion. Certainly its
administration is not followed by toxic sym-
ptoms, such as would be expected by rapid ab-
sorption of phenol by the stomach. When
treated with pancreatic extract, the body is re-
solved into its component parts; moreover it
acts as well when administered p«r r«;<«i*i. The
urine of patients is found to be almost black in
colour, due to the presence of oxidation prodacts
of phenol, consequent on the absorption of phend
products into the blood and subsequent oxidation
of these during circulation.

Salol may be applied externally as a dusting
powder. Its insoluble nature makes it peculiarly
applicable for this purpose, and it has been nsed

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8AL00P— SALTDfO

1471

with 1)eiieflt for excoriated soifacei and foetid
woonda. It prerents the development of bac-
teria, bat does not kill them. Bougie* of aalol
are valaable for the treatment of gonorrhoea.
As a mouth wash and as an injection it is used in
solntion with alcohol and water, but for the
latter purpose it is more desirable to suspend the
finely powdered salol in water with tragacanth or
starch mucilage.

. The reaction of the body irith pancreatin may
advantageously be employed as a test for its
identity.

8AIA0P'. Sassafras (chips) tea, flavoured
with milk and sugar. A wholesome and useful
drink in cutaneous and rheumatic affections. See
SaiiBP.

SALT. 8y». Sjoj, L.; Sbl, Fr. Salts may
be regarded as acids in which one or more atoms
of hydrogen, a constant constituent of all true
a4nd8, are replaced by a metal or other basio
ladiokl. This relationship between acids and
salts will be better understood by reference to the
subjoined list of acids and their corresponding
potassium and ammoninm salts :

Acids. Baits.

HCa (HidncUorie add)— KCI rCbloride of potaisinm).
_it >• u — NH4CI (Chloride of smmonittm).

HRO^ (mtrie seid) — KNO. (Nitrate of potauiam).

MM,* ^NH4N0k (Nitrate of ammoniiim).

B^« (Smphuie add) — K|804(ai>lpbateofpotu*lum).
n » >• — (NH^iSOx (Snlphate ot unmo-

mam).

Acids are, in foot, hydrogen salts. A basic salt
is formed by replacing all the hydrogen in the
add, whilst an acid salt is formed by replacing
part of the hydrogen in the acid by a metal or
metallic radical. The so-called soVBLJi salts
•re, according to one view, combinations of two
salts of the same acid, but of different basio
radicals; thus common alum is a compound of
sulphate of aluminum and sulphate of potassium.

The salts are obtained by a variety of reactions,
of which the following are the most important :

1. When certain metals are brought in contact
with an acid, thus :

Zn + H^04''ZnS04-l-H^

2. When a basio acid or an hydrosdde acts upon
an add or an acid-forming oxide, thus :

PbO + H,S04- PbSO. -I- H,0.
Ba(OH), + H^04= BaSq4 + 2H,0.

The names al salts of adds having names ending
in -ous terminate in -ite. Thus nitrous add forms
nitrites. The names of salts of acids having names
ending in -ic terminate in -ate. Thns nitric acid
forms nitrates.

The salts are a most important class of bodies,
and their applications and uses in the arts of life
and dvilisation are almost infinite. See Kokbn-
OIiATmtB, Ac

Salt of Bazk. See Ezskaoi or Baxx (Dried).

Salt, Bitter Pnr'ging. Epsom salt.

Salt, Cathar'tio. Of Glavbbb, sulphate of
sodium; EirSLisH or bittbb b., sulphate of
magnesium (Epsom salt).

Salt, Cenutton. i%ii. Cvlinast salt. Chlo-
ride of sodium.

Salt, Dioief la. Acetate of potassiom.

Salt, Sp'som. Solute of magnesium.

Salt, Feb'T&Bga, Chloride of potassium.

Salt, Ta^aihle. Phosphate of ammonium.

Salt, Glauber's. Sulphate of sodium.

Salt, Kaoqner's. Binarseniate of potassium.

Salt, Klcrocos'mio. Phosphate of sodium and
ammonium.

Salt, Bed. Common salt wetted with an infu-
sion of beetroot or cochineal, or tincture of red
sanders-wood, then dried, and rubbed through a
neve. Used to impart a colour to gravies, &c.
Infusion of saffron also gives a beautiful colour for
this purpose. It has been proposed to colour
Epsom salt in this way to distingnish it from
oxalic add.

Salt, BoeheUe. Tartrate of potassium and
sodium.

Salt, Sea. Chloride of sodium.

Salt, Sed'ative. Boradc acid.

Salt, Smelling. See Saxts (below).

Salt, Sore throat. Sal prunella.

Salt, Tasteless. Phosphate of sodium.

Salt, Teg'etable. Tartrate of potassium.

Salt, Vol'atile. Common carbonate of ammo-
nium.

Salt of Lem'ons. Sy». Sal uxoinm, L.
Citric add. That sold in the shops for the
removal of ink spots from linen is bmoxalate or
quadroxalate of potassium, either alone or mixed
with one half its weight of cream of tartar.

Salt of Sor'rel. Binoxalate or qnadroxaUte of
potassium.

Salt of SteeL Sulphate of iron.

Salt of Ta/tar. Carbonate of potassium.

Salt of Vit'riol. Sulphate of mnc.

Salt of Vonnwood. Carbonate of potassinm.

8ALTIH0. Syn. PlOKLDiO. This is an easy
method of preserving butcher's meat, flsh, and,
indeed, most animal substances. It is performed
in two ways.

1. (Oby SAliTiKa.) This, as practised in
Hampshire, Yorkshire, and in various large estab-
lishments elsewhere, consists in merely well rub-
bing ordinary culinary salt, mixed with a little
saltpetre, into the meat, until every crevice is
thoroughly penetrated, and afterwards sprinkling
some over it, and placing it on a board or in a
trough, in such a manner that the brine may drain
off. C)n the small scale, in private families, a mix-
ture of salt, 2 lbs., with saltpetre, H or 2 oz., either
with or without about an onnceof good moist sugar,
is commonly used for the purpose, and imparts a
fine flavour to the meat. In both cases the pieces
are turned every day or every other day until
suffldently cured, a Uttle fresh salt being added
as required. Sometimes the fresh meat is packed
at once in casks, with the best coarse-grained or
bay salt. This method is that commonly adopted
for sea stores.

2. (Wbt iAvns», or FicxLiira nr bbihb.)
When the meat is allowed to lie in the liqnor that
runs from it (see above), or is at once planged into
strong brine, it is said to be ' pickled,' or ' wet
salted.' On the small scale this is most conveni-
ently performed by rubbing the fresh meat with
salt, &o., as above, and, after it has lain a few
hours, putting it into a pickle formed by dissolving
about 4 lbs. of good salt and 2 os. of saltpetre in
1 gall, of water, dther with or without the addition
of i to 1 lb. of moist sugar. This pickling liquor
gets weaker by use, and should therefore be
occaaiomdly boiled down a little and skimmed, at

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8ALTPETEB— SALTS

Ou Hune time adding some more of the dry
ingredients. Three to ten days, depending on the
sizei is safSciently long to keep meat in the brine.
When it is taken out it should be hnng np to dry,
after which it may be packed in barrels with
coarse-grained salt, or smoked, whichever may be
desired. Saltpetre added to brine gives the meat
a red colour, and brown sugar improves the
flavour.

The sooner animal substances, more especially
flesh, are salted after being killed, the better, as
they then possess considerable absorbent power,
which they gradually lose by age. See Pusbb-
PAOrioir, SouBrY, SiioKiyrs, &c.

gAJiTFE'TB£. Nitrate of potassium.

SALTS for prodneiag Faetttious Kineral
Waters. Axratid or Cixbohats Watebs.
These requite the aid of the powerful machine
employed by soda-water manufacturers, to cliarge
the waters strongly with carbonic acid gas. The
gas is made from whiting and diluted sulphuric
add, and is forced by a pump into the watery
Mdation. Sometimes the gas is produced by the
mutual action of the ingredients introduced into
the bottle of water, which must be instantly
dosed : but this metiiod is found practically in-
convenient, and is only adopted in the absence of
proper apparatus. The quantity of gas introduced
IS directed, in the French and American pharma-
copoeias, in most cases, to be five times the volume
of liquid. For chalybeate and sulphuretted waters
tiie water should be previously deprived of the air
it naturally contains by boilmg, and allowing it
to cool in a closed vessel.

There are various manufacturers of aerated
water machines, and of syphon bottles for
hdding these waters when made. The names
•nd addresses of these makers may be found in
any trade directory.

Bnaia Aebatbd Watbb. Carbonic add gas
water. Water charged with 6 or more vols, of
carbonic add gas, as above.

kT.vkT.m AiBAiBS WATBB8. A8r»ted soda
and potash waten should be made by dissolving a
drachm of the carbonated alkali in each pint of
water, and charging it strongly with carbonic
add gas. The soda water of the shops generally
contains but little (or no) soda.

AiJuasD MkeaTMOA. Watbb. This is made of
various strengths.

Hvbbax'b and DmrBiOBS's TvawUxsKwu.
may be thus made : — ^To a bdling sdation of 16
oz. of sulphate of magnesia in 6 pints of water
add a solution of 19 os. of crystallised carbonate
of soda in the same quantity of water ; boil the
mixture till gas ceases to escape, stirring con-
stantiy; then set it aside to setUe; pour off the
liquid, and wash the predpitate on a cotton or
Unen doth with warm water, till the latter
passes tasteless. Mix the precipitate, without
drying it, with a gallon of water, and force car-
bonic add gas into it under strong pressure, lall
a complete solution is effected. The Sau mag-
itUienne of the French Codex is about a third of
this strength ; and we have met with some pre-
pared in this country not much stronger.

Oabbohaibs LmB Watib. Carrara water.
Lime water (prepared from lime made by calcining
Carrara marue) is supersaturated by strong pres-

sure with carbonic add, so that the carbonate of
lime at first thrown down is redissolved. It
contains 8 gr, of carbonate of lime in 10 fl. os. of
water.

AiBAXBD LiTHll. Watib. Tbis may be con-
veniently made from the fresh predpUated caT"
bonate, dissolved in carbonated water, as directed
for fluid magnesia. Its antacid and antilithie
properties promise to be useful.

Saubb Cabbovatbd Waibbs.

The foUowing afford approximate imitations of
these waters. The earthy salts, with the salts of
iron, should be dissolved together in the smalleat
quantity of water. The other ingredients to be
dissolved in the larger portion of the water, and
the solution impregnated with the gas. The first
solution may be then added or be previously intro-
duced into the bottles. The salts, unless other-
wise stated, are to be crystallised.

Basis' Watbb. Chloride of magnesium, 8
gr. ; chloride of caldum, 40 gr. ; perchloride of
iron, i gr. (or 8 minims of the tincture) ; chloride
of sodium, 30 gr. ; sulphate of soda, 10 gr. ; car-
bonate of soda, 1 gr.; water, 1 pint; cariMnie
acid gas, 6 vols.

Cabubas Watbb. Chloride of caldum, 8 gr. ;
tincture of chloride of iron, 1 drop ; sulphate of
soda, 60 gr. ; carbonate of soda, 60 gr. ; chloride
of sodium, 8 gr. ; carbonated water, 1 pint.

EaiB. Carlxniate of soda, 6 gr.; sulphate of
soda, 4 scruples ; chloride of sodium, 10 gr. ; sol-
phatis of magnesia, 3 gr.j chloride of caldum, 6
gr. ; carbonated water, 1 pint. (Or it may be
made without apparatus, thus: — Bicarbooate of
soda, 30 gr. ; chloride of sodium, 8 gr. ; sulphate
of magnesia, 3 gr. ; water, a pint; dissolve and add
a scruple of dry bisulphate of soda, and dose the
bottle immediatdy.)

EiCB. Carbonate of soda, 2 scruples ; sulphate
of potash, 1 gr. ; sulphate of magnesia, 6 gr. ;
chloride of so£nm, 10 gr.; chloride of caldum,
S gr. ; carbonated water, a pint.

MABiBiraAD. Carbonate of soda, 2 leniplea:
sulphate of soda, 9& gr. ; sulphate of magneda, 8
gr. ; chloride of sodium, 16 gr. ; chloride of cal-
dum, 10 gr. ; carbonated water, a pint. (Or, bi-
carbonate of soda, 60 gr. ; sulphate of soda, 1 dr. ;
chloride of sodium, 16 gr. ; sulphate of magnesia,
10 gr. ; dissolve in a pint of water, add 26 gr. of
dry bisulphate of soda, and cork immediatdy.)

Mabibhbab Pvboiho 8a£IB. Bicarbonate of
soda, 6 ox.; dried sulphate of soda, 12 oz. ; dry
chloride of sodium, 1^ ox. ; sulphate of magnesia
(dried), 2 oz. ; dried bisulphate of soda, 2\ oz.
Mix the salts, previously dried, separately, and
keep them carefully from the air.

PuujTA Watbb. Sulphate of soda, 4 dr.;
sulphate of magnesia, 4 dr. ; chloride of caldum,
16 gr. J chloride of magnedum (dnr), a scruple ;
chloride of sodium, a scruple; bicarbonate of
soda, 10 gr.; water, slightly carbonated, 1 pint.
One of the most active of the purgative saline
waters.

PuLLHA Watbb witeout thb MAOHmB. Bi-
carbonate of soda, 60 gr. ; sulphate of magneda,
4 dr. ; snlphate of soda, 8 dr. ; chloride of sodium,
a scruple ; dissolve in a pint of water ; add, lastly,
2 scruples of bisulphate of soda, and dose the
bottie mimediatdy.

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SALTS

1478

Sizn lOB luxnra Puxlita Watib. Dry
bicarbonate of loda, 1 os. ; eznceated sulphate of
•oda, 2os. ; eiriceated snipbate of msgnetis, 1 loz. ;
dry chloride of sodinm, 2 dr. ; dry tartaric acid,
f ox. (or rather dry bisalphate of sods, 1 oz.).

SuDUTz PowsiB. The common teidlitz pow-
ders do not resemble the water. A closer imita-
tion would be made by nsing efBoresced snlphate
of magnesia instead of the potassio-tartrate of
■oda. A still more exact compound will be the
following:— Effloresced snlphate of magnesia, 2
oi. ; bicarbonate of soda, | oz. ; dry bisnlphate of
soda, i oz. ; mix, and keep in a close bottle.

SaiDLiTz Watib. This is nsnally imitated
by strongly aerating a solation of 2 dr. of sul-
phate of magnesia in a pint of water. It is also
made with 4, 6, and 8 dr. of the salt to a pint of
water.

SmMORrrz Watib. Snlphate of magnesia,
8 dr.] chloride of caldom, nitrate of lime, bi-
carbonate of soda, of each, 8 gr. ; snlphate of
potash, 6 gr. ; aSrated water, 1 pint.

SlurziB Watkb. Chloride of calcium and
chloride of magnesium, of each, 4 gr. ; dissolve
these in a small quantity of water, and add it
to a similar solution of 8 gr. of bicarbonate of
soda, 20 gr. of chloride of sodium, and 2 gr. of
phosphate of soda; mix, and add a solution of
i gr. of snlphate of iron ; put the mixed solution
into a 20k)z. bottle, and flil|ap with aSrated water.
Much of the Seltzer water sold is taii to be
nothing more than simple carbonated water, con-
tuning a little chloride of sodinm. An imitation
of Seltzer water is also made by putting into a
■tone Seltzer -bottle, filled with water, 2 dr. bicar-
bonate of soda, and 2 dr. of citric acid in crys-
tals, corking the bottle immediately. Sodaic
powders are sometimes sold as Seltzer powders.

ViOHT Salts. Bicarbonate of [soda, 11 oz. ;
chloride of sodinm, 16 gr. ; effloresced sulphate
of soda, 1 dr. ; effloresced sulphate of magnesia, 1
scruple; dry tartarised potash and iron, 1 gr.;
dr^ tartaric acid, 1 oz. (or dry bisalphate of soda) ;
mix the powders, previously dried, and keep them
in a close bottle.

ViCHT Watib. Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.;
chloride of sodinm, 2 gr. ; sulphate of sodia, 8gr.;
sulphate of magnesia, 8 gr. ; tincture of chloride
of iron, 2 drops ; aSrated water, a pint. Dorvault
directs 75 gr. of bicarbonate of soda, 4 gr. of chlo-
ride of sodinm, ^ gr. sulphate of iron, 10 gr.
sulphate of soda, 3 gr. snlphate of magnesia, to
B pint of water. By adding 45 gr. (or less) of
citric acid an effervescing water is obtained.

M. Sonbeiran, relying on the analysis of Long-
champs, imitates Vichy water by the following
combination : — Bicarbonate of soda, 18B gr. j
chloride of sodium, 2^ gr. ; crystallised chloride
of caldam, 12 gr. ; snlphate of soda. Hi gr.;
snlphate of magnesia, 8| gr, ; tartrate of Iron and
potash, i gr.; water, 2^ pints (1 litre) ; carbonic
acid, S06 cnb. inches (5 litres). Dissolve the
salts of soda and iron in part of the water, and
add the snlpb. magues. and then the chlor. calc.
in the remaining water. Charge now with the
carbonic acid gas under pressure.

Salivb Waibbs, Ao., bot Cabbobatbd.
SiA Watib. Chloride of sodinm, 4 oz.;
VOL. n.

ralphate of soda, 2 oz. ; chloride of calcinm, iot.t
chloride of magnesium, 1 oz. ; iodide of potassium,
4 gr. ; bromide of potassium, 2 gr. ; water, a
gallon. A common substitute for sea water as a
bath is made by dissolving 4 or 5 oz. of common
salt in a gallon of water.

The following mixture of dry salts may be kept
for the immediate production of a good imitation
of sea water : — Chloride of sodium (that obtained
from evaporating sea water, and not recrystal-
lised, in preference), 85 oz.; effloresced sulphate
of soda, 16 oz. ; dry chloride of calcium, 4 oz. ;
dry chloride of m^nesinm, 16 oz.; iodide of
potassium, 2 dr. ; bromide of potassium, 1 gr.
Mix, and keep diy. Put 4 or 6 oz. to a gallon of
water.

BaIiAbuo Watib. Chloride of sodinm, 1 oz.;
chloride of calcium, 1 oi. ; cUoride of magnesium,
i oz.; snlphate of soda, 8 dr.; bicarbonate of
soda, 2 dr. ; bromide at potassium, 1 gr. ; water, a
gallon. Chiefly used for baths.

SvLFHUBims Watibb.
SnoPLi StnxRiTBBTTiD Waiibi. Pbss snl-

Shnretted hydrogen into cold water (^previously
eprived of air by boiling, and cooled in a closed
vessel) till it ceases to be absorbed.

Aix-la-Chapblli Watib. Bicarbonate of
soda, 12 gr.; chloride of sodinm, 25 gr. ; chloride
of calcium, 3 gr. ; sulphate of soda, 8 gr. ; simple
sulphuretted water, 2^ oz,; water, slightly car-
bonated, 17i oz.

BABiais Watib. (Canterets, Bagnirrs de
Lnchon, Eauz Bonnes, St Sauveur, may be made
the same.) Crvstalllaed hydrosulphate of soda,
crystallised carbonate of soda, and chloride of
sodinm, of each. If gi. ; water (freed from air),
a pint. A stronger solution for addins to baths
is thus made: — Crystallised hydroeulphate of
soda, crystallised carbonate of soda, and chloride
of sodinm, of each, 2 ox. ; water, 10 oz.; dissolve.
To be added to a common bath at the time of
using.

Habbooatb Watib. Chloride of sodinm, 100
gr. ; chloride of calcium, 10 gr. ; chloride of mag-
nesium, 6 gr, ; bicarbonate of soda, 2 gr. ; wato",
18i oz. Dissolve, and add simple snlphnretted
water, 1^ oz.

Naplis Wathb. Crystallised carbonate of
soda, 16 gr. ; flmd msgnesia, 1 oz. ; simple sul-
phuretted water, 2 oz. ; aerated water, 16 oz.
Introdnce the snlphnretted water into the bottle
last

Chaltbiati Watibb.

Sixplb Chaitbbatb Watib. Water freed
from air by boiling, 1 pint; snlphate of iron,

ASbatbd Chaltbiaii Watib. Sulphate of
iron, 1 gr. ; carbonate of soda, 4 gr.; water (de-
prived of ur and charged with carbonic acid
gas), a pint. Dr Pereira recommends 10 gr. each
of sulphate of iron and bicarbonate of soda to be
taken in a bottle of ordinary soda water. This is
equivalent to 4 gr. of carbonate of iron.

Bbiobtob Cealybiatb. Sulphate of iron,
chloride of sodium, chloride of calcium, of each,
2 gr. ; carbonate of soda, 8 gr. ; carbonated water,
1 pint.

BvasABO, FoBeu, Pbotibi. and other similar

93

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1474

SALTS— SANDAL-WOOD

waters may be imitated by diwolving from i to
) of a grain of sulphate of iron, 2 or 3 gr.
of carbonate of soda, 1 gr. of sulphate of mag-
nesia, and 1 gr. of chloride of aodiam, in a pint of
aerated water.

Mont d'Ob Watsb. Bicarbonate of soda, 70
gr, ; sulphate of iron, ) gr. ; chloride of sodium,
12 gr. ; sulphate of soda, i gr. ; chloride of cal-
cium, 4 gr. ; chloride of magnesium, 2 gr. ; aerated
water, a pint.

Vamy Watbb. Sulphate of iron, 2 gr.;
chloride of sodium, 8 gr. ; carbonate of soda, 4
gr. ; chloride of magnesmm, 2 gr.; aSrated water,
a pint.

PxBMOHi Watrb. Sulphate of magnesia, 20
gr. ; chloride of magnesium, 4 gr. ; chloride of
•odium, 2 gr. ; bicarbonate at s(xla, 16 gr.; sul-
phate of iron, 2 gr. ; Carrara water, a pint.

Vabiovb Aebatkd MEDionrAL Watibs iror
BiJBBirBLnro aky Natubal SPBiira.

Mialhb'b Asbatbd Cealtbbatb Watbb.
Water, a pint; citric acid, 1 dr.; citrate of iron,
16 gr. ; dissolve, and add 76 gr. of bicarbonate of
soda.

Tbobbbait'b Mabtia£ AiBATls Watbb. Fo-
tassio-tartrate of iron, 10 gr. ; artificial Seltzer
water, a pint.

Bouohabdat'b Gabboub Puboatitb. Phos-
phate of soda, li 01.; carbonated water, a pint.

Mialhb'b Iosubbttkd Qabboub Watbb.
Iodide of potassium, 16 gr. ; bicarbonate of soda,
76 gr. ; water, a pint ; dissolve, and add sulphuric
acid, diluted with its weight of water, 76 gr.
Cork immediately.

DvFASQniiB'B Oasbovs Waibb OS Iosn» op
Ibov. Solution of iodide of iron (containing -fg
of dry iodide), 80 gr. ; tymp of gnm, H oz. ;
a£rated water, 17i oz.

BAITS (Smellijig). S3f». SaIi volatilib
oiiBOBUB, L. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia com-
monly passes under the name of 'BMBIJ.11T8
SALTS,' and, with the addition of a few drops of
essential oil, is frequently employed to fill
'BMBLLZEre BOTILEB;' but when a strong and
durable pungency is desired, the carbonate should
alone be used, as in one or other of the following
f onnuls :

1. Carbonate (not sesquicarbonate) of ammonia,

1 lb. ; oil of lavender (Mitcham), 2 oz. ; essence
of bergamot, 1 ox. ; oil or cloves, j oz. ; rub them
together, and sublime ; keep the product in well-
stopped bottles.

2. Carbonate of ammonia, 1 lb. ; oil of lavender,

2 OS. ; oils of bergamot and lemon, of each, 1 oz, ;
as the last.

8. Carbonate of ammonia, i lb. ; essence of ber-
gamot, 1 oz. ; oil of verbena, i oz.; otto of roses,
1 dr. ; as before.

4. Carbonate of ammonia, f lb.; essences of
bergamot and lemon, of each, i oz. ; essence de
petit gnun, } oz.; oil of cloves, 1 dr. ; as before.

6. ^ixtemporaneous.) a. f^m sal-ammoniac,
1 dr. ; pure potassa, 8 dr. ; grind them fa^ether,
and sidd of essence of lemons, 16 drops; oil of
clove*, 8 or 4 drops.

b. Viota carbonate or sesquicarbonate of am-
monia (bmised), q. s.; volatile ammoniacal essence,
a few diopa.

According to Dr Paris, Oodvbbt's Smbixihs
Salts are made by resubliming volatile salt with
subcarbonate of potassa and a little spirits of wine
(and essential oil).

8ALU?£B. A fluorilicate of lodium is sold
under this name, and used as an antiseptic wash
and disinfectant. 1 gr. in 1 oz. of water is the
usual strength for lotions.

8ALVS. A name indiscriminately applied by
the vulgar to any consistent, greasy preparation
used in medicine.

Salve, Lip. Sgn. Cbbatttx labials, L. JPrep.
1. (Bbd or Fbbutiah.) From spermaceti dnt-
ment, i lb. ; alkanet root, i oz. ; melt them to-
gether until sufficiently coloured, strain, and when
the strained fat has cooled a little, add of balsam
of Pern, 3 dr. ; stir well, and in a few minutes
pour off the clear portion from the dregs ; lastly,
stir in of oil of cloves, 20 or SO drops. This never
gets rancid.

2. (Rosb.) See Ckbaie.

8. (Whitb.) From the finest spermaceti oint-
ment or cerate, 8 oz. ; finely powdered white sugar,
1 oz. ; neroli or essence de petit grain, 10 or 12
drops, or q. s.

Obi. Numerous formulss are extant for lip
salves, as for other like articles, but the preceding
are those generally employed in trade. The per-
fumes may -be varied at mil, and the salve named
after them. A very small quantity of finely pow-
dered borax is occasionally added. Fbbeoh ug
BALTB is said to contain alum, in fine powder ;
and Gbbmait lip saltb is said to be made of
cacao butter. See Cbbatb, PoKKASB,and Ounc-

HBHT.

SANS. &fn. Abbka, L. River and sea sand
consist chiefly of finely divided siliceous matter,
mixed occasionally with carbonate of lime. That
of Lynn and Alum Bay is nearly pure silica, and
is therefore selected for the manufacture of glass.
Sand is used by moulders in metal, and as a
manure for heavy land. It is a large and neces-
sary portion of every fertile soiL

SAK'SAL-'WOOI). Sgn. Red savsbbb-wood.

B. SAUHSBBB-'W. ; LlSHiril 8AHTALI B1TBBI, LlG-

vvu BASTALiHmc BUBBUH, Ptbbooajipub, L. The
wood of Pteroearpui tatUalimu. It is used in
medicine as a colouring matter. It is also em-
ployed in dyeing, and to stain varnishes. Woo£
may be dyed a carmine red by dipping it alter-
nately into an infusion of this wood and an
acidulous bath {^T^rommtiorff'). Prepared with
a mordant of alum and tartar, and then dyed in
a bath of sandal-wood and sumach, it takes m
reddish yellow {Banor(fft). See SAinALDr.

Whitb asd Ybllow Sakdal-wood. There
are more than a dozen species of the genus, which
are chiefly restricted to Asia, Australia, and
Oceania. The Indian species are Santalwn atimm
and S. myriifolium. The Australian species are
S. cygnum, S. laneeolatum, S. oiblongatum, 8.
ohtunfoUum, 8. ovatum, and S. vmuumm. The
species found in the Pacific islands are £. Atutro-
Caledoni%m, Viell, which is superior to that of
most other countries, owing to the strength and
fineness of its odour ; S, ell^tianm, 8. JFVsjroiiM-
tiammm, 8. paniimhitum, and 8. Tate, But many
of the species are not well determined, nor their
localitlef clearly defined.

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SANSARACH— SANITART ATTrHOBITIES

1476

Samtalmm <dlmm, one of the Indian species, has
long famished the chief sapply of wood, which
is shipped from the Madns President. In
Mysore the sandal- wood trees form a Govern-
ment monopoly, bringing in a revenne of about
jB40,000, the wood selling there at £35 to £40 a
ton.

8. Prtgemetiaitum is imported from Cochin
China and the Paciflc islands, hut it is less
esteemed, the colour of the. wood being paler, and
the odour less pronounced.

It is only the central portion of the tree which
produces ^e scented yellow wood constituting
the sandal-wood of commerce. The quality of
the wood depends on the quantity of the oil con-
tained in it, as indicated by the smell when
freshly cut or burnt. The old trees produce the
best, and of them that part of the wood near the
root is the most prized. The distillation of oil
from the roots in India is carried on chiefly at
Hangalore. Five cwt. of wood yields about 80
lbs. of pure oil, thus giving a profit of nearly 37
per cent.

The essential oil is used as the basis of nearly
all ottos mannfactured in the country.

The wood is made into boxes, in which steel
does not rust ; curiously carved cases, fans, and
other fancy articles ; and it is also bimit in the
temples.

The Mysore wood is divided into five classes.
The first three go almost exclusively to China; the
hollow fillets and the small broken pieces, which
are not included in the fire classes, going to
Arabia, whore they are either burnt whole, for
the sake of the fragrant smell afforded, or ground
np and used with other ingredients as incense.
Of that sent to Snrat the inferior descriptions of
billets are bnmt by the Parsees in their fire
temples, and are also used at Hindoo funerals
when the friends of the deceased are able to
afford it. The wood, rubbed down with water
and worked into a paste, is used by all Hindoos
iu their caste marks, and is also employed as an
external application foi^ headaches and some skin
diseases. The powder of the roots and of the
heart-wood is used by the Chinese aguinst gonor-
rhcoa, and is applied to wounds. They also con-
sider it carminative, stomachic, and stimulant.
The oil, which is yellow and of the consistency of
castor oil, is much esteemed for its odour.

As opium ministers to the sensual gratification
of the Chinese and others of the same classt so
sandal-wood ministers to their superstition.
Without it no religions ceremony can be con-
ducted, and its absence is a mark of poverty, so
that the Oriental of India and China will sacri-
fice anything rather than allow that, on the
proper occasion, sandal-wood should not be burnt.
The roots, whidi are richest in oil, and the chips
go to the still, while Hindoos who can afford it
show their wealth and respect for their departed
relatives by adding sticks of sandal-wood to the
funeral pile.

SAHODAKACE. 8yn. Saksbac, Gums. A
resin obtained from Thuja artieulata and J»ni-
perut commani* (in warm climates). It is slightly
fragrant, is freely soluble in rectified spirit, and
has a sp. gr. of I'OS to 1-09. It is used as in-
cense, pounce, in varnishes, tc.

SAVDBBS-WOOD. See Saitsix-wood.

SAJfOWSSL Syn. Qlasb aAIX; FUTITBI,
Saii titbi, L. The saline scum that swims on
glass when firstmade. It is occasionally used in
tooth powders.

BAn>-FAPXB. The 'American Builder 'gives
the following process for making sand-paper of
superior quality, at almost nominal cost :

" The device for making sand-paper is simple
and at hand to any one who has occasion to use
the paper. A quantity of ordinary window glass
is taken (that having a green colour is said to be
the best) and pounded fine, after which it is passed
through one or more sieves of different degrees of
fineness, to secure the glass for coarse or fine
paper. Then any tongh paper is covered evenly
with glue, having about one third more wat^
than is generally employed for wood-work. The
glass is sifted npon the paper, allowed a day or
two in which to become fixed in the glue, when
the refuse glass is shaken off, and the paper is fit
for use.

SAITQUnr'Aanrs. Sy. SAveunrAsiirA, L.
Obtained from the root of Sa»gMinaria Cana-
datuit, Linn., or blood-root, by digpesting it in
anhydrous alcohol ; exhanst^g it with weak sdl-
phuric acid ; precipitating by Uqnor of ammonia;
dissolving out by etiher, and preciintating sulphate
of sangmnarine by the addition of sulphuric acid.
The sulphate may be decomposed by ammonia,
which precipitates the alkaloid as a white pearly
substance, oi an acrid taste, very soluble in alco-
hol, also soluble in ether and volatile oils. With
acids it forms soluble salt^ remarkable for their
beautiful red, crimson, and scarlet colours. These
salts are used in medicine as expectorants, in
doses of fractious of a grain.

The ' sanguinarin ' of the American ' Eclectics '
is prepared by precipitating a saturated tincture
of blood-root by water. It contains an uncertain
proportion of the alkaloid, and is of a deep
reddish-brown colour.

8AHITAET AUTEOSITISB ASS SASITABT
I)ISTSICTB. With the exception of the metro-
polls, the whole of England and Ireland is divided
mto urban and rural sanitary districts, which are
respectively governed by orhan and rural. aotbo-
ritiee. . -

The Public Health Act (sec. 6) defines an
urban district and an urban authority iu Eng-
land as in table on the next page; provided
that—

1. Any borough the whole of which is included
in and forms part of a local government district
or improvement act district, and any improvement
act district which is included in and forms part
of a local government district, and any local
government district which is included m and
form apart of an improvement aot district, shall,
for the purposes of uiis Act, be deemed to be ab-
sorbed in the larger district in which it is in-
cluded, or of which it forms part; and the im-
provement commissioners, or local board, as the
case may be, of such larger district, shall be the
urban authority therein ; and

2. Where an improvement act district is coin-
ddent in area with a local government district,'
the improvement commissioners, and not a local
board, shall be the urban anthority there; and

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1476

SAinTABT AUTHORITIES

Urban DUtriet*.

Borough, constitated Buch either
before or after the paasing of
thl« Act.

ImproTement act district, consti-
tuted snch before the passing of
the Public HealtbAct,1872,and
having no part of its area sitn
ated within a borough or local
government district.

Local government district, con-
stitated such either before orl
after the passing of this Act,
having no part oj its area sitn'
ated within a borough, and not
coincident in area witii a borough
or improvement act district,

Utiatt Autioriiy

Themayor,alder-
men, and bnr-
gesses, acting
by the council.

The improve-
ment commis-
sioners.

The local board.

8. Where any part of an improvement act dis-
trict is aitoated within a borough or local act
Atttricfi, or where any part of a local government
district is sitoated within a borou^, the remain-
in|r part of inch improvement a^ district or of
such local government district so partiy sitnated
within a bwongh, shall, for the purposes of this
Act, continne sntxject to the like jurisdiction as
it would have been subject to if this Act had
not been passed, unless and nntil the Local
Oovemment Board by provisional order otherwise
directs.

An English rural sanitary district and au-
thority are thns defined by the Public Health Act
(sec. 9) !

" The area of any union whidi is not coincident
in area with an urban district, nor wholly in-
cluded in an urban district (in this section called
a rural union), with the exception of those portions
0f any) of the area which are included in any
urban district, shall be a mral district, and the
guudions of the union shall form the rural
authority of snch district { provided that —

"1. An M qffleio guurdian resident in any
parish or part of a parish belonging to sncn
union, whidi pariah or part of a tMurish forms or
is situated in an urban district, snail not act or
vote in any case in which guardians of such union
act or vote as members of the mral authority,
unless he is tlie owner or occupier of property
situated in the rural district of a value sufficient
to qualify bim as on elective guardian for the
union.

"2. An elective guardian of any parish belong-
ing to such union, and forming or being inclndel
within an urban district, shall not act or vote in
any case in which gnaidi*ns of snch union act
or vote as members of the rural anthorilr.

"8. Where port of a parish belonging to a
rural onion forms or is situated in on nrlwn dis-
trict, the Local Oovemment Board may by order
divide such parish into separate words, and deter-
mine the number of gnordiao* to be elected by
sndi wards lespoetiTdyi in such manner as to
provide Car the due mpswontatloa of the port of
the parish ritnated within the rural district; but

until such order has been made, the guardian or
^ardians of snch parish may act md vote as
members of the rural authority in the same manner
as if no part of such parish formed part of, or
was sitnated in, the urban district."

Where the number of elective guardians, wbo
are not by this section disqualified from acting
and voting as members of the rural authority, is
less than five, the Local Oovemment Board may
from time to time by order nominate snch number
of persons as may be necessary to make up that
number, from owners or occupiers of property
sitnated in the rural district of a value sufficient
to qualify them as elective guardians for the
union I and the persons so nominated shall be
entitled to act and vote as members of the rural
authority, but not further or otiierwiso.

Subject to the provisions of this Act, all statutes,
orders, and legal provisions applicable to any board
of guardians shall apply to them in their capacity
of rural authority under this Act for the purposes
of this Act ; and it is hereby declared that the
mral authority are the same body as the guardians
of the union or parish for or within which such
authority act.

Sanitary districts in Ireland are — The City
of Dublin, other corporate towns above 6000, and
towns or townships having commissioners under
local Acts.

And nrban authorities are — In the City of
Dublin, the Right Hon. the Lord Mayor, Aider-
men, and Burgesses acting by the town council.

In towns corporate, the town connciL

In towns exceeding 6000, having commisdoners
under the Lighting, Cleaning, and Watching Act
of Oeorge IV j or having munidpol commissioners
under 8 and 4 ^ct., c 106; or town commis-
sioners nnder the Towns Improvement (Ireland)
Act (17 and 18 Vict., c. 103), the said commis-
sioners, municipal or town councillors respec-
tively.

In towns or townships having oommisnoners
nnder local Acts, the town or township commis-
sioners (87 and 88 WiA., e. 98, s. 8).

The Irish mral sanitary districts and autb<»i-
ties are exactly analogous to the KngUsh.

In Scotluid, sanitary powers are exercised by
town councils, police commissioners, and parochid
boards, controlled and supervised by a Moid of
supervision j but the names of nrbon and mral
sanitary authorities have not yet been applied to
them.

Under the English Public Health Act there
may also be formed united districts; for ex-
ample:

Where, on the application of ony loco! autbo-
rity of any ^strict, it appears to the Local
Oovemment Board that it would be fbr the ad-
vantage of the districts, or an^ of them, or any
parts thereof, or of any oontnbntory places, in
any rural district or disteicts, to be formed into a
united district for all or any of the puifoses fol-
lowing :

1. The procuring a common supply of water ; or

2. The making a main sewer, or carrying into
effect a system of sewerage fttr the use of oil
such JUstricts or contributory places; or

8. For any other purpoaes of this Act, the Iiocal
Oovemment Board may, by provirioiial

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SANITABT AUTHOBITIES

1477

form inch dicfaricto or eontribntory placet into a
united dbtriet.

All eoati, ohargfei, and eipenaet of and inci-
dental to iia formation of a nnited district are,
in the event of the united district bein^ formed,
to be a first charge on the ratea leviable in the
nnited district in pursuance of section 279 of the
Public Health Act.

Notice of the j)rovisional order must be made
public in the locality ; and should the union be
carried out, the incidental expenses thereto are a
flrat charge on the sanitan rates of the nnited
district. A nnited diatriet to governed by a joint
board consisting of saeh «r iffMo, and of such
number of elective members a« the providooal
order determines.

The business arrangements of the joint hoard
differ little from thoae of a sanitary authority.

'The joint board is a body corporate having a
name— determined by the provisional order, — a
perpetual succession, and a common seal, and
havug power to acquire and hold lands without
any lioance in mortaoain. The joint board has
only business and power in matters for which it
has been formed. With the exception of these
special objects, the component districts continne
aa faefbre to exercise independent powers.

Nevertheless the joint board may delegate to the
aanitary authority of any component district the
exerdae of any of its powers, or the performance of
any of its duties (Public Health Act, sec. 281).

Sanitary authorities and distriett may be also
combined for the execution and maintenance of
works, for the prevention of epidemic diseases, as
wall as for the purpose of appointing a medical
officer of health. Districts wnen once formed are
not fixed and unvariable, the Local Sovemment
Board having the most extensive powers over the
alteration* of areas.

1. The Local Government Board, by provisional
order, may dissolve any local govemnient district,
and may merge any such district in some other
district, or may declare the whok or any portion
of a local government or a rural district imme-
diately adjoining a local government district to
be included in such last-mentioned district, or
may declare any portion of a local government
district immediately a^oining a rural district to
be inclnded in such lart-menSoned district ; and
thorenpon the inclnded area shall, for the purposes
of the Public Health Act, be deemed to form part
of the district in which it is inclnded in such
order J and the remaining part (if any) of snch
local govenunent district or rural district affected
by snch order shall continue subject to the like
jurisdiction as it would have been sntject to if
•nch order bad not been made, nnless and until
the Local Government Board by provisional order
otherwise directs.

8. In the case of a borough comprising within
ito area the whole of an Improvement Act disti let,
or having an area co-eztenUTe with such district,
the Local Government Board, by provisional order,
may dissolve snch district, and transfer to the
coinidl of the borough all or any of the juris-
diction and powers of the Improvement Commis-
sioners of such district, remaining vested in them
at the time of the passing of the PuUic Health
Act

8. The Local Government Board may, by order,
dissolve any special drainage district constituted
either before or after the passing of the Public
Health Act in which a loan for the execution of
works has not been raised, and merge it into the
pariah or parishes in which it is situated ) but in
the cases where a loan has been raised the Local
Government Board can only do this by provisional
order (Public Health Act, sec. 271).

Disputes with regard to the boundaries of
districts are to be settled by the Local Gorom-
ment Board after local inquiry (Public Health
Act, sec. 278).

Where districto also are oonstiteted for the pur-
poses of main sewerage only in pursuance of the
Public Health Act ol 1848, or when a district
has been formed subject to the jurisdiction ot a
joint sewerage board, in pursuance of the Sewage
Utilisation Act of 1867, such distriete or district
may be dissolved by provisional order, and the
Local Government Board may constitute it a
united district, sniriect to the jurisdiction of a
joint board (Public Health Act, sec. S28).

The Local Government Board may also declare
by provisional order any rural district to be a
local government district.

The Local Government Board has also the im-
portant power of investing a nual authority with
urban powers as follows :

" The Local Government Board may, on the
application of the authority of any rural district,
or of persons rated to the relief at the poor, the
assessment of whose hereditomento amounts at
the least to one tenth of the net rateable value of
soeh diatriet, or of any oontribntory place therein,
by order to be publiahed in the ' London Oacetto,'
or in snch other manner as the Local Government
Board may direct, declare any provisions of this
Act in force in urban districto to be in force in
such rural district or contributory place, and may
invest such authority with all or any of the powers,
righto, duties, capacities, liabilities, and obliga-
tions of an urban authority under this Aet, and
such investment may be made either uneon^-
tionally or subjeet to any conditions to be specified
fay the board as to the time, portion of ito district,
or manner during, at, and in which such powers,
righto, duties, UsMlitie^ oanacities, and obliga-
tions are to be esercised and attached, provided
that an order of the Local Government Board
made on the applicartien of one tenth of the per-
sons rated to the relief of the poor in any contri-
butory place shall not invest the rural authority
with any new powers beyond the limito of
such oontribntory places" (Public Health Act,
see. 276).

Powtr* Mul JhitiM of SanUarg AmtkorHie*.
In England nrban sanitary authorities have very
extensive powers and duties under the Public
Health Act of 1876, and in addition they have
to carry out the Bakehouse Regulation Act, and
the Artisans and Labourers' Dwellings Act. They
also have power to adopt the Baths and Wash-
houses Acto, and the Labouring Chuses' Lodging-
houses Acto; but where adopted or in force, the
powers, righto, duties, Ac, of these Acto belong to
the nrban authority. The powers of any local Act
for sanitary purpose* (eacept a Biver Conservancy
Act) are transferred to the urban authority.

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1478

8ANITABT HERBAL BITTEB8— SANITATION

The powen of an 'Engfliih mnil authority are
exercised principally under the Pnblic Health Act,
hat they liave also to carry oat the Bakehoase
B^:aIation Act.

The powen given by the Irish Pnhlic Health
Act to Irish sanitary authorities are similar.

The Local Government Act is not in force there,
and equal powers are given without distinction to
urban and rural sanitary authorities.

The duties of sanitaiy authorities are to carry
out the Acts which apply to them, and appoint
certain officers, sach as medical officers of health,
inspectors of nuisances, clerk, treasurer, ftc
. Speaking generally, it may be affirmed that all
sanitary autiiorities are invested with ample
powers for enforcing sanitary measures. Their
duty consists ifi perfecting drainage, sewerage,
and water supply. In towns they have the con-
trol of streets and houses, both private and public,
and in all localities they possess ample powen to
cause every specie* of nuisance to be abated, which
is in the least inimical to health.

The Pnblic Health Act contains a proviso tor
dealing with an authority which fails in its daty.
Under these circumstances the Local Government
Board is invested with compulsory powers, and
may compel the due performance of whatever it
may deem necessary.

BAIinTABT HXBBAIf BITTEBB— Oesundheits-
kraqter-Bitter. An indispensable household
remedy for every fkmily, for colic, stomach-ache,
«raipp in the bladder, flatulence, loss of appetite,
nausea, chronic liver diseases, constipation, and
diarrhoea; also as a soothing agent for infants
(Ootttehlich). The fluid contains in 100 grm*.
the soluble portion of about *8 grm. ojdnm
{Sagtr).

. SAJETITABT UQXJBUB— Qesnndhelta Liqueur.
Swedish elixir of life, with rhubarb in place of
the aloes, made into a liqueur with sugar and
■pint (Sagar).

SABITABT, FOFULAB, EBBOBS. It is a
popular sanitary error to think that the more a
man eats the fatter and stronger he will become.
To believe that the more hours children stndy the
faster they learn. To conclude that, if exercise
is good, the more violent the more good is done.
' To imagine that every hour taken from sleep is an
hour gained. To acton the presumption that the
smallest room in the house is large enough to
sleep in. To imagine that whatever remedy causes
one to feel immecUately better is good for the sys-
tem, without regard to the ultorior effects. To
eat without an appetite; or to continue after it
has been satisfied, merely to gratify the taste. To
eat a hearty supper at the expense of a whole
night of disturbed sleep and weary waking in the
morning (' Sanitary Record ').

BAjriTABT BATAPIA— Cfemndheit* Batafla.
For removing all stomach, chest, and bowel com-
plaints, indigestion, colic, diarrhoea, vomiting,
flatulence, dysuria, and affections caused by chills.
.A clear brown schnapps, containing, in 260 grms.
. by weight, 76 grms. sngar, 106 grms. water, 100
grms, strong spirit, 40 grms. each of tincture of
orange peel and tincture of orange berries, 8-6
grms. each tincture of cloves and tincture of
wormwood, 1 drop oil of peppermint, 6 drops acetic
ether, and some drops of caramel {JDr Morn).

SAVITABT SOUL, Flowm of— Gennidlieit*-

blnmeBgeist. A mixture of spirit, SOO parts;
iinct. aromatioa, 6 parts; oils of bergamot, Isven-
der, and rosemary, of each, 2 parts ; oil of thyme,
8 parts ; oil of spearmint, 1 part (Sofftr).

8AB1TA8. A powerfully oxidising liquid oon-
taining hydrogen peroxide, obtained by paaria^ air
and steam through oil of turpentine. Employed
for disinfectini; purposes.

SAHITATIOB, DOMESTIC. Not one of the
least creditable or important benefits conferred of
late years, by the efforts of philanthropic and
enlightened enterprise upon the poorer dassea of
this country, has been the erection — in eitiea and
large towns mora particularlyT-of healthy houses
for them to dwell in. In the constructioii of
these habitations the architects and desigiiers
have for the most part been guided by sonnd
sanitary principles, the carrying out of which has
been effected by means of legislative supervisioa,
and, if needful, of legislative action.

The result of these measures has in most cases
been to provide residences for our poorer brethren,
wherdn, amongst other advantages, they e^joy the
two primary ones of pure air and water, ^liat
the richer, upper, and middle classes, whilst de-
vising and achieving so much in the way of com-
fort and health for those beneath them, should
themselves in so many cases live in houses notori-
ously unhealthy, and should fail to recognise the
advantages of the compulsory enforcement of
necessary hygienic arrangements, are anomalies so
amazing as to be, at first sight, scarcely credible.
Tet a few statistics may serve to discomfit those
who are incredulous on this point. The average
mortality in London is 24 persons in 1000. In
the improved dweUings of the poor it is only 14
in the 1000.

This subject was ventilated in a very earnest and
valuable paper read before the Social Science Con-
gress at Brighton in 1875 by Mr H. H. Collins. In
this paper MrColUns refers only to the houses of the
metropolis and its suburbs, and maintains that, as
far as regards the enforcement of sanitary pre-
cautions in house - building, London and its
suburbs are infinitely worse provided for than
many second-rate provincial towns, most of which,
he says, have the construction of their buildings
and streets regulated by bye-laws issued under
the powers of the Public Health Act, and sanc-
tioned by the Home Secretary, whereas in Lond<Hi
the various Acts of Parliament for this purpose
have been inoperative. Mr Collins describes the
insanitary condition of some of the high-rented
houses he examined, and says the descriptions
which follow equ^y apply to many others
■itnated in the most aristocratic quarters of
London.

Imagine one of our legislators who, perhaps,
had been voting for the passing of the ' Nuisance
Removals Act,' returning from his parliamentarr
duties to such a mansion as is portrayed by Mr
Collins in the following extract : — " I have re-
cently purchased on behalf of a client the lease of
a mansion in Portland Place from a well-known
nobleman, who had spent, as I was informed, a
fortune in providing new drainage; indeed, I
found the principal water-closet built out of the
house altogether ; the soil-pipe of it, however, was

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SANITATION

1479

earried tliroogh the liaaement, where it wu amp-
poied to be connected with the drain. Upon
removing the floor-boards to examine it, I fonnd
the ground rarroondiog the connection literally
one mam of black sewage, the soil oozing throngh
the joint even at the time of the examination,
and the connection with the main drain laid in
it at right angles. The 9-inch drain-pipes ran
thioogh the centre of the honse, having a very
alight gradient, and had evidently not Men hud
in many years, yet they were nearly full of con-
solidated sewage, and bnt little space was left for
the passage of the flnid. With but a slightly
increased pressnre the joints would have given
way, and the sewage would have flowed under the
boards instead of into the sewer. The sinks,
water-closets, and cisterns were all badly situ-
ated, and all more or less defective in sanitanr
arrangement. In the butler's pantry the sink
was placed next to the tom-np bedstead of the
bntler, who must have inhaled draughts of im-
pure atmosphere at every inspiration. The soil-
pipes of the closets had indeed been ventilated
with a zinc rectangular tube, but as this had
been ao placed as to let the sewer gas through an
adjacent skylight into the house, and the odour
being extremely disagreeable, it had been by his
lordship's directions (as I am told) closed. Here
was evidence that it had at all events been doing
some service, and probably had only poisoned a
few of the domestics. I found the bends of soil-
pipes likewise riddled with holes, as described by
])r LeargoB. There happened to he a house-
maids' sink situated close to a bedroom, the
waste from which had been careAilly connected
with the soil-pipe, so that probably had the
doseta been satisfactorily ventilated, this ar-
rangement would have defeated the object in
view. I should also mention that the best water-
closet was situated on the bedroom floor under
the stairs, and was lighted and ventilated throngh
a small ahaft formed of wood boarding and car-
ried to the roof; it also opened by a window to
the maixi or principal staircase. The gutter of
the roof ran through the bedrooms and under the
floors ; at the time of examination it was full of
black slimy filth. This is a fair specimen of the
sanitary arrangemente of a nobleman's town
house, situated in one of the best streets of this
great metropolis, in the year of graoe 1876."

Let ns take another example : — " A few years
ago a client of mine, who resided in a large house
in a wealthy suburb, informed me that his wife
and two daughters had suffered in health ever
since they had occupied their honse ; that ha had
consulted several medical men without beneficial
result, and that he wished me to make a survey
of the premises. He x>aid a rental of about £200
per annum. I found that the drainage was in
every way defective, although he told me that he
had spent a large snm of monev in making it
'perfect;' the gradieate ware bad, the pipes
choked, and the Joints unsound. The servants'
water-cloaet was adjacent to the scullery, which
was in commimication with the kitchep, the sink
being directly oppoeito the kitehen range. The
water-closet waa supplied direct from the cistern,
the waste from which entered the drain, although
it was.sud to be tr»pped.i < The waste of the sink

was simply connected with the drains and trapped
with an ordinary bell-trap, the cover or tiap
of which I found broken. Under the kitehen
range hot-water tap I found a trapped opening,
also leading into the drain. The domestics com-
plained of fteqnent headaches and general de-
pression, and I need not add that it excited no
surprise, seeing that the kitehen fire was con>
tinuously drawing in from the sewers and house-
drains a steady supply of sewer gas to the house
and drinking-water cistern. In addition I found
the basement walls damp, owing to the absence
of a damp-proof course and the want of dry areas.
The upper water-closets, house-closets, and cis-
terns were situated over each other, off the first-
floor landing, and directly opposite tke bedroom
doors. The bath and lavatory were flxed in the
dressing-room, oommonicating with the best bed-
room, the wastes from which were carried into
the soil-pipe of closets. This latter was unventi-
lated, but was trapped with an 8 pipe at bottom.
The water-cloaete were pan closets, and were
trapped by D traps. The upper closet periodi-
cally untrapped the lower closet, and both traps
leaving the impure air free access to the house
and cistern, which latter was also in communica-
tion by means of its waste-pipe with the house-
drains. The overflows from safes of the water-
closeto were practically untrapped. The peculiar
naoseating odour of sewer gas was distinctly per-
ceptible, and I had bnt Uttle donbt but that
atonic disease was rapidly making its inroads on
the occupanto. The landlord refused to recog-
nise the truth of my report. My client, acting
on my advice, relinquished his lease, took another
house, the sanitetion of which was carefully at-
tended to, and his wife and children have hsd no
recurrence of illness."

Mr Collins mentions a very alarming and
unsuspected source of aerial poisoning in many
town houses to be the existence of old disused
cesspools in the centre of the buildings. These
receptacles, which are frequently nearly flUed
with decaying focal substances, are very often
found to be insecurely covered over with tiles,
stonee, or boarding. To ensure the construction
of a healthy dweUing-house, Mr Collins regards
attention to the following conditions as essen-
tial:—"All subsoil should he properly drained,
proper thickness of the concrete should be ap-.
plied to the foundations, damp-proof comwa,
should be inserted over footings, earth .should be.
kept hack from walls by dry areas property.;
drained and ventilated, extemikl walls should b^.
built of good hard weU-bnmt stock brickwork, pt,
graduated thicknesses, and neyer less than. 14.
inches thick; internal divisions should be of,
brick in cement. The moitar and cement should
be of good quality. All basement floors shoald
have a concrete or cement bottom, with air flow-
ing under the same, and the boarding thereof
should be tongued so as to prevent draught and
exhalation penetrating through the joints of the .
same. Ample areas back and front should be inr
sisted on, the divisional or party fence walls of
which should never be allowed to exceed 7 feet
in height, to allow free circulation and to prevent
the areas becoming wells or shafts for stagnant
air. The main drains should be carried through

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1480

SANTAL VBBT— SANTONIN

the bMk ytttia, voA, to prevent incouTeiuence to
adjoining owners from any obatroction, they
should be laid in snbways, so tliat the sewer in-
spector could gain ready access thereto without
entering any of the premises or causing any an-
noyance to the tenants. No basement should on
any account be allowed to be constrncted at such
a level as will not permit of the pipes having
good steep gradients to the sewer.

" All sidu should be placed next external walls,
having windows over the game, and removed from
tilie iimoence of the flre-gtates. All wastes should
discbarge exteriorly over and not into trapped
cesspits, all of which should be provided with
tplaahing stones fixed round the same. The
baaemmt cistemage should be placed in conve-
. nient and accessible positions, protected from
dirt and guarded from the effects of alternation*
of tempnature. They should be of slate and
galvanised iron, and never of lead or sine They
•boidd be fitted with overflows discharging over
the sink, or over trapped cesses as just mentioned.
They should be supi^ed with stout lead encased,
block-tin pipe, the services therefrom for all
drinking purposes should be of the same descrip-
tion, and should be attached to an ascending
filter, so that water may be delivered free from
lead or organic impurities. Lead poisoning is
more frequent tiuui is generally believed. Cup-
boards nndv stairs, under sinks, under dressers,
or out-of-the-way places should be avoided, and
when fitted up sh(»ild always be well ventilated.
All passages should be well lighted and venti-
lated. Borrowed lights are better than none at
all. Eveiy room should be famished with a fire-
place, and Comyn and Chingo ventilators over
doors and windows should be mdy disposed. It
would conduce to the health of the house, without
adding one shilling to its cost, to build next the
kitchen flue a separate ventilating flue, and to
conduct the products of combustion from gas and
other impure or soiled air, &o., into the same,
from ventilators placed in the centre of or dose
to the oraUngs, as may be found most convenient.
By carefully proportiiDning the inlet and outlet
ventilation, the air will be kept moving without
draught, and preserved in a pure and sweet con-
dition for reqdration. The windows and doors
will then serve only thdr legitimate objects of
admitting light, and of afibrding ingress and
egress to the various apartments. The staircase
should be made the main ventilator of the house,
and it is essentially necessary to pre^rve the air
surrounding the same uncontaminated, pure, and
undeflled. It will be better to light and ventilate
it from the top ; and to prevent the Ethiopian*
or blades of London finding their way into the
house, an invisible gauze net may be placed under
it, wUch can periodically be easily removed and
deansed j or it may be furnished vith a moveable
inner, ornamental, flat light.

"Under no circnmstauces must lavatories or
sinks be brought in connection with the druns.
Most people desire the bath-room to be in proxi-
mity to the bedrooms; whether so placed or not,
all connection with main drainage must be studi-
ously avoided. The hot and cold pipes, known
as the flow and return pipes, should be of gal-
vanised iron, vrith junction* careAilly made with

running joint* in red-lead j on no account ahoudd
these be in contact with any other inpes. The
wastes from the bath safe Taad Uvatcries, if
any) should be carried through the front wall cf
the bouse, and should torn over and into raiii-
water head, covered with domical wire graUng to
prevent birds building their nests therein, and
carried down to the basement area, where they
must discharge over a trapped cesspit, as before
described, surrounded with a splash-stone or curve
to obviate the nuisance of the soapsuds flowiogp
over the pavement. A brush passed up and down
these waters now and then will effectually remove
any soapy sediment which may cling to their
surfaces. The waste from baths, &c, into heads
should be furnished with a ground valve flap and
collar to prevent draught, and the bath should
be fitted with india-rubber seatings between the
metal and wood framing. If ansude or sloping
roofs should be avoided; they are ii^urious to
the health of the domestics, whose sleeping
chambers they are generally appropriated to;
they are unhealthy, hot in summer, and prejndi-
dally cold in vrinter, laying the ba^ for future
disease for those least able to bear it. Gutters
taken through roofs, known as ' trough,' should
never be permitted; they congregate putKsoent
filth, which remain* in tiiem for years to tunt
and poison the atmosphere;" Consult also, as
supplementing this subject, the artide* Dbadk,
DUBTBQTB, CsBsroou, Tahzs, Tbafs, Wateb-

0LO8BT8.

SASTAL VXRT (Oroton sp.). A dark green
wood from Zansibar. It is said to be exported
from Zanzibar and Uadagasear into India, where
it is used for burning the bodies of Hindoos.

SAB'TALIV. The odouriag prindple of red
Sanders- wood.

BAH'TOIUr. CuHuO,. Syn. RiSTOino AOn>;
SAHTONiMTrv, L. The crystalline and diarac-
teristic prindple of the seed of several varieties
of Afiemitia.

Frtp. (Ph. Baden, 1841.) Tkke of worm-
seed, 4 parts ; hydrate of lime, !( parts ; mix,
and exhaust them with alcohol <rf 90% ; distil off
S-4ths of the spirit, and evaporate the remainder
to one half, which, at the btdling temperature, is
to be mixed with acetic add in excess, and after-
wards with water; on repose^ impure sanfamin
subsides ; wash this with a little weak spirit, then
dissolve it in rectified spirit, 10 parts, decolour In^
ebullition for a few minutes with animal eharoou,
and filter ; the filtrate deposits colourless carstals
of santonin as it cools ; these are to be dried, and
kept in opaque bottiee.

Mr W. G. Smith, M.B., state* that two singular
effects are known to result from the administra-
tion of santonin in moderate doses, viz. visual de-
rangements and a peculiar alteration in the odour
of the urine. He adds that three hours after
taking 6 gr. of pure white santonin he became
consdouB, while reading, of a yellowish tint on
the paper, and a yellow haze m the air. His
own hands and the complexions of others ap-
peared of a sallow, unhMlthy colour; and the
evening sky, which was really of a pale lavender
colour, seemed to be light green. Vision was not
perf ectiy distinct for some hours, and vras accom-
panied by « certain vagueness of definition, Mr

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BAP eSBSN— 81BSAPARILLA

1481

Smith MtdoriM the oliMmtions of prayioat ob-
•erren, who had noticed that the orine of penons
ander the infloenoe of nntonin ii tinged of a
■affron-yellow or greenish oolonr. The colonred
urine reeemblei that of a penon ilightly jaun-
diced, and, like this, permanently italns Unen of
a light yellow eolonr.

The beet teit for lantonin in the urine it an
alkali, npon the addition of which the orine im-
mediately aiinmei a fine cherry-red oolonr, vary-
ing in depth aooording to the amount of lantonin
present. Potash was foond to be the preferable
alkaU.

Prop., ^e. Prismatic or tabular crystals; in-
odorous ; tasteless, or only slightly bitter ; fusible ;
Tolatilisahle; soluble in 4600 parts of cold and
about 250 parts of boiling water ; soluble in cold
aleoholand ether; freely soluble in hot aleohol.
It is mnoh esteemed as a tasteless worm medi-
cine, and is especiaUy adapted to remove Inm-
brioales (large tonnd-womu).— Dom, > to 6 gr.,
repeated night and morning, followed by a brisk
purge.

Jhr«p, (Ph. B.) B(^l 1 lb. of santonica, bmiaed,
with 1 gaU. of distilled water and 5 oi. of slaked
lime, in a copper or tinned iron vessel for an hour,
strain through a stout doth, and express strongly.
Mix the restdne with ^ gall, of diiiUled water
and 2 01. of lime, boil for half an hour, strain and
express as before. Mix the strained liquors, let
them settle, decant the fluid from the deposit,
evaporate to the bulk of 2^ pints. To the liquor,
while hot, add, with diligent stirring, hydro-
chloric add, until the fluid has become slightly
and permanently acid, and set it aside for five
days that the predpitate may subside. Remove,
by skimming, any oily matter which floats on
the surface, and ctrefnlly decant the greater
part of the flnid from the preciintate. Collect
this on a paper filter, wash it first with ooki dis-
tilled water till the washings pass colourless and
nearlv free from add reaction, then with i fl. oi.
of solution of ammonia, preriously diluted with
6 01. of distilled water, and, lastly, with cold dis-
tilled water, till the washings pass colourless.
Press the filter containing the predpitate between
folds of filtering paper, and diy it with a gentle
heat. Scrape tibe dry predpitate from tbe filter,
and mix it with 60 gr. of purified animal charcoal.
Pour on them 9 fi. OS. <rf notified sjiirit, digest for
half an hour, and boil for ten minutes. Filter while
hot, wash the charcoal with 1 fl. oz. of bdling
t^rit, and set the filtrate aside for two days in a
oool dark place to crystallise. Separate tiie
mother-liquor from tbe crystals, and concentrate
to obtain a further product. Collect the crystals,
let them drain, redissolve tbem in 4 fl. oc. cs boil-
ing tiririt, and let the solution crystallise as before.
Lastly, dry the crystals on filtering paper in the
dark, and preserve them in a bottle protected
from the light.

SAP OKXEV. See QsRir PiomaraB.

SAFOVIPlCATIOir. See Soap.

SAP'OVnr. St/n. Baiowtsvu, L. a white,
non-crystallisable snbstance, obtained by the
action of hot diluted alcohol on the root of
Saponaria officinalit, Linn., or soapwort.

Prop,, S^. Saponin is soluble in hot water,
•nd the solution froths strongly on agitation.

The smsHeet quantity of the powdar eaoses vio-
lent saeesing.

8APPAV WOOD (CasalpMa 8appa», Linn.).
A red dye-wood, furnished by an East Indian
tree growing to a height of 80 or 40 feet. It is
imported from India, Siam, and Ceylon.

SABCOCOL'LA. A gum-resin snppoeed to he
derived ftvm one or more plants of the Nat.
Ord. BwrsAOKS, growing in Arabia and Persia.
It somewhat resembles gum-arabic, except in
bdng soluble in both water and aleohol, and
in having a bitter-sweet taste. It was formerly
used in surgery.

BAS'COSIHX. C^fi^. A feebly basic sub-
stance, obtained by boiling kreatine for some
time with a solution of pure baryta. It forms
colourless transparent plates, freely soluble in
water, sparingly so in alodiol, and insoluble in
ether ; it may be fused and volatilised.

SASSAPAXniiA. Bgn. Sabbs basix (B. P.),
KASIX SAH2JI, Basix BAB8APABILI;.S, Saxza
(Ph. L. k E.), SiMirATlTT.T.A (Ph. D. A UJS.),L.
"Jamaica saraa. The root of Smilam oficinalii,
Konth" (Ph. L.), "and probably of other spe-
dee" (Ph. B.).

The sarsaparillas of eommerce are divided by
Dr Pereiift into two elaasee — 'mealy sarsapa-
rilla' and 'noo-uealy sarsaparillas.' In the flrst
are placed Braiilian or Lisbon, Caraccas or gouty
Vera Cms, and Honduras; the second indudes
Jamaica, Lima, and true Teis Cms.

The mealy sarsaparillas are distinguished by
"the mealy character of tbe inner cortical
layers, which are white or pale-colonred. The
meal or stardi is sometimes so abundant that
a shower of it, in the form of white dust, falls
when we fracture the roots." The medulla or
pith is also frequently very amylaceous.

The non-mealy larsapaifllas " are characterised
by a deeply coloured (red or brown), usually non-
mealy cortex. The cortex is red, and much
thinner thim in the mealy sorts." " If a drop of oil
of vitrid be applied to a transverse section of the
root of the non-mealy sarsaparillas, both cortex
and wood acquire a dark red or purplish tint ;"
whilst in the preceding varieties the mealy coat,
and sometimes the pith, ii bat little altered in
colour. " The decoction of non-mealy sartaparilla,
when cold, is somewhat darkened, but don not
yield a blue eolour when a solution of iodine is
added to it." The aqueous extract, when rubbed
down with a little oolddistined water in a mortar,
does not yield a turbid liquid, nor become blue on
the addition of iodine. The reverse is the case
with the decoction and extract of the mealy
varieties.

The Jakaioa, BBS Jamaica, or Rbd-bbaksbs

BABaAPAKUlA (SABZA JlVAIOXSBn— Ph. D.) is

the variety which should alone be used in medi-
dne. This kind yields from 83% to 44% of its
weight of extract (BaitUji, StmneU, Pop*), and
contains less starchy matter than the other
varieties. It is distinguished by exhibiting the
aborve peculiarities in a marked degree, by the
dirty reddish colour of its bark, which " is not
mealy," and hv bdng "beset very plentifully
witii rootlets" (fibres — Ph.L.). Its powder hn also
a nale nddSsh-brown colour. The other varieties
ofnnaparilla, vii. the Lisbon, Lima, Vera Crux,

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8A6SAPABILUN— SAXrCB

and HondoiVi are frequently sabstitated for the
Jamaica by the droggist in the preparation! of
^e decoction* and extract! of tliis drug ; bat the
products are vastly inferior in quantity, colour,
taate, and medicinal virtue to thoie prepared
from the officinal sarsaparilla. Decoction of sana-
parilla, when made with the Honduras root, i!
very liable to ferment, even by a f evr hours' expo-
sure, in hot weather. We have seen hogsheads
of the strong decoction, after exposure for a
single night, in as active a state of fermentation
as a gyle of beer, with a frothy head, and evolving
a most disagreeable odour, that was not wholly
removed by several hours' boiling. When this
occurs the decoction suffers in density, and the
product in extract is, consequently, considerably
lessened. Yet this is frequently allowed to occnr
in the wholesale laboratory, where the rule should
be— always begin a 'bath of sarta' (as It is
called), and, indeed, of other perishable articles,
early in the morning, and finish it completely
and entirely the same day.

Sarsaparilla has been recommended as a mild
but efficacious alterative, diaphoretic, and tonic.
It has long been a popular remedy in chronic
rheumatism, rbeamatic and gouty pains, seurvy,
scrofula, syphilis> secondary syphilis, lepra, psori-
asis, and several other skhi diseases; and, espe-
cially, in cachexia, or a general bad habit of body,
and to remove 1^ symptoms arising from the
injudicious use of mercurials, often falsely called
'secondary syphilis.' During its use the skin
should be kept warm, and diluents should be
freely taken. Its efficacy has been greatly exag-
gerated. It is, however, much more etFective m
warm than in northern climates. — Dote. In sub-
stance, i to 1 dr., three or four times diuly ; bat
preferably made into a decoction or infusion.

The articles so much puffed under the names
of American or United States sarsaparilla and
extract of sarsaparilla are "nothing more than
the decoction of a common herb, a sort of ' atalia,'
Inhabiting the swamps and marshes of the United
States. VVben cut up it has the appearance of
chaff, but not the slightest resemblance in charac-
ter, colour, or taste, to even the most inferior
species of smilax (or sarza). The decoction is
sweetened with a little sugar, flavoured with
benzoin and stasaf las, and, finally, preserved from
decomposition by means of the bichloride of mer-
cury." " I have heard of several cases of deadly
sickness, and other dangerous symptoms, follow-
ing its use." " We do not believe that a particle
of real sarsaparilla ever entered into the composi-
tion of either of the articles referred to " (' lied.
Circ.,' ii, 827). See Dxoootion and EiXTBAOT.

BABSAPAUIIOr. Skfn. Pabuxht, Pabixmc
AOtD, SALSAFARnr, Suuuioiir. A white, crystal-
Usable, odourless, and nearly tasteless substance,
discovered by Pallotta and Polchi in sarsaparilla.

iVsp. The bark of Jamaica sarsaparilla is
treated with hot rectified spirit, and the resulting
tincture reduced to about one third by distilling
off the spirit ; the residual liquid is then filtered,
whilst boiling, slightly concentrated by evapora-
tion, and set aside to crystallise ; the crystalline
deposit is redissolved in either hot rectified spirit
or boiling water, and decoloured by agitation with
a little animal charcoal; the filtrate deposits

otystala of nMrlypare imflarin a* it iDOob.- It

may also be extracted by boiling water.

Prop., ife. A hon-nitrogenised nential body.
Water holding a very small quantity of it in
solution frotlu conxiderably on agitation. This
is especially, the case with infusion of Jamaica
sarsaparilla, and this property has conseqnoitly
been proposed as a test of the quality of sarsa-
parilla root. Its medicinal propertiea are nmilar
to those of sarsaparilla. According to PaUotta,
it is a powerful sedative, and diminishes the vital
energies in proportion to the quantity taken.—
Data, 8 to 10 gr. ; in the usual oases in which
the root is ^ven.

BAS'SAFIKAS. 8gn. SASSifBAS baoix (B. P.),

SABSAFRAS radix, SA88AVRA8 (Ph. L., E., & D.).
L. "The root of Scmafi^ai qfieiiuUa, Nees;
Zaurai tatiafnu, Linn." — Ph. L. It has a fra-
grant odour and a sweetish aromatic taste. It
has long been reputed a stimulating, alterative,
diaphoretic, dinretic, and tonic ; and an infnsion
of the chips (sassafras chips), under the name of
sassafras tea, has been a popular ' diet drink ' in
various cutaneous affections, gout, chronic rheu-
matism, &c.

SATUBA'TIOK. The state in which a body has
taken its full dose, or chemical proportion, of any
other substance with which it can oomhine, or
which it can dissolve ; as water with sugar or a
salt, or an alkali with an acid, when the properties
of both are neutralised.

SAUCE. A liquid or semi-liquid condiment or
seasoning for food. The following receipts tot
sauces may be useful to the reader :

Saow, Ancho'vy. 1. (Extemporaneous.)
From 8 or 4 anchovies, chopped small ; butter,
8 OS. ; water, a wine-glassful ; vinegar, a table-
spoonfuls ; flour, 1 do. ; stir the mixture over the
fire till it thickens, then mb it throagh a coarse
hair sieve.

2. (Wholesale.) As essence of anchovies.
Other fish sauces may be made in the same
manner.

Sanca, Apple. From sharp apples, cored,
sliced, stewed with a spoonful or two irf water,
and then beaten to a perfectly smooth pnlp with
a little good moist sugar. Tomato, and many
other like sauces, may be made in the

Sauce, Arlitocratiqne. From green- walnnt juice
and anchovies, equal parts; cloves, mace, and
pimento, of each, bruised, 1 dr. to every lb. of
juice ; boil and strain, and then add to every pint
1 pint of vinegar, i pint of port wine, i pint of
soy, and a few shallots ; let the whole stend for
a few days, and decant the dear liquor.

Beeh'amd. A species of fine wUte broth or
consomm^, thickened with cream and used as
' white Mtuce.'

Bancs, Caper. Put twelve tablespoonfuls of
melted butter into a stewpan, place it on the fire,
and, when on the point of boiling, add 1 oc. of
fre^ batter and one tablespoonful of capers;
shake the stewpan round over the fire nntU the
butter is melted, add a little pepper and salt, and
serve where directed. Also a* mint sauce.

Sauce, Chnt'ney. 1. From sour apples
(pared and cored), tomatoes, brown sugar, and
loltana raisins, of each, 8 oi. ; common salt,4 oc j

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SAUCE

I«SS

red chilliei and powdeied gingeT, of each, 89 o*. ;
garlic and ihanott, of each, 1 oz. ; pound the
whole well, add cdf itrong vinegar, $ quarts;
lemon jaice, 1 do. ; and digest, with fraqnent
agitation, for a month ; then poor off nearly all
the liquor, and bottle it. Used for fish or meat,
either hot or cold, or to flaronr stewi^ tie. The
residne is the ' Chutney,' ' Chetney,' or ' Chitni,'
which mnst be ground to a smooth paste with a
•tone and muller, and then put into pots or jars.
It is Jised like mnstaid.

2. (BBiraAi, CHiTKi.) As the last, hat nsing
tamarinds instead of apples, and only snfficient
vinegar and lemon juice to form a paste.

Cor'atcli. From good mushroom ketchup,
} gall. ; walnut ketchnp, f pint ; India soy and
chilli vinegar, of each, ^ pint ; essence d an-
chories, 6 or 6 oz. ; macerate for a fortnight.

Saoce, Epienrienae. To the last add of walnut
ketchup and port wine, of each, 1 quart; garlic and
white pepper, of each (bruised), 4 oz. ; chillies,
(bruised), 1 oz. ; mace and cloves, of each, i oz,
Sanoe, Tish. From port wine, 1 gall, ; moun-
tain do., 1 qnart; walnut ketchnp, 2 quarts;
anchovies (with the liquor), 2 lbs. ; 8 lemons, 48
•ballots, scraped horseradish, 1^ lbs.; flour of
mnstard, 8 oz, ; mace* 1 oz. ; cayenne, q, s. ; boil
the whole np gently, strain, and bottle.
Ketchup. See under that name.
Sance, Kitehenor'a. Sgit. Kitohevbb'b bbl-
IBH. From salt, 8 oz.; black pepper, 2 oz. ;
allspice, horseradish, and shallots, of each, 1 oz. ;
bnmt-sugar colouring, a wine-glassful; mush-
room ketchnp, 1 quart (all bruised or scraped) ;
macerate for three weeks, strain, and bottle.

Lem'on Pickle. From lemon juice and vinegar,
of each, 3 galls. ; bruised ginger, 1 lb. ; allspice,
pepper, and grated lemon peel, of each, 8 oz.;
salt, 3| lbs. ; cayenne, 2 oz. ; inace and nutmegs,
of each, 1 oz. ; digest for 14 days.

Sance, Loh'iter. From lobsters, as akohotv
BAvm.

Savce^ Mint. From garden mint, chopped
small, and then beaten np with vinegar, some
moist sugar, and a little salt and pepper.

Sance, On'ion. From onions boiled to a pulp,
and then beaten np with melted butter and a
Uttle warm milk.

SiMce, Oys'ter. From about 12 oysters, and
6 or 7 oz. of melted butter, with a little cayenne
pepper, and two or three spoonfnls of cream,
stirred together over a slow fire, then brought to
is boil, and served.

Saoce, Plqnknte. Vtom soy and' cayenne
pepper, of each, 4 oz. ; jwrt wine, i pint ; brown
pickling vinegar, 1| pints; mix, and let them stand
for seven or eight days before bottling.
'_ Sance, Qnln's. From wahint pickle and port
wine, of each, Ipint ; mnshrobm ketchnp, 1 quart;
anchovies and shallots (chopped fine), of each,
two dozen ; soy, i pint ; cayenne, i<a.; simmer
gently for ten minntes, and in a fortnight stnun
and bottle.

Sane* an Bol. From brown vinegar (good), 8

qnarts ; soy and walnut ketchup, of each, i pint;

cloves and shallots, of each, 1 doz. ; cayenne

pepper, H oz. ; mix, and digest for fourteen days.

Sance, Shrimp. From shrimps or prawns, as

aKOHOTT BAUOa.

Soy. See that «rtiole. :

Sauce, SnparlatiTe. From port wine and
mushroom ketchup, of each, 1 qnart; vralnnt
pickle, 1 pint; soy, | pint; powdered anchoviea,
i lb.; msh lemon peel, minced shallota, and
scraped horseradish, of each. 2 ox. ; allspice and
black pepper (bruised), of each, 1 oz. ; cayenne
pepper and bruised celery seed, of each, i oz. (or
currie powder, } oz.) ; digest for fourteen dayi^
strain, and bottle. Very relishing.

Sance, Toma'to. From broiwd tomatoes, 1
gall.; good salt, ) lb.; mix, in three days press
out the juice, to each qnart of which add of shal-
lots, 2 oz ; black pepper, 1 dr. ; simmer very
gently for twenty to thirty minntes, struu) and-
add to the strained liquor, mace, allspice, ginger,
nutmegs, and cochineal, of each, } oz. ; coriander
seed, 1 dr. ; simmer gently for ten minntes, strain,
cool, and in a week put it into bottles.

Sance, TTnlvenal BaUah. A sance s^d to pro-
duce a first-class imitataon of a celebrated one is
thus prepared : — Whitcrwine vinegar, Cxv ; wal-
nut ketchup, Cx; Madeira, Cv; moshroom
ketchup, Cx ; table salt, 26 lbs. ; Canton soy. Civ;
powdered allspice, 1 lb. ; powdered coriander, 1
lb. ; powdered mace, 1 lb. ; powdered cinnamon,
i lb. ; assaf ostida, i lb. (The latter dissolved \n
brandy, 1 gall.) Boil 20 lbs. of hog's liver with
10 guls. of water, renewing the water from time
to time. Take out the livar, chop it, mix with a
little more water, and work throngh sieve. Mix
all together, let stand a month, and filter.

Sance, Waterloo. From Mrong vinegar (nearly
boiling), 1 qnart; port wine, } pint; mushroom
ketchup, 1 pint; walnut ketchup, i pint; essence
of anchovies, 4 oz.; 8 cloves of garlic; cochineal
(powdered), 1 oz. (or red beet, slioed, S oz.) ; let
them stand together for a fortnight or longer,
occasionally shaking the bottle.

Sance, White. 8gn. Bvttbx bauob, HuTiD
BUTTSB. From good butter, 4 oz. ; cream, 21 oz. j.
salt (in very fine powder), 1 teaspoonfnl; pnt
them into a pot or basin, set this in hot water,
and beat the whole T^ith a bone, wooden, or silver
spoon, until it forms a perfectly smootji, cream-
like mixture, avoiding too much heat, which
would make it run oily. A table-spoonfnl of
sherry, marsala, lemon juice, or vinegar is some-
times added, but the selection must depend on
the dishes the. sance is intended for. Used either
by itself, or as a basis for other sances. Beaten
up with any of the ' bottled sauces,' an excellent
compound sance of the added ingredient is im-
mediately obtained.

Sauces, American. 1. White vinegar, 15 galls. ;
walnut ketchup, 10 galls. ; Madeira wine, 5 galls. ;
mushroom ketchup. Id galls. ; table salt, 26 lbs.
(troy) i Canton soy, 4 galls. ; powdered capsicum,
2 lbs. (troy) ; allspice (powdered), ooiiander pow-
der, of each, 1 lb. (troy) ; doves, mace, cinnamon,
of each, i lb. (troy); assaf oetida, 1 lb. (troy);
dissolved in brandy, 1 galls.; 20 lbs. of hog's
liver is boiled for twelve hours with 10 galls, of
water, renewing the water from time to time.
Take out the liver, chop it, mix it with water,
and work it through a sieve; mix with the
sauce.

2. White vinegar, 240 galls.; Canton soy, 36
galls.; sngar-honse sjpmp, 80 galls.; walnut

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SAUCERS— SAVONETTES

ketehnp, 60 gall*.; moahroom ketohnp, 60 galli. ;
table Mlt> ISO lbs. (tn>y)j powdered capsicam,
16 Iba. (troy) ; albpioe, coriaoder, of each, 7 Ibe.
(troy) ) oloTea, maee, dnnamon, of each, 4 lbs.
(troy); amafrntida, 2^ Iba. (troy); ditMlved in
St. Croix mm, 1 gaU.

8. White vinegar, 1 gall.; Canton aoy, mo-
lauea, of each, 1 pint; walnut ketehnp, 1| pintt ;
table aalt, i oi. ; powdered capeicnm, allspice, of
each, lot.; coriander, | oi.; elovee, mace, of
each, 1 oz.; cinnamon, 6 dr.; aMafcetida, i ot.
in 4 oz. of mm,

SAUCXS8 (fbr Dyeing). iV»p. 1. (BiVB.)
From bine carmine, made into a paste with gnm
water, which is then spread over the inside of the
saacers, and dried.

>. (Pdtk.) o. From pure rouge mixed with a
. little carbonate of soda, thoQ made into a paste
with thin gnm water, and applied as tlie last.

b. Well-washed safSower, 8 os.; carbonate of
soda, S 01. ; water, 2 galls. ; infnse, strain, add of
French chalk (scraped fine with Dutch mshes),
8 lbs. ; mix well, and precipitate the colour 1^
adding a solution of tartaric acid ; collect the red
powder, drain it, add a very small quantity of
gum, and apply the paste to the saucers. Inferior.
Both the above are used to tinge silk stockings,
gloves, Ac.

SAUIXXXAUT. [Oer.] Prep. Clean white
cabbages, cut them into small pieces, and stratify
them in a eask along with eulinary salt and a
few juniper berries and caraway seeds, observing
to pack them down as hard as possible without
crushing them, and to cover them with a lid
pressed down with a heavy weight. The cask
should be placed in a cold situation as soon as a
lonr smell is percdved. Used by the Oermans
and other northern nations of Europe Hke our
'pickled cabbage,' but more extensively.

SAV'SAOIS. From the fat and lean of pork
(fobk sAVBAais), or of beef (nan SAvauaa),
chopped small, flavonred with spiee, and pnt into
gut skins, or pressed into pots or balls (SAriAai
XXIt). Crumb of bread is also added. Their
quali^is proportionate to that of the ingredients,
and to the care and cleanliness employed in pre>
paring them.

A pea sausage, composed of pea flour, fat pork,
and a little Mlt, was largely consumed by the
Qerman soldier* during the t^aneo-German cam-
paign. Dr Parkes found 100 parts of this
sausage to consist of 16-2 parts of water, 7'19
of salts, 12-297 of albnminates, 88-66 of Ht, and
80*668 of carbohydrates. It is ready cooked, hot
can be made into soup. Although much relished
for a few days, the soldiers soon became tired of
it. In some cases it gave rise to flatulence and
diarrhoa. See Mbai.

SaoMgea, Fainted. The following interesting
particuluv as to the manufacture of sausages are
given in the report of the Dairy Commissioner of
New Jersey for the year 1889. Twelve samples
of Bologna sausages were examined, with the
following result, ssys the ' British Medical Jour-
nal.' The analysis of the Bologna and the skin
in which the meat was placed showed that some
dye, probably one of uie anilines, was used to
colour the material, in order that some defect
might be hidden or the article made to appear

better than it really was; also that some snbstanee
had been applied to the exterior ot tlie sauaagv
similar to varnish. Further analysis reveaMd
the presence of tiiamidoaxobenxine or Bismarck
brown, one of the aniline colours ; this was in the
meat. The skin, or ' casing,' was coated with a
varnish containing shdlac. This discovery was
the means of arriving at all the details of the
process employed. The sausage in question was
prepared in tiie following way : after the meat
was chopped, and the sausage meat thus prepared
put into the casings, the sansage was boiled in a
bath containing a portion of the following coUrar-
ing agent : Bismarck brown, 14 parts ; garnet
red, 8 parts ; water, a pint and a huf . This gave
the sansage a brown colour. When this process
was complete the sausages were coated with a
varnish composed of shellac, resin, dl, and alco-
hol. In order that the small local mannfacturera
of aansaffe m^ht engage in the pracUce of mak-
ing dyed sausages, the compoeition* referred to
above were offered for sale through the State,
and the stuning material was sold under the
name of ' smokine ' or ' liquid smoke.' The sale
of the article was checked by the official action
of the inspectors throughout toe State.

SAVHibTS. Pork sausages made in such a
way that they keep good for a connderable time.
— iVep. (Mr* Jbmdtll.) Take of yoang pork,
free from bone and skin, 8 lbs. ; salt it with 1 os.
of saltpetre, and | lb. of common salt, for two
days; then chop it fine, add 8 teaspoonfuls of
pepper, 1 doz. sage leaves, chopped fine, and 1 lb.
of grated bread; mix well. All the skins, and
steam them or bake them half an hour in a slack
oven. Thjey are said to be good either hot or
oold.

BATin. Stfn. Satut; Foixa BiXBiM,
Sabuta (Ph. L., E., and D.), L. " The recent
and dried tops of JmUptnu toHna, Linn.," or
common savine (Ph. It.), It is a powerful
stimulant, diaphoretic, emmenagogne^ and an-
thdmintio; and, externally, mbe&oient, eacha-
rotio, and veucant. In lai^ doses it is apt to
occasion abortion, and acts as a poison. SAvnni
POWSBB mixed with verdigris is often applied to
corns and warts. It is now chiefly used in the
form of ointment.— Z)oM, 6 to 16 gr., twice or
thrioe daily (with care), in amenorrhoea and
worms. See Cbbatb.

SAVOHITTBS. [Fr.] 8gn. WABH-Biixa.
These are made ot any of the mild toilet soaps,
scented at will, generally with the addition of
some powdered sterch or farina, and sometime*
sand. The spherical or spheroidal form is given
to them by pressure in moulds, or by first
roughly forming them with the hands, and,
when quite hard, turning them in a lathe. Ac-
cording to Mr Beasley, " they are formed into
spherical ball* by taking a mas* of the prepared
soap in the left hand, and a conical drinking-glass
wiui rather thin edge* in the right. By turning
the glass and ball of soap in every direction the
rounded form is soon given ; when dry, the snr-
foce is scraped, to render it more smooth and
even."

iVvrp. 1. Take of curd soap, 3 lbs.; Anest
yellow soap, 2 lbs. (both in shavings^; aoft
water, | pint; melt by a gentle heat, ibr in of

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SAWDUST— eCAQUOLA

148S

nowdaed ttarch (Ciriii*), 1^ Km. ; when tlie mau
has coniiderabl; cooled, fiirtlt«r add of euenoe
of lemon or bergamot, 1 ox., and make it into
balla.

2. (Cakfhob.) Melt ipermaceti, S oi.; add
camphor (cat imall), 1 oc. ; disiolre, and add the
liquid mas* to white cu^ aoap, 11 Ifai., pre-
viocMly melted by the ud of a little water and a
gentle heat, and allowed to cool considerably af
above. These ihoold be ooTered with tin-foil.

8. (HOHST.) From the finest bright-oolonied
yellow soap, 7 Ibe. ; palm ml, i lb. j melt, and add
of oil of Terbena, rose geraninm, or fftnger-gTasa,
1 oz. ] as No. 1. Sometimes i oi. of ou of rose-
mary is also added.

4. (KoTTUS.) a. Bid. Cat white enrd or
Windsor soap (not too dir) into small square
lueces, and roll these in a mutnre of powder bole
or rouge, either with or withont the addition of
some starch s then squeeze them strongly into
balls, obaerring to mix the eolonr as little as pos-
sible, b. Bxus. Soil the pieces in powdered
bine, and proceed as before, o, Gsibk. Boll
the pieces in a miztoreof powder bine and bright
yellow ochre. By varying the eolonr of the
powder, mottled savonettes «f any eolonr may be
prodnoed.

6. (Sahd.) From soap (at will), 2 lbs.; fine
siltoeons aand, 1 lb. j scent, q. s. ; as No. 1. For
the finer qualities, finely powdered pnmice-stone
is substituted for sand.

6. (ViouT.) From palm-oil soap, 4 Ibs-s
ftuina, 2 lbs.; finely powdered orris root, 1 lb.
Sometimes • Ultle smalts, or indigo, is added.

SAWSXIST, Prepamtloii of Aleohel from. Zet-
terland ('Chemical News,' zxvi, 181) obtains
alcohol from sawdust by the following process :
— Into an ordinary steam bdler, heated by means
of steam, axe introduced 9 cwt. of very wet saw-
dnst, 10*7 ewt. of hydrochloric add (sp. gr.
1'18), and 80 cwt. of water ; after eleven hours'
boiling about 19-67% of grape-sugar is formed.

The add is next saturated with chalk, so as to
leave in the liquid only a small quantity (i de-
gree by Ludersdorf's add areometer) ; when the
sacchuine liquidhas coded down to 80^ yeast is
added, and the fermentation is finished in twenty-
four hours. Bv distiUadon 26*5 litres of alcohol
dt B0% at 16 , quite free from any smell of
tnrpentine, and d ezcdlent taste, may be ob-
tained. It appears that the preparation of al-
cohol from sawdust may be successfidly carried
on industrially. If all the oellnlose present in
sawdust could be converted into sugar, 60 kilos,
of the former substance wonld yield, after fer*
mentation, 12 litres of alcohol at 60% .

■CAB nr flHXSr. Tbls disease, corresponding
to mange in the dog, the hone, or in cattle, is
caused by a species of acaris, a minute insect
which burrows under the skin of the sheep, and
sets up therein a considerable amount of irritation,
which is followed by an irruption of pimples,
accompanied with scurf, but frequently tiie wool
comes oil from the affected part.

The following are some of the numerous
remedies employed for this disease :

1. Quicksilver, 1 lb. j Venice turpentine, i lb. ;
rub them togetiker until the globntes are no longer
visible I then add i ^nt of cnl of turpentine, and

4 lbs. of lard. The mode of applying this oint-
ment is as follows : — Begin at the head of the
sheep, and prooeeding from between the ears along
the back to the end of the tail, divide the wool
in a furrow till the skin can be touched ; and let
a finger, slightly dipped in the ointment, be drawn
along the bottom of the furrow. From this furrow
dmibr ones must be drawn along the shoulders
and thighs to the legs as fkr as the wool extends.
And if much infected, two or more should also be
drawn along each side, parallel with that on the
back, and one down each side before the hind and
fore legs. It kills the sheep-fag, and probably
the tick and other vermin. It siionld not be
used in very cold or wet weather (Sir Jofph
Bant*).

2. "at «rfls. Tobacco juice. Stavesacre (JNnlojf
l>um). •

5. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 part ; lard, 6
parts; mix (Touatf).

4, Quicksilver, 1 lb. i Venice turpentine, i lb. ;
spirit ol turpentine^ 2 oz.; laid, 4^ lbs.; to be
made and used as No. 1. In summer lib. of resin
may be substituted for a like quanti^ of lard
{Ctater).

b. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 lb.; laid, 4
lbs.; oil <S turpentine, 8 oz.; sulphur, 12 oi.

6. Mild. Flowers of sulphur, 1 lb.; Venice
turpentine, 4 oz.; rancid lard, 2 Ibe. ; strong mer-
curial ointment, 4 oz. ; mix well {CtaUr).

7. Iiard or other tat, with an equd quantity of
oil of turpentine {Daubtnton).

8. WitiotU XerMry. Laid, 1 lb. ; oil of tnr>
pentine, 4 oz. ; flowers of sulphur, 6 oz. ( WJUU).

9. Stanng mercurial ointment, 1 lb. ; lard, 4
lbs. ; Venice turpentine, 8 oz. ; oil of tnrpentine, 2
oz. If mixed by heat, care must be t»ken not to
use more heat than is necessary, and to add the ail
of tnrpentine when the other ingredients begin
to cool, and to stir till cold (M'JBwen).

10. Corrosive sublimate, 2 oz. ; white hellebore,
8 oz. ; fish oil, 6 quarts ; resin, i lb. ; tallow, i lb.
The sublimate and then the hellebore to be rubbed
with a portion of the oil till perfectly smooth,
and then mixed with the other ingnsdients melted
together (8tgMn*o»).

11. The following once had condderable local
edebrity, but it obviously reouires to be used with
caution : — Dissolve 2i oz, or corrosive suUimato
in the same quantity of muriatic add, and beat
up t^ solution with 6 lbs. of strong mercurial
<nntinent; put in a large pan, and pour on it 19)
lbs. of laid, and 1| lbs. of common turpentine,
melted together and still hot, and stir the whole
continually until it becomes solid.

12. Castor-oil seeds well bruised and steeped
for 12 hours in sour milk, after straining rub the
liquid briskly into the skin (an Indian remedy).

SCA'BIXS. SeelTOH.

SCAfilJOliA. A spedes of plaster or stucco,
made of jpure gpypsum, with variegated colours,
in imitation of marble. In general the liquid
employed is a weak solution of Flanders glue;
and the colours, any which aie not decomposed
or destroyed by admixture with sulphate of
lime and exposure to the light. The composi-
tion is often applied upon hollow columns formed
of wood, or even of laths nailed together, and the

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1486

SCALO-HEAJ)— SCASLET FEVER

•nrface, wh«n hard, ia turned nnooth in s lathe
and polished.

SC/OiD-HSAI). See RiKawoBX.

8CAXS8. See BtrxirB and ScAiiDS.

8CAISS. A special ai-ticle under the head at
" Balahob" baa been devoted to the scales em-
ployed by tbe chemist and analyst.

Bat although these claimed, from their greater
complexity of stractuie and the extreme delicacy
of movement required of them, a separate notice,
every pharmacist and apothecary will recognise
tbe importance of bestowing an eqnal amount of
attention upon his dispensing scales, and, to en-
sure accurate weighing by them, will take care
to keep them scrupnlonsly clean and properly
poised.

For dispensing pntpbses scales fitted with
.glass pans (or at least with one glass pan, in
which medicinal substances can be weighed)
should always be employeil. The beams should
be of steel, and the attachments of one piece of
brass only, in preference to chains or supports
of silken thread. The beams are best clraned
by being rubbed with a little rotten-stone and oil
used spuingly, and may be protected from rust
by being wiped with a rag oiled with good Ran-
goon oil, sach as is xised for firearms.

8CAU. Sjfn, SciXD. The popnlar name of
several akin diseases distinguished by scabs or
scurfiness, whether dry or humid. See Ebvp-
sioire, RiHowoBV, Ac

SCAKIIOHT. 8fn. Souutomcx (B. P.,
Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The " gum-resin emitted
^m the cut root of dmaolmUtu toammoHia,
Linn.," or Aleppo scammony plant.

There are three principal varieties, or qualities
of scammony known in the market, vix. Tjsanr
(ap. gr. 1-21) ; SBOOnse (sp. gr. 1-460 to 1-463);
and THIBD8 (sp. gr. 1-465 to 1-600). The best,
and that only iiitended to be used in medicine, is
imported from Aleppo.

Air. Scammony is not only largely adulte-
rated in the connti^ of its production, bat again
after its arrival in England. Sxtbita 8CAM-
MOST, a very inferior variety, is also commonly
dressed, up and sold as Aleppo scammony. In
many cases substances are sold at the public sales
in London and elsewhere as scammony, which
contain, only a mere trace of that articLs. This
is all ground up to form the scammony powder of
the riiops {vuit 'Evid. Coin. Ho. Com.,' 1156).
P^BB ecAXHOVS has a peculiar cheesy smell, and
a ^eenish-grey coloar. It is porous and brittle,
aiKl the freshly broken surface shities; hydro-
chlonc acid being dropped-ott it, it emits no bub*
bles ; nor does ^he powder digested in water, at a
heat of IJCf F., become blae by the simultaneous
addition of iodide of potassium and dilute nitric
acid. Out of 100 gr., 76 should be soluble in
etbfer. Tbe tincture of pure scammony ia not
turned green by nitric acid. If the powder
etfervekce with dilute ncida it coutuna chalk.

Utet, ^e. Pure scammony is a powerful
drastic purgative and anthelmintic, inadmissible
in inflammatory conditions of the alimentary
canal, but well adapted for torpid and inactive
ponditiops of the abdominal organs. Associated
with calomel; rlinbarbi or tnlpbate of potassa, it
is useful in all cases in which an active cathartic

or vermifuge may be required, especially for ebil"
dren. — Dot* (for an adult), 5 to 16 gr. in powd«r,
or made into a bolus Or emulsion.

SCABLATI'VA. See Soaxlbi Fbvbb.

SCAR'LXT DTE. rroe. (Poenur.) a. Tbe
'Bouillon.' Take of cream of tartar. If oc. ;
water, q. s. ; boil in a block-tin vessel, and ivhen
dissolved, add of solution of tin (made by dis-
solving 2 oz. of grain tin in a mixture of 1 lb.
each of nitric acid and water, and 1^ oz. of sal-
ammoniac), 1} ox. ; boil for three minutes, then
introduce tiie cloth, txnl for two hours, drain it,
and let it cool.— i. The ' Bougie.' Next take
of cream of tartar, i oz.; water, q. s. ; boil, and
add powdered cochineal, 1 oz. j again boil for five
minutes, then gradually add of solution of tin^
1 oz-i-stining well all the time ; lastly; put in the
goods and dye as quickly as possible. The qnan-
titiea given are those for 1 to li lbs. of woollen
doth. The result is a full scarlet. ' To make the
ooloar turn on the ' ponceau ' or poppy, a little
turmeric is added to the bath.

Oi*. A large number of scarlet dyes are now
used, which are obtained by purely chemical pro-
cesses. The following list, compiled from Dr
Benedikfs 'The Chemistry of Coal Tar Colours,'
gives some examples of these. See Rbs Dtb.

ComneraUl Name.

SdentiSe Deaignation.

Scarlet 4 O B . Benzeneazo-/3-naphthol snlpbo-

nate of soda.
Scarlet 2 G. . Benzeneazo-/3-naphtholdiaulpho-

nate of soda.
Scarlet GT. . Tolueneazo-^-naphtboldisalpbo-

nate of aoda.
Wool scarlet R Xyleneazo-a-napbthol disulpho-

nate of aoda.
Scarlet 3 R . . Cnmeneazo-^-naphtholdiauiphor

nate of soda.
SCARLET FETEB. Syn. Scabuitika; Ft.
Soablaiihb ; Qer. SchabiiACH Fibbbb.

J>ef. An infectioos apecific fever, charac-
teriaed by deep rednen of the throat; a finely
diftused scarlet rash, most intense on the third
day, beginuing to fade on the fifth or sixth
with some aubaideuce of fever, and followed by
desquamation of the cuticle in both ' small and
large fiakes; and afterwards possibly by rheu-
matic or renal symptoms, with a tendency to
severe effusions ( V, Sq%ire).

Sjftnptotiu. The onset of scarlet fever is
abmpt. Slight pallor, languor, dizmuess, rest-
lessness at night, pains in th% limbs, with sore
throat and often vomiting. The pulse becomes
.very rapid, and the temperature rises considar.
ably. Th; rash may make its appearance on the
neck and chest aoon after. the sore threat is
noticed, beginning in fine red points closely set
over a considerable area; when pressed by the
finger these red patches disappear, returning
when the pressure is removed. The rash is i^
ita height on the fourth day, fading on the fifth
and sixth. The skin then bi^ins to dry and des-
quamate from the sixth to the ninth day.

TretUnetU. No medicines will cut short .the
fever ; simple salines, such as acetate of ammonia
or chlorate of potash, are of great use if plenty
of liquid be given. Tepid sponging of the whole
body, part at a time, twice in twenty-four hooray

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SCENE-FAIMTINO— SCaiZONEUBA LAKIQEKA

1487

affords the greatest relief, especially if a little
aromatic vinegar be added to the water. Bnb-
bing with carbolised oil is useful to prevent the
particles of skin from flying off the body into the
air.

The diet should at first be limited to milk and
liquids, increased to eggs and beef -tea ; and as
soon as more food can be taken, fish or fowl with
vegetables may be given. Meat should be given
very cautionaly.

Oeneral. The convalescence requires caie.
"Three weeks indoors for the disease to cease,
and three weeks at home after that for restora-
tion to health, is the safest rule for all." The
disease is highly infecUona, and every care must
be taken to prevent its spread. All superfluous
haugings, &c., should be taken out of the sick
room at once. Everything which has been in
pontact with the patient should be disinfected.
Stoving such materials as cannot be boiled is
very effectual. The sick room after the patient
is removed should be disinfected by burning sul-
phur in it at the rate of H ox. for every 100
cubic feet; and the patient should not be
allowed to mix with heathy persons for at least
six weeks from the commencement of the disease,
ioveeer tUght tie attaek.

SCBBE'-PlXH Tin 0. A variety of distemper
painting employed in theatres, &c., governed by
perspective, and having for its object the produc-
tion of striking effects when viewed at a dis-
tance. Water,. size, turpentine, and the ordinary
pigm^ts are the materials used for the purpose.

BCXBI-BAOS. See Sachxtb.

SCXST-BAILS. Sgn. FjlBTiujb sb ioi-
LBTTi ODOBAirxBa, Vt, These are prepared from
any of the materials noticed mider fot foitbki,
ecBKTBD FOWSBBS, and sjlCEbtb, m^e into a
paste with mucilage of gum tragacantb, and
moulded into any desired forms^ as that of balls,
beads, medallions, &c. The larger ones are fre-
quently polished.

SCESTSS CAS'BOIiETTES. See Foi-poubbi,
and above,

BCSSTB (Pommade). iV«p. 1. (Cowbup.)
From essence of beigamot, 8 ox, ; essence of
lemon, 4 oz. ; oil of cloves, 2 oz. ; essence de petit
grain, 1 oz.

2. (J0KQ17ILI.B.) From essence of bergamot
and lemon, of each, 8 oz.; oils of orange peel and
cloves, of each, 2 oz.; oil of sassafras, 1 oz. ;
liquid storax, i oz.; digest, with warmth and agi-
tation, for a few hours, and decant the clear por-
tion in a week.

8. (MiLLBviiBTni.) From essence of ambergris
(finest), 4 oz. ; essence of lemon, 8. oz. ; oil of
cloves and English oil of lavender, of each, 2 oz.;
essence de petit grain, essence of bergamot, and
balsam of Peru (genuine), of each, 1 oz.; as the
last.

Obt. The above are employed to scent poma-
tums, hair oilsj tc 1 oz. of «ny one of them,
dissolved in one pint of the strongest rectified
spirit, produces a delicious perfume for the hand-
kerchief.

SCEST8 (Bnnfl). Prep. 1. Essence of berga-
mot, 2 oz. ; otto of roses and neroli, of each, 1 dr.

2. Oil 0^ lavender, 1 oz. ; essence of lemon, 2
oz.; essence of bergamot 4 os.

8. To the last add of oil of doves, 2 oz.

4. Essence of mnsk and ambergris, of each*
1 oz. ; liquor of ammonia, ^.dr. See-Sirupv, &c.

BCHXELS'S aSESN. See Gbbbh PiaMB»TS.

SCHIZOBEUSA LAVIQEKA, Hausmann. Thb
AiiBBiOAir Bu&Hi, or Woolly Apbib. Every
apple-grower has frequently noticed knots or
bunches of a downy or woolly sobstance on parts
of the stems and branches of apple-trees, espe-
cially where any ii^nry has been sustained, or
where side shoote or branches have been pruned
away in an unworkmanlike fashton> where the
cuts haye been delivered slanting upwards in-
stead of slanting downwards, so that the wet has
rested at the bottom of the 6ut and caused decay.
By this means cracks are formed and gradually
increase in width and depth. The edges of the
outer layers of hark do not join togetiier again,
and a tlun and tender tissue alone covers the ex-
posed parts. Upon examination of the little
groups of wool it will be seen that they are com-
posed of larvsa having woolly or downy coverings,
actively engaged in pienang thedenudatedsurf aces
with their suckers and extracting the sap, occa-
sioning unhealthy and abnormal growths of tissue.
Extravasation of sap occurs, giving rise to ex.
crescenoes and warty lumps, which afford shelter
and food for the numerous generations of larvse,
until the whole branch is injuriously affected and
its vigour and f ruitf nlness are materially lessened
by means of the hindrance to the due circulation
of sap. Other branches soon become infested^
and the small stems, and even, the fmit-bearing
twigs are attacked, and after a time are covered
with swellings, which check both leaf and blossom
development, and in time cause both stem and
twigs to decay. In not a few cases apple-trees
have died after a long and uninterrupted on-
slaught of these woolly aphides. In very many
cases apple-trees might almost as well be dead,
as their very life-sap is being systematically ex-
hausted by the constant suddngs of myriads of
larvGa.

It is far too common to find apple-trees in all
the apple-producing counties, whose branches are
unsigiitiy from warts and swellings, with the tops
of their branches dead or decaying, and whose
general appearance indicates extreme unhealthi.
ness, dne entirely to the unchecked influences of
the woolly aphis. This state frequently is called
" canker," and is attribnted to over oriigudicieua
pruning, or to tmskilf nl pruning, ot to something
in the soil or subsoil that does not suit the trees.
A little close observation demonstrates that it is
quite different from canker, and. is simply the
effect of insects which have been permitted to in-
crease and multiply for years.

It also very often happens that the bark,
branches, and small twigs of apple-trees in many
orchards are so enveloped by lichenous and mossy
parasites, that the presence of the woolly aphides
is unsuspected.

Toung trees are seriously injured by these in-
sects without any special wonder. Their bark is
tender, and is ^isily pierced by the sharp beaks
of the larve, and they cannot withstand their
attacks so well or so long as old trees. I have
seen trees of the sort known as Lord Suffield com-
pletely st a standstill, though they were Qi4y

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1488

8CHIZ0NEUBA LANIGSBA

■bout lixteen ytmn old, with their hnmches
covered with iweliinga and swarming with larve.
Yet it wai itated peniitently that the caoM of
the evU wn canker, and that the roote bad got
down to fomething that did not rait them. If •
yonng tree is permitted to be mnch injured by
the woolly aphis it rarely recovers, and remains
stunted, sickly, nnfmitf nl. The Ribston Pippin
is very liable to be attacked by this insect, as well
as C<n's Orange Pippin, the Blenheim Orange,
and other valoable kinds, both for dessert and
culinary use, whose skins are comparatively
tender, and not so cased in mgoee layers of
bark.

In the cider-making districts of Devonshire,
Gloncestershire, Herefordshire, Somersetshire,
and Worceatersbire, inealcolable mischief is
wrought in the aprie orchards by these insects,
which increase and work nnsnspeeted amid the
lichens and mosses that clothe the branches, and
the closely interlaced congeries of boughs and
twigs. There is a record that the apple-trees in
the Gloucestershire orchards were so attacked by
the woolly aphis in 1810 that no cider was made
in the county, and it was feared that this in-
dustry must be altogether aI>andoned.

Mot only does the woolly aphis attack the
trunks and branches of apple-trees, but it infests
and injures their roots, also living upon them, and
causing excrescences or swellings to form upon
them. The injuries caused to old teees by the
sabterraocaD attack is not very apparent, though
the constant action of series of generations of
these insects must in time materially affect the
health of the tree and diminish its cmistitational
vigour. It will, however, be easily anderstood
tlutt young trees are more liaUe to he seriously
hnrt than old well-«stabli«hed trees witti large,
wide-reaching roots. Veiy frequently it happens
that young apple-tree* lai^uish and do so badly
that it is said that the locality is not suited for
apple- growing, whereas in fact it is the action of
the woolly aphides, both upon their roots and
branches, which is occasioning the evil.

This insect is also very destructive in French
orchards, particularly in Kormandy and in the
■onth of France. In Germanv it is well known,
and in America and Canada the apple producers
regard it with much apprehension. It was called
American blight, as it was believed that it was
first imported from America, but there is no proof
of this. Dr Harris denies that it came (niginally
from America, and states thatjthere is good reason
to believe that the miscalled American blight is
not indigenous to America, but that it was intro-
duced there first with firnit trees from European
nurseiy-grounds.

Professor Asa Fitch also denies strongly that
the woolly aphis was imported from America into
Europe. Hr Buckton says that it was first noted
in France in the Department of the C6te dn Nord
in 1812, and was seen in the garden of the Bcole
de Pharmacie in Paris in 1818. In 1822 it was
common in the Departments of the Seine, the
Somme, and the Aisns. It was first discovered in
Germany in 1801, and in Belgium in 1812. How-
ever, it IS possible that the woolly aphis may have
been present in England and upon tiie Continent
long before these ^tes, as entomological know-

ledge was very limited at the beginning ot tbe
present century, and practical observers were feir
and far between.

Zt^< Sittory. The woolly aphis belongs to the
genus Seluxotteura of the family ApkiduUt, called
Sokaotuura from the peculiar nenration of their
wings. It has the sfBx lanigtra because the
larvae are covered with wool. It is not nnfre-
quently confounded with the AjiUt mali, which
infests the leaves and blossoms of apple-trees,
though it is quite distinct in its formation, in ita
hatnts, and its actions. The latter insect is f nr-
nished with tnbercles at the end of its body for
the secretion of honey-dew. The Aphu lanigera
is entirely withont these appendages. The perfect
winged viviparous insect makes ita appearance in
the late summer, and has been seen as late as Sep-
tember. It is by no means common, aa Mr
Buckton remarks, or, being very minute, it pos-
sibly escapes all but the closest observation. It
was held by some American entomologists that it
never acquired wings ; but this is a mistake, as
winged specimens have been foimd in Kentish
orchards, and abundantly in France. From this
female some oviparous females are produced,
which are without beaks or rostra, and tbeiefore
unable to feed. Mr Buckton and Professor Biley
agree as to this curious formation or malforma-
tion, which is shared by the winged males. The
life of both the sexes is necessarily very brief.
Only one egg is laid by each female, and ispUced
under the iMirk or in crevices; this servea as a
means of preserving the species when food fails,
and to spread the plague of insects from tree to
tree, though this is also continually brought
about by the wind when trees are pretty close to-
gether, which bears the down-covored larve with
its breesee.

Propagation, the regnlar continuity of eioflt-
ence, is, however, carried on by means of hiber-
nating viviparous larvm, as in the case of many
species of the Aphidida. Thet^ pass the winter
upon the trunk of the trees, and on their bonghs
and branches, being protected in a degree by the
bark, as well as by their woolly coverings. In
the year 1886 larvss were found alive upon
the boughs of a Lord Suffield apple-tree in
a Kentish orchard when snow was lying thick
upon the ground, and the thermometer had re-
gistered 10 degrees of frost the previous night.
These larve alio hibernate under the sur^Ke of
the ground upon the roots of the apple-trees, and
in this case they are well preserved from the
effects of severe weather, tiiough, as has been
shown, they are able to bear a consideimble
amount of cold. Mr Buckton confirms this, and
remarlcs that he found the apterous larvte alive
and plentiful on the apple-branches when the
thermometer stood at 21 F.

I have found the larvn of the woolly aphis
upon the roots of apple-trees in the spring and
summer, but not in the winter. It may be that
they go deeper down during this season. There
is an opinion held by some persons that the sub-
terranean generations difier from those which are
upon the branches and bodies of the trees, in the
same way as there are differences between the
aerial and subterranean generations of the Flkgl-
lostera toitatrix, the tmible rine pest But,

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SCHIZONEUBA LANIGEBA

1489

from examination of the specimens of woolly
aphides fonsd upon the roots of apple-trees, there
appears to be no distinction, and it is believed
that these occupy the roots and branches indiffer-
ently, or according to the varying circumstances
and conditions of food, weather, and seasons.

The winged generations of this insect are of a
dark, somewhat shiny colour, with the under
parte of their bodies approaching to chocolate,
having large wings with a peculiar and distinctive
venation. The wingless viviparous- females are
more brown than the winged females, and have
thin woolly coverings. Their ofEspring are still
lighter in colour, between red and brown, being
famished with very long rostra. Mr Buckton
states that when they are adult they exude from
fheir pores long threads, which curve round a
centre, and often form long spiral filaments round
which they hide.

^ PmentUm. Apple-trees should he kept from
lichens and mosses, which serve as a shdter for
the woolly aphides, as well as for many other
kinds of uxorious insects. Lichens and mosses
can he killed by throwing quicklime up into the
trees over the branches by means of scoops like
flour scoops fixed to long poles. This should be
done in damp weather, in a dripping November
fog, and of course after the leaves have fallen.
In a few days, if the operation has been thoroughly
performed, the lichens and mosses turn rusty-
colonred, and are washed away from the branches
by the first heavy shower. These lichenous and
mossy growths not only harbour insects of various
kinds in various stages, but they also injure the
trees by stopping up the pores of the rind and
checking respiration. These parasites derive
their sustenance from the air, and do not feed
upon their host, as is very commonly supposed.

As the deep, extensive interstices in the thick
layers of bark upon old apple-trees afford refuges
for the woolly aphides as well as for other in-
sects, it is desirable to scrape off the outer layers.
This can be done with a scraper shaped like the
instrument used for taking water and lather from
horses, bnt of stouter materials. I have made a
serviceable tool for this purpose by putting
handles to semicircles of stout iron hooping,
which has jagged edges, or edges sharpened some-
what upon a grindstone. In America and France,
where scraping off the bark is much practised by
apple-growers, a little tool is employed (consisting
of a triangular plate of metal monnted on a short
handle, after the manner of a triang^ular hoe),
and found very effective. Unless the rough bark
is removed it is almost useless to apply lime
wash, soft-soap wash, or diluted paraffin, or other
remedies, as they cannot be worked into the cre-
vices. In California, Boards of Commissioners,
appointed nnder an Act of the Legislature to
protect and promote the horticultural interests of
the Stetes, have drawn up a set of rules. Bule 1
requires that every fruit-grower or owner of an
orchard or orchards in which there are trees in-
fested with insects should scrape all rough bark
on snch trees, and clean all crevices in the bark
and ' crotehes.'

In the case of yonng trees the stems and the
branches should be rubbed with the hand cased
in a glove compoaed of steel ohauis to remove
TOIm n.

rugosities and larvra that may be tit titu, or very
young trees with tender btu-k may be brushed
over with a stiff brush. A ' spoke' brush is very
useful for this purpose, as it can be worked into
the joints. The bark of trees may be kept in a
healthy state by occasional use of the armed hand
and brushes, just as friction is good for the skin
of human beings and animals.

In grass orchards whose trees are persistently
attacked by woolly aphides it would be well, in
addition to the scrapings and cleanings of the
trunk and branches, to water the roots round
each tree with strong soapsnds. The roots of
apple-trees do not go down very deep as a rule.
Application of oil substances or of tar to the
trimk, just above the ground, would prevent the
passage of the larvea from the roots upwards.

It would be veiy efficacious to pen pigs round
infested trees, as is frequently done for manurial
purposes. These, by their rootings and disagree-
able concomitants, make the roots very unpleasant
quarters for the subterranean invaders. There is
no doubt that young apple-trees become infested
occasionally in nurseries, both with respect to
their roota and branches. Professor Asa Fitch
states that in America young trees often languish
and die from the attacks of the woolly aphides
on their roots soon after being planted from
the nursery. Examination of roots, stems, and
branches should be made before young trees are
planted, and if signs of woolly aphis are present
the roots should be washed with soft soap and
quassia solutions.

Semediet. When yonng trees are attecked bv
woolly aphides they should be washed over with
a mixture of soft soap and quassia, in the pro<
portion of IS to 20 lbs. of soft soap and 8 lbs. of
quassia to 100 galls, of water. This may be put
on with a whitewash brush or a large-sized paint
brush, and a 'spoke' brush may be used for the
forks of the stem and branches. Syringing with
soft soap and quassia solutions by means of large
garden engines like those used for washing hop
plants is of some avail in the case of young trees,
and especially tbose of an upright habit of growth.
In the adoption of this process it is difficult to get
at the insects on the upper parts of the branches.
Still, if the pumps are worked well and the hose
directed so that a good deal of liquid falls upon
them from above, their quarters will be made un-
pleasant to them. Where trees are large, and of
wide-spreading habit of growth, syringing will
not be of much benefit, and the operation requires
to be very carefully carried out. It would be well
wortii while for owners or occupiers of large
acreage of orchard land to have special washing
engines made to throw liquid well into and over
huwe fruit trees.

Paraffin oil, mixed in the proportion of two to
three wine-glasses to a pail of water, has been
found efficacious worked into the bark and
branches with brushes, and in some cases put on
with garden engines. The oil must be well in-
corporated with the water, and the mixture should
be kept stirred. Vegetable and animal oils, as
linseed, whale, and neat's-foot oil, have been ap-
plied with good resulte, chiefly to the stems and
lower branches. A mixture of linseed oil and
powdered snlphni is sucoessfuUy used in America

94

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1490

SCHLIPPE'S SALT— SCOUMNG

upon the tranlu and lower limbg of the trees after
they have heen well scraped.

Infested trunks should be scraped and washed
over with lime wash, made with very quick lime.
This will kill all the larvte, and prevent migration
from stems to roots. Hot lime thrown up by
scoops in damp weather both removes lichens and
mosses where these parasites are, and immediately
destroys the larvos of the woolly aphis. It need
hardly be stated that where apple-trees have been
long nnpruned and neglected, and the small boughs
are thickly intertwisted, it is most imperative that
pruning should be done gradually but thoroughly,
for many obvious reasons, and mainly that it wUl
be more easy to stamp out the woolly aphis
(^Reports on Insects Ii^nrioDS to Crops,' by Chas.
Whitehead, Esq., P.Z.S.).

SCELIFFE'S BAIT. Sulphantimoniate of so-
dium. See AiTTXiioirr SULPHAirrixoNiAix.

SCHULTZE'B POWSES. Anewsportingpowder
for gnna, in which nitrated cellulose is Que chief
constituent.

SCHWAXIZ'S SSOPS. See Dbofb, Wobv.

SCIATICA. See Rhiituatibk.

SCIEHCS. " Man," says WheweU, " is the in-
terpreter of nature; science the right interpre-
tation. The senses place before us the okaraotert
of the ' Book of Nature ; ' but these convey no
knowledge to us till we have discovered the
alphabet by which they are to be read."

Various classifications of the sciences have been
proposed by ditFerent anthors. Dr. Neil Amott
conceived that the object of all the sciences, viz.
a knowledge of nature, might be best attained by
the stndy of physics, chemistry, life, and mind,
inclnding under this latter the laws of society, or
the modem science of sociology.

As to mathematics, he regarded it as a system
of ' technical mensuration,' invented by the mind
in order to enable it to study the other sciences.
In his 'Cours de Philosophie Positive,' Comte
traverses the entire circle of the theoretical, ab-
stract, or fundamental sciences, and divides them
into mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry,
biology, and sociology. He admits no distinct
sdence on psychology or the science of mind.

Mr Herbert Spencer proposes to classify the
sciences into three groups; viz. — 1. Abstract
science, which treats of the forms of phenomena
detached from their embodiments. 2. Abstract
concrete science, or the phenomena of nature ana-
lysed into their separate elements. 3. Concrete
science, or natural phenomena in their totalities.

" For the classiBcation of the sciences it is con-
venient to prepare the way by distinguishing be-
tween theoretical sciences, which are the sciences
properly so called, and practical science. A theoreti-
cal science embraces a distinct department of na-
ture, and is so arranged as to give in the most com-
pact form the entire body of ascertained (scientific)
knowledge in that department, such as mathema-
tics, chemistry, physiology, and zoology. A prac-
tical science is the application of scientifically
obtained facts and laws in one or more departments
to some practical end, which end rules the selection
and arrangement of the whole; as,f or example, na-
vigation, engineering, mining, and medicine. An-
other distinction must be made before laying down
the systematic order of the theoretical sciences.

" A certain number of these sciences have for
their subject-matter each a separate department
of natural forces or powers; thus biology deali
with the department of organised beings psycho-
logy with mind. Others deal with the applica-
tion of powers elsewhere recogrniaed to some
region of concrete facts or phenomena. Thai
geology does not discuss any natural powers not
found in other sciences, but seeks to apply the
laws of physics, chemistry, and biology to ac-
count for the appearance of the earth's crust.

" The sciences that embrace peculiar natural
powers are called abstract, general, or funda-
mental sciences; those that apply to the powers
treated of under these, to regions of concrete
phenomena, are called concrete, derived, or ap-
plied sciences " (' Chambers's Encyclopsedia ').

The separation of the sciences Into these two
sections is that now generally accepted.

The first section, that of the abstract or theo-
retical sciences, is subdivided by almost common
consent into mathematics, physics, chemistry, bio-
logy (vegetable and animal physiology), psycho-
logy (mind), and sociology (the laws of society).

The second section, that of the concrete sci-
ences, includes meteorology, mineralogy, botany,
zoology, geology, and geography.

The order in which the abstract sciences are
arranged above has also been found to best illus-
trate the' sequence in which they may be most
advantageously studied.

SCILliITIH. 8fn. SonjjTnrA, Scillitite.
A' whitish, resinous, translucent, bitter, deliques-
cent substance, obtained by Vogel from squills.
It is soluble in water, alcohol, and acetic acid, and
is purgative, acrid, and poisonous.

SCOFOLA. Ut £. M. Holmes describes th'ts
plant as the Seopola aarniottoa, Jeoqnin. The
plant grows in Eastern Germany and Hungary,
and extends to Southern Russia. The plant re-
sembles belladonna in many respects, bat ts not
so tall or robust. It grows best in damp soil in
the shade. Its root is a rhizome — not a root-
stock, as belladonna u. Its leaves are larger, bat
thinner and greener. The flower is like that of
belladonna, but the fruit more resembles henbane
fruit. It flowers InMarchandApril. Itcontainsan
alkaloid which Dunstan and Chasten identify with
hyoscyamine; others have named it scopoleine,
but the latter base is extracted from S. Jajmttiea.

8C0P0LEIH£. An alkaloid obtained from the
root of Seopola Japonica (known as Japanese
belladonna). It possesses mydriatic properties.

BCORBITTTIS. See Sovbtt.

BCO"RIA. Dross ; the refuse or useless part of
any substance, more especially that left from
bodies which have been subjected to the action of
fire. It is frequently used in the plural (boobls).

SCOTT'S DROPS. See Patskt MBDiciinu.

SCOUR'UfG. The common method of cleaning
cloth is by beating and brushing it, unless it be
very dirty, when it undergoes the operation of
scouring. This is best done on the small sciJe, M
with ABliCLSE OP WBABiire appabbl, as foUowi :
— A little curd soap is dissolved in water, and,
after mixing it with a little clarified oz-gall, ii
applied to aJI the spots of grease, dirt, Ac., and
well rubbed into them with a stilt brush, until
they appear to be removed ; after which the urtide

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SCOUEING DROPS— 8C0RF POWDER

1481

ia well cleaned all over with a brush or sponge
dipped into some warm water, to which the pre-
vioTU mixture and a little more ox-gall have been
added. The cloth is next thoroughly rinsed in
clean water, and hung np to dry. For dark-
colonred cloths some f uUer's-earth is often added
to the mixture of soap and gall. When the article
18 nearly dry the nap is laid smooth, and it ia
Garefolly pressed (if with a hot iron, on the
wrong side), after which a soft brnsh, moistened
Tvith a drop or two of olive oil, is frequently passed
OTer it, to give it a finish and gloss.

doth is also 'cleaned in the dry way: — The
spots being removed as above, and the wetted
parts having become dry, clean damp sand is
■trewed over it, and beaten into it with a brush,
after which the article is well gone over with a
hard brash, when the sand cornea out, and brings
the dirt with it.

Binv and sbab oloih is generally cleaned by
covering it with a paste made with pipe-clay and
water, either with or without a little umber to
temper the coloor, which, when dry, is rubbed and
brushed off.

When the article requires renovation as well as
Bconring, it is placed, whilst still damp, on a
board, and the threadbare parts are rubbed with
a half -worn hatter's card filled with floclcs, or with
a teaale, or a prickly thistle, notil a nap is raised ;
it ia next hung up to dry, after which it is
' finished otF ' as before. When the cloth is much
fitded it is usual to give it a ' dip,' as it is called,
or to pass it through a dye-bath to freshen up the
colour. Black and sakk blub cloth, if rusty
or faded, is commonly treated to a coat of ' re-
viver,' instead of being ' re-dipped,' and is then
hung up until next day, before being pressed and
finished off. See Spots and Siainb.

Seonring in AnlmiHs. See Diabbeoea.

8C0TJRING DROPS. See Dson.

SCEOPULA. Syn. Knta's bvil, Stbttica,
Stkdhovb SI8BA8B. By modem pathologists
■CTOfnla is regarded as a constitutional tendency
to form and deposit in various tissues and organs
of the body a substance called tubercle. The
iendeneg may, however, in some cases only exist
without any actual tuberculous deposit taking
place. Sir James Paget thus describes scrofula
aa generally understood to be a " state of consti-
tution distinguished in some measure by peculiari-
tiea of appearance even'during health, but much
more by peculiar liability to certiun diseases, in-
cluding pulmonary phthisis. The chief of these
' scrofulous ' diseases are various swellings of the
lymphatic glands, arising from causes which
womd be inadequate to produce them in healthy
persona.

" The swellings are due sometimes to mere en-
largement, as from an increase of natural struc-
ture, sometimes to chronic inflammation, some-
times to an acute inflammation or abscess, some-
times to tuberculous disease of the glands.

" But besides these it is usual to reckon as
isorofulons' affections certain chronic inflam-
mations of the joints ; slowly progressive carious
inflammations of bones; chronic and frequent
ulcers of the eomea ; ophthalmia attended with
extreme intolerance of light, but with little, if
any, of the ordinary consequences of inflamma-

tion ,- frequent chronic abscesses ■, pustules or other
cutaneous eruptions frequently appearing upon
slight affection of t'he health or local irritation ;
habitual swelling and catarrh of the mucous mem-
brane of the nose ; habitual swelling of the upper
lip."

Scrofula is a disease which almost always shows
itself during childhood, and rarely after maturity
has been attained.

Scrofulous children, or those of scrofulous dia-
thesis, are frequently narrow-chested,or their chests
present that projecting appearance known as
'pigeon-breasted;' their abdomens are also un-
naturally large, and their limbs emaciated. Their
circulation is languid, and they are very generally
attacked with chilblains during inclement weather.
They also suffer from obstinate indigestion. Bear-
ing in mind the fact that scrofula is frequently
induced, irrespective of hereditary taint, in the
children of the poor by bad and damp air, insuffi-
cient food and clothing, exclusion from sunshine,
and such like insanitary surroundings, the chief
treatment that will suggest itself will consist in
remedying these adverse conditions. Hence the
patient should live on generous but digestible
food, partaking of meat twice a day. Milk and
eggs also form an excellent diet for the scrofulous.
A scrofulous mother should refrain from suckling
her offspring, and procure a wet-nurse for that
purpose. Flannel should be worn both summer
and winter. Various medicines have been em>
ployed in this disease, including cod-liver oil,
sarsaparilla, bark, syrup of iodide of iron, the
alkalies, and mineral acids. Of these, cod-liver oil
and syrup of iodide of iron deservedly ei^oy the
highest reputation.

SCUDAMOEE'S LOTIOIT. See Lotioh, Qottt.

SCUKf. <8yii. FUBVUBA. Scurf "is a natural
and healthy formation, and thpugh it may be
kept from accumulating, it cannot be prevented.
It is produced on every part of the body where
hair is found, although, from .the more active
growth of hair on the scalp, the facilities for
collecting, and the contrast of colour, it strikes
the eye most disagreeably in that situation. This
will show how futile any attempt must be which
shall have for its object to prevent the formation
of the scurf. It may be removed, and should be
removed, every day, with the hair-brush; but
prevention is impossible, inasmnc^i as it is opposed
to a law of nature. Occasionally, as a morbid
action, an unusual quantity of scurf is produced,
in which case medical means may be adopted to
bring the scalp into a more healthful state "
(Erae. WUioh). In such cases the daily use of
some mild stimulating or detergent wash, with
due attention to the stomach and bowels, will
generally abate this annoyance.

SCXT&F POVOSB — Grindpulver. (Mahon,
Paris.) Three powders which, according to
Chevalier and Fignier, are nothing but wood
ashes. Buchner found no alkalies, but announced
the following composition: — Organic calcium
carbonate (oyster shells, egg shells, crab shells),
with a little gypsum, charcoal powder, and more
or less brick-dust, powdered, mixed, and exposed
to a moderate red heat in a covered crucible, till
part of the chalk is converted into quicklime, and
the gypsum reduced by the charcoal powder to

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1492

SCURF SALVE— SCUBVT

calcium sulphide, which in ita tarn ii gradually
converted by the air into calcinm snlphite. All
three powdera are made of the lame ingredients,
bnt in different proportions. Ko. 1 has more
gypaum and charcoal powder ; Ko. 2 leas charcoal
and more chalk; and No. 8 mwre hrick-dnst

SCUKF 8ALVS— OriaMJba. In France it is
generally a mixture of 2 parts slaked lime, 5 parts
soda erystala, and 26 parts fat {Soffer).

8CTTSTT. Afu. SooBBUTUB, L. This disease
commence* wiw indolence, sallow looks, debility,
and lots of spirits; the gums become sore and

rngy, the teeth loose, and the breath feetid;
leg* swell, emptions appear on different parts
of the body, and at length the patient sinks onder
general emaciation, diarrhoea, and hsamorrhagea.

The treatment of ordinary cases of this disease
mainly consists in employing a diet of fresh
animal and green vegetable food, with mild ale,
beer, and lemonade as beverages ; scmpnlonsly
avoiding salted and dried meat. The fresh-
sqneesed joice of lemons is, perhaps, of all other
substances the most powerful remedy in this
disease In its early stages, and is useful in all
of them. Effervescing draughts formed with
the bicarbonate of potassa (not soda) at« also
excellent.

In former yean, before the nature of this
malady had been intelligently investigated, and
when the proper preventive methods and reme^«l
measures for combating it were unknown, scurvy
was not only a very common but a very fat^
disease in our own navy, a* well as in the navies of
other powers. Of 061 men who constituted the
crew* of Anson'* fleet sent out during our war with

Spain in 1742, 686 died of scurvy in nine month* ;
whilst Sir Gilbert Blane rectn^ that in the year
1780, ont of a fleet composed of between 7000
and 8000 men, more than 1000, or one in seven,
perished from the same cause. Sir Bicfa»rd
Hawkins, one of the naval celebrities of Eliza-
beth and James's reign, affirmed that during
twenty years he had known 80,000 sailors tall
victims to scurvy alone ; and a Portngoese writer,
quoted by Sir Charles Blane, speaking of the
number of victims from scurvy, daring a navml
exploring expedition of his own countrymen, says
that " if the dead who from this cause had been
thrown overboard between the coast of Guinea
and the Cuw of Good Hope, and between that
Cape and Moiamlrique, could have had tombatonea
plaieed for them, each on the spot where he sank,
the whole way would have appeured one oontinuod
cemetery " (Dr Chif).

The statistical report of the navy for 1871
offers a gratifying contrast to the above flgurea.
From this document it appears that ont of a total
force of 4720 sailors, only four were affected with
scurvy during that year. The much greater
number of men attacked by the disease on board
merchant ships appears to be doe to the inferior
or worthless chancter of the lime or lemon jutoe
purchased by them.

Writing on the hygienic condition of the
merchant marine in 1867, Mr Harry Leach
says:

" We ate prepared to'maintun, from the tA-
lowing table (and other statistics from which
these have been taken), that the want of good
lime or lemon juice was distinctly the cauae of
(corvy in the veweli below mentioned.

Nuoe o( Ship.
Hermione • •
Herrie England
Stirling Ca*tle .
Hoang-Ho .
Blandie Moore .
St Andrew** Castie
Tamerlane .
Marlborongh
Galloway .
Tamar

French Empire .
Eaglet
Geelong .
Thomdean .

Ho. of Hands (til toli). Cisa* of Snrr;. Besnlt of g>»nii-.n«n of Lime-juice.

. 17 . . . 6 . . Snlphoric acid.

. 20 . . . 10 . . Stinking.

. 82 . . 6 . . Veiyweak.

. 21 . . 6 . . Acetic add.

. 86 . . 8 . . Mnafy and naa*eon*.

. 19 . . . 7 . . Citric acUL

. 21 . . 4 . . Nanaeona.

. 28 . . 8 . . Very weak.

. 20 . . 6 . . Short allowance.

. 17 . . 2 . . Very weak.

. 27 . 7 or 8 . Citric add.

. 14 . . 8 . . Thick and nasty.

. 14 . . 9 . . Taken irregularly.

. 86 . . 2 . Spoiled (short supply of proviaionB).

" Of direct eaote* thi* i* undoubtedly flrst and
foremost; but of indirect causes we have a few
words to say. Dirt, bad provisions, and any
form of disrase to which sailors, in common with
other men, are subject, will predispose to scurvy.
This cannot and uioold not be denied, but it
affords to parrimonions captain* a very large peg
whereon to hang sundry invectives as to the cry
lately made about the continued prevalence of
this di*ea*e in the mercantile marine. Such cap-
tain*, with pardonable ignorance, consider scurvy
a form of venereal disease^ gire tiie wretched sab>
Jeet thereof mereory, and bring him into port
salivated as well as scorbutic"

Mr Leach further adds :

<• In summing up statistic* of icaryy for the

past year (1867), we And that a total of 28S
accredited cases were admitted into British hos-
pitals, giving no account of thoae who convalesced
in sailors' homea or elsewhere.

" To this we may add that seven sailors were
left at St Helena, from a ship recenUy arrived in
the Thamea; that a vessel put into ^mouth on
the 29th nit., with no less than sixteen severe
cases of scurvy on board, and that between twenty
and thirty cases have arrived in this port during
the present month. It would be well (as a sup.
plementaiy aid to the prevention of scurvy by
inspection of lime-jnice) that the due* levied for
the St Helena Hoqdtal ahonld be aboUdied. It
wa* stated to us some weeks ago by a veiy old
inhabitant of that ialand that this fact akme

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SEALINa-WAX— SELANDBIA CEBASI

1498

oavsed many ehips to paaa withont calling for
needfal rappUei of antiaoorbutic material.

" I would, however, remark that if the system
proposed by the Seamen's Hospital Society were
put in force, no such aid to the prevention of this
disease would be required, inasmuch as ever;
ship would then be supplied with good Ume-
jnioe."

The following figures, giving the number of
patients suffering from scurvy admitted into the
Seamen's Hospital, shows a decrease in the dis-
ease since the publication of the above :

In 1865, from British vessels, 101 ; foreig^n do. 1

„ 1866

»»

»»

96

»>

6

., 1867

»>

n

90

t*

4

,,1868

tf

»

64

It

10

„1869

M

M

81

»

9

„ 1870

99

W

80

M

21

„ 1871

»»

»»

24

»

16

SSALIVG-VIZ. See Wax.

8SA-SICKHX8S. The most effectoal preven-
tive of seasickness appears to be the prone posi-
tion, and the application of ice-bags to the spine
and back of the head. When there is much
pain, after the stomach has been well cleared, a
few drops of laudanum may be taken, or an
opium fdaster may be applied over the region of
the stomach. Persons about to proceed to sea
should put their stomach and bowels in projier
order by the use of mild aperients, and even an
emetic, if required, when it will generally be
found that a glass of warm and weak biandy-
and-water, to which 16 or 20 drops of laudanum,
or, still better, 1 or 2 drops olf cieasote, have
been added, will effectually prevent any disposi-
tion to sea-sickness, provided^ the bowels be at-
tended to, and excess in eating and drinking be
at the same time avoided. A spoonful of
crushed ice in a wine-glassful of cold water, or
weak brandy-and-water, will often afford relief
when 1^ other means fail. Smoking at lea is
very apt to induce sickness. IC. F. Curie, in
the 'Ckxnptes Bendus,' asserts that drawing in
the breath as the vessel descends, and exhaling it
as it ascends on the billows, by preventing the
movements of the diaphragm acting abnormally
on the phrenetic nerves, prevents sea-sickness.
On this Mr Atkinson, at one of the meetings of
the British Association, observed that if a
person, seated on board ship, holding a tumbler
filled with water in his hand, makes an effort to
prevent the water running over, at the same time
allowing not merely his arm, but also bis whole
body, to participate in the movements, he will
find that this has the effect of prevent the giddi-
ness and nausea that the rolling and tossing of
the vessel have a tendency to produce in inexpe-
rienced voyagers. If the person is suffering
from sickness at the commencement of his experi-
ment, as soon as he grasps the glass of liquid in
Us hand, and suffers his arm to take its course
and go throngh the movements allnded to, he
feels as if he were performing them of his own
free will, and the nausea abates immediately, and
very soon ceases entirely, and does not return so
long as he suffers his arm and body to assume
the postures into which they seem to be drawn.
Shonld he, however, resist tne free course of hia

hand, he instantly feels a thrill of vtia, of a
peculiarly stunning kind, shoot throngh his head,
and experiences a sense of dizziness and returning
nausea.

Dt Doring, a Viennese physician, states that
an ordinary dose of chloral hydrate is an nnf uling
remedy for sea-sickness. In various cases re-
corded by him it seems to have been of the greatest
service, even during long sea voyages, ensuring a
good night's rest, arresting violent sickness when
it has set in, and preventing its return.

Every imaginable remedy has been suggested
tor this distressing malady, mostly narcotics in
one form or another. Where it is possible plenty
of physical exercise, «.ff. rowing, is an excellent
means of preventing it ; and as there is'little doubt
that it is aggravated in persons by dread, it is
well to be actively employed as much as possible
during a sea voyage. &>me persons never can
overcome it. In most cases it will last three or
four days, and then the nervous system gets
accustomed to the motion, and the symptoms
disappear.

8XDATI7X PUIS, Gnnther's. These are com'
posed of the following ingredients : — Assafcetida
powder, 60 parts ; extract (rf valerian, 60 parts ;
extract of belladonna, 8 parts; oxide of zinc,
1 part J castor oil, 2 parts. Uake into a pill-mass,
to be administered in doses of 8 to 10 grains, twice
daily, in chorea, &c.

SID'ATIYBS. Syn. Sbsattva, L. Medi-
cines and agents which diminish the force of the
circulation or the animal energy, and allay pun.
Foxglove, henbane, tobacco, potassio-tartrato of
antimony, and several of the neutral salts and
acids, act as sedatives. Cold is, perhaps, the most
powerful agent of this class.

8EZD. Sgn. Sbxbn, L. The seeds of plants
are conspicuous for their vast nnmber and variety,
and their extreme usefulness to man. The seeds
of certun of the Oraminao$a furnish him with
his daily bread ; some of those of the Zi^gwniiiota,
in either the immature or ripe state, supply bis
table with wholesome esculents, or provide a
nourishing diet for his domestic animus ; whilst
those of numerous other plants, dispersed through
every class, order, and family, yield their trea-
sures of oil, medicinals, or perfnmea for his use.

SELAHSBIA CSKASI, Linn. {Tmthrado oe-
ran, Curtis). Tmi Pjub Saw-tlt. All fruit-
growers and gardeners have remarked the action
of a curious-looking insect resembling a slug,
upon the leaves of apple, pear, cherry, plum, and
damson trees. Though to all appearance it Is bnt
a mere lump of slime or dirt upon the leaves, it
nevertheless soon eats away thdr soft green tissues,
leaving only the nerves or ribe, so tut the leaves
become mere skeletons.

This insect, the hurva of s saw-fly, is most
repulsive to behold, havii^ a disproportionatoly
large head, and a dark, sluny, viscid fluid covers
its body. It is not at present one of the often
recurring pests of fruit trees like the SyponO'
mautapadella and the gooseberry saw-fly, though
serious attacks have been reported, and it con-
stantly attacks single trees here and there, both
standards in orchards and gardens, as well aa
espalier and wall trees in gardens.

A fMt-giower in Oloncestershire states that in

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1404

SELANDBIA CEBA8I

1881 tbe apple trees in an orchard facing to the
Bouth-east, lying low, had their leavea completely
riddled l^ what he called 'snegs.' It waa re-
ported in this same year that "a lot of green
slugs" were eating np the leaves of the pear
trees in some orchards in Herefordshire. Also in
1881 reports of iiynry from ' slugs ' came in from
parts of Scotland and Yorkshire.

From inquiries made of fruit-growers in varioas
parts of the country it is gathered that there was
a deal of mischief caused hy this insect in 1875,
and that it seemed to increase year by year.

In the ' Introdnction to British Entomologr,'
hy Eirhy and Spence, it is remarked that the
pear saw-fly does not cause any material injury.
But, seeing the rapid spread of many kinds of
insects in these latter years, and of the general
great increase of injury caused by such pests, it
is as well to be forewarned by means of informa-
tion as to the habits of those which may be
dangerous, and forearmed with some means of
preventing and of checking their onslaughts.

This pear saw-fly is well known in America, and
has been known there for a long while. Harris
says that it was so abundant in Massachusetts in
1797, that "small trees were covered with them
and their foliage entirely destroyed ; and even the
air by passing through the trees became charged
with a disagreeable and sickening odour given out
by these slimy creatures " (' A Treatise on some
of the Insects Injurious to Vegetation in New
England,' by T. W. Harris, M.D.). Mr Cooke
shows that this saw-fly is very troublesome, espe-
(aally to pear trees, in the important and in-
creasing fruit orchards of CaUfomia. Dr Asa
Fitch iSso speaks of it as injuring cherry trees in
America ; and Professor Lintner, the New Tork
State Entomologist, mentions it as injurious to
many kinds of fruit trees. Professor Saunders
points out that in 1874 this saw-fly was " unusu-
ally abundant in the neighbotirhood of London,
Ontario, in many cases destroying the foliage so
thoroughly that the trees looked as if they had
been scorched by fire." It is also well known in
Germany and in France ; K&iumur called it la
Tenthride limact.

By some it is supposed that this insect was
imported into Europe from America in compara-
tively recent years, but Westwood wrote about it
in the ' Gardener's Magazine ' more than fifty
years ago, and R&inmur described it one hnndred
and fif^ years ago.

Life Sittoty. It could liardly be imag^ed
upon looking at this creature, momtrum hor-
rendum, informe, that its progenitrix was a little
quiet-looking fly. However, it.is so, and it belongs
to the order HTUKOPTBiiA, and to the genus
or sub-genus Stlandria of the family Tenthrt'
dimda.

This fly is hardly the fonrth of an inch in length.
The wings are about eight lines, or three quarters
of an inch, from tip to tip. Being dark, with
its wings having dark markings, it has not a
conspicuous or an sttractive appearance. At the
end of June the fly makes a slightly curved
abrasion in the upper part of the leaf of an apple,
pear, cherry, plum, or damson tree, with its
admirable saw-like apparatus, like that of the
Jfemattu rii«rit and other mw-flie*. A nogle

egg is placed npon each abrasion made thoa \fj the
saw for its reception. After about a fortniglit s
larva comes ont, at first of a whitish eolonr — almoat
transparent, in fact ; but after a short time it
becomes of a green colour, and an olive-g^reen
slime issues from all parts of its body, covering
it over, evidently as a protection agunst wesitber
in its exposed position on the upper part of the
leaf — a position, it may be said in passing, some-
what exceptional, as most larvts live on the under
sides of leaves. Though it has seven pairs of
rudimentary feet npon its abdomen, and three
pairs of lUstinct i^racic legs, it mores irith
uncommon slowness. With a large head and •
body narrowing down towards the caudal ex-
tremity, it looks like a tadpole. When full grown
it is nearly half an inch long.

Unlike many other larvte, or caterpillars of
flies and moths, it eats away the leaves from tbeir
centres and not from the ontsides, and clears
away the parenchyma between the nerves or ribs,
leaving them bare as the framework of an on-
covered parasol.

At the end of a month, after several monliangs
or castings of its skin, the larva loses its snail or
slug-like form, and finally appears in an orange-
yellow robe, and in shape more like a caterpillar.
Giving up feeding, it crawls down the stem of the
tree or falls to the ground, in which it ensconces
itself and changes to a chrysalis, forming a little
cell made of earth, glued together with a sticky
material, in which it remains nntil late in the
spring, and changing to a saw-fly goes forth to
propagate its kind.

In America the saw-flies have two broods — the
latter brood sometimes as late as September.

Prevention. As it is evident that the chrysaHds
cannot be far away from the fruit trees upon
which the larvee were reared, it would be well to
dig the ground all round thoroughly, and to hoe
it with prong-hoes well in the spring, taking care
that the clods and lumps are well broken. Appli-
cation of caustic substances and of offensive
materials, as paraflln oil and carbolic acid, would
not be very efficacious, it is thought, since the
chrysalids are protected by their glue-cased
cocoons. Upon grass orchards and npon culti-
vated land quicklime might be scatt^^d round
infested trees just before the general flnal change
takes place, in order to kill them if they ventured
into it.

Semediei. Fine particles powdered upon
the sUmy bodies of the larva of this saw-
fly render existence burdensome to them. Thos
very fine quicklime could be sent up by means of
a machine like that used in Kent for putting
sulphur upon hop plants for mildew — at least
upon the smaller trees and the lower branches of
the larger trees. Except in the case of cherries
this would not affect the fruit to a great extent.
And with regard to cherries, as a rule, these would
be picked before the larva had done much mis-
chief. In America powdered hellebore, mixed
with water in the proportion of two pounds to
100 gallons, is syringed over the trees with good
effect. Hellebore is, however, a far too deadly
poison to be sprinkled upon fruit. If the fmit
has been so ii\jured as to be not worth picking,
washing with soft soap and water, iritii the extract

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SELENIUM

1406

of two pounds of tobacco added to 100 galloni of
water, put on with a washing engine, would
effectually kill the larvsB, or make the leaves un-
pleasant for them. It is clearly most difficult to
apply remedies to trees when the fruit upon them
is plentiful and valuable ('Reports on Insects
Iifjurions to Crops,' hy Charles Whitehead,
Esq., F.Z.S.).

SXLB'iriUJC. Se=>79-0. A rare chemical ele-
ment, discovered by Berzelius in 1817 in the
refuse of a sulphuric acid mannfactoiy near
Fahlnn, in Sweden, it having been derived from
the pyrites employed in the manufacture of the
acid. Hence the pyrites of Fahlun forms the
chief source of this rare body, although it exists,
but leas abundantly, in comUnation with a few
other metals, termed selenidea. Selenium is
chiefly interesting to the chemist from its re-
markable analogy in chemical properties, natural
history, and physical relations to sulphur. Like
this latter element, it is capable of assuming three
allotropic forms — the amorphous, the vitreous,
and the crystalline, of which the first and last are
the best understood.

The last variety of selenium, like the crystal-
line form of sulphur, dissolves in bisulphide of
carbon, but much less readily. Selenium fuses at
100° C, boils at 680° (CarMZ/jr), and becomes
converted into a deep yellow vapour, which^when
heated, is snbject to the same anomalous expan-
sion as sulphur vapour. It is not so combustible
as sulphur, which it still further resembles hy
burning with a blue flame when ignited in the air.
During combnstion it gives off a peculiar and
characteristic smell, resembling that of putrid
horseradish. Heated with strong sulphuric acid,
selenium forms a green solution. If this solution
IS poured into water, the selenium separates and
is thrown down. Selenium is without taste or
smell, is insolable in water, and in its normal
state ia a non-conductor of heat and electricity.
Selenium may be extracted from the Fahlun
residue by the following process : — ^It should be
first boiled with sulphuric acid, diluted with an
equal volume of water, and nitric acid should
then be added in small quantities until the oxida-
tion of the seleniiim is accomplished, which may
be known when red fumes cease to be evolved.
The solution, which contains selenious and selenic
acid, is then to be largely diluted with water,
filtered, the filtrate mix^ with about one fourth
of its bulk of hydrochloric acid, and then concen-
trated a little by evaporation, when the hydro-
chloric acid reduces the aelenic to selenious acid.
A current of sulphurous acid being then passed
tiiTOugh the solution, the selenium is precipitated
in flakes, which form into a dense black mass
when the liquid is gently heated.

Selenium Oxide. Like sulphur, selenium com-
bines with oxygen and forms an anhydride corre-
sponding to sulphurous anhydride. Sblenioub
AXHTDBrDB (SeOj) may be obtained by burning
selenium in a current of oxygen ; it is, however,
more easily prepared by boiling selenium Vith
nitric acid or with aqua Tegi& ; the excess of acid
being expelled by heat, the selenious anhydride is
left as a white mass. When this is dissolved in
water it yields a crystalline hydrate of selenious
•cid (H^eO,).

Sdeniotu Add. H^eO,. Prep, Formed when
selenium is heated in nitnc acid, or when 6 parts
of the dioxide are dissolved in 1 part of hot water.

Prop., S^. Long, colourless, prismatic crys-
tals ; strongly acid taste ; decompose when heated.
It forms not only acid and normal salts, but also
salts oontuning selenites united with selenious
acid.

The salts formed by selenious acid (selenites),
with the exception of those of the alkali metals,
are mostly insoluble in water. They are easily
known by the peculiar odonr of selenium which
they give off when heated on charcoal in the re-
ducing flame of the blowpipe ; solutions of the
selenites give a reddish-btown precipitate when
treated with sulphurous acid.

Selenic Add. HjSeO^. Discovered in 1827 hy
Btitscherlich. — Prep. By action of chlorine on
selenium or selenious acid in the presence of water,
or by treating a solution of sodium selenite with
silver nitrate, and then acting upon the precipitate
thus obtained with ammonia in the presence of
water.

Prop. A colourless add liquid which, by eva-
poration at 265° C. and afterwards under an air-
pump, may be obtained of sp. gr. 2-627 ; this then
contains 97'4%of selenic add; dissolves gold and
platinum. The selenates exhibit the dosest
analogy to the sulphates.

Selenlnretted Hydrogen. H^e. This may be
obtained by acting on sdenide of iron or potaa-
sium with diluted sulphuric or hydrochloric acid.
Seleniuretted hydrogen is soluble in water, and
precipitates many metals from their salts as sele-
nides. The solution is feebly add, and, like a
solution of sulphuretted hydrogen, if exposed to
the air, it absorbs oxygen and deposits selenium.
The selenides of the alkali metals are soluble in
water. The selenides of cerium, zinc, and man-
ganese are flesh-coloured; most of the others are
black. This gas is inflammable like sulphuretted
hydrogen ; it has, however, a still more offensive
smell than this latter gas. Berzelius lost his sense
of smell for several hours by the application to
his nose of a bubble of sdeniuretted hydrogen not
larger than a pea.

Seleninm CUorldea. There are two chlorides
of selenium — a dichloride (Se,Cl,), a volatile
liquid of a brown colour ; and a tetrachloride
(SeCl,), which occurs as a white crystalline solid.

Bdenium Sulphides. Selenium unites with sul-
phur, forming a bisulphide (SeS^ and a teraul-
phide (SeS,).

Ob:, S(e. A very curious physical property of
sdenium when exposed to the action of light was
first noticed in 1873 by Mr May, who observed
that a stick of crystaUised selenium which had
been used for some time in telegraphy, where
high electrical resistance was required, offered
a considerably less resistance to the current
when exposed to the light than when kept in the
dark. This discovery has since been amply cor-
roborated by the observations and researches of
many physicists, amongst them by Professor
Werner Siemens, the result of whose experiments
on this interesting subject we quote from a lecture
delivered at the Boyal Institution by his brother,
Dr William Siemens, in February, 1876. After
describing the method of arranging the

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1496

SELENIUM

leleniam m that, when inaerted in the galvanic
cnrrent of a aingle Daniell'a cell, the lortace
action produced by the light upon it attained a
maximom effect, and thereby did away with the
neceasity of employing a large galvanic batteiy,
and at the same time allowed an ordinary galvano-
meter to be naed inatead of a delicate one, aa
hitherto employed, Dr Siemena proceeded to iUua-
trate the action of light npon the element by
experiment. " I here hold," he aaid, " an element
ao prepared of amorphooa aeleniom, which I place
in a dark box, and inaert in a galvanic circuit
compriaing a Daniell'a cell and a delicate galvano*
meter, the face of which will be thrown npon the
acreen through a mirror by meana of the electric
light

" In cloaing the circnit it will be aeen that no
deflection of the needle enauea. We will now
admit light upon the aeleninm diac and close the
circuit, when again no deflection will be obaerved,
ahowing that this aelenium in its preaent condition
is a non-conductor both in the duk and under the
influence of light. I will now aubmit a aimilar
disc of aelenium, which haa been kept in boiling
water for an hour and gradually cooled, to the
aame testa as before. In cloaing the circnit while
the plate ia in the dark a certain deflection of the
galvanometer will be diacemihle, but I will now
open the lid of the box ao aa to admit light npon
the disc, when on again cloaing the circmt a slight
deflection of the guvanometer needle will be ob-
aerved. In cloaing the box againat the light thia
deflection will aubaide, but will again be viaible
the moment the light ia readmit^ to the box.
Here we have, then, the extraordinary effect of
light npon aeleninm clearly illnatrated.

" I will now inaert into the aame circnit another
selenium plate which has been heated up to 210°
C, and, after having been kept at that tempera-
ture for several houra, haa been gradually cooled;
it will be obaerved that thia plate ia aflected to a
greater extent than the former by the action of
Ught; and other conditions, to which I shall
presently allude, prove the aeleninm heated to a
higher temperature to be in other reapecta dia-
aimilar to the other two modifications of the
aame. Theae differencea will be heat revealed in
deacribing my brother'a experiment. He placed
one of his amorphous preparations of selenium in
an air-bath heated above the melting-point of
aeleninm (to 260° C), while the connecting wires
were inserted in a galvanic circnit consisting of
only one Daniell's element and a delicate reflect-
ing galvanometer, and every five minutes the
temperature and conductivity of the seleniom
were noted. Up to the temperature of 80° C. no
current passed ; from this point onward the con>
ductivity of the material rapidly inoreaaed until
it obtained its maximnm at the temperature of
210^ C, being nearly its melting-pcnnt, after
which an equally rapid diminution of conductivity
commenced, reaching a minimum' at a tempera-
ture of abont 240° C, when the conductivity was
only such aa could be detected by a moat delicate
galvanometer. In continuing to increaae the
temperature of the flnid aeleninm veir gradually
but steadily, its conductivity increaaed again.

" The interpretation of these experimenta ia as
fc^ows: — Amorphous seleninm retains a very

Uurgre amonnt of apeeiflc heat, which renders it s
non-condnctor of electricity ; when heated to 80°
this amorphous solid mass begins to changra ita
amorphona condition for the cryataUine form, in
which form it posaeaaea a greatiy reduced amonnt
of apeeiflc heat, giving riae to the increase of
temperature beyond that of aurrounding olgecta
when the change of condition is once set in. If
care is taken to limit the riae of temperature of
the aelenium to 100° C, and if it ia very gradually
cooled after being maintained for an hour or two
at that temperature, a masa is obtained which
condocta electricity to some extent, and which
shows increased conductivity under the influence
of light. But in examining the oondnctivity of
selemum so prepared at various temperatnres
below 80°, and without accession of light, it waw
found that its ctmduethUg inertatet viith riae
of ttmperaUtre, in which respect it resembles
carbon, sulphides of metals, and electrolytes gene-
rally. This my brother terms hia flrat modificatoon
of aeleninm.

" But in extending the heating influence np to
210°, and in maintaining tliat temperature by
means of a bath of paraffin for aome hours before
gradually reducing the same, he obtained a second
modification of selenium, in which its condncttvity
increases with fall of temperature, and in whitfi
modification it ia, therefore, analogona to the
metah. This second modification of aelenium ia
a better conductor of electricity than the first,
and ita senaitiveneaa to light ia ao great tliat ita
conductivity in sunlight ia fifteen times greater
than it is in the dark, aa will be seen from the
following table, in which ia given the effects of
different intensities of light on seleninm (Modifi>
cation 2) obtained at Woolwich on the 14th of
February, 1876:

1 Bslative Cosdnc-
tiTities.
SdKiilnm in

Bctiitanee
iaOhaia

1. Dark .... 82

2. Diffused daylight 110
8. Lamplight . ., 180
4. Snnl ght . . .| 470

1-0
8-4
6-6

14-7

10,070,000

2,980.000

1.790,000

680^000

Unfortunately, however, the second modification
is not so stable as the first ; when lowered in tem-
perature, parts of it change back into the first or
metalloid modification hj taking np specific heat,
and in watching thia effect a point ia diacovered
at which ratio of increase of conductivity with
fall of temperature cbangea sign, or where the
electrolytic snbatanoe appears to predominate over
the metallic aeleninm. If cooled down to 15° C,
the whole of the metallic aelenium isgradnally
converted back into the first variety. Taa physt*
cal conclusions here arrived at may be said to be
an extension of Helmholtr's theory that the con>
ductivity of metals varies inversely aa the total
heat contained in them. Hehnholtz had only the
sensible heat of temperature (counting from the
absolute zero point) in view, but it has already
been shown by Hittorf and Werner Siemens that

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SEMOLA— SETON

1487

it sppliai in the cue of tin and lome other metali,
alao to gpeciflc heat and to the latent heat of
f tuion. In geleniom the apeciflc heat is an ex-
tremely variable quantity, changing in the wlid
man at certain temperatnrei, and, it is contended,
nnder the influence of light. Aided by these ex-
perimental researches my brother arrives at the
concloiion that the inflaence of light upon sele-
nium may be explained by a ' e\ange of iU moU-
eular eondition near the turfaoe,from thaJUnt or
eUetrolytie into tht teeond or mttallie modifiea-
tion, or in other words, by a libtration of tp»e\/le
heat upon tie illuminated turfaet of eryttalline
««I«»t«m, which liberated heat is reabsorbed when
the liberating cause has ceased to act.'" Pro-
fessor Adams, who has likewise investigated this
■ingnlar action of light upon selenium, ascribes it
to a different cause. He says —

1. That the light falling on the selenium causes
an electro-motive force in it in the same direction
as the batten^ current passing through it, the
effect being similar to the effect due to polarisa-
tion in an electrolyte, but in the opposite direc-
tion.

2. That the light fiUling on the selenium causes
a change on its surface akin to the change which
it produces on the surface of a phosphorescent
body, and that in consequence of this change the
electric current is enabled to pass more readily
over the surface of the selenium.

SXK'OLA (Bnlloek's). This pwparation con-
rists of wheaten flour deprived of much of its
starch by washings with water, and contains the
largest amount (&% ) of nitrogenous or albumi-
noid principles consistent with its adaptability to
culinary purposes. It is specially intended as a
food for infants, weakly children, and invalids.

SSXOLI'SA. Sfn. Bjntovia, SxMOULnrA.
The large hard grains of wheat flour retained in
the bolting machine after the fine flour has
passed through its meshes. "The best semonle
u obtuned from the wheat of the southern parts
of Europe. With the semoule the flne white
Parisian bread called 'gruau ' is baked " ( Vre).

BEM'SGA. 8j/n. Sbhska, Sitaxi-boot, Rii-
TLBSiriLEi B. ; SsjrBSs KASix (B. p.), SsmiaA
(Ph. L., E., and D.), BAorz BBNie^s, L. " The
root of the Polggala lenega, Linn." (Ph. L.V
A stimulating diaphoretic and expectorant; m
large doses muretic, cathartic, and emetic In
America it is used as an antidote to the bite <^
the rattlesnake. Drs Chapman and Hartahome
extol it as an emmenagogue. Dr Pereira says
that it is an exceedingly valuable remedy in the
hitter stages of brondiial or pulmonary inflam-
mation when this disease occurs in aged, debili-
tated, or torpid constitutions. Dr Binger con-
siders it of little value. — Dott, 10 to 80 gr., in
powder or decoction (combined with aromatics,
opium, or camphor), thiice daily.

According to Patronillard senega is ocoarion>
ally adulterated with the roots of AtcUpia* mn-
eetotimtm. The branches of the latter root are
cylindrical, very white, and almost devoid of
taste ; those of senega, on the contrary, are yel-
lowish and twisted, and have a very acrid taste.
The froth produced by shaking an infusion of
senega keeps much longer than that produced by
an ii^nsion of the adulterant. In other respects

there is a great resemblance between the two
roots.

SBHIGIH. Sun. Poltoaldt, Poltsalio
Acn>. A white odourless powder, discovered by
Ciehlin in the hark of seneka root {Polj/gaut
lanega).

SEVHA. 8yn. SmVA, Sxsvs VOLIA, L.
There are two principal varieties :

1. ALBZAirSBIAir SEiniA (SENHA AUXAIT-

SBDTA— B. p.). The dried leaflets of Cattia aen-
tifolia, Delile. The leaves are " unequal at the
base, ovate acute, or obovate mncronate." It is
sometimes mixed with the leaves of Soteno-
ttemma argil (argel leaves), the presence of
which is often the occasion of much griping.
The leaf of argel is fully an inch long, warty,
regular in its formation, and the lateriu nerves
are imperfectly seen on the under side; whilst
that of the true Alexandrian senna never exceeds
t inch in length, is oblique, and the nerves on
the under side are very conspicuous.

8. IimiAK or Tiirirxva£LY sxinrA is composed
of the leaflets of Cattia angxttifoUa. These are
pale green, thin, flexible, and from 1 to 2 inches
long, and nearly \ inch broad. This variety is
equal in medicinal virtue to the best Alexan-
drian, and is to be preferred, on account of its
being imported perfectly free from adulteration. ;

Senna is purgative in doses of 10 to 80 gr.,
either in powder or made into an infusion of tea
with water, combined with ginger, caraways, or
some other aromatic, to prevent griping. It acta
chiefly on the small intestines, and generally
effects its purpose within four hours after being
taken.

8E"FIA. A pigment prepared from the < ink '
or black fluid secreted by Btpia qffieinalit, Linn.,
and several other varieties of oattle-fish. The
contents of the ' ink hags ' are ins|nasated as soon
as possibla after collection, and then form the
cmde sepia of commerce. This is prepared for
artists by boiling it for a short time in a weak
lye of caustic alkali, precipitating the solution
with an acid, and weu washing and carefully
drying the precipitate by a gentle heat. It
possesses a fine brown colour, and is used like
Indian ink.

SSB'FSjrTAXT. <S^. VisanriAV bkakb-boot;
Sbbpbntasia basiz (B.P.), Sbbpsxtabia bases,
Sbbpbrtasia, L. The rhizome and rootlets
of Arittoloeiia terpetUaria and of J., retioulata.
An excellent stimulating diaphoretic and tonic ;
in typhoid and putrid fevers, dyspepsia, Ac. It
is admirably suited to check vomiting and to
tranquillise the stomach, particularly in bilious
cases (Dr Chapman). — Vote, 10 to 20 gr. every
third or fourth hour, its use being preceded by an
aperient.

8X"BU][. Syn. Sbbalbvxbk. The clear
pale fluid in which the blood-globules float, and
which separates from blood during its coagulation.
It is, essentially, a feebly alkaline solution of
albumen. See AzBUVBir.

SESQTTI-. See Noxbbolatubb.

BKTVS. £^n. Sbtaobvm. An artificial nicer,
made by passing a portion of silk or thread nnder
the skin by means of a seton needle, a part of
which is drawn through daily, and thus keeps up
a constant irritation. Occasionally the thread is

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1498

SEVT7H— SEWAQE

anointed with gome irritating subitance for the
pnrpose of increasing the diicharge.

BE'VUII (Prepared). Syn. SEVTnt PBiEPARA-
TUK (B. P.), SsTUM luaiTBTicuii, L. Frep.
The internal fat of the abdomen of the sheep
puiifled by melting and straining.

Used to make mercnrial ointment. Tritnrated
with 8, 12, or 16 times its weight of qnicksilver,
the globules are completely extinguished in from
11 to 15 minutes.

SEWAGE, KemoTsl and Disposal of. The waste
and pntrescible refuse discharged from dwelling-
houses by hoase- pipes and dnuns into sewers may

be said, in general terms, to consist, besides hanuin
ftsces and nrine (in the drainage of some towns
the faces are not allowed to enter the sewen;
this, however, is the exception), of the dirtj trater
and soapsuds arising from washing our bodies, oar
bouses, and linen, more or less foul, as well as the
water which, having been used for cooking opera-
tions, necessarily contains variable quantiUes of
mineral and vegetable matter.

The above statement will have prepared ns not
only for the complex nature of sewage water as
shown in the following tables, but also for the
variability in the amount of ita oosstituents, this

CompotiHon of Sewer Water (Wat).

Ortins per GsUoB.

Organic matters ^solnble)

„ (suspended)

Lime . . • .
Magnesia

Soda ....
Potash ....
Chloride of so^om .
Sulphuric acid
Phosphoric acid
Carbonic acid

SaUcia/^^^i*^"].
\ Oxide of zinc J

Ammonia

19-40

89-10

10-18

1-42

4-01

8-66

26-40

e-34

2-63

901

6-20

7-48

184-78

41-08

17-00

14-71

1-S2

2-40

8-67

22-61

6-31

6-76

8-92

18-56

8-48

12-80

24-87

12-58

1-69

2-41

8-81

84-80

6-40

2-48

1176

6-46

7-88

9-20

11-25
1-85
1-89
1-09
6-68
3-43
0-64

4-77

146-11

126-78

89-20

London Sewer Water (Lbthzbt).

Soluble matters . .
Organic matters.
Nitrogen . . .
Mineral matters .
Phosphoric acid .
Potash ....
Suspended matters
Organic . . .
Nitrogen . . .
Mineral . . .
Phosphoric acid .
Potash ....

Graini per Gillon.

Da7 Night

Sewage.' Sewage.

66-74

15-08

6-44

40*66

0-86

1-21

38-16

1611

078

22-04

0-89

8-08

6509
7-42
6-19

57-67
0-69
116

13-99
7-48
0-29
6-61
0-64
0-04

Storm
Serage.

70-26
14-76

7-26
55-71

1-03

1-61
31-88
17-55

0-67

14-33

I 0-98

I 0-16

latter condition depending upon locality, and, as
experiment shows, the hour of the day at which
the sewage was collected.

Letbeby states that the sewer water in towns
with water-closets has the following average com-
position per gallon :

Organic matter . . . 27-72

Nitrogen 6*21

Phosphoric acid . , 1-67

Potash 2-08

Sewer water placed under the microscope re-
veals varions dead decaying matters, besides
swarms of bacteria, ciliated infusoria, amoebi-
form bodies, and fnngi, consisting of spores and
mycelium. The rotifera, diatoms, and desmids
are few in number (JParJce*). That a fluid having
a composition such as sewage water has been
shown to possess when mixed with solid excreta
would, from the decomposition that so soon takes
place in it, seriously endanger the health of those
in whose habitations it was allowed to remain, is
so self-evident to the sanitarian and pathologist
that it is no wonder every civilised community
should endeavour to get rid of this refuse from
their habitations as speedily and effectively as
possible. But the removal of the home sewage is
a proceeding as illogical as it is imperfect if we
afterwards neglect to dispose of it so as to render it
innocuous or devoid of dimger to the public health.
The old method of getting rid of sewage (even
when deprived of the f secal matter) by turning it
into rivers and streams has, more particnlwly
since the report of the Rivers Pollution Commis-
sioners in 1870, been gradually abandoned. That
when sewer water passes into a river it nndergoes

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1499

ft great amount of purification from oxidation,
inbaidence, and the agency of water plants is un-
deniable.

Letheby considered that if sewage mixed with
twenty times its bullc of water flowed for nine
miles it woald be perfectly oxidised. It appears,
however, from the experiments of Frankland, that,
BO far from sewage when mixed with twenty times
its Tolnme of water t>eing oxidised doring a flow
of ten or twelve miles, scarcely two thirds of it
wonld be so destroyed in a flow of 168 miles at
the rate of one mile per honr, or after the lapse
of a week. The results of Frankland's experi-
ments led him to infer that there is no river in
the United Kingdom of sufficient length to efFect
the destruction of sewage by oxidation ; and he
adds, " There is no process practicable on a large
scale by which the noxioas material (sewage
matter) can he removed from water once so con-
taminated ; and, therefore, I am of opinion that
water which Iiaa been once contaminated by
sewage or manure matter is thenceforth unsuit-
able for domestic use."

The discliarge of sewage water, whether with
or without solid excreta, into our springs and
rivers, was a practice so dacgerons and prejudicial
to health that it is no cause for wonder the Legis-
lature should, during the session of 1876, buive
passed a measure the object of which was, after
the lapse of one year, to facilitate legal proceed-
ings being instituted against persons who per-
mitted sewage or other deleterious refuse to flow
into rivers or streams. This measure, Icnown as
the 'Bivers Pollution Prevention Act,' is now
in force, and permits ofTenders to be proceeded
against; but it still leaves unsolved the im-
portant hygienic problem — How are we ultimately,
and with safety to the community, to dispose of
onr sewage ?

The numerous processes (the chief of which
will be brought under notice) proposed for
the attainment of this end have lieen divided
by writers and authorities on sanitary science
into — 1. WariOTHOss; 2. Dbt kktbodb.

1. Wrmbteodb. These comprise the removal
of excreta— (1) By discharging it into running
water. (2) By storage in tank with overflow.
(8) By carrying it into the sea. (4) By precipi-
tation. (5) By irrigation and filtration.

(1) Sg duoiarginff it into ruiming voter.
Onr previons remarks have already shown in what
respect this proposal is fallacious, and why it has,
therefore, been discontinued.

(2) Bji ttoraga in tank with ovttjlon. In this
process the sewage runs into a well-cemented
tank fitted with an overflow pipe, which some-
times leads into a second tank arranged in the
same manner ; the solids subside, and are removed
from time to time, whilst the liquid is allowed to
mn away. Instead of permitting the liquid to
escape into a ^tch or stream it has been pro-
posed to carry it into drain-pipes, which are
boned from half a foot to a foot in the subsoil,
where it will be readily sucked up by the roots of
grasses. This plan is only suited for small vil-
lages, or for a single house or mansion.

(3) By oartying it into the eea. The precau-
tions to be observed in the working of this system
are, wherever posrible, to let the ontlet or dis-

charge-pipe, which conveys the sewage to the sea,
be always under water, even at ebb tide, and to
take special care that the wind does not blow op
the sewers. A tide-flap, opening outwards, which
is usually fixed by a hinge on the sewer at its out-
let, will obviate this last contingency. At high
water the tide will fill the oatfaJl sewers to its
own level, and to that extent will check the dis-
charge of sewage, and thus cause a deposit in the
sewers filled with mixed sea water and sewage.
It is most important that this should l>e removed.
" If the sewage cannot be got well out to sea,
and if it issues in narrow channels, it may cause
a nuisance, and may require to be purified before
discharge " (Parku).

(4) Sg precipitation. The simplest of the
plans proposed for this method of removal is by
subsidence only, and would afterwards permit the
discharge of the snpematant sewage water into
ronning water or over the land. The removal of
the solid material is eflected in a manner some-
what similar to that followed in plan Ko. 2 ; hot
as the thin water which runs off must, when
poured into rivers or streams, be almost as dan-
gerous as the sewage itself, the process of precipi-
tation by settlement alone has little to commend
it over the old rude and objectionable practice, a
circumstance that in these days will doubtless
lead to its entire prohibition.

In order to ensure greater purification the sew-
age in the subsiding tanks is now usually mixed
With certain chemical reagents, which, it is be-
lieved, have the efFect not only of speedily pre-
cipitating the solid materials, but also carrying
down injurious matters suspended in the sewage
water, thus rendering it sufBciently pore to be
discharged without risk to health into any water-
course.

Of the numerous precipitants employed for
this purpose, we may mention the following :

Zame and Salt* of Lime. Quicklime, in the
proportion of 8 gr. to a gall, of water, or 1 lb. to
about 600 galls, of sewage ; lime, with the addi-
tion of about a fortieth dl its weight of chloride
of lime ; calcic phosphate dissolved in sulphuric
acid; Whitehead's patent, which consists of a
mixture of mono- and di-calcic phosphate ; chloride
of calcium.

AUminone Compounde. Bird's process — ^A
mixture of alnminons earths and sulphuric acid.
Anderson's and Lenk's — Impure sulphate of
alum ; refuse of alum works, either alone or mixed
with lime or charcoal. Scott's cement process —
Clay mixed with lime; natural phosphate of
aluminium dissolved by sulphuric acid and mixed
with lime.

The quantities of the above substances when
used as precipitants vary, in some of them 60, and
in others 80 gr. to a gall, of sewer water being
employed.

Maffneeinm Salti. Impure chloride of mag-
nesinm mixed with superphosphate of lime.

Carbon. As vegeteble charcoal, peat, sea-
weed charcoal, carbonised tan, lignite, and Bog-
head coke.

Iron. In the form of snlphate. Ellennan's
and Dale's — Perchloride; the sulphate is some-
times mixed with coal-dust.
Manganeie. Condy's fluid.

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SEWAGE

ZtMO. A* (olphate and chloride.

SiUat't Proeeu. The A. B. C. proceu, so
called becaoM compo«ed of alum, hlood, charcoal,
and clay.

Si^t Proeai*. Lime and tar are the pre-
cipitants. The efflnent water u filtered through
charcoal. The question now aiisea ai to whether
the sewer water after tteatment with any of the
above substances is in a fit condition to be poured
into a stream or river. The River Foliation Com-
missioners in their first and second reports give a
number of analyses, from which it ippears that
on an average the chemical treatment removes
89'8% of the matters suspended in the sewage
waters, but only 86-6% of the orgaiuc nitrogen
dissolved in them.

Of the A. B. C. process, Mr Crookea states that,
when properly carried out, it removes all the
phosphoric acid ; and Professor Voelcker's analysis
of the affluent water from sewage treated by the
acid phosphate of alumina process gives more
ammonia than the original sewer water, less
organic nitrogen by one half, and less phos-
phoric acid. Such water is said by some auuiori-
ties to be pure enongh to be cuacharged into
streams.

Gtneral 8oote$ Proceti. Gkneral Scott pro-
poses to treat the sewer water with lime and day,
and instead of employing the precipitate obtained
by this means as a manure, would, after burning
i^ use it as cement. He argues that the deposit
contains so much combustible matter as to con-
siderably reduce the quantity of coal usually ex-
pended in the manufacture of cement, and conse-
quently the cement could be sold at a remunera-
tive price.

This, lilce the 'carbonisation' process, possesses
the merit of eftectually destroying any noxious
principles present in the deposit.

Commenting on the various precipitation pro-
cesses, Dr Farkes writes: — " When the sewer
water is cleared by any of these plans is it fit to
be discharged into streams P In the opinion of
some authorities, if the precipitate is a good one
it may be so, and it appears certain that in many
cases it is chemically a tolerably pure water, and
it will no longer silt up the bed nor cause a nui-
sance. But it still contains, in all cases, some
organic matter, as well as ammonia, potash, and
phosphoric add. It has, therefore, fertilising
powers certainly, and possibly it has also injurious
powers. No proof of this has been given, but
also no disproof at present j and when we consider
how small the agencies of the specific diseases
probably are, and how likely it is that they remun
suspended, we do not seem to be in a position to
expect that the water, after inbndence of the de-
posit, will be safe to drink."

(6) By Irrigation and Infiltration. By this
process is meant the passing of the sewer water
over and through soil, with the olgect not only of
effecting its purification to such an extent as to
render it fit to be discharged into a river or
stream, but also of employing it as a valuable
manure. In the present uticle we shall treat
only of the application of the process to the first
of these purposes.

There IS ample evidence to show that, if carried
out with due attention to detail, no process for the

treatment of iffinent sewage water, so a> to rendei
it innocuous, is equal to that which subjects it to
irrigation and filtration.

Tlie Bivers Pollution CSommiasioners thos
report on it: — "We are, therefore, justified in
recommending irrigation as a safe as well as
profitable and efficient method of cleansing town
sewage."

The conditions necessary for the successful
carrying ont of this system are thus stated by
Mr T. J. Dyke, in explaining " the process of the
downward intermittent filtration of sewage at
Troedyrhiw, near Merthyr Tydvil :"— « 1. The
soil of the land to be used must be porona. 8,
A m^n effluent drun, which must not be leas
than six feet from the surface, must be provided.
8. The surface of the soil to be so inclined as to
permit the sewage stream to flow over the whole
land. 4. The fitering area should be divided
into four equal parts, each part to be irrigated
with the sewage for six hours, and then an
interval of eighteen hours to elapse before a
second irrigation takes place; each of the four
parts would thus be used for six hours out of the
twenty-four. An acre of land so prepared would
puii^ 100,000 gallons of sewage per day." At
Troedyrhiw the sewage ba* lime added to it, and
the mixture is strained throngh cinders into
tanks. From the tank it flows on to the con-
duit, from which it is conveyed to the filtering
areas.

" These consist of about twenty acres of land,
immediately adjoining the road on which the
tanks are placed, and have been arranged into
filtering areas or beds on a plan devised by Mr J.
BaylOT Denton. The land is a loamy soil, dgh-
teen uiches thick, overlying a bed of graveL
The whole of these twen^ acres have been
underdrained to a depth of from five to seven
feet. The lateral dndns are placed at r^^nlar
distances from each other, and run towards the
main or effluent drain. This is everywhere six
feet deep. The surface of tiie land is formed
into beds; these have been made to slope towards
the main drain by a fall of 1 in 160.

" The surface is ploughed in ridges ; on these
vegetables are planted or seeds sown. The line
of the ridged furrow is in the direction of the
underdrain. Along the raised margin of each
bed, in each area, delivering carriers are placed,
one edge being slightly depressed.

"The strained sewage passes from the con-
duits into the delivery carriers, and as it over-
flows the depressed edges runs gently into and
along the furrows down to the lowest and moat
distuit part of the plot. The sewage continues
to be so delivered for six hours, then an interval
of rest of eighteen hours takes place, and again
the land is tiioroughly charged with the fertilis-
ing stream. The water percolates through the
six feet of earth, and readies the lateral drains,
which convey it to the main effluent drain.

"The result of this plan of disposing of
sewage by downward intermittent flltntion may
be seen in samples of the effluent water taken
from the outlet of the main drain. Such water
is bright, perfectly pellucid, free from smdl, and
tastes only of common salt. It may be safely
drunk — in facti, is used by the workmen em-

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SEWAGE

1801

ployed on the farm. Dnring the procesi of irri-
gation no noinnee is caused, for we wnl qaickly
abtorbs all the floidi pawed on to it ; in fact, in
two or three hoars after the water has ceased to
flow on the land, an ohserrer would say that the
gionnd had not been wetted for days. The
workmen say that no unpleasant smell is noticed,
nor has the health of the persons employed, in
Miy one instance, been affected by any presumed
poisonous exhalation.

" The only imperfection of the plan is that, at
the end of the furrows nearest the lowest comer
of a plot, a slight deposit of scum is formed.
This scum is formed by the flne insoluble preci-
intate c^oaed mainly by the addition of lime to
the sewage stream."

The table given below, taken from the report
of the RiTers Pollution Commissionen, gives the
composition of the effluent water after it has
passed through the soil.

If those results be compared with the condi-
tion of the supernatant sewage water, after treat-
ment by any of the chemical precipitants already
enumerated, the inferiority of these latter as
methods of removal of the organic impurity of
the sewage water will be evident.

The best of these precipitants give a removal
of only 65'8% of organic nitrogen, whilst the
A. B. C. process shows a diminution of 68'9%
only. It appears from the first and second re-
ports of the Bivers Pollution Commissioners,
that on an average the precipitation processes
remove 89*8% of the suspended matters, but only

86*6 per cent, of the organic nitrogen dissolved
in the liquid.

The elfects of a soil upon sewage water passing
through it are the following :

1. The Altering property of the soil mechanic
cally arrests and retains Uie suspended particles
of the sewage.

2 and 8. The porosity and physical attraction
of the soil lead to the oxidation of the organic
matter contained in the sewage, as instanced in
the discovery of nitrates and nitrites in the
effluent water, which did not exist previous to
filtration.

4. A chemical reaction takes place between tiu
constituents of the sewage and those of the soil.

If the charge Immght against the system of
irrigation, via. that it is detrimental to the
health and comfort of those who reside near
sewage farms, cannot be denied, it seems pretty
certain that, in most cases, any ill effects arising
from the method may be traciBd to its defective
management. The selection of the soil which ia
to receive the sewage is a highly important con-
sideration. The best for this purpose seems to
be a loose marl, containing oxide of iron and
alumina ; but sand, as well as chalk, is said to
answer excellently.

If the soil be of a stiff clayey nature it most
be broken up and mixed with sand, lime, or
aahes. The upper parts most he comminuted
and rendered porous, and it must be efficiently
and deeply drauied. At Troedyrhiw, as we have
seen, the effluent dnun is six feet deep.

Bcsntts of biigitioii, in ports p<r 100,000.

Fsreentue of diswWgd Orpntc
Foliation lemoTcd,

Ortiaic Carbon. Oiguic Nitrogtn.

Pareentiieof

nqwndod

Oigaaic Follntian

nnani.

On fallow land at Chorlqr (adhesive loam)
At Edinbnrgh fboth sand and clay) .
Barking (gravelly s<^) ....
Aldershot (light sand>—

Best result

Worst remit . • ■ • .

Average reaolt

Carlisle (mht loam)

Pbnrith (light loam)

Rngby (adhesive soU) ....
Banbury (principally clay)—

Best result

Worst result

Average result

Warwick (stiff day)

Worthing (loam)

Bedford (light gravelly msU), average result
Norwood (clay), average reralt .
Croydon (gravelly soil)—

Best result

Worst result

Average result

62-8
46-8
66-8

91-8

80-9
77-9
760
72-8

87-8

64-1

76-

7V7

42-7

71-6

66-0

78-2
61-6
67-4

70-2
811
86-2

87-8
82-9
86-1
69-8
77-2
92^

91-8
80-1
85-7
89-6
86-8
81-8
76-1

98-2
90-4
91-8

100-
84-9
100-

99-7
87-7
93-7
100'
100-
960

96-0
90-8
98-2
100-
100-
100-
100-

100-
100-
100-

The sewer water shoold be poured over the
land in as fresh a condition as pcMiUe, having
been previously deprived of an* solid or grosser
parts Of straining. At Carlisle, deoomporition

of the sewage during it* flow is prevented by
adding carlralic acid to it. Iiastly, it is of the
utmost consequence that Uie amount of land used
as the filtering medium shall be large. Letheby

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SEWAGE

has b]iowii that wbere this precaution is neglected
not only is the purification of the sewage incom-
plete, bat the plan becomes a public nnisanee.
The amount of filtering earth should not be less
than one cubic yard for eight gallons of sewage
in twenty-four hours in properly prepared soiU ;
in some soils more than a cubic yard is required.

The late Dt Parkes has given a summary of
Tarious reports that have Trom time to time been
issued as to the effects of sewage farms upon the
public health and oomfort. He says: — "That
sewage farms, if too near to houses, snd if not
carefully conducted, may give off disagreeable
effluvia is certain ; but it is also clear that in some
farms this is very trifling, and that when the
•ewer water gets on the land it soon ceases. It is
denied by some persons that more nuisance is ex-
cited than by any other mode of using manure.
As regards health, it has been alleged that these
farms may — 1st, give off effluvia which may pro-
duce enteric fever or dysentery, or some allied
affection j or, 2nd, end in the spread of entozoic
diseases; or, Srd, make ground swamp; and
marshy, and may also poison wells, and thus affect
health."

The evidence of Edinbnrgh, Croydon, Aldershot,
Kugby, Worthing, Romford, and the Sussex Luna-
tic Asylum is very strong against any influence
in the production of typhoid by sewage farms
effluvia. On the other hand, Dr Clouston's record
of the outbreak of dysentery in the Cumberland
Asylum is counter evidence of weight ; and so is
one of the cases noted by Dr Letheby of typhoid
fever outbreak in Copley, when a meadow was
irrigated with the brook water containing the
sewage of Halifax.

The negative evidence is, however, so strong
as to justify the view that the effluvia from a
well-managed sewage farm do not produce ty-
phoid fever or dysentery, or any affection of the
kind. In a case at Eton, in which some cases of
enteric fever were attributed to the effluvia, Dr
Buchanan discovered that the sewer water had
been drunk ; this was more likely to have been
the cause.

With regard to the second point, the spread
of entozoic diseases by the carriage of the sewer
water to the land has been thought probable by
Cobbold, though as solid excreta from towns have
been for some years largely employed as manure,
it is doubtful whether the liquid plans would be
more dangerons. The special entozoic diseases
which, it is feared, might thus arise, are tape-
worms, round-worms, trichina, Bilharzia, and Dis-
toma hepaticnm in sheep. Cobbold's latest ob-
servations show that the embryos of Bilharzia die
•o rapidly, that even were it introduced into Eng-
land there would be little danger.

The trichina disease is only known at present to
be produced in men by the worms in the flesh of
pigs which is eaten, and it seems doubtful whether
pigs receive them from the land. There remain,
then, only tapeworms and round-worms for men
and Distoma hepaticnm for sheep to be dreaded.
With regard to these the evidence at present is
negative; and though much weight must be
attached to any opinion of Cobbold's, this argu-
ment agunst sewage irrigation most be admitted
t9 want evidence mm experience.

The third criticism appears to be true.

The land may become swampy and the ac^acent
wells poisoned, and disease (ague, and perhaps
diarrhcea and dysentery) be thus produced.
But this is owing to mismanagement, and
when a sewage farm is properly arranged it
is not damp, and the wells do not suffer (' Prac-
tical Hygiene ').

The foregoing processes for the removal of
excreta from dwellings necessitate the joint em-
ployment of sewers and large quantities of water.
It may, however, sometimes happen that the adop-
tion of either of these appliances may be not only
difficult, but altogether impracticable; as, for
instance, in localities where a sufficient fall cannot
be obtained for the sewers, or where the supply
of water is not adequate ; or when the severity of
the climate at certain times is such, that for
months in the year the water is frozen. Under
these conditions the excreta must either be allowed
to accumulate about houses, or else be removed by
methods other than those we have described at
mpre or less short intervals. Of course their
speedy removal is the best and safest; but in
cases where they are permitted to accumulate, it
is essential they should be mixed with deodorants,
and confined in properly constructed receptacles
(as far as possible from dwellings), from which
category such pre-eminently unsanitary arrange-
mentis as cess-pools and dead wells must be
excluded.

When excreta are got rid of from houses by
other means than those of sewers and water, the
processes employed are termed —

2. Dby X8TE0DB. These comprise —

(1) Removal of the excreta without admixture.

(2) Removal of the excreta after treatment
with deodorising and antiputrescent substances.

(1) Removal without a^iaeiure. In some cases
boxes and tanks receive the ordure and urine, and
these are changed more or less frequently.

In Olasgow the excreta from a part of the city
containing eighty thousand people is thus col-
lected and removed without admixture, except
that from the garbage of the houses, daily.

In Edinburgh there are also many closets sup-
plied with moveable metal pails, which are likewise
removed daily. Many large dwelling-houses in
this latter city are entirely without water-closet
accommodation j hence the custom of placing
pails full of excrement, urine, Ac, outside the
houses to be taken away by the scavenger. In
Rochdale the excrement, Ik., is collected in tubs,
with tight-fitting lids, which are emptied twice or
thrice a week. These tubs are manufactured out
of disused paraffin casks. In Leeds, also, the
excreta are collected in boxes without bung sub-
jected to admixture. In some towns in the north
of England the excreta fall into receptacles con-
structed upon what is termed the ' Goux ' principle.
In this system the pails or receptacles are lined
with some absorbent lining, which abstracts the
urine. The refuse of cloth manufacturers is
chiefly used for this purpose. Another contrivance
is to have the receptacle fitted with a pipe or
drun ; the object in each case being to render the
fcsces drier and to delay their decomposition.

The pail or tub system (fouet tnobitet), which
is employed in Belgium, has. for its object the

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SEWAGE

1603

coUection of tbe facet in a state of parity,
withoat sdmiztiire with water, in a dean and
odoorlest condition.

The apparatus for carrying it out consists of —

1. Tht leai. This consists simply of a soil-pan
of stoneware or faienee, without woodwork, the
soil-pan merely projecting' from the top of the
descent pipe. Its borders are furnished with a
grooye filled with water or sand, into which the
raised rim of the lid fits.

2. The eonnteting pipe. This jnpe is straight,
withont a syphon, and joins the descent pipe at
the very acute angle of 22°, and is ahout 4 inches
in diameter inside. It is, like the next, made of
stoneware, glazed inside.

8. DeMcatU pipe. This is from 6 to 8 inches in
internal diameter ; it is vertical, and is composed
of a series of pipes, connected with each other
by dry sand joint^ withoat cements, fixed to the
wall by iron bands.

It rests at the ground-floor level on a strong
flagstone. Its prolongation through and below
this stone consists of a sliding pipe of wrought
copper capable of being lengthened or shortened,
and solidly fixed to the stone by a cast-iron con-
nector. A sort of circular shaUow dish {teuMe),
which can be hong under this last part of the
descent pipe, serves at a g^ven moment to shut its
lower onflce.

4. Tui (foamon). The excremental matters
coming down the descent pipe fall into a tub of
from 8 to 8 hectolitres (44 to 66 gallons), in a
hole in the top of which the lower part of the
pipe fits tightly. A cover fitted with a spring
serves to shut and lute the tub when it is full.
Placed on a stand furnished with wheels, the tub
is easily managed.

When filled it is immediately replaced by
another similar contrivance. If the tub is under-
ground, the rails (on which the stand moves)
should be placed on an incline, so that the removal
and replacement may be easily effected. The
underground chamber must be isolated, and the
entrance to it placed outside the building. The
thorough tarring of the interior of the tub not
only preserves the staves, but also partly neutralises
the effect of the mephitic gases which the excre-
mental matters discharge.

VeiUilation pipe. To prevent the smells and
gases which are given off from the mouth of the
tub from spreading themselves (in the house) by
means of the opening in the privy seat, at the
upper extremity of the descent pipe is fixed a
ventilation pipe, which rises above the coping of
the roof, and the action of which is increased by
means of a vane, or any other contrivance pro-
ducing the same effect {Corfield).

It is said that in the working of any of the
above processes little or no nuisance ensues, if
only ordinary care and intelligence are used. In
many cases the excreta collected by the methods
above specifled are conveyed to manufactories and
then converted into manure.

It does not appear that in England the health
of the workmen employed in a manure manu-
factory or of those who Uve in the neighbourhood
of it suffers in consequence.

(2) Removal of the excreta after treatment aith
deodorieing and aiUiputreecent ntbttanaet. This

is the method usually adopted when the dry pro-
cess is followed, the excreta mixed with the
deodorising substance when removed from the
house being at once applied to the land.

a. Coal and teood aihee. It is a common
practice in the north of England to throw coal
ashes on the excreta, which fall into closets made
with hinged flaps or seats for the purpose of
admitting the ashes, as at Manchester and Sal-
ford. Wood ashes are far more effective deo-
dorisers than coal ashes, but they are seldom
procurable. " In some towns there are receptacles
called ' middens,' intended both for excreta and
ashes; sometimes these are cemented, and there
may be a pipe leading into a sewer so as to dry
them. The midden system is a bad one; even
with every care, the vast heaps of putrefying
material which accumulate in some of our towns
must have a very serious influence on the health,
and the sooner the middens are abolished the
better."

h. Deodoriting povderi. At some of the
Indian stations deodorants, such as M'Dongall's
or Calvert's carbolic acid powders, have been suc-
cessfully employed, a comparatively small quantity
being mixed with the excreta.

In Germany a mixture of lime, chloride of
magnesium, and tar is largely used for the same
purpose, and is known as ' Suvems' deodoriser.'

Another deodoriser (the Mfiller Schiir), also
used in the dry method, is composed of lime,
100 lbs. ; powdered wood charcoal, 20 lbs. ; peat
powder or sawdust, 10 lbs.; and embolic acid
(containing 60% to 70% of real acid), 1 lb. After
having been mixed, the mass is placed under cover
for a night to avoid any chance of spontaneous
ignition, and when dry it is packed in barrels.

0. Charcoal. The powerfully deodorising pro-
perties of charcoal obviously adapt it for the
removal of excreta in the dry state, after the
adnuxtore with them. But the comparatively
high price of animal charcoal, although nearly
six times the value of dry earth as a deodorant,
prohibits its being extensively used. Feat is,
however, cheaper than animal charcoal. To ob-
viate the objection of cost, Mr Stanford, in 1872,
proposed to make charcoal for this purpose from
seaweed. The charcoal obtained from this source
is said to be cheap and of great service as an
excretal deodoriser. The mixed charcoal and
sewage is sufficiently odourless to be stored for
some months in a convenient receptacle outside a
dwelling-honse.

After the seaweed charcoal has become
thoroughly impregnated with faces and urine,
the mixture is recarbonised in a retort, and the
carbon can be again used ; the distilled products
(ammoniacal liquor, containing acetate of lime,
tar, and gas) are sufficient to pay the cost, and
it is said even to yield a proflt. About the same
time carbonisation of sewage in retorts, with or
without previous admixture with charcoal, was
proposed by Hr Hickey, of Darieeling. There
can be little doubt that, regarded from a purely
sanitary point of view, carbonisation of sewage
matter is an excellent plan. Mr Hickey pro-
posed the utilisation of the ammoniacal products
resulting from his process.

d. Dried earth. The Rev. Mr Moule was the

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1504

8HADD0CK-«HAaBEEN

first to direct attention to the Talae of dried
earth as a deodorant of excreta.

Mr Honle's 'earth closet' consists of a box
with a receptacle below for the excreta. By
palling a ping dried earth, which is placed in a
hopper above, enters the closet and falls upon the
excreta, thus disinfecting and deodorising them.
The consumption of earth averages from H lbs.
to 11 lbs. a day. The slop water shonld not be
thrown into the closet, hut disposed of in some
other way. In another plan, as in Taylor's im-
proved closet, the urine is carried off without
mixing at all with the feeces.

Clay, marl, and vegetable humus form the best
kind of earths. When dried the day may be
easily redaced to powder. Chalk and sand are
comparatively nseless. The receptacle is emptied
from time to time, the contents forming a valu-
able manure.

The earth closet is more particularly adapted
for small villages and isolated mansions. One
difficulty of its application by cottagers consists
in the necessity of collecting, drying, and storing
the earth ; the limited space in the cottager's
dwelling not permitting this. One great ob-
stacle to the effective carrying out of this system
amongst extensive communities is the difficulty
of procuring the large supply of earth that its
adoption necessitates. With proper supervision
and care the ' earth system ' answers admirably ;
if these are not bestowed on it, it as signally fails.
It has been adopted with great success in many
schools, barracks, and other large buildings.

" It is coming into great use in India, and is
carried out with gr«at attention to detidl. In
those European stations where water is not pro-
curable Mr. Monle's invention has been a boon of
great value, and medical officers say that nothing
has been done in India of late years which has
contributed so much to the health and comfort
of the men. The plan of separating the urine
from the fmces has been strongly advocated by
Dr Cornish, of Madras, and would, no doubt, be
attended with g^eat advantages in India if there
are means of disposal of the urine. The chief
difficulty in the European barracks in India is
felt during the rainy season, when the mixed
excreta and earth cannot he kept snffiaently dry.
In the case of natives of India, however, a serions
difficulty arises in the nse of the earth system, in
consequence of the universal use of water for
ablution after using the closet. Every native
takes with him a small vessel holding ten to
twenty ounces of water, so that a large amount
of fluid has to be ditmosed of. The usual earth
closet does not softce for this. Ur Charles
Turner, C.E., of Sonthampton, has contrived a
closet suitable for the native family ; it is unfor-
tunately too costly, and possibly a rimple iron
box, with a pipe to carry off the nrine and ablu-
tion water, would be better suited for the poorer
classes " (^Parket).

e. Captain JAeurnur"! pnemiiatu! plan. This
process, the invention of a Dutch engineer, is in
use at Amsterdam, Leyden, Dordrecht, and a few
other Continental towns. It is also known as the
' aspiration plan,' Its outlines are as follows : —
" The l^pes and tubes leading from the various
WBter-dosets and privies pecnliar to the system

are connected with street mains, which mains
again communicate with underground horizontal
cast-iron cylinders or tanks, these tanks being
directly connected with a powerful air-pump
worked by steam. Communication between the
main and the tanks, as well as between the tainlrn
and the pump, can be made or broken by means
of stopcocks. Hence it follows that when access
is allowed between one of the tanks and the air-
pump, this latter will, when put into action, pro-
duce a vacuum in the tank, and if the stopcock
of the main leading to the tank be then opened,
the contents of all the privies and water-closets
the pipes of which run into the main will be re-
moved by being swept into the tank by pneumatic
force, in this manner each tank is treated in
succession. Similarly the sewage is carried to
the large reservoirs of a manure manufactory. It
is here mixed with a littie sulphuric acid to pre-
vent the formation of ammonia, and being eva-
porated down i» vacuo becomes converted, when
sufficiently dry, into poudrette. In Lieumnr*a
process all deodorants are dispensed with, and ita
mixture vrith water is prevented by means of
porous drain-pipes laid above the sewers, by which
contrivance the subsoil water is kept out of the
sewers."

Sewage, UtiUsation of. " Mr. Peregrine Birch
read before the Institution of Surveyors a paper
on ' The Use of Sewage by Farmers,' which em-
bodied some facts that deserve to be noticed, as
bearing on a question we have repeatedly dis-
cussed. It appears that there are at the present
time ' upwards of one hundred owners and ocen-
piera of land in Great Britun who nse sewag^e
for the sake alone of what they can get out of it
by agricultural means.' Of these 'more than
sixty are tenant farmers, who continue to nse it
although they have, annually at least, the option
of ceasing to do so.' It seems five out of six of
the tenant fanners purchase the sewage they
employ, so that their adhesion to the method
proves conclusively that it pays. Nearly fonr
thousand acres of land are under regular cultiva-
tion with sewage. Mr Birch is of opinion that
'advocates of sewage precipitation processes
should not regard sewage farmers as thrar rivals,
for a chemical process might be very largely used
irith advantage when farmers are being persuaded
or taught to use sewage. But this shonld be the
distinct aim of all cultivation, for there is no
chemical process that could not be worked to
greater advantage during two months of the year
than twelve, or applied to a small qnanti^ of
sewage at less cost tiian to a large.' Our primary
interest is to see the utilisation of sewage gener-
ally adopted ; the method employed must he de-
termined by experience on the grounds of cheap-
ness and expediency " (' Lancet ').

A vast amonnt of veiy valuable information on
this subject will be found in the ' First and Second
Reports of the Royal Commission on Metro-
politan Sewage Discharge, 1884 ' (C— 8842, 9d.,
and C— 4258, 8id.).

SEAD'SOCK. A large species of orange^ the
fmit of CUrm denunana, Linn.

SHAOSEIir. This is prepued from the skins
of the horse, wild ass, and camel, as follows : —
The akin u freed from epidermis and hair by soak-

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SHAKBB EXTRACT— SHEEP

1606

ing in water, and, after dressing with the Car-
rie's fleshing-knife, is sprinkled over, whilst still
wet and stretched, with the seeds of a species of
CAtnopodiutn, which are embedded in it by strong
pressure, and in this state it is dried ; the seeds
are then shaken off, and the surface mhbed or
■haved down, nearly to the bottom of the seed-
pita or indentations ; it is next soaked in water,
by which the skin swells, and the recently de-
pressed surface rises into a number of minute
prominences ; it is, lastly, dyed and smoothed off.
Black is given to it with galls and copperas;
bine, with a solution of indigo j green, with
copper filings and sal-ammoniac j and red, with
cochineal and alum. Shagreen was formerly
very extensively used for covering the cases of
watches, spectacles, surgical instruments, &e,

SHAKES EZTBACT. According to the mann-
factorers' statements, it represents an extraction
of IrU vtrtieolor, Zaptandra vifyiniea, StilUngtia
vKHntUi*, •Ti^loM regia, Otmlthtriaprocnmhtm,
Tar(ueac»m, Aetaa raeemota, Otnticma mira,
Sgdraitu emtadtmii, Stumffnuu atropurpurnu,
Ctguienm annmum, aloes, and sassafras, to which
bortkx, hydrochloric acid, sugar, and podophyllin
are added. Hager ^ves the following formula :
^Ext. gentian, 6 &. ; ext. centanrii, marrubii,
•urant. oort., tormentilli, of each, 2 dr.; aloes,
20 gr. ; borax, 40 gr. ; aq. cinnamomi, 2 oz.; aq.
rose, 8 ox. ; tinct. capnci, 1 oz. ; ol. sassafras, 6
minims; ol. snin steUkt., 2 minims; acid, hydro-
chlor., 1 dr.

SHALLOT'. Sfn. Ebohaiot. The Allium
atcaloiueum, Linn., » plant alUed to the onion,
the bnlb of which is much used as a sance or pot-
herb.

SHAMFOOUre. A practice common in the
Bast, having for its object the increase or resto-
ration of the tone and vigour of the body, or the
mitigation of pain. It is applied either in the
bath or immediately after quitting it, generally
the latter, and ccouists in presring and kneading
the flesh, stretching and relaxing the knee-joints,
and laboriously broshing and scrubbing the skin.

SHAMPOO UaUIO. Prep. 1. Sapo mollis
(B. P.), 1 oz.; Uqnor potasus, 2 oz. ; rectified
spirit, 2 oz. ; pwfume, q. s. ; water, to 20 oz. Dis-
solve the soap in the water by aid of heat, add
the potash, and when cold, the spirit and per-
tmne.

8. Soft soap, i oz.; powdered borax, 1 dr. ;
ammonia, 1 dr. ; eau de Cologne, i oz. ; boiling
distilled water, 20 oz. Dissolve the soft soap
and borax in the water, and when cold add the
ammonia and eau de Cologne.

BEAXPOO POWBEB. Pfep. Borax powder,
6 dr. ; caldned soda, 1 oz. ; qnulayine, i oz. ; per-
fnme. It is very quickly dissolved 1^ the ose of
1 quart of warm water.

8EABP8. See Flovb.

SEATIHa. The following are Hr Mechi's
instructions for this, to many persons, trouble-
some operation: — Never ful to well wash your
beard with soap and cold water, and to rub it
dry, immediately before yon apply the lather, of
which the more yon nse the easier you will shave.
Never use warm water, which makes a tender
fitoe. Place the razor (closed, of coarse) in yoor
pocket, or under your arm, to warm it. The
Toii. n.

moment yon leave your bed is the best time to
shave. Always pnt your shaving-brash away
with the lather on it.

The razor (being only a very fine saw) should
be moved in a sloping or sawing direction, hold-
ing it nearly flat to your face, care being taken
to draw the skin as tight as possible with the left
hand, so as to present an even surface and throw
out the beard. The practice of pressing on the
edge of a razor in stropping generally rounds it ;
the pressure should be directed to the back, which
must never be raised from the strop. If yoa
shave from heel to point of the razor, strop it
from point to heel; but if you begin with the
point, then strop from heel to point. If you only
once put away your razor without stropping or
otherwise cleaning the edge, you must no longer
expect to shave well, the soap and damp so soon
mst the fine teeth or edge. A piece of plate
leather should always be kept with the razors.

8HATIH& PLXIIB. See Ebbsitos ov Soap.

SHAWLS, to Scour. Scrape 1 lb. of soap into
thin shavings, and let it be boiled with as much
water as wiu convert it into a Uiin jelly. When
cold beat it with the hand, and mix with it three
table-spoonfuls of oil of turpentine, and one of
hartshorn. Let the shawl be well washed in this
mixture, and afterwards rinsed in .cold water, so
as to get rid of the soap.

Next let the shawl be rinsed in salt and water,
then wring out the water from it, and fold it be-
tween two sheets, being careful not to allow two
folds of the shawl to lie together; finally mangle
and iron with a cool iron.

SHEEP. S^n. Ona, L. The Ovii aritt, an
animal domesticated almost eveiywhere. Its flesh
supplies us with food, its skin with leather, its
fleece with wool, and its intestines with catgut.
Its fat (sevum) is officinal. See MmoK, Bvxt,

&C.

Sheep Washes. 1. Arsenions add in powder,
carbonate of potash, of each, 6 oz.; water, 14
galls. Boil t(^ether for half an hour.

2. Arsenious acid in powder, soft soap, and
carbonate of potash, of each, 6 oz. ; sulphur, 4 oz. ;
bruised hellebore root, 2 oz. ; water, 14 galls.
Boil the ingredients in a portion of the water for
half an hour, or until the arsenic is dissolved,
then add the remainder of the water, and strain
through a coarse sieve. Mr Youatt says : — " More
care wan is usually taken should be exercised in
order that the fluid may penetrate to every part
of the skin, and which should be ensured by a
previous washing in soap and water. The arsenic
that necessarily remains about the wool when the
water has dried away would probably destroy the
acari as fast as they are produced. When a
greater quantity of arsenic has been used, or the
sheep has been kept too long in the water, fatal
oonseqaences have occasionally ensued."

8. A sheep-dipping composition employed on
the Continent is — Arsenious add, 1 lb. ; sul-
phate of zinc, 10 lbs. ; dissolved in 26 galls, of
water.

4. The Australian sheep fanners use a weak
solution of bichloride of mercury (1 oz. of the
bichloride to 4 galls, of water).

6. Water, 40 parts, at the temperature of 60°
to 67° C; to this add 1 part of soluble glass

95

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1606

SHELLAC— SHOW BOTTLES

(the solaUe Bilicates). Thia is recommended as
a very efficient and perfectly safe sheep wash by
Messrs Baerle and Co., of Worms. In washing
the sheep with this preparation care shoald he
taken to cover the eyes of the animal with a ban-
dage, to perform the washing with the solution
instantaneously, and to remove the surplus with
tepid water.

" Yards into which newly clipped sheep are
to be turned should he previously cleared of all
green food, hay, and even fresh water ; if per-
fectly empty they are still safer. When the
dipping is finished they should be cleansed, washed,
and swept, and any of the unused dipping solu-
tion at once poured down the drains. Dipped
sheep should remun, if possible, in an open ez-
( posed place, as on a dry road, or in a large open
yard. Over-crowding should be avtnded, and
every iacility given for impid drying, which is
greatly expedited by selecting for the operation
fine, clear, drying weather. On no account should
sheep be returned to their grazings until they are
dry, and all risk of dripping over" (Sinla]/
Jnim).
SHBIiLAC. See L&O.

SHXLL-nSH. The common name for the
crustacean and molluscous animals that are used
for food. 'Shell-fish' are extremely liable to
disturb the functions of the stomach and bowels.
The oyster (Ottrea eduUt) and the cockle (Car-
<it«m tduU) are, perhaps, the least objectionable.
The crab {Cancer pagunu), the crayfish (AitacMS
Jhtmalu), the lobster {Sovumu vulgari*) the
mussel (Mytibtt tdmlit), the prawn {PeUttmo*
serratiu), tibe periwinkle {Littorina lUtorta), and
the shrimp {Crattgo* vulfforu), with the excep-
tion of the claws of the first three, aie always
suspicious, paracnlarly in hot weather, and often
absolutely poisonous. We have seen the most
alarming, nay, fatal symptoms follow the use of
mussels, even amongst those habitually accus-
tomed to take them ; whilst it is a weU-known
fact that the luscious bodies of the crab and lob-
ster have too often formed the last supper of the
epicure. See OYBTnt, Ik.

SHXLLS (Frapaied). /Sjni. Tests tiusbjl-
XIM (Ph. L. 1886), L. Prtp. (Ph. L. 18S6.)
Wash oyster-shells (ostkhx — Ph. L.) with boiling
water, having previously freed them from ez-
teaneous matters; then prepare them in the
maimer directed for chalk. The product is
similar in constitution and properties to prepared
chalk.

Sheila, to Follih. 1. The surface of the shell
should be first cleaned by rubbing it over
with a rag dipped in hydrochloric acid till the
outer dull skin is removed. It must be then
washed in warm water, dried in hot sawdust, and
polished with chamois leather. Those shells
which are destitute of a natural polished surface
may be either varnished or rubbed with a mixture
ef taipoli powder and turpentine, applied by means
of a wash-leather, after which fine tripoli alone
should be nsed, and, finally, a little olive oil, the
•niface being brought up with the chainois
leather as before.

8. " The shells are first boiled in a strong soln-
tiim of potash, then wound on wheds, sometimes
through one stratum to show an underlying one.

then polished with hydrochloric acid and putty
powder. In this operation the hands are in great
danger. Shell-grinders are generally almost all
cripples in their hands " {8po»).

BHKS'BET. [Pers.] A cooling driink, used
in the East, prepared with the juices of fhut,aud
water, variously sweetened and flavoured. The
word has been, of late years, commonly employed
in these countries in a similar manner. See
Lbhoitasi, OsAHaBASi, and Powdbrs.

BESB'ST. 8fn. Shxbsy wnrB, Shbbbis;
YxMTric XBBlomi (Ph. L.), Vihuk axiBUX (Ph.
E.}, \tsvu ALBVx HiBFAiriouii (Ph. D.), L-
This is the only wine ordered in the British
Pharmacopoeias. See Wikbs.

SHXSBT-COBBLKB. Prep. {Bedaood.) Half
fill a tumbler with clean poanded ice; add a
table-spoonful of powdered white sugar, a few
thin slices of lemon with the peel (or some straw-
berries or other similar fruit, bruised), and a wine-
glassful or more of sherry wine ; mix them toge-
ther (lightly), and as the ice melts, snck the liqnor
through a straw (or a small tube of ulver or
glass).

Obt. A favourite American drink; very re-
freshing in hot weather.

BHnr"GI<XS. i^. Zostkb, Hbbvbs zobteb,
Hbbpbs zova, L. a local variety of herpes or
tetter, remarkable for forming a kind of belt
round or partly ronnd some part of the trunk of
the body, chiefly the waist or abdomen. See
Tettbbs.

SHOSST. The epithet (we believe of American
origin) is applied to the old, nsed-up wool and
cloth, fraudulently mixed with fresh woollen
fabrics. A plan for the examination of a &bric
suspected of containing shoddy has been given hy
a Qerman chemist, Herr Schlesinger, and is as
follows : — Examine it with the microscope, and
note if it contuns cotton, silk, or linen, as well as
wool. If so dissolve them by ammoniacal solu-
tion of copper. A qualitative examination is thus
obtained. Then dii«ct attention to the wool. In
shoddy both colonred and colourless fibres are
often seen, the fibres having been derived from
different cloths which have been partially
bleached; the colouring matter, if any, instead
of consisting of one pigment, will be composed of
two or three different kinds, such as indigo, pur-
purin, or madder. Again, the diameter of the
wool is never so regular as in fresh wool, but is
seen to vary suddenly or gradually in diameter,
and suddenly widens again with a little swelling,
and tapen off again, besides which the cross
markings or scales are almost always absent.
When shoddy wool is placed in liquor potasses
it is much more speedily attacked than new
wool.

8H0TUSTAL. Prep. From lead, 1000 parU ;
arsenic, 8 parts. When the lead is coarse, 6 to 8
parts of metallic arsenic are required to fit it for
this purpose.

SHOW BOTTLES. The large ornamental car-
boys and jars filled with colonred liquids, and
displayed in the shop windows of druggists, may
be noticed nnder this head. They are striking
objects when the solutions they contain are bright
and of a deep pure tint, especially at night, when
they are seen by transmitted light. The follow*

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SHRLUP— SHRUB

1607

ing formula for the loIntionB hare been recom-
mended by different penona :

AxBBB. From dragon'i blood (in coane
powder), 1 part; oil of vitriol, 4 put*; digect,
■nd, when the solution ia complete, dilate the
mixture with distilled or soft water, q. i.

Blvb. a. From bine vitriol, 2 oi. ; oil of
vitriol, i oz. ; water, 1 pint. h. A solntion of
indigo in solphnric add, dilnted with water, q. s.
e. A aolntion of soluble Pmasian bine in either
oxalio or hydrochloric acid, slightly dilated, and
afterwards farther dilated with water to the
proper shade of coloor.

CBDfSOH. a. From alkanet root, 1 oc.; oil of
torpentine, 1 pint. Used chiefly for Uie bnll's-
eyes of lamps, b. As phtk (h). Mom.

Orbhh. a. From sulphate of copper, 2 oz. ;
bichromate of potash, 1 dr., or q. s.; water, 1
pint. i. A solution of nilpfaate of copper, 2 oz. ;
chloride of sodium, 4 oz. ; water, 1 pint, or q. s.
0. A solntion of distilled verdigris in acetic acid,
dilated with water, q. s. d. Dissolve blue vitriol
in water, and add nibic acid ontil it tuma green.

LiLAO. a. 'Diaaolve crude oxide of cobalt
(zafb«) in nitric or hydrochloric acid, add aesqni-
carbonate of ammonia in excess, and afterwuda
snfScient ammonio^nlphate of copper to strike
the colour, h. Aa the purple, bnt more dilnted.

U&wnxA. Acetate of roaaniline, dissolved in
water, q. s.

Outs. Dissolve sulphate of iron and (nl of
vitriol, eqoal weights, in water, and add of nitrate
of copper, q. a. to strike the colour.

OlLurei. •. A solution of bichromate of
potash in water, either with or without the addi-
tion of some hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. h.
Dissolve gamboge or annotta in liquor of potasaa ;
dilute with wato', and add a little spirit.

PnTE. a. To a solntion of diloride or nitrate
of cobalt in water, add aeaquicarbonate of am-
monia, q. a. to dissolve the precipitate at first
formed, b. From madder (washed with cold
water), 1 oz. ; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 4 oz. ;
water, 8 pints; digest, with agitation, for 24
hours, then dilate with more water, and filter.

PmiFLB. a. A solution of sulphate of copper,
1 oz. in water, 1 quart, or q. *., with the addition
of aeaquicarbonate of ammonia, X\ oz. b. To
the last add a aufScient quantity of the first pink
(oSom) to turn the colour, e. To an inf nnon of
logwood, add carbonate of ammonia or of potaaaa,
q. a. d. Sugar of lead, 3 oz. ; powdered cochi-
neal, 1 dr.; water, q. a. «. Add aulphate of
indigo, nearly neutralised with chalk, to an in-
fusion of cochineal till it tuma pnrple.

BXD. 1. a. Diaaolve carmine in Uqnor of am-
monia, and dilute with water, b. Digest powdered
cochineal in a weak solution of ammonia or of sal-
ammoniac, and afterwards dilute with water, c.
Add oil of vitriol, 4 oz., to water, 1 gall., and
digeat dried red roae leaves, 8 oz., in the mixtnre
for 24 hours, d. Dissolve madder lake in a solu-
tion of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, and dilute
the solution with water.

2. a. Fotaaaimn Balplioqra)ude> 10 gr. ; Uq. f erri
perchlor. fort, mx ; water, 1 gall, (evanescent but
beautiful), b. Cobalt nitrat^ 1 oz. ; carbonate of
ammonia, q. s. ; water, 1 gall. Dissolve the cobalt
nitrate in 2 pints of water, and add a strong

solntion of the ammonia salt until the precipitate
formed ia re-dissolved. Then dilute with the rest
of the water. This ia permanent.

ViouiT. To a aolntion of nitrate of cobidt in
a solntion of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, add
solution of ammonio-snlphate of copper, q. s. to
strike the colour.

Ybllow. a. A solution of sesquiozide or rust
of iron, f lb., in hydrochloric acid, 1 quart, dilnted
with water, b. To a strong decoction of French
berries add a little alnm. e. A simple solntion of
ehromate or bichromate of potash in distilled
water, d, A solution of equal parts of niti«
and either ehromate or bichromate of potash in
water.

Ob: Host of the above require filtering, which
shonld be done through powdered glass, placed in
a glass f nnnel, and never through paper. They
usually need a second filtration, after being ex-
posed to the light for some weeks; hence it is
convenient always to make a little more of them
than ia required to fill the bottle, aa aeveral of
them, when dilnted after filtration, become again
turbid. Distilled water or filtered rain water
shonld be used.

8HSIKF. See SHBLL-naH.

8HRDB. A apeciea of concentrated cold punch,
prepared with lemon juice, apirit, augar, and
water. When the word is used in its nnqnalified
form, BVX SEBiTB is alluded to.

Shmb, Brandy. Fr^. 1. Take of brandy,
1 gall. ; orange and lemon juice, of each, 1 pint ;
peels of two oranges; do. of one lemon; mgeat
for 24 houra, strain, and add of white susar,
4 lbs., dissolved in water, 6 pint* j in a fortnight
decant the clear liquid for use.

2. As Bim BHBUB (below), but using brandy.

Shrub, Lemon. S)tn. Lbmoitasb bhsub. Con-
centrated lemonade, either with or withont the
addition of a little spirit. Used to make lemonade
or lemon sherbet.

Shrub, Punch. Concentrated punch, made with
equal parts of apirit and water. Used to make
punch.

Shrub, Bum. Pnp. 1. As brakst shrttb, bnt
anbstitnting rum for brandy.

2. Take of rum, at proof, 34 galls, (or, if of any
other strength, an equivalent quantity) ; essential
oils of orange and lemon, of each, 2 oz., dissolved
in rectified spirit, 1 quart; good lump sugar,
800 lbs., dissolved in water, 20 galls. ; mix well
by 'rummaging,' and gradually and cantiously
add of SevUle orange jnioe, or of a solntion of
tartaric acid in water, q. s. to produce a pleasant
bnt scarcely perceptible acidity ; next ' rummage '
well for fifteen minutes, then add auflcient water
to make the whole measure exactly 100 galls., and
again ' rummage ' well for at least half an hour ;
lutly, bung the cask down loosely, and allow it to
repose for some days. In a fortnight, or less, it
wUl usually be sufficiently ' brilliant ' to be racked.
The product is 100 galls, at 66 u. p.

Oi«. Rum shrub is the kind in the greatest
demand, and that having a slight preponderance
of the orange fiavour is the most esteemed. If
wholly flavoured with lemon it is apt to acquire a
kind of ' dead ' or ' musty ' flavour by long keep-
ing. The substitutitm of a few gallons of brandy
for a portion <^ the rum, or tM addition, after

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1508

SIALOOOaUES— SILICA

racldng, of abont 1 oz. each of brnued bitter
almonds, cloves, and cassia, the peels of about
two dozen oranges, and a ' thread ' of the essence
of ambergris and vanilla, renders it delicious.

8IAL'0600U£8. Medicines which increase the
flow of saliva. liercDrials and pellitoiy of Spain
belong to this class.

BICK'HXBS. Nausea and vomiting frequently
arise from the use of improper food, and other
articles which offend the stomach ; at other times
it is symptomatic of some disease, as colic, cholera,
dyspepsia, head affections, incipient fever, Ac. ; in
which case the primary affection should be attended
to. Nausea lowers the pulse, contracts the small
vessels, occasions cold perspiration, severe rigors,
and trembling; and diminishes, as long as it Lasts,
the actions, and even the general powers, of life.
The act of retching, and vomiting more especially,
on the contrary, rouses rather than depresses,
puts to flight all the preceding symptoms, and
often restores the system to itself.

The best reme^es or palliatives in these affec-
tions are effervescing saline draughts, either with
or without the addition of a few drops of tincture
of henbane, or tincture of opium. A glass of
genuine lemonade, iced, or a spoonful of crushed
ice in a wineglassfol of mint-water, is also very
serviceable. Pepein (Bullock and Ba/»oldt) and
oxalate of cerium are said to be most valuable
remedies in the sickness of pregnancy. See

DKAUaHIS, PsieHABOX', SB1.-8I0ZH388, &C

SirilHO is to pulverulent substances what
filtration is to liquids; but in this case the medium
tbrongh which the substance passes is, usually, of
a simpler and coarser description. Sieves are
commonly employed for the purpose, which are
fitted with silk or brass-wire gauze for fine pur-
poses, and horsehair cloth or wire netting for
coarser ones. Drum sieves are such as are fur-
nished with covers and an enclosed space to receive
the fine powder that passes through, by which
dust and loss are prevented.

SIGHT, Effect of Qaallght on. The German
Hinister of Instruction issued some years ago a
report on the influence of gaslight on the eye.
The conclusion arrived at in this report— the re-
sult of frequent conference with well-known phy-
sicians— Is that no evil results follow a moderate
use of gas if the direct action of the yellow
flame on the eye is prevented. For this purpoee
screens or shades are employed. Very great
objections, however, exist to the use of linc or
lead shades, most evils affecting the eye b^g
traceable to them. Their use, it is said, inevitaby
tends to blindness or inflammation, and other
harmful effects. The milky-white glass shade
is the best, as it distributes the light and has a
grateful ^ect on the eyes. The burner should
not be too close to the head, as congestions of the
forehead and headaches result from the radiated
heat. The glass plate below the gas, employed in
some places, is especially useful for the purpose, as
it causes an equal distribution of the light — neces-
sary where a number are working at one burner, —
jtrevents the radiation of heat, aud tends to a
steady illomination by shielding the flames from
currents of air. In cases of highly inflamed
eyes, dark blue globes can be very beneficially
employed. With precautions of this kind no

evil effects from the baming of gas need be
feared.

8IGVATUBXB (fac-vimilea of). These m»y be
readily obtained as follows :

1. Let the name be written on a piece of papCT,
and, while the ink is still wet, sprinkle over it
some finely powdered gum-arabic, then make a
rim round it, and pour on it some fusible alloy in
a liquid state. Impressions may be taken from;
the plates formed in this way, by means of print-
ing mk and the copper-plate press.

2. By the use of traiufer ink and lithography.
SILBSS LieHT. This light is thus described

in 'Dingler's Polytechnic Journal,' cdx, 79
(* Joum. Chem. Society,' vol. xi, new series, 1273).
This mode of illumination is recommended where
gas cannot be had.

The material used is oil, which is converted into
gas before combustion takes place, whereby the
combustion of the wick is greatly lessened (one
wick may last a year), the accumulation of im-
purity is obviated, and the prevention of smell
completely effected. The light is regular and
uniform, and of a white colour. The Ught with
a burner li inches wide, is equal to that of 88
sperm candles, each consuming 120 gr. per hour,
and with one 1{ inches wide a light is obtained
equal to 50 such candles.

The burning apparatus consists of a cow of
concentrically enclosed double cylinders, perpen-
dicularly arranged at definite intervals. The
innermost cylinder contains the wick between its
two walls, the hollow space in the interior serving
to convey freeh ur to the interior of the flame.
The second cylinder conveys ur to the outer side
of the wick, and the third contains oil, and is
in direct communication with both wick and
reservoir. The mouths of all these chambers
have a dome-shaped head, and from a suitable
opening in this the gas streams forth in such a
manner that it comes in contact with a current of
air, and thus a complete combustion is attained.

According to the nature of the oil burnt the
construction is somewhat varied in its minor
details. Rape oil or light hydrocarbon oils are
mentioned.

SIL'ICA. Si(V '%r*. Siucic anhtsbisb,

SXLIOIO AOID, SiLBX, SlLICXOVB BABTHf. EABTK

ov ■msTBf. This exists in quarts and rock
crystal in a nearly pure state. Sand, flint, and
almost all the scintillating stones chiefly consist
of it.

Silica occurs under two conditions, the crystal-
line and the amorphous. The former variety has
a sp. gr. of 2-642 ; the amorphous of 2-8. Some
of our well-known native gems and precious
stones consist almost wholly of one of the above
forms of silica. In agate and chalcedony the two
varieties are combined. Amethyst is silica
coloured purple by ferric oxide. Onyx is formed
of chalcedony arranged in layers of different
colours. Camelian is a red or brown variety of
silica coloured with ferric oxide ; whilst opal is
amorphous silica combined with varying quanti-
ties of water. Silica is present in the stems of
certain plants, such as wneat, and many grasses,
to which the shining appearance of the stems is
due, &c. The Italians polish marble with the
ashes of burnt straw, the usefulness of which for

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SILICA

1609

•ocb a pnipoM depehda npon the eilioa contained
in the straw; for similar reasons the Dutch rash
is tbns employed. Silica also occurs in solution
in many natural waters. In the geysers, or
boiling springs of Iceland, it exists in large
qoantity.

It may be obtained in a state of absolute parity
by passing gaseous fluoride of silicon into water,
collecting the resulting gelatinous precipitate on
a calico filter, washing it with distilled water,
drying it, and heating it to redness. Another
method is to precipitate a solution of silicate of
soda or potash (soluble glass) with dilute hydro-
chloric acid, and to treat the precipitate as before.

Nearly pure silica may also be procured 1^
heating colourless quartz to redness, and plunging
it into cold water, by which treatment the quartz
is rendered so friable as to be easily reducible to
fine powder. Ordinary flints, subjected to this
method, are found to yield silica in a condition
approaching to purity. Amorphous silica is much
more easily attacked by solrents than the crystal-
line Tariety. Host of the artificial forms of silica
are amorphous, but crystals of quartz have re-
cently been obtained by the action of water upon
glass at a high temperature and pressure.

Tntt, <{v. The test for a silicate consists in
fusing the siupected body with sodium or potas-
sium carbonate, heating the residue with acid,
and evaporating to dryness. If the residue be
then treated with hot water the silica remains
undissolved in the form of a white powder,
which will yield a colourless bead when fused
with sodium carbonate upon a piece of platinum-
foil before the blowpipe flame. If silica be fused
with borax it becomes slowly dissolved, forming a
clear, colourless bead.

Chapman contests Plattner's opinion that, when
silicates are fused with a phosphate, the ' silica
skeleton' that results is especially due to the
presence of alkalies or earthy bases.
' Chapman says, " It is true enough that silicates
in which these bases are present exhibit the
reaction; but as other silicates — practically all,
indeed — exhibit the reaction also, the inference
implied in the above statement is quite erroneous.

"The cmaleseence of the glass arises entirely
from precipitated silica.

" If some pure silica (or a silicate of any kind),
in a powder«l condition, be dissolved before the
blowpipe flame in borax until the glass be satu-
rated, and some pbon>hor salt be then added, and
the^ blowing be continned fbr an instant, a pre-
cipitate of silicate will immediately take place,
the bead becoming milky white (or, in the case
of many silicates, opaque) on cooling. This test
may be resorted to for the detection of silica in
the case of silicates, which dissolve with difficulty
in phosphor salt alone, or which do not give the
pronounced ' skeleton ' with that reagent " (Chap-
man on 'Blowpipe Reactions').

Prop., Ife. A flue white, tasteless, infusible
powder, insoluble in all acids, after being heated,
except the hydrofluoric ; requires the heat of the
oxyhydrogen blowpipe for its fusion ; approaches
the precious stones in hardness ; soluble in strong
alkaline solutions; its salts are called beuoatbs.
The acid properties of this substance are very
feeUe. See GIlUS; GiiIbs, Sosttbu, &o.

SiUea, Hydrates of. By pouring a dilute solu-
tion of sodium silicate into a considerable excess
of hydrochloric acid the whole of the silica is
retuned in solution, together with the chloride of
sodium formed by the action of the hydrochloric
acid upon the soda. By subjecting this solution
to dialysis (see Diaxtbis) the hydrochloric acid
and chloride of sodium are removed, whilst the
hydrate of silica is left behind, in solution, in the
dialyser. Graham recommends a stratum of the
liquid 4-lOths of an inch in depth, to be sub-
jected for four or flve days to dialysis, the water
in the outer vessel to be changed every twenty-
four hours.

If the solution so obtained be carefully eva-
porated down in a flask, any drying of the silicic
acid at the edges of the liquid being prevented, a
solution may be obtuned containing 14y|^ of
silica. The solution has a very feebly acid reac-
tion, and is without taste or colour. It cannot
be preserved in the liquid state for more than
a very few days, even in well-closed vessels, but
becomes converted into a transparent gelatinous
mass, which separates from the water. Hydro-
chloric acid, as well as small quantities of caustic
potash or soda, retard the coagulation.

When the solution is evaporated in vaeuo at
69° F. over sulphuric acid, a lustrous transparent
glass is left behind, which consists of 22% of
water, which closely accords with the formula
SiO»H,0.

By the action of moist air upon silicic ether a
transparent glassy hydrate was obtained by Ebel-
men, to which this chemist assigned the formula
2SiO«8H)0. Two hydrates of silica were ob-
tained by Fuchs, one having the formula
3SiO,.H,0; the other. 4SiO^H,0. Evidence ob-
tained reoentiy appears to show that the solution
left in the dialyser contains orthosilicic acid,
HfSiOf.

Silide CUorld*. 8jf». Silicic tbtbaohxo-
siSB. SiCl^. This compound is rarely, if ever,
obtained by the direct method, viz. by heating
silicon in chlorine, but by the following indirect
process : — A paste is made of flnely divided silica,
oil, and charcoal, and heated in a covered crucible.
The fragments of the charred substance (consist-
ing of silica and carbon) are then placed in a
porcelain tube, which is raised to a red heat in a
furnace, and during the ignition of the fragments
a current of dry chlorine is passed over them ;
the nlicic chloride which is thus formed being
made to distil over into a bent tube surrounded
by a freezing mixture of ice and salt, whereby it
becomes condensed.

Silicic chloride is a strongly fuming gas, trans-
parent and colourless, with an irritating and
pungent smell. It is immediately decomposed
by water into hydrochloric acid and hydrated
suica, which deposits in the vessel.

SlUeie nuoride. Sy*. Silicic TBTSimro-
BiSB. SiF4. This gas is best prepared by heat-
ing in a capacious flask or retort equal parts of
flnely powdered fluor-spar and white sand, or
glass, with ten or twelve times their weight of
strong sulphuric acid. This gas must be collected
over mercury, and in jars that are free from the
least trace of moisture.

Silicic fluoride is a colourless gas, with a very

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1610

SILICO-FLXTOBIC ACID— SILK

pungent odour, fuming itiongly in the air, and
neither homing nor lupporting combnation.
Faraday succeeded in liquefying it under great
prennre, and Natterer states t^t at a tempera-
ture of —220° F. it may be solidified. By water
it is partially decomposed and partially dinolved,
yielding silicic acid and bydroflnosilicic acid.

Silicic Hydride. H4Si. To procure this gas
silicide of magnesium is decomposed with cold
diluted hydrochloric acid.

The silicide of magnesium may be prepared as
follows : — Mix intimately 40 parts of fused mag-
nesium chloride, 35 parts of dried sodium silico-
fluoride, and 10 parts of fused sodium chloride;
these are mixed in a warm, dry tube, with 20
parts of sodium in small fragments, and thrown
into a red-hot Hessian cruable, which is imme-
diately covered, the operation being finished when
the vapours of sodium cease to bum.

Silicic hydrate becomes spontaneously ignited
in the air, and in doing so gives off white fumes,
which consist of amorphous silica (SiO^. A cold
body, such as a piece of porcelain or glass, intro-
duced into the flame, becomes covered with a
brown depont of silicon. Passed into solutions
of cnpric sulphate, argentic nitrate, and palladium
chloride, this gas throws down the metals, in most
cases combined with silicon.

SmcO-nUOXICACID. SeeFLUOBUJOioAcis.

SIL'IOOV. Si-28-382 (rAot^w). 8yn. Siu-
CIVX. An elementary substance forming the base
of silica. Next to oxygen it is the principal con-
stituent of the earth's crust.

This element was first obtained by Sir Humphrey
Davy, by acting upon silica with potassium. It
is now procured much more eanly by the decom-
position of silico-fiuoride of potassium, at an
elevated temperature, with potassium or sodium.
By heating a mixture of fluor-spar and ground
flints with sulphuric acid a gaseous tetraflnoride
of silicon is formed, which, being partially solnble
in water, yields an acid solution of the tetra-
flnoride. Caustic potash is then added to the
acid solution of the tetraflnoride until it becomes
neutralised, and the sparingly soluble silico-flno-
ride of potassium thus formed is thoroughly dried
and mixed in a glass or iron tube with 8- or
9-lOths of its weight of potassium or half its
weight of sodium, and then heated. The fol-
lowing equation explains the reaction that takes
place:

2KF.SiF< + 2E, = Si -^ 6KF.

The resulting mass, consisting of potassium
fluoride, and siUoon in partial combination with
the excess of potassium, is treated with cold
water, when a copious evolution of hydrogen gas
ensues, owing to the decomposition of the water
by the excess of potassium. The potassic fluoride
' is got rid of by washing with cold water, its
entire removal being indicated by the water
ceasing to have an alkaline reaction on test-paper,
whilst amorphous silicon is left behind in the
form of a brown powder.

Another method by which siUoon may also
be procured is by passing the vapour of silicic
chloride over heated potassium or sodium, placed
on a porcelain tray in a glass tube. In this
operation it is advisable to protect the lining of
the tube with thin plates of mica.

The tilioim Abtained bv the above i
known as amorpiouM tilic<m, and, aa sbwady
stated, occurs as a brown powder. It is dnll in
colour, and being heavier than water, as well ■■
insoluble in it, sinks in that fluid. It is a non-
conductor, of electricil7, is unaffected by nitric
or sulphuric acid, bat mssolvea readily in hydro-
fluoric acid, and in a warm solution of caoatie
potash. It bums with great brilliancy when
heated in air or oxygen, and becomes oonv-erted
into silica, which, owing to the great heat of
combustion, fuses, and thus forms a superficial
crust over the unbumt silicon.

A erj/ttaUitu variety of rilicon may be pre-
pared by throwing a mixture of potassium siUoo-
fluoride, 80 parts; granulated sine, 40 parte;
flnely divided sodium, 8 parts, into a red-hot
crucible kept at a temperature just below that of
boiling line. The reaidne is then treated aaooea-
sively with hydrochloric add, bmling nitric acid,
and bydroflnoric acid, wbm dark glittering octa-
hedral crystals remain behind.

By passing the vaponr of nlicic chloride orer
pnre aluminium, placed on a porcelain timy, and
raised to an intense heat, the alnminium beoonies
volatilised aa alnminic chloride, whilst the silicon
remains behind in crystals possessing a reddish
lustre. These crystals occnr in regnlar nx-aided
prisms, terminated by three-sided pyramids, de-
rived from the octahedra, and are so hard that
glass may be cut by them in the same way as by
the diamond.

This variety will not take fire if heated strongly
in the ur or oxygpen. Its denrity is audi tliat.it
sinks in strong sulphuric acid, and hydrofluoric
acid tails to diasolve it, although it is soluble in
a miztuie of hydrofluoric and nitric acids. It
does not become oridiaed, even if fused with
potassium nitrate or chlorate, nnleaa a white heat
ia obtained, when it bnma biiUiantiy, giving riae,
on so doing, to the formation of ailica.

A grapkitoid form of silicon, occurring in
plates, Ima been described by Wohler, who ob-
tained this modification from an alloy of silicon
and aluminium, which was treated in soceearion
with boiling hydrochloric and hydrofluorie acida.
The plates of silicon which are left haTe a metallic
lustre, and a sp. gr. of 2-48. The gisphitoid
bears a great reaemblance in propertiiBS to the
crystalline ailicon. It is a conductor of electri-
city. Like the crystalline variety, it dissolvea
in a mixture of hydrofluoric and nitric adda,
although slowly, but, unlike the crystalline, it
undergoes no change when heated to whiteneM
in a current of oxygen.

SILK. As an article of clothing, aa tar aa
" roundneaa of flbre, softness of texture, absence
of attraction for moisture, and power of com-
municating warmth are concerned, silk is greatly
superior to both linen and cotton; moreover, tt
gives the sensation of freshness to the touch
which is so agreeable in linen. But, with all
these advantages, silk (when worn next the body)
has its defects ; on the slightest friction it dis-
turba the electricity of the skin, and thua becomea
a source of irritation. Sometimes, it is true, this
irritation is advantageous, as causing a determi-
nation of Uood to the surface ; but whon this ac-
tion is not required it is disagreeable, and quite

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SILK

1611

eqnki, in a sensitiTe eonititntion. to piodaeing an
eruption on the ikin. I have Been emptions oc-
caaioned in this manner, and, when they have not
occnrred, so mach itching and irritation as to call
for the abandonment of the garment" {Srat,
WiUon).

Silk is eharaoterited by its fibres appearing
perfectly smooth and cylindrical, without de-
pressions, even nnder a magnifying power of 160.
Its fibres (even when dyed) acquire a permanent
straw-yellow colour when steeped in nitric acid
of the sp. gr. 1-20 to 1-80. The fibres of whiteor
light-coloured silk are similarly stained by a solu-
tion of picric acid. A thread of silk, when in-
flamed, shrivels and burns with difficulty, evolves
a peculiar odour, and leaves a bulky charcoal.
By these properties silk is distinguished from
cotton and linen.

Cotton, wool, and silk may be easily dis-
tinguished from each other by means of the
inicioacope.

Pio. 1.

Fio. S.

The cotton fibre will be seen to consist of
only one cell ; wool (as well aa hair and alpaca)
is made op of numerous cells in juxtaposition ;
whilst silk fibre is similar to the secreted matter
of spiders and caterpillars.

The silk fibre (fig. 1) is smooth, cylindrical,
devoid of strncture, not hollow inside, and equally
broad. The surface is glossy, and only seldom
are any irreguUrities seen on it. If it is denied
to detect in a woven fabric the gennineness of
the silk, it is best to cat a sample to pieces, place
it under water under the object-glass of a micro-
scope magnifying 120 to 200 times, covering it
with a thin piece of glass. The round, glazed,
equally proportioned silk fibre (fig. 1) is easily
distinguished from the nnequalled and scaled
wool fibre (w in fig. 2), and from the flat, band-
like, and spiral cotton flbre (b, fig. 8). Under
the microscope also the mixture of inferior with
superior fibru of silk can be easily detected.

Black silk, the weight of which has been

fia. S.

aogmented by extensive sophistication, is not un-
common in English, French, and German markets.
It is known as ' weighted ' or ' shotted ' silk, and
very frequently contains no more — and frequently
less— than one third of its weight of silk, the
remaining two thirds consisting, according to
Persoz, of a combination of iron salts with some
astringent substance, salts of tin, and cyanides.
It is easily distinguishable from gonnine silk by
its want of elasticity and tenacity, and its much
greater combustibilif^. Persoz found a specimen
of this adulterated silk to yield, upon incinera-
tion, more than 8 per cent, of ferric oxide.

The cleaning and renovation of articles of
wearing apparel made of silk are matters requiring
some care. No silk goods look well after being
washed, however carefully it may be done ; and
this method should, therefore, never be resorted
to but from absolute necessity. It is recom-
mended to sponge faded silks with warm water
and curd soap, then to rub them with a dry cloth

on a flat board, and afterwards to iron them on
the wrong side with an ordinary smoothing iron.
Sponging with spirit, benzol, or pure oil of tur-
pentine, also greatly improves old silk, and u
often preferable to any other method. The odour
of the benzol passes oil very quickly, that of the
turpentine after exposure for a few days. When
the ironing is done on the right side thin paper
should be spread over the surface to prevent
' gUzing.' See t>TBiiro, GiLSive, &c.

Silk Katerial, a Vew. The 'Textile Manu-
facturer' contains the following: — The utilisa-
tion of new substances as raw material for manu-
&ctures is a distinguishing feature of the
scientific investigations of the nineteenth cen-
tury. One of the most recent suggestions is the
result of the researches of Herr Tycho Tulbuig,
an eminent German naturalist, on the products
of the mussel. It will be remembered it was
from one of the mussel species the famous purple
dye was in past ages obtained, and this colour

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SILKWORM— SILPHA OPACA

gained an imperishable renown from ita bring*
adopted by the Roman emperors, and the imperial
pnrple became the symbol of sovereignty. In
these latter days animal prodnots have been dis-
placed by aniline dyes, and there is no likelihood
of their regaining their former celebrity. The
researches of Talbnrg have not, however, been in
the direction of dyes, bnt in the adaptation of
animal products other than the silkworm for silk
yams. The mnssel {Mytilut edulU) fastens itself
to the rocks by strong threads, called by natn-
ralists bytnu, and it is this substance which it is
proposed to utilise for the manufacture of silk.
The material is of a silky texture and very tongh,
and the experiments that have been made prove
that it is well adapted to be made into yam.
Already the Pinna, one of the mussel tribe,
has been manufactured into fabrics, although
it is not of general nse, nor at present of much
commercial value, and the same obstacles to the
nse of the bytnu of the common mussel are
apparent. Notwithstanding the abundant supply
of this popnlar shell-fish, it is difficult to see how
a snfflcient quantity of hgtmu can be collected to
enable manufacturers to purchase the raw mate-
rial at rates low enough for a marketable remu-
neration on the manufactured article. Bnt the
records of industrial progress testify to greater
difficulties than these having been successfully
overcome ; and should the commercial value of
the new material be satisfactorily demonstrated,
there is no doubt some agency will be deve-
loped whereby the requisite supply may be ob-
tained.

At present it is sufficient to notice the discovery
that has been made, and to welcome another
instance of the results of scientific labour being
for the advantage of manufacturers.

SUK'WOBll, Diseases of. Silkworms are liable
to a disease known as pfbri»e, which Pasteur has
shown to be due to the presence, in the body, the
egg, and in the blood of the insect, of peculiar
parasitic corpuscles.

Pasteur states that the black specks which
constitute these bodies are very easily distin-
guishable in the moth of the silkworm, but that in
the earlier stages of its development, snch as in
the egg and worm condition, the detection of
them becomes difficult, if not impossible. Pas-
^ teur further adds that sound moths produce
' sound eggs, and unsound moths the reverse; and
that although the unsound eggs show no sign of
disease, they never give rise to healthy worms.

Pasteur advises the silk cultivator, therefore,
to ensnre breeding from healthy moths at start-
ing, and to abandon the old and nseless precan-
tion of batching apparentiy healthy eggs.

The value of the cocoons grown in the whole
world in 1870 was said to be as follows :— France,
£4,334,000; Italy, £11,260,000; Spain and other
Enropean countries, £984,000 ; giving a total for
Europeof £16,588,000. China,£l?,000,000; India,
£4,800,000; Japan, £8,200,000; Persia, £920,000;
other Asiatic states, £2,192,000 ; giving a total
for Asia of £28,112,000. Africa, iE68,000.
America, £20,000. Making a general total of
Je44,788,000.

liie loss resulting from the silkworm disease
in Italy may be seen from the following tables,

which are calculated for bales of 102 lbs. wmght

(' British Manufacturing Industries,' Stamford) :

Avera^ production prior to disease, 81,600.

1863 . Bales, 60,600 . Deficit, 88 per cent.

1864 . „ 88,000 . „ 63 „
1866 . „ 88,700 . „ 52 „

1866 . „ 89,600 . „ 61 „

1867 . „ 44,000 . „ 46 „

1868 . „ 41,000 . „ 48 „

1869 . „ 47,800 . „ 42 „

1870 . „ 69,900 . „ 14 „

1871 . „ 76.800 . „ 6 „

1872 . „ 68,000 . „ 16 „

SOkworai Out See Orr.

BUiliABTTB. Pr«p. Orate off the yellow peel
of a lemon with lump sugar, and dissolve the
sugar in | pint of wine; add the juice of i a
lemon and a i pint of cream; beat the whole
together until of a jnroper thickness, and then pat
it into glasses.

Ohi. f to 1 pint of new milk is often substi-
tuted for the cream, and strong cider or peny
for the wine. Orated nutmeg is often added.
When < whipped ' to a froth it is called ' WKIPFBS
BiLLABTTB.' See Cbeak (Whipped).

8ILPHA OFACA, Linn. (From ZiX^i;, a grub
or beetle.) Thb Beit (CA^aioir) Bbrtlb.
It is only comparatively recentiy that the mangel-
wurzel plant has been cultivated to any important
extent in this country. Its culture here has made
a most rapid advance during the laat thirty years,
and ther^ore it is natural to find that insects in-

I'urious to this crop have increased proportionately.
t seems also that certain insects have acquired
the taste for this plant, so that they have forsaken
their former food and have taken to it. Sttropu*
nuuUthu a one example of this. The insect
which is the subject of this article, the Silpha
opaea, or beet carrion beetle, is anoiiier instance
of complete change of diet. It was supposed
that this beetle lived upon carrion, as it and its
larv8B were found in putrefying carcases, as of
moles, hedgehogs, birds, and other insects. Feed-
ing on carrion is the attribute of the family of
SUpkitUi, to which this genus belongs, and yet it
is clear beyond doubt that the larvsB of this, and
at least another species, greedily devour the
succulent young leaves of mangel-wurzel plants.
Curtis reported this habit in 1844; Ou£rin Mene-
ville also discovered the larve feeding upon beet
plants in France in 1849.

Not much serious injury has been caused as yet
to mangel-wurzel pbuits by this insect in this
country. From time to time dnring the last ten
years there have been occasional attacks, and in
some cases it is believed that loss of plants caused
by it has been placed to the credit of other in-
sects.

Loss of plants was noticed in a field of mangds
in the upper part of Kent. The leaves were
eaten away, at least their jnicy parts; their main
ribs, or framework, being left. "Littie black
bugs like hop niggers," as the report stated, were
found upon them, which turned out to be the
larvffi of the Silpha opaea. These were very
numerous, and were ' rapidly clearing away the
plants.

Another intimation of damage to mangel- wonel

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8ILVBB

16U

plants by thia inieet waa given with a note tbat
the land had been mannred with farmyard manure
from an old mizen.

A friend in Eaat Sussex sent some mangel
plants in 1886 which were sttscked by insects
jnst after they had been singled. &o speci-
mens were forthcoming, but from the nature
of the injuries seen on the leaves, and the descrip-
tion of the insects, there was not much doubt
that they were 8%l/p\a larvn.

It is certain that there are at least two kinds
of Silpha which feed upon mangel leaves in tUs
eounti7, the Silpha opaea and tile Silpha airata,
Linn. This is also Xiss Ormerod's dedded opinion,
llie Silpha airata is known in Oermany as in-
jnrions to beet. Taschenberg and Kaltenbach
both state this. The latter says that in a district
of Oermany it reduced the leaves of beet plants
to skdetoBs (' Die Pflanxen-feinde,' von J. H.
Kaltenbach, p. 609). Calwer speaks of Silpha
opaea, Marsham, as being similar to Silpha diipar,
Herbst, as known in Oermany. He also describes
Silpha atrata as synonymous with S, nhroUm-
data, Stephens, and as stripping ("entbUttem")
beet plants of their leaves (C. J. Calwer, ■ K&fer-
bnch,' pp. 92 and 93).

SSpha opaea is known in France as very
destructive to beet plants. Brehm says that at
different times these insects have made their
appearance in the D^partement du Nord, where
beet plants are largely cultivated for sugar-making
purposes, and the larvte were so thick upon these
that they were quite black (' Les Merveilles de la
Natnrc^'^par A. H. Brehm).

The insect is not known in America, or, at least,
there are no records of it.

Lif* Bittoty. The Silpha opaea is of the
ftanily Silphidti of the order CoESOFTBKi.. It
is a Uttle black, egg-shaped beetle, Ave lines in
length, having six black legs, with brownish claws.
It is furnished with ample wings, and the body is
covered with a silky grey pubescence, or down,
which is soon rubbed off when touched. The
beetle hibernates under stones and mbbish, and
in the ground.

As soon as the weather becomes mild the
female takes flight to snitable spots in which to
place eggs, generally npon decaying leaves and
other substances, and sometimes just under the
surface of the ground. The larva hatches from
the egg in about fourteen days, is black, about
four and a half lines in length, and has twelve
segments besides the head, and three pairs of feet.
At the end of its body there are two points
or spines. Its antenns are long, and its jaws
are furnished, Curtis remarks, with sharp minutely
serrated teeth.

In the course of from fifteen days to three
weeks the larva goes down deeply into the ground
and constructs a cell, or shelter, in which it changes
to a pupa, somewhat curved in form. At the end
of ten days the perfect insect or beetle appears.
It is said that there are two broods in a year, but
this has not been proved.

Prevention. Manure intended for mangel-wnnel
land shonld on no account be allowed to lie long
in mizen* after the heat has subsided, nor in
lumps npon the ground before it is ploughed in.
The beetles may be conveyed to the nelda in this

medium, or in early seaaona the egga might be
carried out in the manure.

Farmyard manure should be well buried when
put on for mangels, as it affords a convenient
shelter and breeding-place for many insects.

Bmnediet. Soot applied when the dew is upon
the plants is a valuable remedial measure against
this insect. Quassia and soft soap washes wonld
be most effective, it is fully believed. As the
larvsB work quickly, it is very important that
mangel-wurzel plants showing sig^s of failing
should be promptly examined, and remedies tried
at once (' Reports on Insects Injurious to
Crops,' by Chas. Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

SnyiS. Ag » 107-66. Sifn. ABOsinuir,
L. This metal, like gold, appears to have been
as much valned in the remotest ages of antiquity
of which we have any record as at the present
time. It is found in nature, both in the metallic
state and mineralised, in the state of alloy, and
combined with sulphur, chlorine, bromine, tee.
In Oreat Britain it is found in combination with
lead. The largest supplies of silver come from
the Mexican and Peruvian mines, but consider-
able quantities are furnished by Saxony, Hun-
gary, and India. It is extracted from its ores
principally by the process of amalgamation,
founded on its easy solubility in mercury, and by
subsequent cupellation.

JPrep. 1. (Liquaiion.) The ore (generally
argentiferons copper) is fused with three times ito
weight of lead, and the alloy caat into discs
which are afterwards slowly heated upon a
hearth which is so arranged that the lead, which
melts more easily than the copper, flows off, carry-
ing with it the silver. The lead and silver are
afterwards separated by cnpellation.

2. (Cupellation.) Fonnded npon the oxida-
tion suffered by lead when heated in air, and the
absence of any tendency upon the part of silver
to combine directly with ozygfen. The molten
alloy is placed upon the hMrth of a reverhe-
ratOTy furnace lined with moulded bone-ash, and
then subjected to the action of a hot blast of air,
which soon oxidises the lead, blowing it off as
formed, leaving the silverpnre.

3. (Amalgamation.) 'Ae silver is dissolved
out from the crushed ore by mercury ; the amal-
gam is placed in iron trays arranged one above
the other, and covered with an iron till-shaped
receiver standing over water. By hesping burn-
ing fuel round the upper part of the dome, its
temperature is raised sufficiently to convert the
mercury into vapour, which condenses again in
the water, leaving the silver together with any
lead and copper npon the trays. The lead and
copper are then separated by cnpellation, for the
fused oxide of lead carries off with it the copper
also in the form of oxide.

4. (Net Proeeu.) Several have been proposed.
Ziervogel's plan depends upon the fact that when
copper argentiferous pyrites is soaked the copper
and iron sulphides are converted into insoluble
oxides, whUst the silver is converted into a
soluble sulphate, which when the roasted ore is
treated with hot. water is dissolved; from this
solution the silver is easily precipitated.

B. (Chemiealls Pure.) Ordinary silver is dis-
solved in pore nitric acid, the solution evaporated.

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8ILVKB

ud the recidue fnasd. The latter U &m. cUi-
aolved in weak ■mmonia solntion, and the bine
liqnid which resnlti diluted with water q. s. to
bring the itrengfth down to 2% of rilrer. Nor-
mal ammoninm salphite, q. s., is added to render
the lolution coloorten on warming. After
standing for 24 honrs in a stoppered vessel, l-3rd
of the metal separates oot in the crystalline form.
The liquid, which is still bine, when cold, is passed
off, and heated from 60° to 70° C<, when the
remainder of the metal is thrown down. The
precipitate is washed, and then allowed to stand
tor several days in contact with strong ammonia;
it is then again washed, dried, and fnsed in an
unglazed porceUn crucible with 6% fused borax
and 6^ sodiam nitrate, and finally cast in a
inonld lined with a mixture of burnt and unbumt
kaolin. The bars are cleaned with sand and
heated with potash, and finally washed in water
(Soteoe).

_ Prop, Pure silver has a very white colour, a
high degree of lustre, is exceedingly malleable
and ductile, and is the best eondaotor of heat
and electricity known. Its hardness is between
that of copper and gold ; its sp. gr. is 10-424 to
10-675; it melts at 1087° C. ; is freely soluble in
nitric acid, and dissolves in sulphuric acid by the
^d of heat; it refuses to oxidise alone at any
temperature, but, when strongly heated in open
vessels, it absorbs many times its bnlk of oxygen,
which is agun disengaged at the moment of soli-
dification; its surface is rapidly tarnished by
sulphuretted hydrogen and by the fumes of
sulphur.

Tittt. 1. The compounds of silver, mixed with
carbonate of soda, and exposed on a charcoal sup-
port to the inner flame of the blowpipe, afford
white, brilliant, and ductile metallic globules,
without any incrustation of the charcoal. 2.
The salts of silver are non-volatile and colourless,
but most of them acquire a more or less black
tint by exposure to full daylight.

The soluble salts of silver give— 1. A white
curdy precipitate with hydrochloric add and 'the
soluble metollio chlorides, which is soluble in am-
monia, insoluble in nitric acid, and blackened by
exposure to light. 2. White precipitates with
solutions at. the alkaline carbonates, oxalates, and
ferrocyanides. 3. TeUow precii«tates with the
alkaUne arsenites and phosphates. 4. With the
arseniates, red precipitates. 6. With the caustic
alkalies, brown precipitates. 6. With sulphu-
retted hydrogen and ammoninm sulphide, a black
precipitate, which is insoluble in dilute acids,
alkalies, and cyanide of potassium, but readily
soluble, with separation of snlphnr, in Ixnling
nitric acid. And 7. With phosphoma, and with
metallic copper or sine, pure reduced silver.

Axtaj). 1. The method of assaying silver by
onpellation has been explained under Abbat and
CucElXATioK ; and that method is alone appli-
cable when the alloy contains a very small quan-
tity of silver, as a few ounces only per ton.
When the reverse is the case, as with the silver
of commerce, the following is a much more accu-
rate method.

2. Sumid Auag of SUner. a. Dissolve 10 gr.
of the silver for assay in 100 gr. of nitric aoid,
sp. gr. 1-28, by the aid <rf hea<« we solntion being

made in a tall stoppered gkis tobe, f nrmahed
with a foot ; then place it in a very delicate bal-
ance, bring it into an exact state of eqnilibriam,
and add Uie test solntion (see htUm), giadnaUy
and cautiously, until the whole of the silver be
thrown down ; the number of grains now required
to restore the equilibrium of we balance or scales
gives the exact quantity of pure silver in 1000
parts of the sample. — Oit. To ensure aceuraqr,
after each addition the stopper should be placed
in the tube, and the latter violently agitated for
a short time, when the liquor will rapidly clear
and enable the operator to see when the operation
is concluded. A small quantity of a solntion of
nitrate of silver must then be added to the liquor
in the tube, after having first carefully taken the
weight ; this will serve as a check. If too much
of the test liquor has been added, this will pro-
duce a fresh precipitate, and the assay cannot
then be depended on. Instead of weighing the
quantity of test liquor used, a tube graduated
into 100 parts, and holding 1000 gr., may be em-
ployed, every division of which required to throw
down the suver will represent 1-lOth of a grain.
See Alkalikbtby and Acisduxbt.

h. The precipitate of chloride of silver may be
collected in a paper filter, dried, washed, foaed,
and weighed. The previous weight of the paper,
deducted from the gross weight of the filter and
its contents, gives the quantity of chloride of
silver present, which multiplied Dy 0*75278 give*
the weight of the pure silver in the sample.

Tut SoUiion. Dissolve 54-27 (54i) gr. of
sodium chloride in 9945-78 gr. (or 28 oz. and
820} gr. avoirdupois) of distilled water; filter,
and keep the filtrate in a stoppered bottle for
use. Pnie sodium chloride is obtained by boiling
together for a few minutes, in a glass vessel, a
solution of common salt with a little pure Ixcar-
bdnate of soda; then adding to the filtered liquid
sufficient hydrochloric add to render it neutral
to litmus and turmeric paper, and, lastiy, evapo-
rating and crystallising.

Obi. The presence of mercury, lead, or sul-
phide of silver interferes with the accuracy of
the above assay. When mercury is present the
prediMtate blackens less readily by exposure to
light; and when it contains y^f^ or -ritns °f 'chlo-
ride of mercury it remains d a dead white;
with T^gTs it is not sensibly discoloured by the
diflfbsed light of a room ; with y,^ only slightly
darkened; with tt^bts more so; but with pure
chloride of silver tiie effect is very rapid and in-
tense. When this metal is present— which is,
however, seldom the case — the assay sample must
be placed in a small crucible, and exposed to a
full red heat before solution io the add. Another
method, proposed by Level, and modified by Qay-
Lussac, u to add to the nitiic add solution of the
diver suffident acetate of ammonia or arystallised
acetate of soda to saturate all the nitric add ex-
isting in the liquid, either in the free state or
combined with Uie silver. When the alloy con-
tuns lead, shown by the predpitated cmoride
being partly soluble in water, it may dther be
laminated and subjected to the action of acetic
add before solntion in the nitric acid, or the test
solntion of chloride of soda should be replaced by
one of chloride of lead (189-866 gr. of the latter

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are aqniT. to 68>78S gr. of the former). The
presenee of lolphide of Bilver ii detected whilet
diasolring the sample in nitric acid, by the black
flakei which may be observed fioatiiig about in
the Uqnor in an insoluble state. These flakes may
he dissolved by faming nitric acid, or by adding
pure concentrated sulphuric add to the solution,
which should be then heated for about a i hour
in a steam-bath. When thus treated the precipi-
tate produced by the test liquid represents the
whole of the silver contained in the i^loy.

Ui0$, i(e. HetalUc silver, unless in a state of
very minute division, has no action on the human
body. A plate of silver is ordered, in the Ph. L.,
as a test of the presence of nitric acid in the
acetic and phosphoric acids ; and metallic silver
(preferably granulated) is employed by the other
colleges in the preparation of the nitrate. Pure
silver is used in volumetric analysis and in the
preparation of laboratory utensils, for it is not
attacked l^ fused canstic alkali. Its numerous
•ppUcations in the arts are well known. The
■Uver odnage of England contains 92*6% silver
and 7*5% of copper.

ConelMiiMg Semarkt. The researches of Tillet,
IXArcet, and Gay-Lussao have clearly shown that
the percentage M silver in an aUoy, as indicated
by cnpellation, is always below its real richness in
that metal, owing to loss in the process ; and that
the cnpelled button always retains a trace of
lead and copper, the precise quantity of which is
Tariable. The following table exhibits the addi-
tions to be made on this score when the quantity
assayed (assay pound) is 20 gr. :

Wdgbt after

Aetna! liehneu

Pereentafe of riek-

cnpellation.

iar>in*Uwtr.

nesstnjnmijjMr.

19^9

20

100

18-95

19

96

iy-92

18

90

16-917

17

85

16-914

16

80

14-91

16

76

18-906

14

70

12-905

18

66

11-906

12

60

10-906

11

65

9-906

10

60

7-921

8

40

6-948

6

80

8-949

4

20

1-982

2

10

In assaying lead ores very poor in silver the
best quantify to be taken for oupellation is 500
gr.; and fnmi that quantity 0-0148 of silver,
including compensation for loss, represents one
ounce of silver to the ton. A cupel may absorb
its own wMght of lead. If the quantity of lead
to he absorbed is more considerable, another cupel
may be inverted, and the cupel in which the assay
is to be made may be placed upon it. See Amat,
and M. Gay-Lussac's elaborate memoir on the
' Humid Assay of Silver.'

For the recovery or redaction of sUrer from

the chloride and its other copponiidi, tMMal
methods are employed.

a. The washed chloride is placed in a zinc or
iron cup, along with a little water strongly acidur
lated with sulphuric add ; or in a glass or poroe>
lain cup along with a rinc plate j the whole may
then be left to itielf for some hours — or, to
hasten the reduction, gently heated; the pre-
dpitated silver it washed with pure water, and
dried.

b. (Sortung.) Digest the chloride with am-
monia and pure copper filings tor twenty-fonr
hours, then wash and dry the powder.

0. (Lmol.) The washed chloride is mixed
with an equal weight of sugar, and the mixture
is digested in an excess of a moderately strong
solution of canstic potash, with occasional agita-
tion for twenty-fonr hoars ; the reduced silver is
.washed with distilled water.

d. (JfoAr.) The irj chloride is mixed with
1-Srd of its weight of powdered black resin, and
moderately heated in a crudUe until the flume
ceases to have a greenish-blae colour ; the heat is
then snddenly increased so as to melt the metal
into a button or ingot.

«. {Oojf-LuMtae.) Take the diloride, dry it, and
throw it, in successive portions, into twice its
wdght of carbonato of potash fused in a red-hot
Hessian crudble; effervescence ensues, and the
.metal subsides to the bottom. If a ' soluble salt,'
as the nitrate, addnlato the solution, and precipi-
tate it by means of a polished plate of copper ;
the silver is then obtained in the form of powder.
The products of the above processes, when the
latter are cqiefully conducted, are iJmost pni«
silver.

Aetion of LiffU on Silver Saltt, The observa*
tion of Boyle that silver chloride and other sUver
salts on bdng exposed to light darken (the
chemical explanation of which was first given by
Scheele) has led to the invention of the art of
photography. See PEOioeBAPHT.

Silver, Acetate of. AgC^,Or Sg*- Axaairn
AOITAB, L. Prep. By addiug a solution of
acetete of potash to a solution of nitrate of silver,
.washing the precipitate with cold water, redis-
solving it in a littie hot water, and setting the
solution aside to crystallise. Small colourless
needles.

Silver, Ammonlo-eUorlde of. aAgCl+8KH^.

^». ABSBSIO-OHLOBISBOVijaCOiaAsASSINTI

AXKOHio-OHiABEDVK, L. Prtp. Add, graduallv,
chloride of silver (recently precipitated and well
washed) to concenteated ammonia solution as long
as it is dissolved on agitetiou, applying a gentle
heat towards the end; then heat the solution to
the boiling-point, concentrate a little, and allow
it to cool very slowly; collect the crystals which
form, dry them by pressure between folds of
bibulous paper, and at once preserve them from
the light and air. — X>om, -i^ to -^ gr.

Silver, Ammoniuret of. See FTTLKZHATiNa
SiLTBB (Berthollef s, Nos. 1 and 2).

SUver, Ben'soato of. AgC^HiOr Thin trans-
parent plates, which are blackened by exposure to
the light. See Bbkzoatb.

Silver, Bro'mide of. AgBr. Occors in ChiU
and Mexico as the mineral bromargyrito.

Prtp., 4*0. From silver nitrate and hydro-

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1616

8ILVEB

bromic Mid u the dtloride; yellow octahednt,
darken by light.

SilTer, Cur'boiiate of. Ag,CO,. Sgn. Axanm
OASBOK^, L. A light yellotr insolnble powder
or needlei obtained by precipitating a cold lola-
tion of nitrate of silver with another of carbonate
of aodium. It is deoompoaed by heat, darkened
by light.

Silver, CUo"ride of. AgCL Sy. Abobhtio
OHLOBisB. Occon as the mineral cerargyrite
(horn silver). — JPrap., J^e. Precipitate a Mlntion
of nitrate of silver by dilnte hydrochloric acid or
a solation of common salt ; wash the precipitate,
and dry it in the shade. — Doie, } to 8 gr., thrice
daily; in ejnlepsy, chronic dysentery, cholera,
diarrhoea, &c. Dr Perry regards it as preferable
to the nitrate.

Sav«r,Cy'aii]deof. AgCN. Sj/: ABanfno

OTAHtDB, HrSBOOTAirATB 01 BHiTBB. PrW., I$'C.

Add dilute hydrocyanic acid to a solution of
nitrate of silver ; wash the precipitate with dis-
tilled water, and dry it.

Prop., I(e. Cyanide of silver is a white powder,
soluble in ammonia, and decomposed by contact
with vegetable substances ; light tonu it violet-
colonred. — Doit, iV to ^ gr. ; in syphiHs, &c. It
has been proposed as a source of hydrocyanic add
(JEvtritf).

Silver, Hyposnl'phite of. Ag,S,0,. Sg%. Ab-
exNTi HTFOBULPHiB, L. A white unstable sab-
stance, insolnble in water, very soluble in the
alkaline hyposulphites, forming compounds pos-
sessing an intensely sweet taste. See Httobttl-
PHUBOVB Acis and Photoobafht.

Silver, I'odide of. Agl. Sy*. Abobktio
lOSiDB; Absbkti ioozsuic, L. Occurs as
iodargyrite in Mexico, Spain, £c

Prep. Precipitate a solution of nitrate of
silver with anoUier of iodide of potassium ; wash
the precipitate with distilled water, and d^ it in
the shade.

Prop., S(e. ■ Pale yellow powder or hexagonal
plates; insoluble in water and in ammonia;
soluble in a solution of hyposulphite of soda. It
behaves abnormally with heat, contracting when
heated from 10° to 70° C, and expanding on cool-
ing. Used in some of the French hospitals in the
stomach affections of scrofnloos subjects; also in
epilepsy. — Tiote, -^ to 1 gr.

8Uv«r, Vi'trate of. AgNO,. %•. Absbnti
XITBAB, L. This article is found in commerce
under two forms.

1. Cbtbtallibed. Prtp. By dissolving grain
silver in nitric acid diluted with about twice its
weight of water, evaporating the solution until it
is strong enough to crystidlise on cooling, and
then allowing it to cool very slowly.

Prop., Sfc. Colourless ; transparent, anhydrous
rhombic plates ; soluble in an equal weight of
cold and in half their weight of boiling water ;
soluble in alcohol ; fuse when heated, and at a
liigher temperature suffer decomposition ; black-
ened by light, and by contact with organic sub-
stances. Its solution in distilled water is not
sensibly darkened by light in the absence of
organic matter. Used for solutions, and in photo-
graphy, q. V.

2. FVSBD (LVITAB OAV8TI0 ; ABaHBTI VIXBAB
— B. P., Ph. L. ft E. J A. V. raux— Ph. D.).

Prtp. (Ph. D.) Beflned nlver, 8 ox. ; pure nitric
acid, 4 fl. ox. j distilled water, 6 fl. ox. ; mix in a
glass flask, and apply a gentle heat until the
metal is dissolved; transfer the solution to a
porcelain dish, decanting it off a heavy black
powder which appears at the bottom of the flask,
and, having evaporated it to dryness, raise the
heat (in a dark room) until the mass liquefies ;
then pour it into moulds furnished with cylin-
drical cavities of the siie of a goose-quill, and
which admit of being opened by a hinge ; preserve
the concreted salt in well-stoppered bottles, im-
pervious to the light.

Obt. In preparing this salt care should be
taken that the i^ver is free from copper. Pure
nitrate of silver may, however, be prepared from
silver containing copper by evaporating the nitric
acid solution to dryness, and cautioudy heating
the mixed nitrates to funon. A small portion of
the melted mass is examined from time to time,
until a little dissolved in water, and treated with
ammonia in excess, ceases to strike a blue colour.
When this point is arrived at, the fused nitoate
is allowed to cool, when it is redissolved in water,
filtered or decanted from the insoluble black
oxide of copper, and evaporated in the usual way.

The heat employed in preparing the fused
nitrate should not exceed 480° F., and the fusion
should be effected completely, but with moderate
expedition, to prevent loss of nitric acid. The
moulds should be gently heated before pouring
the fused nitrate into them. Benxoin recommends
moulds formed of white Bohemian talc or of
English slate.

Pur., ^e. Pure nitrate of silver, whether crys-
tallised or fused, should be entirely soluble in
water, yielding a colourless solution, from which
metallic silver is precifntated by a piece of Mght
copper ; both forms are originidly white, but are
darkened by exposure to light and contact with
organic matter.

Ute*, <fv. Nitrate of silver is a powerful tonic,
antispasmodic, astringent, and escharotie. — Vote,
^ to I gr., gradually increased, twice or thrice
a day, made into a pill with crum of bread ; in
cholera, epilepsy, Ac., preceded by purgatives. It
has been highly extolled by Mr Boss as a remedy
in cholera. Its continued use permanently colours
the skin. It is also extensively employed exter-
nally as a caustic. It is powerfully poisonous. A
solution of common salt, emetics, and demulcents
constitute the treatment in such cases. Nitrate
of silver is much employed in the manufacture of
hair dyes, of ' indelible ink ' for linen, in chemi-
cal analysis, and in photography,

SUver, Oxide of. Ag,0. Syn. Siltbb hbmi-
oxroB, Pbotozidb ov biltbb; Absiihti oxt-
Sim, A. FBOTozysnif, L. Prep. 1. (£<i»e.)
Nitrate of silver, 2 parts ; hydrate of potassium,
1 part ; dissolve each separately in distilled water,
mix the solutions, and, after frequent agitation
during an hour, collect and wash the precipitate,
and dry it by a gentle heat in the shade. A pale
brown powder when moist, but black when dry.

2. Becently precipitated chloride of silver is
boiled in a solation of hydrate of potassium of
the sp. gr. 1'26, with frequent stirring and tri-
turation, until, on testing a little of it, it is found
to be entirely soluble in dilute nitric add, when

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SILVBB DUST— SILVEEINO

1617

it ia wuhed and dried aa before. A black and
Tery denie powder. Chemically pnre.

S. Nitrate of silver, i oz. i water, 4 fl. os. ;
dinsolve, iind poor the lolation into a bottle con-
taining lime-water, 2 qnarts, or q. s.; agitate the
mixture well, collect and wash the sediment,
and dry it at a heat not exceeding 212° F. Pure.

Prop., (fo. Very soluble in solotions of am-
monia and of the alkaline hyposulphites ; slightly
iolnble in water j when moist it absorbs CO, from
the air; reaction alkaline ; decomposed by light;
also when triturated with an easily oxidiuble
substance like amorphons phosphorus. — Do»i, i
to 2 gr.; in epilepsy, gastndgic irritations, &c.
It is much used in France, and has been highly
extolled in menorrhagia. By some, howerer, it
is not considered superior to the nitiitte.

SilTer Tetratozide. Ag^O. Sji*. AsaainntrB
oziDB. Prep., i(c. From dry citrate of silver
heated to 212° F., in a stream of hydrogen gas,
nntil it tnms dark brown, when it is dissolved in
water ; the solution is next treated with potash,
and the precipitate is carefully washed and dried.
A black powder, easUy decomposed, and soluble
in ammonia.

SllTsr Faaeiis, Vitrate of. According to A.
Hnber, very thin pencils of nitrate of silver, such
aa are sometimes required forintra-nterine appli-
cations, may be prepared in the following manner :
— Silver nitrate is fused in a capsule, and then
drawn ap by slow and cautious suction into a
glass tube, the calibre of which is a trifle larger
than the required diameter of the pencil. Espe-
cial care is to be taken that no cavities filled with
air-bubbles are prodoead in the contents of the
tube. When entirely oold the tube is warmed by
taming over a spirit lamp nntil the outer surface
of the stick has become soft, when it may be easily
pushed out by means of a knitting-needle.

Silver, Ferox'ide of. Ag^O^ 8gn. Aroiitti
PiBOZYsiTic, L. A black crystalline substance
which forms on the positive electrode when a
galvanic current is passed from plaiinnm elec-
trodes through an aqueous solution of nitrate of
diver.

Silver, Sul'phata of. Ag^O,. Sgn. Absbkti
STTLPHAB, L. Prtp. By boiling reduced silver
in sulphuric acid, or by precipitating a solution
of the nitrate by another of sniphate of sodium.
It dissolves in 80 parts of hot water, and falls in
small colourless needles as the solution cools.

Silver, Snl'phlde of. Ag,S. ag». SvLPHTren
OB gn.T«B; AaoEBTi BTntPHUJtJriiii, L. Occurs
as argentite in Hungary, Norway, Mexico, &c. —
Prep., <f-c. Prepared by passing sulphuretted hy-
drogen through a solution of nitrate of silver, or
by melting its constituents together. It possesses
a brownish-black colour, and is a strong sulphur
base. It forms the stains which tarnish silver on
exposure to the air.

Silver, Os'ldiwd. The high appreciation in
which ornamental articles in oxidised silver are
now held renders a notice of the process fol-
lowed interesting. There are two distinct shades
in use; one prodnoed by chlorine, which has a
brownish tint, and Uie other l^ sulphur, which
has a Uidsh-Uaek tint To ptodnoe the former
it ia only necessary to wash the article vrlth a
solution of sal-ammoniac. A mueh more beanti-

fnl tint may, however, be obtained by employing
a solution composed of equal parts of sulphate of
copper and sal-ammoniac dissolved in vinegar. A
fine bUck tint may be produced by a slightly
warm solution of sulphide of potassium or of
sodium (' Chem. Techn.').

SILTESDU8T. 8g». SiL VIS POWDBB ; As-
avsn OBOOUB, A. puxyia, L. Prep. 1. Pore
pulverulent silver, obtained by any of the methods
given above. Used to ooat pills by japanners, &c.

2. Heat oxide of silver to dull redness in a
porcelain crucible, cool, triturate the powder in
an agate mortar, and pass it through a fine sieve.
Used at the hospital of Montpellier.

8ILTIS SHELU. These are prepared and
used like gold shells.

SU'VIKDIO. The art of covering the snrfkee*
of bodies with a thin coating of silver: Leather,
paper, wood, kc, are silvered by covering them
with silver leaf, by a similar process to that
employed for gilding them.

Bllyeriiig of Olaas. Two distinct methods are
adopted for this purpose— one of which consists
in employing a layer of tin-foil and mercury,
falsely called 'silvering;' the other in using a
coatinig of real silver precipitated from a solution
of that metal.

1. Plane snrfaoes, as those of mirrors, Ac, are
commonly ^vered as follows: — A sheet of tin-
foil corresponding to'the sice of the plate of glass
is evenly spread on a perfectly smooth and solid
marble tsble, and every wrinkle on its surface is
carefully rubbed down with a brush ; a portion of
mercury is then poured on, and rubbed over the
foil witii a clean piece of very soft woollen stuff,
or a hare's foot, after which two mles are applied
to the edges, and mercury poured on to the depth
of a crown piece, when any oxide on the snrnce
is carefully removed, and the sheet of glass, made
perfectly clean and dry, is slid along over the
surface of the liquid metal, so that no air, dirt,
or oxide can possibly either remain or get between
them. When the glass has arrived at its proper
position, gentle pressure is applied, and the table
sloped a littie to carry oif the waste mercury, after
which it is covered with flannel and loaded with
heavy weights ; in 24 hours it is removed to a
wooden table and further slanted, and this posi-
tion is progressively increased during a month,
until it becomes perpendicular.

For silvering convex or concave surfaces a
mould of plaster of Psris is employed, so that the
amalgamated fn^ may be accnrately fitted to the
snrfiuw.

Globes and other hollow vessels are commonly
silvered by the application of one of the silvering
amalgams. See Axaxsak.

2. In the eukid wat. a. (JDrafton,) A
mixture is first made of nitrate of silver (in
coarse powder), 1 oz. ; ammonia, i oz. ; and water,
2 oz.; which, after standing for 24 hours, is
filtered (the deposit upon the filter, which is silver,
banjg preserved), and an addition is made thereto
of spirit (by preference, rectifled spirit at 60%
o. p.). or naphtha, 8 os. ; from 20 to SO drops of
oil of aa«ia are then added; and, after remauiing
for about 6 hours longer, the solution is ready for
use. The glass to be rilvered (first well cleaned
and polished) is placed in a horizontal position.

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1518

SILyilBINO

and A wall of pntty, or other imtable material,
formed aronnd it; the above solution it then
poured over it to the depth of from i to i inch ;
from 6 to 12 drops of a mixture of oil of cloves
and spirit of wine (in the proportion of 1 part,
by measure of oil <» cloves to 8 parts of spirit
of wine) are next dropped into it, at different
places ; or the diluted oil of cloves may be mixed
with the solution before it is poured upon the
glass, a larger quantity, in both cases, increasing
the rate of the deposit When the gloss is suffi-
ciently silvered the solution is poured off ; and ss
foon as the silver on the glass is perfectly dry it
is varnished with a composition formed by melting
together equal quantities of beeswax and tallow.
The solution, after being poured off, is allowed to
stand for three or four days in a close vessel, as
it still contains silver, and may be again employed
after filtration, and the addition of a sufficient
quantity of fresh ingredients to supply the place
of those whidi have been used. 18 gr. of nitrate
of silver are snffldent for one square foot of glass.
Hollow vessels may be silver^ b^ pouring the
solution into them. By the addition of a small
quantity of oil ai caraway, oil of cloves, or oil of
thyme, the colour of the silver may be varied
('Patent Joum.').

i. (Thornton and MMitJL) Nitrate of silver,
8 oz. s water and rectified spirit, of each, 3 fl. os. ;
dissolve, add of spirit of hartshorn or liquor of
ammonia, 1 fl. oz. ; mix, and after a short time
Alter the solution; to each ounce of this add of
grape-sugar, i oz., previously dissolved in a mix-
ture of rectified spirit and water, of each, | pint ;
after 8 or 4 hours:' repose it is fit for nse. This
solution is applied to the glass, heated to about
160° F., in a similar manner to the last. Pa-
tented.

o. The best plan of silvering plane or slightly
curved surfaces is, however, the method em-
ployed for coating the specula of the silvered-
glajia Newtonian telescopes. This method is very
easy, and has the advantages of giving a brilliuit
and durable surface on both sides, and the film
is sufficiently firm to admit of being polished with
rouge and fine wash-leather.

(&e half -ounce of pure nitrate of nlver is dis-
solved in 4 oz. of distilled water, and divided into
two equal portions. One is treated with dilute
ammonia until the brownish precipitate is entirely
ledissolved; and to this dear solution i oa. of
pore hydrate at potasdum, dissolved in 8 oz. of
water, added; and the brown predpitate sod
grey sediment that remains after the brown pre-
dpitate disappears dissolved hv the cantiona ad-
dition of ammonia, stinring well all the time. The
remuning nitrate of silver solntion is now added,
stirring well until it gives a greyish predpitate
that does not disappear after well stirring. The
bulk of the solution is next made up to 100 oz.,
and allowed to settle, when the clear solution
is poured off for use.

The redndng solution is prepared by dissolving
) OS. of pore milk-sugar in 10 oz. of hot water,
and addfaig 10 minims of pure alcohol.

This quantitrf of silvering solution will coat
over two square feet of f^»m mirfaoe with a bril-
liant fllm M pure dlvet; Tbe glass must be per-
fectly dean, and ia to be raspended fisoe down*

wards on the snrCMe of the solution, and aUowed
to stand one hour, the temperature of the aolntion
being best about SCf F.

d. (S. Siemaiu.) As a reducing agent, acetic
aldehyde is used in the form of ald^vde ammnnia,

Srepared hj pasnng dry ammoniacal gaa into al>
ehyde. Four grms. of silver nitrate and 2i'grms.
of udehyde ammonia are separatdy diaaolved in
a litre of distilled water, and the solutions mixed
and filtered. The article to be silvered, after
washing out with potasdum carbonate, and tlien
with spirits of wine and distilled water, to remove
every trace of grease, is filled with this eolation
(as far as it is desired to silver), and then hung up
in the water-bath.

It is now giadnally heated, and as soon aa the
temperature reaches 50° C. the separation of the
silver mirror begins, and soon spreads over the
whole inner glass surface. Its formation ia aooa
finished, usually between 65° and 60°. Whoi the
beauty of the silver surface reaches a maximimi
it is time to withdraw the article from the water-
bath, and pour off the contents, or the brilliant^
of the mirror will be impaired. The artide ia
finally rinsed in distilled water.

e. (Martin.) M. Martin makes use of fonr
liquids, viz., first, a 10% solution of nitrate of
silver; second, liquor ammonias, sp. gr. *970;
third, a 4% solution of caustic aoda; and fourth,
a 12i% solution of white sugar, to which headda
2|% of nitrie add, and after twenty minutes' boU-
ing he adds to it 26 parts of ahwhol, and water to
make up the bulk to 250. The dlvering solution
is made by mixing together 18 parts <J edntion
No. 1, 8 parts of No. 2, 20 parts of No. 8, and 60
parts of distilled water, and finally, in twenfy-
four hours, 10 parts of No. 4. The object to be
silvered is then immersed, when it will be covered
with a film of reduced silver, which in ten minutes'
time will be suffidently tiiick for use. After
having been washed with distilled water and
dried the surface may be polished with chamois
leather and rouge.

Silvering aiais. (SStlger, 'Chem. Centr.')
The silvering liquid employed is made by dis-
sdving 4 grms. of pulverised silver nitrate in
strong ammonia, adding 1 grm. ammonium sul-
phate and 860 o.c water. A solution of 1'8
grms. starch or grape-sugar with 8 gims. caustic
potaah in 850 e.c. of distilled water forms the
reducing liquid. When used, equal volomee of
the two liquida are mixed together, and ^iplied
to the surface of the subetanoe to be coated.

Silvering of Xetala. 1. (Lur siiiTaBnre.)
THuB is performed with leaf dlvering in the way
described under Qildihs for the gilding ca
polished metala.

8. (Cols siLTBBnra.) Mix chloride of silver,
1 part, with pearlash, 3 parts, common salt, 1^
parts, and whiting, 1 par^ and well rub the mix-
ture on the surface of the brass or copper (pre-
viously well cleaned) by means of a piece of soft
leather, or a cork moistened with water and dipped
into the powder. When properly dlvered the
metal should be well washed in hot water slightly
alkalised, and then wiped dry.

8. (ELiatK>-«n.TBxiKS.) Thia ia described
under Eixotbotspb.

saver, a Vew Imitation of. A patent for an

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SIMAROUBA— SIPHONOPHOBA OBANABU

1619

alloy hat been taken ont by H. Lenuu-qiund,
which U aaid to bear a cloae resemblance to tilver
in appearance, and to be nnaffected by atmo-
apberic inflnencei. It hai the following com-
podtion :

Pure copper . . 760 part*.

Nickel . . . . 140 „
Black oxide of cobalt 20 „

Tin, in iticki . . 18 „

Zinc . . , . 72 „

SUfABOV'BA. %«. SlXAXlTBA (Ph. E. and
D.)> L. The root-bark of SitnanAa amara or
ilffleiiuUit, the mountain damson. Tonic, bitter,
and astringent. — DoMt, 20 to 80 gr.j in inter-
mittents, obstinate diarrhoea, dysentery, and dys-
pepsia.

Sa'AMUn. C^HeK,. A basic substance
formed, along with sulphide of lead, when thio-
sinamine is treated with oxide of lead. It is very
bitter tasted, has a powerful alkaline reaction,
and, when slowly obttuned from its concentrated
aqueous solution, forms brilliant colourless crys-
tals.

Snr'APISK. Sgn. StSiXmtm, L. A mns-
tard ponltiee.

Snr'AFOLnra. C,HuN^. a basic substance
fbrmed, along with carbonic add, when the vola-
tile oil of mnstard, or snlphocyanide of allyl, is
treated with oxide of lead. It is soluble in water
and alcohol, has an alkaline reaction, and crys-
taUisA in cdonrless plates.

anrXS. "in no case," says Hr Eassie
('Healthy Houses,' by Wm. Eassie, C.S.— Simp-
Un, MarshaU, k Co.), " should the waste-pipe of
•ink, laboratory, or bath lead direct into the
drains ; yet how frequently is this the case, and
a special card sent out to lUsease snd death !

"It must also be remembered it is every whit
as dangerous if these waste conduits lead into
the soil-pipe of a closet. Waste-pipes from the
above-named places should be led down to within
18 or 18 inches from the ground, and should de-
liver on to the grating of a gully or yard trap."

This subject has been already treated in the
artide on 'Sanitation, Domestic,' wherein we
have embodied the practical suggestions of Hr
Collins, another sanitary house mormer, as well
as in our article on 'Dndnage,' in which will
be found details for carrying out the system re-
commended by Messrs Eauie and Symonds, and
thus preventing the admisnon into onr dw^ing-
houses of the poisonous sewer gas.

The matter h«a so important a bearing upon
health, that we shall make no apology for having
thus reiterated and emphadzed it by quoting Mr
Eassie's words of warning. See Tsafs.

SIPE050FH0RA QBASASIA, Eirby. Tsa
COBN Aphis. In some seasons this aphis is very
injnrioQS to wheat plants. It, with kindred
species, is also found upon oats, barley, and lye,
but the wheat plant is the chief ohject of its
attack in this conntnr. It is found upon the
]^Dts in the early spring, at this time usually in
■mall nnmbers, wandering about restlesdy and
dngly until the ear is formed, after which timek
in nvonrable ooncUtions, there is a raiM increase
in its nnmbers. The ear, with the sweet jnicea
destined for the support of tiie forming grains, is
evidently its great attraction.

Upon an examination of ears infested with
aphides, generations of all sixes, and in all stages
— larva, pupts, and perfect insects, commonly
known as flies — will be seen actively engaged in
sucking the juices from the stems within the ears
and from the bases of the grain clusters.

Directly the plant begins to change for ripen-
ing and its tissues harden, the aphides cease
because they are compelled to cease from active
effect upon it, but their excrement and exuvio
mixed with ' honey-dew ' (' honey-dew ' is a glu-
tinous sweet liquid secreted by many species of
aphides, and qected by tiiem upon the plants
they infest) hinder respiration, and in a deg^e
afFect the development and tend to spoil the
colour of the grains. Aphis-aftected ears of com
frequently have light and imperfectly shaped
grains, and in bad and persistent attacks the
sample is thin, shrivelled, and, especially in the
case of white wheat, discoloured. In the season
1885 wheat plants were attacked by aphides in
many parts of the country, as were many other
agricultural and horticultural crops, with forest
and ornamental trees, and in not a few localities
much damage was sustained from loss of weight
and imperfect shape of the com, because in the
abnomully cold weather in August the plants
changed for ripening most dowly, so that the
aphides hadan nnnswuly protracted time for work.

The com aphis has been long known in this
conn^. Curtis speaks of it as infesting wheat
ears in 1797. Serious injury is also caused to
wheat plants, as well as to oats, barley, and rye
plants in America and Canada by aphides, which,
accordiqg to the description of Iltch and Thomas,
well-known American entomdogists, and of
Bethnne, in Ontario, appear to belong to the
same species as those in this country. A species
of aphis is destructive to gnin crops in Oermany,
described by Taschenberg (■ Praktische Insekten
Kunde ') as identical with the English com aphis,
minntely delineated, with an eUborate illustra-
tion, by Bnekton in his ' Monograph of British
Aphides.' As in America and Germany, so in
England, aphides are found upon various com
plants and in many kinds of grasses, among
wUch may be mentioned cock's-foot, Daetylit
glomeratai soft-g^rass, Boleiu lanatmt/ some of
the Poas; rye-grass, ZoUvmi and conch-grass,
TriHemm rtpuu.

Life Bittorjf. The life history of this species
of aphis, like that of many other spedes of aphis,
is not yet eompletdy dear. It has not yet been
aecnratdy ascertained as to whether the continuity
of existence is maintained by eggs laid up during
the winter, or by hibernating larvie. ft is be-
lieved that it is carried on by larve, because
larvaa have been seen veiy early in the spring on
the stems of the wheat plants, and upon the stems
and blades of couch-grass, close to the ground.
Drs C. Thomas and Asa Fitch and other American
entomologists have also seen the \axvm of this
aphis at the roots of wheat plants during the
winter, together with the females producing
tltem.

The winged female insect is light brown in
oolear, with the abd<»neu green, with legs of a
dark ydlow hne with bhKsk knees and feet. The
e^ are nd and the eoinides Uack. .

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1620

SITFASTS^-SITONES CBINITUS

In eolonr the krm or lice— wingleu femalM
brinffing forth socceMive genemtioni of live Utrra
—differ from the perfect iniecta, being green or
dark green with brown antenna, having, however,
leg! of the lame shade of yellow and black.
Their beaki or roatra are ahort, a* in the eaie of
the perfect insecte.

The winged, egg-lajing female ii not developed
nntil late in the leaion, but winged femalee
bringing forth live larve are generated at varions
time* and intervals, as in the case of the hop
aphis, Apkit iumuli, when, as is commonly sup-
posed, tiie food supply fails and the insects
become too thick to thrive.

Prevention. After an attack of aphides the
wheat stubbles should be scarified or cultivated
and the rubbish burnt, or the land should at once
be deeply ploughed. If the succeeding crop is to
be tares, trifoUum, potatoes, turnips, or mangels,
thorough cleaning and destruction of conch and
other grasses would be sufficient. A succeeding
white straw crop should be avoided after a bad
attack, as the aphides infest all crops of this
character. Deep ploughing and thoroughly and
deeply bnrying the stubble might prevent their
recurrence. It would be safer to take another
crop.

After an attack care should be taken to extir-
pate grasses and grassy growths from the fields
and from the ontsides of fields. It is usual in
some coantie* for wheat to follow rye-grass and
clover ley, one or two years old, ut«r oats, or
af tf r wheat. Should aphides have infested the
previous oat or wheat crops, they might be carried
on, and would probably be carried on, to the next
com crop by the rye-gnss and other grasses in
the leys. This would be detected by observation,
and if aphides were fonnd measures should be
taken to circumvent them by altering the rota-
tion, or by closely feeding the ley with sheep and
treading it well before it was ploughed.

It may be suggested here that a strong magni-
fying lens for the pocket is a necessary part of a
pactical farmer's equipment in these days when
msects are so nomerous and rampant, and that it
is as requisite to carefully examine the roots and
lower stems of plants and the surface soil around
them when walking round the farm, as to observe
their upper parts within more convenient reach,
or as to watch and note the signs of the weathers

Samediai. Obviously it would be impracticable,
at all events to farmers generally, to apply reme-
dies for aphides actually in $itu upon com plants
when in ear. In cases where watchful and well-
timed observations have shown that larvn— lice —
were present on the blades and stems close to the
gronnd early in the spring, dressings of soot,
gnano, gas lime, or agricultural salt would check
tiieir progress. Where the plants were not too
forward hirrowings and rollings wonld interrujit
them considerably. Feeding off with sheep would
be remedial where the state of the plants and
the condition and nature of the land allowed this
to be done.

Lady-birds, CoecineUm, called by the French
peasants B4t»i i Ditn, <a VaehM <k Diau, and in
Italy BertioUna M Signor*, are the natural and
inveterate destroyen of these and all other species
of aphides, as well a* of other insects. These

should be regarded as ncred by all agriealtmists
and cultivators of every description. It ia firmly
believed that they eat f angi also, as they have
been found upon hop cones and rose leaves aif ected
with mildew which they appeared to be eating.
The enormous benefits conferred upon ag^cnl-
turists by the CoeeinelUda as devourers both of
insects and fungi injurious to crops, and aa
scavengers of refuse, are described in a most
graphic and interesting manner by Professor
Forbes, State Entomologist, Illinois, U.S.A., in a
paper entitled ' The Food Relations of the Cars-
bidss and Coocinellida.'

The grain aphis has fortunately dangeroas
enemies even more destructive than the lady-birds,
in two parasites, ichneumon flies, known respeo>
tively as Aphidiue atena and Sphednu plagiator.
These parasitic flies have long ovipositors with
which they insert their eggs into the bodies of the
aphides. In a short time the eggs become larrs,
and feed upon their bodies until nothing bat
empty skins renuun. They lay many eggs and
only one in each larva, so that they d^ destruc-
tion wide-spread among these foes to the wheat
crsp (' Beports on Insets Injurious to Crops,' by
Chas. Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

SITYASTS. These hard tnmonrs, possessingr
but little sensibility, are situated in those super-
ficial parts of the horse's body which have been
exposed to the unequal pressure of the collar, the
saddle, or the harness. The tnmour should be
removed by the veterinary snrgeon if the pre-
vious applicstion of either blisters, biniodide of
mercury ointment, or a seton has been tried and
failed to disperse it. The precursor of the sitfast
is always a swelling filled with serum and lymph,
caused, as before stated, by badly fitting harness.
Hence the soundest treatment is to prevent its
development into the hard form, by proper means,
directly it shows itself, the best remedies being
the application of salt and water or Qonlard water,
and correcting the defects of the harness.

8IT0BXS CSmXUS, Oliv. ; 8IT0VES JJIS-
ATU8, Linn. Tbi Psa akd Bkuc Wsxtils.
These are two species of weevils very destructive
to pulse crops. Farmers and gardeners have con-
stantly noticed that the loaves of pea and bean
plants are full of holes and notches, and so much so
as to affect their growth most materially in some
seasons. These weevils canse this, and are most
dangerous when the plants are young ; oommen<v
ing their depredations in March, or as soon as the
weather becomes spring-like, they work nntil the
end of July.

It is said that they do not attack the common
pea that is grown principally tot pigs and sheep ;
but this is not correct, for complaints have been
made from several parts showing that these have
not by any means escaped. From observation it
is clear that they eat all kinds of peas readily, in
field and garden, as well aa Ilazagan, tick, and
broad beans. In some seasons, and when the seed
is sown late, they fairly prevent the plants from
starting, eating off the leaves directly they appear
from the cotyledons. A large grower of peas for
seed reported that in 1883 he sustained consider-
able loues by the onslaughts of the pea weevils,
especially upon the Early Snnrise sort.

Clover is much destr^ed by these weevils, as

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SIZE— SKIN

1621

wdl M by a c1omI5^ allied and almoit identical
•peeiM, known ai SitontM puneiioollu. The
weevils eat the leaves, and the gniba or larrn
devonr the roots of the clover. In 188S there
were many complaints made of clover dying in

rohes in varions parts of England in October,
was thought at first this was dne to clover
sickness, or to a fongns. Upon close examination
small maggots were fonnd at the roots, which
were living npon the joicy snccnlent parts.
Agun, in the early spring following, the mischief
was continued. Tr^lutm nteamatmn is also
attacked frequently. Plant is lost quickly and
mysteriously. It is said that the ' worm ' is in it.
In Kent, in 1882, this happened in a large piece
of trifoUnm sown upon wheat stubble without
jdoughing. After the plants had nearly all dis-
appeued the cause of the loss was traced to the
larve of the SUona.

Life Mittorg. The perfect insect — i8i<oiM Im«-
ata — ^is about four lines or the third of an inch
in length, rather narrow in shape. It is of an
earthy colour, with light stripes or lines down its
back. The head is dark coloured. The wings
are large. SitouaM erimiiui is hardly so large as
the Sitona* Htuatut, and is of a somewhat lighter
colour, and without any stripes or lines, but has
bairs or bristles on its body.

When disturbed these insects get on to the
ground, rither by falling or.iaJnidng, and remain
perfectly still. Being riiiiilar m colour to the
earth it is difficult to detect them. The eggs are
white and numerous. The larva are found at
the roots of clover plants from October until
March, and of peas towards the end of May, and
change to pupai in the ground during June. The
larvs are nearly a quarter of an inch long, white,
without legs, and having strong jaws.

Prevention. After an attack the land should
be cleaned from all rubbish and deeply ploughed
at once, as the larvn remain in the soil during
the winter. A dressing of lime would be most
advantageous in serious cases. Care should be
taken not to sow another leguminous crop after
an attack.

Clover-fields literally swarm with these insects
in some seasons. It wonld be highly dangeroos to
pntpeas, or beans, or tares in after dover in these
eircmnstances, but this is an unusnal course of
eropping. As the weevils have been found in
wheat stubbles after harvest, in land sown with
wheat after clover, it is desirable not to put tri-
f oUmn in after wheat without cultivation, as is
often done. Trif olium crops have been materially
injured by these Sitona.

Ashes, aawdnst, or earth saturated with paraf-
fin dilated in the proportion of 2 table-spoonfuls
to 10 galls, of water put into the drills or rows
when peas and beans are sown might be used
upon a large scale as a preventive.

Remediet. A dressing of 2i cwt. of guano
per acre has been found to help peas and beans
suffering from the attacks of the Sitonet, If put
on early when the dew is on the plants, or after
a digbt shower, this manure sticks to the leaves,
and raiders them distasteful to the weevils, and
helps the plants along at the same time. In
market gardens, and in gardens, it is very effica-
doos to send men and b<^ to walk with a foot on
TOii. n.

dther side of each row of plante, to press the
earth tightly and firmly close to the plants in
order to prevent the beetle from moving again
easily. Many are killed by this process. This
might be extended to larger cultivation, as a gang
of men would get over a good deal of ground in
a day. Horse hoeing cannot be done too often,
and side hoeing will be found very usf ul (' Re-
porte on Insects Iinurions to Crops,' by Chas.
Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.8.).

SIZE. Obtained, like glue, from tbe skins of
animals, but is evaporated less, and kept in the
soft state. See Oold and Qold Siza.

Siia, Oil. This may l>e made by grinding
yellow ochro or burnt red ochre with boiled
linseed oil, and thinning it with oil of tnrpen*
tine.

SKATE. The Saia batit, Linn. Other
varieties of Baia also pass under the name. It
is a coarse fisb, and is principally salted and dried
for exportation.

SKIK (The). 9^. CcTis, Dsum, Pbujb,
h. Every person must be familiar with the ex-
ternal appearance and general properties of the
skin ; but there are many of our readers who may
not be aware of ito pecidiar compound character.
The skin, then, although apparently a single
membrane, is composed of three distinct layers,
each of which pmorms ite special duties : — 1.
The exterior of these is called the cuticle, epi-
dermis, or sMif-skin. It is an albuminous tissue,
possessing no sensibility, and is found thickest on
those parts of the body most exposed to friction
or iiunry, 2. The mucous net, or rete mucosum,
which is a thin layer of rounded cells, which lies
immediately under the cuticle, and is supposed to
be the seat of the colour of the skin. 3. The
dermis, cutis vera, or true skin, is a highly sensi-
tive, vascular, gelatinous textnro, the third and
last in succession from the surface of the body.
It is this which, when the scarf-skin and hair have
been removed, is converted by the process of
faLnning or tewing into leather.

The skin, because of ite tough, elastic, fiexible
nature and ite underlying layer of fat, is admir-
ably adapted for covering the varions internal
parte and organs, as well as for bodily movement
and exertion. Besides thb, it exercises, in com-
mon with the lungs, the liver, and the kidneys,
the important function of a depurator, and may,
with the organs above specified, be regarded as
one of the main outlets for the waste producte of
the body j the effete and noxious matters of which,
when in a healthy condition, it effecto the removal,
are those contahied in the perspiration, and in
addition carbonic acid.

The perspiration is variable in amount, owing
to various causes, such as temperature, the
amount of exerdse teken, the more or less hygro-
scopic contUtion of the surrounding atmosphere,
the quantity of fluid swallowed, the season of the
year, &c. With the exception of that which
occurs under the armpite and npon the soles of
the feet, it has generally an acid reaction, due
to the piesence in it of uncombined organic
acids. Under ordinary conditions of life it
averages daily about 2 lbs. in quantity, being, as
might be expected, more abundant tluui the urine
in summer, and less in winter. The perspiration

96

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1522

SKIN BALSAM— SKIN COSMETICS

is of rery complex oompodtion, and containa lac-
totei, batyratee, and acetates of sodiam and am-
moniam, sodic chloride, phosphate of calcinm,
and Bolphatea — these latter, however, occnrring
in but small qnsntities.

Varions observers have arrived at different
condnsions respecting the amonnt of carbonic
acid exhaled from the skin. Professor Scharling
believed it to be from a fortieth to a sixtieth the
amount given off by the Inngs. Recent observa-
tions seem, however, to have shown that this

Suiotifama Oland bom tha pilm of the hand, magnified 40
dism.:— «, a, eontoited tnoes oompoaing the gland, and
nniting in two excretoi; dacta, i, f, which unite into one
spiral canal that perforates the cpidennii at o, and opena
on it* anrhce at a ; the gland ii embedded in fat-veiidea,
wUeh are seen at «, «.

estimate was too high. Dr Edward Smith,
operating upon himself by placing every part of
his body except the head in a caoutchouc bag,
and sulMeqnent]^ collecting the evolved carbonic
add (the enienment being performed in the
summer-time), found the quantity evolved to be
6 gr. per hour, or about a hundredth part of that
passing off from the lungs.

Anbert's experiments led him to the eonclnaion
that it was about half the amount given by
Smith ; whilst Beinhart estimated it at 84 or 86
gr. a day.

These excretory processes of the skin are ef •
fected by means of very minute vessels called the
»udori])arou» or neaat fflaudt. These glanda
abound in almost every part of the human skin.
They are of largest siie under the axillse or arm-
pits, where perspiration is most profuse. They
are also very abundant upon the palms of tb«
bands. Professor Erasmus Wilson says that as
many as 8628 of these sweat-glands exist in •
S4]uare inch of surface on the palm of the band ;
and as every tube, when straightened out, t«
about a quarter of an inch in length, it follows
that, in a square inch of skin from the palm of
the hand, there exists a length of tube equal to
882 inches, or 78) feet. These glands, aa we
have seen, vary in number for different parts of
the human body ; but if we take Professor Wil-
son's average for the superficial area of a man of
ordinary stature, vii. 2800 of them to the square
inch, it follows " the total number of pores on
such a man's skin would be about ttw mmUmmi*,
and the length of perspiratory tubing would then
be 1,760,000 inches, or 146,833 feet, or 48,811
yards, or nearly 28 miles " (Carpenter's ' Human
PhysioloKy').

ui addition to the indorhieHVut, the skin in
those parts where hair is found also possesses
MtbaeeoMt glands, which stud almost every part of
its surface except the palms of the hands and
the soles of the feet. The sebaceous ^ands
secrete a semi-fluid, greasy kind of substance, the
office of which is probably to lubricate the hair,
these glands always opening into the air-follicles,
generally in pairs. A parasite known as the
Aeanuyi>Uic»lorum infests the sebaceous glands.
In the cartilaginous part of the external passage
of the ear are other glands, the oer%mi»out, which
secrete the wax that forms a protective film for
the membrane of the tympanum or drum, and
gpnards it against dust, insects, &c. See Exxa-
oiaa, PBBSPiKAXioir.

BKnr BALBAK, fflyMrin— CHyetria Haut
Balsam. A mixture of 1000 parts glycerin, 120
parts orange-flower water, 1 part «|u;h oils of
neroliand bitter almonds (Sofftr).

SUV COBKKMCS. The amplest, cheapest,
and most geneisUy emplt^ed cutaneous cosmetics
are soap and water, which at once cleanse and
soften the sUn. Soap contuning a fiill propor-
tion of alkali exercises a solvent power upon the
cuticle, a minute portion of which it dissolves;
but when it contains a small preponderance of
oily matter, as the principal part of the milder
toilet soaps now do, it meduuiically softens the
skin and promotes its smoothness. Almond,
Naples, and Castile soaps are esteemed for these
properties ; and milk of roses, cold cream, and
almond powder (paste) are also used for a similar
purpose. To produce an opposite effect, and to
harden the cutide, spirits, astringents, adds, and
astringent salte are commonly employed. The
frequent use of bud water has a similar effect.
The application of these articles is generally for
the purpose of strengthening or preserving some
particular part against the action of cold, mois-

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SKINS->8LA0.

16SS

tun, &c.; aa the lipi, or iimmin«B> from chapping,
or the huids from contracting cUlblains ; bat in
thii reapect oili, pommsdei, and other oleaginoas
bodie« are generally regarded a* preferable.

Another clan of cntaneoiu cosmetics are em-
ployed to remove freckles and emptions. Among
the most innocent and valnable of these is
OowUand's lotion, which has long been a popular
article, and deservedly so, for it not only tends to
impart a delightful softness to the skin, bat is a
most valnable remedy for many obstinate emptive
diseases vhich frequently resist the usual methods
of treatment. Bitter almonds have been recom-
mended to remove freckles (Celnu), but moisten-
ing them with a lotion made by mixing 1 fl. oz.
of rectified spirit, and a teaspoonful of hydro-
chloric acid with 7 or 8 fl. oz. of vrater, is said to
do this more effectually. A safe and excellent
cosmetic is an infusion of horseradish in cold
milk (Witiering).

Hermann prescribes the following lotion: —
Blanched almonds, 2 oz.; rose water, 8 oz.; orange-
flower water, 8 oz. Make an emulsion, strain, and
add sal-ammoniac, 1 dr.; simple tincture of ben-
zoin, 2 dr.

Skin plants and skin stains are employed to

g've an artificial bloom or delicacy to the skin.
>age and carmine are the articles most generally
used to communicate a red colour. The first is
the only ooonetie that can be employed, without
iiunry, to brighten a lady's complexion. The
other, though possessing unrivalled bean^, is apt
to impart a sallowness to the skin by frequent
use. Starch powder is employed to impart a
white tint, and generally proves perfectly harm-
less. The American ladies, who are very fond of
painting their necks white, use finely powdered
magnesia, another very innocent substance. Se-
veral metallic compounds, as the trisnitrate,
chloride, and oxide of bismuth (pearl white,
Fard's white, Ac), carbonate of lead (flake white),
white precipitate, &c., are frequently used to re-
vive faded complexions; but they are not only
iiyurions to the skin, bnt act as poisons if taken
up by the absorbents. Tiisnitrate of bismuth
(pearl white), probably the least injurious of these
articles, has been known to cause spasmodic
tremblings of the muscles of the face, ending in
paralysis (' Voght. Pharm.'). The employment
of liquid preparations contsoning sugar of lead,
which are commonly sold under the name of milk
of roses, cream of roses, &c, is equally ii^jurious.
Another disadvantage of these metallic prepara-
tions is that they readily turn black when ex-
posed to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen gas,
or the vapours of sulphur, such as frequently
escape into the apartment from coal fires. There
are many instance* recorded of a whole company
being suddenly alarmed by the pearly complexion
of one of its belles being thus transformed into
a sickly grey or black colour.

In conclusion, it may be remarked that the best
purifiers of the skin are soap and water, followed
by the use of a coarse but not a stiff cloth, in
opposition to the costly and smooth diapers that
are commonly employed ; and the best beantifiers
are health, exercise, and good temper.

flUn, Oold'bMter'B. See Oozdbbatbb'b Skis.

SKIH8 (of Aniaalz). The preparation and

preservation of fur skins is noticed under PsL-
TBZ ; the preparation and uses of the skins of
the larger animals under Luiheb, Tavnino,
Tawiho, &c.

BIiACK. Small coal, such as is used for kilns.

SLAG. The semi-vitrified compounds produced,
on the large scale, during the reduction of metallic
ores by fluxes. Those nom iron and copper works
are often used for building materials, mending
roads, Ac

According to Egleston (Dingler's 'Folytecb.
Joum.,' ' Joum. Chem. Society ') the following
are some of the industial applications to which
the slag from blast-furnaces u put.

When required for building stones the slag is
run from the blast-furnace into a semicircular
vessel on moving wheels, and having its bottom
covered 8 cm. deep with sand and coke dust. By
means of a bent iron instrument the slag is mixed
with sand and coke dust till the escape of gases
has nearly ceased and the mass is sufficiently
tough. With the same tool it is next pressed
into a mould furnished with a lid, which is forced
down as soon as the escape of gas ceases. The
red-hot stone is then placed in the cooling oven,
covered with coke dust, and allowed to remain
three or four days to cool completely. These
stones are impervious to damp, and make good
foundations. According to another method the
slag, which should contain from 88% to 44% of
silica, is run down a shoot into a Urge cavil^, and
then covered over with sand and ashes, and left
to cool from Ave to ten days, when it is dis-
tributed in moulds, and. there hardens. In certain
parts of Belgium slag is poured upon iron plates
and cooled by water, and thus a kind of glass is
manufactured.

In other districts the slag is granulated as it
flows from the, blast-furnace by means of a stream
of water. The granulated slag is preferred by the
puddlers to the sand for the moulds of pig iron.
The slag gravel may be advantageously substi-
tuted for sand in mortar making, a more rapid
hardening being thus secured, a matter of great
moment in building foundation walls.

Artificial stone is also manufactured from the
granulated slag, and used for building purposes,
furnishing warm dry houses of handsome appear-
ance.

When stones for building with enamelled sur-
faces are required they are obtained in some parts
of Europe as follows : — The unburut bricks are
covered with granulated slag, and after drying
are burnt in a furnace where they do not come in
contact with carbon. The stones are completely
glazed, and according to the different kinds of
slag used are tinted of different colours. This
operation is also employed advantageously with
tiles, pipes, and earthenware.

If, in the preparation of flroproof bricks, a
certun proportion of mixture of clay and granu-
lated slag be added to the mixture, veiy hard and
durable fire-bricks are obtuned. These have been
tested in a brass furnace, and experiments are
being tried as to their applicability to building
puddling furnaces. This granulated slag may
also be advantageously used for manure. Blast-
furnace slag has also been drawn out in fine
threads or filaments, furnishing the so-called

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1524

SLATE— SLEEP

' fnmace wool.' This substance, being a very liad
conductor of heat, has suggested various house-
hold and other uses. A cheap and valuable
cement, said to be equal to Portland cement, has
been prepared from the finely granulated slag,
which will also resist well the action of acids.

Hr Britten in 1876 patented a process for the
manufacture of glass from blast-furnace slag.
Large works for the purpose of carrying out this
invention, under the title of ' Britten's Patent
Glass Company,' have been erected at Finedon in
Korthamptonshire, and are, we believe, success-
Ail^ worked in manufacturing glass bottles.

The method consists in removing molten slag
in a ladle from the blast-furnace, and pouring
into a Siemens' furnace, when certain amounts of
carbonate of sodium and silica are added, depend-
ing upon the quality of the slag used, and of the
glass required.

SLATJE. The excellence of this material for
water cisterns deserves a passing notice here.

Irish slate (Zoptt Sibemieiu) is an argilla-
oeons mineral, said to contain iron and sulphur,
found in different parts of Ireland. It is a com-
mon remedy, among the vulgar, for internal
bruises, taken in a glass of gin.

SLATB WASTX (UtiUiation of). Much
has already been accomplished in the utilisation
of basic slags £rom the steel and iron works, and
ezperimento have shown that what has hitherto
been called ' waste ' in slate quarries can be mann-
fisctured into bricks and tiles. In Italy this new
departure has already met with considerable
success.

BLUP. During the period of our waking
hours the exercise of the animal functions entails a
waste or destruction of tissue in the organs perform-
ing them, which, unless duly repaired, would soon
lead to ihe enfeeblement and consequent failure
of the powers of the organs themselves. For the
animal economy, therefore, to be maintained in a
state of efficiency the repair of the reduced
tissues is a necessity ; and this essential condition
is effected by the agency of sleep, during which
respiration, circulation, digestion, &c., continue to
be carried on simultaneously with assimilative
processes which end in the regeneration of the
impaired tissue.

A proper amount of sleep is therefore as great
or even a greater necessity than a proper supply
of food ; and any one f uiiog to obt^ it soon
perishes of exhaustion. Thus it is that any great
mental emotion — such as intense remorse, grief,
anxiety, or the depressing effect of a reverse of
fortune — so frequently expedites death. Like
Macbeth, "it murders sleep," one of the great
needs of man's existence.

Infants and children, it is well known, require
much more sleep than adults. In these latter the
organism, being already matured, demands only so
tanch sleep as will enable it to make up for the
daily waste of the body, which waste falls very
Car below the amount of nutrition required by
the growing infant. In a still earlier state of
devdopment, viz. the foetal one, Ufe may be said
to be passed entirely in slumber; wliilst children
prematnrely bom scarcely ever wake except for
food. We may assume that, as a general role,
infiats take teeble the amount of sleep that

adults do J and that very young infants thrive tii*
better the larger the amount of sleep they get, is
home out by the experience of medical practi-
tioners, who affirm that they have known many
children who were bom small and weakly, but
who slept the greatest part of tiieir early exist-
ence, afterwards become strong and healthy ;
whilst those children, on the contrary, who, being
bom large and strong, were not good 8le^)ers,
became subsequently enfeebled and nnhealthy.
As regards the sleep of adults, if tiie slumber has
been of average length, or the subject of it
awakes fully rtfreshed therefrom, a second slero,
instead of being conducive, is prejudicial to healtii,
and should never be encouraged.

During sickness a patient, if in a very helpless
and enfeebled state, may often be exposed whilst
asleep to great peril, unless the nurse who attends
him exercises intelligence and a proper amount of
vigilance. In his work on ' Household Medicine'
Dr Gardner has pointed out the dangers tliat
beset the sleeping patient, and the means 'tis
which they may be avoided. " Having disposed, '
he says, "of the patient in bed in the best
manner, be careful that no part of the pillow can
project over the mouth or nose^ and tiM, the bed-
clothes do not cover the mouth.

" The attendant should be particularly attentive
to these points when a narcotic has been taken,
when the disease is paralysis, fever, head diseases,
bronchitis, or any pulmonary complunt. The
patient should be watched until he sleeps, and
during his sleep, if a nurse is not constantiy
present, should be visited frequently, to observe
whether the month and nostrils are free, and
nothing obstructs the breathing.

" Very little suffices for an obsfaruction in such
cases, which may extinguish life. Hundreds,
perhaps we may say thousands of persons die pre-
maturely from suffocation during sleep, in a low
condition of the vital energies.

" How often does it happen that a patient left
in a calm sleep is found dead upon being visited
an hour or two after ! Soft yielding pUlows, in
which the head and faoe get buried, are the
instruments of suffocation to weakly persons
yetj, very often."

The Isiiger amount of sleep indulged in by the
very old, over adults, is referable to the inca-
pacity of the aged for exercise, and to thdr
enfeebled powers of nutrition. Besides age, tem-
perament, habit, and surrounding circumstances
exercise considerable influence on the amount of
sleep necessary for man. Persons of lymphatic
temperament are generally great sleepers ; wliilst
those of a nervous and active nature are mostly
the reverse. The late Earl Bussell was, we
believe, in the years of his active political life a
very small sleeper, his slumbers seldom extending
over five hours. So likewise was the Duke of
Wellingtoq; General Elliott, the defender of
Gibraltar, seldom slept more than four hours out
of the twenty-four. As a contrast to these cases
may be mentioned that of Dr Reid, the metaphy-
sician, of whom it is stated that he oould take at
sufficient food and afterwards as much deep
as would suffiee for an ordinary man fOr two
days.

Several well-attested cases of excessive slumber

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8LBBPLESSNESS AND COLO FEBT— SMALTS

1686

Me on reoord in wbioh the deep latted in Mmie
cawa for weeks, and in others even for monthi.

In the ' Compte* Kendns ' for 1S64, Dr BlaU'
cbet reoorda the case of one of his patients, a
lady of 24 vears of age, who had slept for 40
days when she was 18 years of age. Two years
later she had a sleep lasting 60 days. Upon a
subsequent occasion she feU asleep on Easter
Sunday, 1862, and did not wake tiU March, 186S.
She was fed during this period with milk and
soup. She continued motionless and insensible,
the pulse was low, the breathing scarcely percep-
tible, there were no evaenations, and she betrayed
no ilg^s of wasting away, whilst her complexion
is described as florid and healthy.

This, however, as well as other cases of a
similar kind, most not be regarded as an extreme
.instance of healthy slumber, but as a form of
lethargy or coma, as indicative of disease, as the
opposite condition of sleeplessness, that is fre-

Sinently an accompaniment of oeitain forms of
even, inflammatray affections, and brain dis-
orders.

SLXSFLISnxSS A>]> COLS PIXT. The re-
lation between cold feet and sleeplessness is much
eloser than is commonly imagined. Persons
with oold feet rarely sleep well, especially women.
Yet the number ME persons so troubled is con-
dderable. We now know that if the blood-
■npply to the bndn be kept up, sleep is impos-
sible. An old theologian, when weeiy and sleepy
with much writing, nnmd that he could keep his
brain active by immersing his feet in cold water;
the oold drove the blood from the feet to the

Now, what this old gentleman accomplished by
design is seemed for many persons much against
their will. Cold feet are the bone of many women.
"Hght boots keep np a bloodless condition of the
feet in the day, and in many women there is no
subsequent dUatation of the blood-vessek when
the boots are taken off. These women come in
from a walk and put their feet to the Are to warm
—the moat efleetive plan of cultivating chilblains.
At night they put their feet to the fire, and have
a hot bottle in bed. But it is all of no use; their
feet still remun cold. How to get their feet
warm is the great question of life witix them — in
cold weather. The effective plan is not very
attractive at first sight to many minds. It con-
sists in flnt driving the blood-vessels into firm
eontraotion, after which secondaiy dilatation
follows. See the snowballer's bonds: the first
contact of the snow makes the bands terribly
cold; for the small arteries are driven thereby
into firm contraction, and the nerve-endings of
the finger-tips feel the low temperature ver^
keenly. But as the snowbalXer perseveres, hu
hands oommence to glow ; the blood-vessels have
become seeondstrily dilated, and the rush of warm
arterial blood is felt agreeably by the peripheral
. nerve-endings. This la the plan to adopt with
cold feet. They should be dipped in cola water
for a brief period; often just to immerse them,
and no more, is sufficient; and then they should
be rubbed with a pair of hair flesh-gloves, or a
rough Tarkisb towel, till they glow, immediately
before getting into bed. After this a hot-water
bottle will be aaooeasfol enough in '"""*r"'"g

the temperature of the feet, though witiiont this
preliminary it is impotent to do so. Disagreeable
as the plan at flrst sight may appear, it is effi-
cient; and those who have once fairly tried it
continue it, and find that they have put an end to
their bad nighta and cold feet. Pills, potions,
lozenges, 'night-caps,' all narcotics, nul to
enable the sufferer to woo sleep successfully; get
rid of the cold feet, and then sleep will oome of
itself ('British Medical Journal').

SMALLPOX. See Pox.

Smallpex In Sheep. SlP*' Vabioia otika.
This disease, although bearing the same name as
that which attacks the human snbject. Is a per-
fectly distinct malady, and incapable of being
communicated to man either by inoculation or
contagion. In about ten days from the time of
the animal's having imbibed the contagion feverish
symptoms set in, accompanied with a mucous dis-
charee of a purulent character from the noae.
Bed inflammatory pimples then begin to develop,
first appearing where the skin is thin. After the
pimples have been out about three days they as-
sume a white appearance, and are filled with serum
and pns. " Some of the vessels dry up, leaving
brown scabs; others, especially in the severer
cases, run together, and the scarf-skin is detached,
leaving an lUceiated surface. It is in this ulce-
rated stage that the prostration reaches it height,
and that most sheep die. The mortality mm
smallpox in sheep ranges from 26% to 90%"
(J^'aioy Dun).

The disease being a very infectious one, the
affected animals must be kept separate from the
healthy ones. Thirty grains of chlorate of potaah
should be given three times a day, whilst the food
should be nutritious and such as to tempt the
animal's appetite. It may consist of bruiMd oil-
cake, bran, and steeped oats. Professor Simonds
recommends inoculation as a prophylactic mea-
sure.

Smallpox Karks (Prevention of). 1. For pre-
venting disfigurement from smallpox marks, Dr
Bernard suggests that the pustules as soon as they
have acquired a certain size should be punctured
with a line needle, and then repeatedly washed
with tejud water.

2. Dr Thorbum Patterson prescribes the fol-
lowing ointment: — Carbonic acid, 20 to 80
minims; glycerine, 1| dr.; ointment of oxide of
tine, 6 dr.

8. Cream smeared on the pustules frequently
during the day with a feather. See also OlllT>
MBirrB.

SKALTS. Sl^. AzTBB, PowsBB man, Si-
IJOBOVB B., SVALI ; AzTHtUH, Skalia, L. This
consists, essentially, of glass coloured by fusing
it with oxide of cobalt.

Prtp. 1. Cobalt ore is roasted, to drive off
the arsenic, then made into a paste with oil of
vitriol, and heated to redness for an hour; the
residuum is powdered, dissolved in water, and the
ferric oxide precipitatisd with carbonate of potas-
sium, gradually added, until a rose-coloured
powder begins to fall ; the clear portion is then
decanted and preapitated with a solution of sili-
cate of potassium (prepared by fusing together,
for 6 hours, a mixture of 10 parts of potash, 16
parts of finely ground flints, and 1 part of char-

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1626

SMELLING SALTS— SNUW

coal) ; the precipitate after being dried ii fnied,
aud redaced to a rery fine powder. A Teiy rich
colour.

8. Boasted cobalt ore and carbonate of potat-
nam, of each, 1 part ; liliceoas land, 8 parti ;
fuse them together, and cool and powder the re-
aidaum. TJaed aa a blae pigment, alio to oolonr
glasi, and for ' blaeing ' tiie itarch nied to get up
linen. See Blvx PlsniiTS.

SHELL'IHO SALTS. See Salts, Skbllivg.

8XSLT. A beautiful little abdominal flih
abounding in the Thames, and a few other rivers,
between the months of IfoTemher and February.
It is esteemed a great delicacy by epicures, but
sometimes proves offensive to the delicate and
dyspeptic.

SKOKE FBETEHTIOH. Although the fUl
consideration of this subject belongs to public
hygiene and civil engineering, its immediate
application and advantages are interesting and
important to everybody.

The history of smoke burning scarcely com-
mencei before the year 1840, at which date Mr
Charles Wye Williams obtained a patent for this
purpose. Since that time a ' thousand and one '
schemes, either patented or non-patented, pro-
fessedly for the same object, have been brought
before the public. Most of these have been sup-
ported by the moat reckless statements regarding
their value, made by interested parties ; and the
most serious inconvenience and losses have often
followed their adoption. Williams's method is
to admit an abundant supply of cold air throngh
a large number of small perforations in the door
and front part of the funiace. Lark's method is
based on the admission of heated air, onder due
regulation, both through the door and at the
bridge or back of the furnace, by which means
combustion is rendered more complete, and smoke
thereby prevented.

Ivison 8 plan consists in the introduction of
steam by nunute jets over the fire, which is thus
greatly increased in intensity without the prodnc-
raon of smoke, and with a saving of fnel. In
Jucke's arrangement the grate bars of a furnace
are replaced by an endless chain web, which is
carried round upon two rollers, in such a way that
each part of the fuel is exposed to conditions
most favourable for perfect combustion. Other
inventions are baaed upon supplying fnel to the
flres from beneath, so that the products of oom-
bnstion must pass throngh the incand«Ment coals
above.

For household fires, the smokeless grate, in-
vented by I>r Amott, will be found entirely suc-
cessful, and most economical. Its general intro-
dnction would be a great advance in both domestic
and public hygiene; and, being hence of national
impw-tance, should be enforced by law.

8I[0"EDrO. This is done, on the large scale,
by hanging up the articles (previouslv more or
um salted) in smoking rooms, into wmch smoke
is very slowly admitted from smothered dry- wood
flres, kindled in the cellar, fbr the purpose of
allowing it to cool and deposit its cruder part
before it arrives at the meat. This process re-
quires from dbc days to as many weeks to perform
it properly, and is best done in winter. Li farm*
houses, where dry wood is burnt, hams, d;c, are

often smoked by hanging them up in some eool
part of the kitffiben chimney. When the meat b
cot into slices, or scored deeply with a knifa, to
allow the smoke to penetnite it, it is called
• BiroAirnre.'

" The quality of the wood has an influence upon
the smell and taste of the smoke-dried meat,
smoke from beech wood and oak being preferable
to that from fir and larch. Smoke from thetwiga
and berries of juniper, from roaemaiy, peppermint,
&e., impart somewhat of the aromatic flavour of
these pUnts " ( Ure). The occasional addition of
a few doves or allspice to the fuel gives a ray
agfreeable flavour to the meat.

Hung beef, a highly esteemed variety of smoked
beef, is prepared from any part, fna from bone
and fat, by well salting and pressing it, and then
drying and smoking it in the nsnal manner. It
is best eaten shredded. See PcntxrAonoF,
SAunms, Ac.

SVAKX-FOISOHnrO, KortaUty fMm. Tlie
'Lancet' (August 11th, 1870), quoting a letter
from T. B. Beighton, Esq., of the Bengal (Svfl
Service^ magistrate of the Culna district of the
Bordwan province of Bengal, says : — " The 'Culna
district comprises, we presume, 80 or 100 square
miles, and has a popnlatton of about 800,000.
Mr Beighton says that deaths from snake-bite are
singularly common in the subdivision. An
average of one per day is reported through the
police. The actual deaths are probably double
the number reported. If this daily average is
meant to apply the whole year round, we should
thus get in a comparatively small district the
frightful death of 700 persons from snake-bite.
It is lamentable to think that, despite the supposed
remedial discoveries in this direction, we still
seem to be without an agent to neutralise the
effects of the bites of poisonous snakes."

8VAKS-B00I. See SmeA. For • Virginias
snake-root* see Sbbpxhtabt. Snakeweed {Sit-
torttt radU) is the root of Folgytmrnm bittorta,
Linn.

BHIPI. The Beolopca gailmage, a well-lmown
bird indigenous to this ooantry. It is fine-
fiavoured, but rather indigestible.

avow, Foreigii Bodies in. M. Bondier (■ Joum.
Ch. Soc.'), having lately made an examinatioD of
snow, reccnrds that of the solid matters floating in
the ur and retained in the snow, the most abun-
dant was fonnd to be soot; next some oells of
Protoeoeau mridit, and spores and filaments of
other cryptogams; then grannies of starch and
cells and fibres of various plants. Epithelial cells
and hairs of animals were also present, as well as
fibres of wool and silk. These last, being dyed,
indicated the presence of man, as did also the
fibres of hemp, cotton, and indigo. The amount
of foreign matter was greatest m the snow ool*
lected at the lowest levels, eapedally in the
vidnity of human habitations and ot woods,
which are both fertile sources of floating partidea.
Permanganate of potasnum was used to estimate
the amount of organic matter dissolved by the
filtered snow water.

Immediately mixed with the soot were the
ferruginous oonraseles observed by TSssandiar.
These are regarded by the author, in opposition to
the opinion^ Tissamdier, aa of tenastiial origin.

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sinxPF

1627

SXXm. Sgu. PiTLTig IABA0I, L.I Tabic
BV FOUDBi, Tt. A powder prepared from to-
bacco, for the pnrpoae of beings sniffed np the
nose as a stimaUnt or intoxicanL

The finer kinds of snnfl are made fV«m the soft
portions of the best description of mannfactnred
leaf -tobacco, separated from the damaged portion ;
bat the ordinary snnffs of the shops are mostly
prepared from the coarser and damaged portions,
the midribs, stems, or stalky parts that remain
from the mannfactnre of ' shag tobacco,' the dust
or powder sifted from the bales, and the frag-
ments that are unfit for other pnrposes.

Prep. The proper materials being chosen, and
if not in a sufficiently mature state rendered so
by further fermentation, they are snffloiently
dried by a gentle heat or ezposqre to the air to
admit m being pulverised. This is performed on
the large scale in a mill, and on the small scale
with a kind of pestle and mortar. Daring the
operation the tobacco is frequently sifted, that it
may not be reduced to too fine a powder, and is
several times slightly moistened with rose or
orange-flower water, or eau d'an;^, which are the
only liquids fit for the superior kinds of snnfiL
In preparing the dr^ snaA no moisture is used.
The scent or other like matters are next added,
and, after thorough admixture, the snofl is packed
in jars or canisters.

Adult. During the grinding of tobacco it is
frequently mixed with dwk-coloared rotten wood,
various English leaves, colooiing, and other matter.
Ammonia, hellebore, euphorbium, and powdered
glass are common additions to snufFs to increase
their pungency. We have seen jpowderad sal-
ammoniac sent by the hundredwdgnt at one time
to a certain celebrated London tobacconist. The
moist kinds of snoft are generally dragged with
pearlash, for the triple purpose of keeping them
damp and increasing their pnngency and colour.
The dry snuffs, especially ' Sootdi ' and 'Welsh,'
are commonly adulterated with qnieklime, the
particles of which may be occasionally distin-
guished even by the naked eye. This addition
causes tht&T biting and desiccating effect on the
pituitary membrue. " We were once severely
. mjoied by taking snuff which, after our suspi-
cions were awakened, we found to contain a mix-
ture of red-lead and umber" (Cbolsy).

The following circumstance, related by Dr
Qarrod (' Lancet') in a lecture at King's College
Hospital, leads to the inference that uie custom
of packing snuff in lead is not free from danger.
The doctor says : — A gentleman, a resident in
Lidia, began to suffer some time since from
nervous exhaustion, anemia, and debility of both
extremities ; he was a great snoff-taker, taking on
an average as much as an ounce in the course of
a day. He consulted several medical men in
India, and th^ attributed his symptoms to inor-
dinate snuff -taking. He, however, continned to
take snuff and to get worse, and at last came to
England to seek further advice. When Dr
Ghvrod saw him he discovered a blue line on the
g^ms. His suspicions were directed to the snuft, .
which he found to oontvn a considerable quan-
tity of lead. To ascertain whether or not the
presence of lead in this case was an actadental
dicnmstaace, six pa<dMts were ordered from the

house in Calcutta with which the gentleman had
been in the habit of dealing. The snuff was con-
tained in sheet-lead packages, which were all
found to contain lead to aboat the same extent as
the first specimen. Dr Oarrod exhibited a solu-
tion, which he tested in the following way: —
Ten grains of snuff were burned in a platinum
crucible, and the ash was treated with nitric acid,
the ciystallised result was dissolved in water with
the addition of a small quantity of acetic acid,
and then tested with iodide of potassium, which
threw down an abundant precipitate of yellow
iodide of lead. The leaden packages were labelled
' best brown rappee,' and bore the name of a well-
known English firm, from which they had been
exported to India. The snuff itself was rather
moist. Where it adhered to the sides of the case
it was dotted with white spots, probably consist-
ing of carbonate of lead, formed by, Dr Oarrod
suggestsj the fermentation of the damp snuff.

Since Dr Garrod's attention has been directed
to this subject he has spoken to a medical man
recently returned from Calcutta, who told him
that he had quite lately met with three cases of
lead-poisoning, which, cm investigation, were
found to be due to the use of snuff.

Var. Snufis are divided into two kinds — SBT
BKTmn, as 'Scotch,' 'Irish,' 'Welsh,' and
'Spanish snoff,' 'Lnndyfoot,' Ac.; and xoiai
Sinrm, or bappbbb, including 'bhu^' and
'brown rappee,' 'carrotte,' 'CnW 'Hardham's
mixture,' ' prince's mixture,' ' princexa,' ' queen's
snuff,' &e. The last three also come under the
denomination of BosinxD avrma.

The immense variety of snuffs kept in th« shops,
independently of the above-named conditions,
depend for their xUstinguishing characteristics on
the length of the fermentation, the fineness of the
powder, the height to which they are dried, and
the addition of odorous substances. Tonqnin
beans, essence of tonquin bean, ambergris, musk,
civet, leaves of OnkUJiitea, root and oil of Oala-
fluit aromatitmt, powder and essence of ortis root,
and the essences or oils of bergamot, cedra, cloves,
lavender, petit grain, neroli, and rosea (otto), as
well as several others, either alone or compounded,
are thus employed. Tabao PAxruxia Axrx.
VLiirsa is perfumed by potting orange flowers,
jasmines, tuberoses, musk roses, or common roses,
to the snuff in a close chest or jar, sifting them
out after 24 hours, and repeating the treatment
with fresh flowers as necessary. Another way is
to lay paper, pricked all oyer with a large pin,
between the flowers and the snuff,

Maoottba Bvun is imitated by moistei^ng the
tobacco with a mixture of treaole and water, and
allowing it to ferment well.

SPAiriBH nmn is made from unsifted
'Havannah snuff,' reduced by adding ground
Spanish nut-shells, sprinkling the mixtnre with
troacle water, and allowing it to sweat for stnne
days before packing.

Tiixow sircntT u prepared from ordinary pale
snuff moistened with a mixture of yellow ochre
diffused in water, to which a few spoonfuls of
thin mucilage have been added ; when dry, the
colour that does not adhere to the snuff is sepa-
rated with a fine sieve.

BxB Btrvn. As last, but using red ocJu«.

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15S8

SOAP

Snnir, AMntbao'ea. S^a. Cbphuio esxrtw,
CoxpoTnrD fowdbb ov asasa^aooa; Puxtis
ASABi coxPOBiTVB, L. Prsp. 1. (Ph. D. 1826.)
Asarabacca leaves, 1 oz. ; lavender flowers, 1 dr.
{both dried) j mix and powder them.

2. (Ph. E. 1817.) Asarabacca leaves, S dr.;
leaves of marjoram and flowers of lavender, of
each, 1 dr. J as before. Both are nsed as errhines
in headaches and ophthalmia. See Sinrrp, Cb-

PEi.LIC, A8iJU3A0OA, &C.

Snnir, Cephal'ic. Ftep. 1. From aaarabacoa
leaves and Lnndvfoot snuff, of each, 8 oz. ;
lavender flowers, t os- > essence of bergamotte
and oil of cloves, of each, 8 or 8 drops ; mixed and
gronnd to a powder, the perfume bmng added
last.

2. (BoM'i.) From tobacco or pnre snuff and
valerian root, of each, 1 oz. ; reduced to powder,
and scented with the oils of lavender and mar-
joram, of each, 5 or 6 drops.

Obt. The first formula is an excellent one;
and the product is very useful in nervous head-
aches, dimness of sight, Ac. See Sinm, AsiJtA-
BAOCA (above).

Snaff, Eye. Prep. . From finely levigated tri-
basic sulphate of mercury ('Tnrpeth mineral'),
i dr. ; pnre dry Scotch or Lnndyfoot snnff, 1 oz. ;
triturate them well together. A pinch of this,
occasionally, has been recommended in inflamma-
tion of the eyes, dimness of sight, headache,
polypus, &c. ; but it should be nsed with cantion,
and not too often.

SOAP. Sgn. Sapo, L.; SATOK,Fr. Spakish,
CabiiIiE, or EABS 80AF, made with olive oil and

soda (SAFO, BAPO BZ OUTM OIiBO BT B0J>1 OOK-

VBOTua— Ph. L.; 8AP0 SUBV8— B. p.. Ph. E. &
D.), and Bovi soap, made with olive (h1 and
potash (BAPO HOLLIB — B. P., Ph. L. & E. ; bapo
BZ OLITX OLBO BT POTAB8A OONPBOTTTB — Ph. L.),

are the only kinds directed to be employed in
medicine. The former is intended whenever
* soap ' is ordered, and is the one which is princi-
pally employed internally ; the latter is used in
ointments, £c., and in some of the officinal pills.
Definition. CSiemically speaking, a soap is

prodnced whenever a mttailie hate is combined
with ttfattg aeid, such as the adds of the general
formula CnH^^OJ, occnrring in or obtainaUe from
the natural fats or fixed oils; and hence, beddas
the ordinary commercial soaps, we have the lead
eoap, or lead plaster of pharmacy, and also Ma»>
ganeie, eopper, merenry, zine, im, eitoer, alrnmi-
nium, and other metallie eoap*. But in ordinary
language by eoap we understand a compound of
an aUmli and a fatty acid, the alkali potash
affording, when so combined, eoft soap, and the
alkali soda forming hard soap.

Kingzett ("The Alkali Trade,' p. 178) pives
this definition : " Soap, considered commercially,
is a body which on treatment with water liberates
alkali."

Prep. (Haxd soap.) The fatty or oleaginoos
matter is boiled with a weak alkaline lye (soap
lye), prepared by decomposing soda-ash wiUi
slaked lime and decanting the clear lye, and por-
tions of strongar lye are added from time to time,
the ebullition being still continued until these
substances, reacting on each other, combine to
form a tenadons componnd, which begins to
separate and rise to the surface of the water ; to
promote this separation and the granulation of
the newly formed so«n some common salt is
generally added, and the fire being withdrawn,
tiie contents of the boiler are allowed to repose
for some hours, in order that the soap may oolleet
into one stratum and solidify ; when this happen!
it is put into wooden frames or moulds, and when
it has become stiff enough to be handled it is cut
into bars or pieces, and exposed to the air, in a
warm situation, to fnrtfaer harden and to diy.

Ciemietrg of the Prooeee. Tallow, a typical
soap-material, contains two fatty substances, one
of which, itearin (C»H„gO(), is solid ; and the
other, olein (C,7H,mO(), liquid, — the quantity of
the former being about three times more than that
of the latter, Tlte action of soda decomposes time
fats into stearic and palmitic adds, whidt com>
bine with the base to form soap, whilst a peen-
liar sweet substance (glycerin) passes into solo-
tion.

C,H,(CuH^O),.0, + 8NaH0 = 8Na(C„H„0)0 + (iH,0,

Steutn. Sods. Sodinm ttmile. GlTCerin.

CH.(C^H^O),.0,

SNaHO

Sods.

JZow Maieriale need in Soap-making. Besides
tallow, many other kinds of fatty matter are used,
namdy, bone grease (fresh bones bruised, boiled in
water, and the fat skimmed off when cold), lard,
kitchen waste, glue fat; seal, sperm, fish, and
whale oils, spermaceti, castor, cotton-seed, dill,
hemp-seed, linseed, and sunflower-seed oils j colza,
illipe, olive, cocoa-nut, almond, and beech-nut oils ;
cacao butter, shea butter, palm oil or hotter, palm-
kemel oil, and ground-nut oil ; rosin or colophony,
recovered grease from the washings of wodlen
works.

Recovery of AUtaU (Teetii da Mothag). In
the print works of Alsace, where an immense
quantity of egg-albumen is consumed, there col-
lect, as a necessary result, enormons quantities of
the yolks of egg. Amongst other purposes to
which these are applied, t£at of soap-making is
one. According to Kingzett, the olem is not the

[jeerin.

= 8Na(CMH>0)0 + CjEjO,
Sodinm olttte. Oljeerin.

only ingredient of the yolk which -reacts upon
the soda or potash, and thus produces soap ; but
the yolk also contains another body (ledtiiine^
C^jHgfNPOg), which, absorbing water nnder the
inflnenoe of the bases, splits up into olde and
margaric adds.

The soap water is decomposed by caldom, barinm,
or magnesium carbonate, and then carbonic add
is passed through the Uquid. The bicarbonate
formed predpitates organic matter and other im>
pnrities, and these settie down. The solution is
then evaporated or treated with baryta water,
which predpitates the last pgrtion of fordgn
matters, and leaves a solntion of caustic alkali.
At a particular stage of tiie process an add is
tised in order to hasten the separation of the
rennons substances, and, in certi^n cases, of the
sniphides of sodium and caldom, or barium and
ealdum and ferric oxid^ and then carbonic add

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I into (jw liquid. The piedpitated metelfie
tnlxtuice* oury down witii them the humiu-Uke
■nbttances preient.

JboMMy Iff On Olgetri* from Spemt Lj/n.
{Ftrtmaiuif* proeett : 'Chemical Kewi,' Jnne 84,
1881.) A gnat many methods hare been pro-
poaed. Cameron (vuU 'Soap and Candle,' p.
176) givea twelve. Of theae one of the moet re-
cent is as follows :

a. The lye is evaporated with heat nntil the
salts which it contains begin to ciystallise out.

b. The liquor is then cooled and filtered to get
rid of gelatanoos and albnminons matters.

e. Carbonic acid is sent through the liquor;
this precipitates sodium bicarbonate, which is
separated off.

d. Gaseons hydrochloric acid is next passed
into the liquor until any remaining sodium car-
bonato is converted into chloride and precipitated
as such.

«. The chloride of sodium is separated; the
liquor, which now consists of water, glycerin,
aiM hydrochloric acid, is evaporated to get rid
of the acid, which is absorbed in water for use
again.

/. The dilute glycerin is purified by filtration
through animal charcoal, ooncentnmon, and,
finaUy, by distillation.

Var. The principal varieties of soap found
in oommerse are—

Aiauam Soap (Sapo AneoAumm}, made
from almond oil and caustic soda, and chiefly
used for the toilet.

The P. Codex gives the following formula
for its preparation: — Solution of caustic soda
(1*884), by weight, 10 oc; oil of almonds, by
weight, 21 OS. ; add the lye to the dl in small
portions, stirring frequently ; leave the mixture
for some days at a temperature of from 64° to
68° F., stirring occaaionaily, and when it has ac-
quired the Gonsistenoe of a soft paste put it into
moulds until suiBcientiy solidified. It should be
exposed to the air for one or two months before
it U used.

Aimcix Soap (Sapo aviicaub, Citxd soap—
B. P.). A soap made with soda and a purified
animii fat, consisting prbicipally of stearin (P.
Cod.). Put 5 parts of beef marrow with 10 parts
of water into a porcelain or silver basin, heat, and
when melted add by portions, with constant stir-
ring, H parts of liquor soda (1*88) ; when saponi-
fied add 1 part of salt; stir, remove the soap from
the sorftMie, drain it, melt it with a gentle heat,
and pour it into moulds.

Cabtiui Soap (Spaxisr b., Mabsbillbb a.;
Sapo CASXELiciraiB, Sapo HisPAvrons). An olive-
oU soda soap, kept both in the white and marbled
state. The former is said to be the purest, the
latter the strongest. Olive oil contains, besides
olein, a solid fat called margarin, which is really
oomposed of palmitin and stearin; hence the soap
made from it is a compound of oleato, palmitate,
and stearate of soda.

Crss Soap, made with taUow (chieify) and
so^ (see above).

Mbsioatbd Soapb, containing various active
ingredients. The diief of these are noticed below.

MOTTLHD Soap, made with refuse kitehen
stuff, Ac.

An impure soda, containing sulphides, is pre-
ferred for the lye, and about 8 oz. of ferrous
sulphate (green vitriol) is added for each cwt. of
oil at the end of the preliminary boiling. This
sulphate is predpiteted partly as iron oxide and
sulphide, and pardy as an insolnble iron soap.
The soap is worked with a rake before moulding,
in such a way as to preserve and arrange the
colouring matters yielded by the sulphate and the
sulphides, Ac, in series, so as to piesent a ' mar-
bled' or 'mottled' appearance. By exposure to
the air the iron gets oxidised to the stato of see-
qnioxide, and a reddish tint called mamteau Ita-
MU is diffused over the bluish mottied mass.
Mottling in blue, grey, and red is alw produced
by Blake and MaxweU's process.

SoPT Soap (of commerce), made with whale,
seal, OP cod dl, tallow, and caustic potash. The
fish oils contain chiefly olein, which, when saponi-
fled with potash, gives potassium oleate, and this
is the chief constituent of 'soft' soap.

N. Qriger gives the following method for the
easy detennination of the fat and alkali in soft
(potesb) soaps : — 86 to 60 grms. of soap are dis-
solved in 160 c.c. of water by aid of heat, cooled,
and mixed with an excess of salt, so. that a soda
soap separates out j the latter bwashed on a paper
filter with a saturated solution of salt In the
filtrate the ft«e alkali is estimated by normal acid.
The precipitate is decomposed by warming with
excess of normal add, and the quantity of add
neutralised by the combined alkaU detennined by
a standard soda solution. The cake of fat which
separates in the last operation is dried and weighed
after adding to it, whUe melted, a known weight
of stearin or paraffin to give it hardness.

ToiLXT Soapb, prepar^ from any of the pre-
ceding varieties, and variously coloured and
scented. Formtda are given below.

Tkllow Soap (Risnr boat), made with inferior
tallow, 8 Mrts; resin, 1 part; and caustic soda,
the resin being added shortly before the soap is
' finished,' S^uble glass is now largely employed
in place of resin.

" When yellow soap is made with the cheaper
kinds of fat it will hardly acquire a suiBcient
degree of firmness or hardness to satisfy the
thrifty washerwoman. It melts away too rapidly
in hot water, a defect which may be well remedied
by the introduction into the soap of a littie
(1-aOth) i^ised snlphato of soda; and this salt
concreting gives the soap a desirable hardness,
whilst it improves its colour, and renders it a
more desirable article for the wiuhing tub " ( Ure).
See Soapb (Medicated and Toilet).

Soaps are also divided into boit or POTASH
soapb, and habd or bosa boapb.

A»tag. (Filtinff»r'» tehe»u — 'Chemiker Zei-
tnng,' April 17th, 1884).

1. Water. Five grms. of hard soap scraped from
the sides and centre of a fresh section are f^Vtj
warmed over a water-bath, and finally dned at
100° C. until the wdght is constent.

Ten grms. of soap are taken, spread in a thin
layer over a large wateh-glass, and treated in tlie
same way.

8. Uiuapou^fiable Fatt]/ Matter*. The dry
residue from (1) is finely powdered, and washed on
a filter three or four times with lukewarm petro-

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lemn eiher. The fllizatei are ooUaetod in a
weighed beaker, evaporated, dried, and weighed.

8. IVtt Alkali. The residne from (2) ii digested
for a short time with alcohol (96% ), slightly
wanned, filtered, the residue on the filter washed
with warm alcohol, and the filtrate, to which a
few drops of a phenol phthalein solntion are
added, triturated with decinormal sulphuric acid.

4. Fort^n Maitert. These are found by the
usual method, together with the chlorides, sul-
phate, and carbonate on the filter in (8).

6. JPattjf Acid. The nentralised alcoholic solu-
tion from (3) is mixed with water in a moderate-
sized porceUun basin, the fatty acids precipitated
by sulphuric acid, and after melting and settling
5 grms. of dry wax are added. When the whole
is cool the fat acid wax is removed, washed with
water and alcohol, dried without melting, and
cooled. The weight - 6 grms. >= the quantity of
fatty acids.

fi. QU/etri*. The liquid from the cake of fatty
acids is treated with a small excess of barium
carbonate, heated, filtered, the filter washed with
hot water, and the filtrate evaporated to dryness.
The residue is repeatedly washed with alcoholic
ether, the filtrate evaporated in a porcelain dish,
.dried at a temperature of 70° C, and weighed.

7. Total Aliali. Ten grms. of another portion
of soap prepared as in (1) are dried in a platinum
dish, and then heated till all the fatty acids have
been destroyed. The porous carbonaceous residue
is boiled with water, filtered into a i-litre flask,
and the filter washed with hot water till the
washings cease to give an alkaline reaction. The
bulk is then made up, the whole well mixed, and
25 cc. (—1 grm. soap) of the solntion are titrated
with sulphuric acid. The result represents the
amount of total alkali, and, after deducting the
quantity of free alkali found by (8), the remain-
.der is the proportion of alkali oomoined with fatty
acids, and existing as carbonate and silicate.

8. Chlorina. The neutral titrated solntion from
(7) may be used for the determination of chlorine
by decinormal silver solution.

9. Silieie AM. Seventy-five cc. of the solu-
tion from (7) are treated with excess of hydro-
chloric acid evaporated to dryness, treated with
water, filtered, and the residue ignited and weighed
as silica.

10. SulfJuirie And. The filtrate from (9) is
boiled, and, while boiling, barium chloride is
added, the precipitated barium sulphate washed,
dried, and weighed, and calcnUted as sodium or
potassium sulphate, according to the nature of
the soap under examination.

11. Potash and soda, if both are present, must
be determined in the usual way by platinnm
ehloride.

AsoTHiB Hbthod op SoAf Abbat (J£<fffU).
The constituents to be determined in an analysis
of soap are alkalies (comhined and free), carbon-
ates, fatty acids, resin, glycerin, salts, colonring
matters, and water.

Three portions of the finely cUvided soap are
weighed off, containing respectively 10 grms.,
20 grms., and 40 grms. Ten grms. are digested
with alcohol on the water-bath and filtraed. The
residue, containing carbonates and other salts,
colouring matter, Ac, is dried at 100°, weighed.

digested with water, and titrated with normal
oxalic acid. Every cc. of add naed iadicatet
0063 Na,CO,.

Begard must be had to a slight precipitate
of calcium oxalate. The weight M NajCO, found
is subtracted from the total residue insoluble in
alcohol ; the difference is the weight of the salU
and foreign matters. The filtrate is subjected to a
stream of carbonic acid, filtered, and the piedpi-
tate dissolved in water and triturated with oxalic
add. Each cc. of aoid indicates 0O81 free soda,
or 0*042 free potash. No precipitate shows the
absence of free alkalies. The filtrate from the
precipitate produced by the carbonic acid is, after
the addition of 16 cc. of water, evaporated to re-
move the alcohol. The aqneous solntion, treated
with normal oxalic acid to acid reaction, shows for
every cc. of acid 0-031 soda, or 0'042 potash in
combination.

Sulphuric acid is then adxled, and the whole is
heated on a water-bath with pore beeswax to
separate the fatty acids and resin, which are then
weighed, the weight of the beeswax being sub-
tracted.

Forty grms. of the soap are next dissolved
in water and mixed with sulphuric acid as long as
any precipitate is formed. On standing, the fatly
acids separate, and can be dried and wmghed.
These fatty acids are digested with a mixture of
equal volumes of water and alcohol till the liquid
on cooling ceases to appear milky. The solid
layer is again dried and weighed, and the differ-
ence between the weight and that obtained above
shows the woght of the resin.

The melting-point of the adds is next deter-
mined. Ten grms. are then dissolved in alcohol,
and sulphuric add mixed with alcohol is added
till a precipitate is no longer formed. The
liquid is filtered, mixed with barium carbonate,
and again filtered. Hie sweet residue left after
evaporation of the alcohol is glycerin. The
weights of the carbonates, salts, and foreign mat-
ters, free and combined alkalies, fatty acids,
resin, and glycerin are added together, and the
sum subtracted from 10 grms. g^ves the weight of
the water.

See also " Soap Analysis," ' Chem. News,' xxxr,
2. The article is too long to allow of insertion
here.

ZTfss, <fu. The common uses of soap need not be
enumerated. As a medicine it acts as a mild pnr-

fative and lithontriptic, and it has been thought
y some to be useful in certain affections of the
stomach arising from deficiency of bile. Ex-
ternally it is stimulant and detergent. — Dot,
3 to 20 or 80 gr., made into pills, and usually
combined with ^oes or rhubarb.

C<meUidi»g Renarkt. Prior to the researches
of Chevrenl no correct ideas were entertained as
to the constitution of soap. It was long known
that the fixed oils and fat^ in contact wi& caustic
alkaline solutions at a high temperature, undergo
the remarkable change which is called s^wnifica-
tion; but here the knowledge of the matter
stopped. Chevrenl discovered that if the soap
thus podaced be afterwards decomposed by the
addition of an aoid, the fat which separates is
found to be completely changed in character ; to
have acquired a strong acid reaction when ap^ied

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in a melted' itato to tert-paper, and to have teeome
■olable with the greateet noUityin warm alcohol ;
—in other worda, that a new rahetaaoe capable of
forming salta, and exhibiting all the charaeter-
iatie properties of an add, haa been generated ont
of the elementa of the nentral fat nndar the in-
flaence of the baie. Stearin, when tbni treated,
yields stearic acid, palmitin giTee palmitic add,
olein give* oleic add, and common uiimal fat,
which is a mixture of several nentral bodies,
affords, by saponification by an alkali and subse-
quent decomposition of the soap, a mixture of the
corresponding fatty adds. These bodies are not,
-however, the only products of saponification ; the
change is always accompanied by the formation
of a very pecoliar sweet snfastaooe called glycerin,
which remuns in tiie mother-liquor from which
the ad^fled fat has been separated. The process
<af saponiflcation itself proceeds with perfect
facility even in a cloeed vessd ; no gas is cUsen-
gagad; the nenfenl fat, of whatsoever kind, is
Mmply resolved into an alkaline salt of the fatty
•dd, wliieh is soap, and into glycerin, a neutral
body resembling syrup, and misdble with water
in every proportion. Liebig (' Familiar Letters
on Chemistry,' letter xi, p. 129), referring to the
extraradinary development for which the soap in-
dostiy is remarkable, said, "The quantity of
.soap c<msnmed by a nation would be no inaccurate
measure whereby to estimate its wealth and dvi-
Usation. Of two countries with an equal amount
of population, we may declare with pontive cer-
tainty that tiie wealti^est and moat highly dvil-
ised is that which consumes the greatMt weight
' of soap."

Beap, Anen'leal. Syu. S^po ABsnriOALn, L.
JVsp. (B^eaurt.) IVom carbonate of potash,
18 01. ; white arsenic white aoap, and air-aUiked
lime, of each, 4 oi. ; powdered camphor, f ox. ;
made into a paste with water, q. s. ITsed to
preserve the skins of birds and other small
animals.

Boap, BUwk. 1^. Sato nan, 8. xoilib
oomnnoB, L. A crude soft soap, made of fish
oil and potash; but the follswing mixture is
usually sold for it :— Cktft soap, 7 lbs. ; train dl,
1 lb. ; water, 1 gall. ; boil to a proper consistence,
adding ivory-black or powdered charcoal, q. s. to
cdour. Used by famers.

80APB (Kad'leated). A few only of these
deserve notice here :

Soap, A]itimo"niaL i^. SAPOAirTDcoiniiiB,
Sapo 8TIBU.TV*, L. iVsp. (Hamb. Cod. 184fi.)
Golden snlphnret of antimony, 2 dr. ; solution <rf
caustic potassa, 6 dr. (or q. s.) ; dissolve and tri-
turate this solution with medicated (Castile) soap
(in powder), 1^ oc, until the mass assumes a
pilmar consistence. It should be of a greyish-
white colour.

Soap, Cod-liver OIL ^gn. Sapo oun noouB
(i>ssoA<Hiitw). Prtp. Cod-liver oil, 2 ox. J caustic
soda,8dr.; water,6dT.j diaaolve the soda in the
water, and mix it with the oil. An iodvretted
aoap is made by mixing with the above 1 dr. of
io^e of potasnum cUssolved in 1 dr. of water.

Soap, Cre'ton. 8gn. Sapo obotosu, L. I>ttp.
From croton oil and liquor of potassa, equal
parts ; triturated together in a warm mortar until
they comUne. Catbartio.— '2>m^ 1 to S gr.

Soap of QMBbagt. Sfu. Sato OAXBoeui.
{Soubtira*.) A^. Mix 1 part of gamboge
with 8 of aoap, diaaolve it with a little apirit, anid
evaporate to a pilnlar conaiatenee.

Soap, Olyeanae. The manufkotnre of trans-
parent glycerine soap does not present any espe-
cial difflonify ; there are nevertheleaa pointa which
it is essential to observe. To produce flrat-daaa
aoap of tMa kind good materiala are indiapenaable,
and the proper proportions must be strictly ad-
hered to. Tallow and stearin are the most nse>
ful hard fats, palm oil imparts to the soap its
lathering qnakties, and castor dl gives toans>
parency. Great transparency is obt^ed by the
use of spirit and of sugar-water, both of which
bodies aasist the normal aaponifleation. The lye
must be pure and clear aa water ; ita proportion
ahould not exceed 80% of lye per lb. of fatty
matter, for an exceaa of alkali would make the
aoap too deteivent, and. a oonddeiable excess of
nnsaponifled fat would make it too weak and
greasy. In one case the aotip iignrea the akin in
uae, m the other the soap would soon lose its
agfreeable smell and finally neoome Tandd. Even
au exceaa of glycerin la to be avdded, aa it
renders the aoap leaa tranaparent, and alio too
soft. No filling whatever except sugar solution
is permisdble. The following propoitiona are
recommended:

WIUU Alabatttr Soap. Stearin, 18 lb*.;
palm oil, 88 lbs.; glycerin, 18 lb*.; 38° lye,
18 lbs. : 96% alcohol, 26 lbs. The stearin and
palm oil are to be heated to 66°, saponified with
the lye, the alcohol added, and when the combina-
tion, which takes place at once, is complete, the
glycerin i> put in. When clear, the kettle is
corerad and the contents are allowed to stand at
46° B. The soap is run into the moulds and
perfumed with bergamot oil, 180 gnns. ; geranium
dl, 80 grms.; nwoli oil, 86 grms.; dtron dl,
SO gnns.

As this is a white soap no colour is added.

Soap of Ooa'laedm. Syn. Sapo suaiaoi, Sapo
euAlAOlxuB, L. Frtp. (Ph. Bor.) Liquor of
potassa, 1 ox.; water, 2 oi.; mix in a porcelain
capsule, ajmly heat, and gradually add of resin of
guaiacnm (in powder), 6 dr., or as much as it
will dissolve ; Jiext- decant or filter, and evapcarate
to a pilular consistence.— i)o*a, 10 to 80 gr. ; in
clnonic rheumatism, various skin diseases, &c.

leap, rodlae. Sgu. Sapo lOBivATiTg, L.
Pnp. From Castile soap (sliced), 1 lb. ; iodide
of potassium, 1 ox. ; (dissolved in) water, 8 fl. ox. ;
melt them together in a glass or porcelain vessd
over a water-bath. Excellent in various skin
diseases; also as a common soap for scrofulous

Soap of Jal'ap. See Jalap, Soap op.

S«ap, Larch. 8g». Sapo iasicib {Br Moon).
Pnp. Dissolve 18 ox. of white curd soap in M
ox. of rose water on a steam-batb. Infuse 4 oi.
of wheat bran in 10 ox. of odd water for twenty-
four hours, and express. Add to the last 8 oi.
of pore gWoerin. Dissolve 6 dr. of extract of
laidi bark IB 1 ox. of bdling water. Mix these
sdntion* with the dissolved soap, evaporate over
a steam-batli to a proper consistence, and pour
into moulds to cool. For the local treatment of
psoriasis.

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aoa9,KMciu. (P»t«nt) This U made bj nib-
ititating ooco»-nnt oil for the fati and oUa nacd
in the mannfaetiiie of oommon loap. It haa the
advantage of farming a lather with lalt water.

B«ap. Kereii"riaL Sgu. Sapo htdkasstu
(M. Htrbtrt). 1. Prep. DiaaoWe 4 oz. of qnick-
■ilver in ita weight of nitric add without heat ;
melt in a porcekin baain by water-bath 18 oa. of
veal suet, and add the aolntion, atirring the mix-
tare till the union ia complete. To 6 oa. of thia
ointment add 2 oz. of lolntion of canatic aod*
(1*88), porphyry slag tall a leap ia formed which
ia completely aolnble in water. For external nae,
alone or diaaolved in water, in aome catanaoos
diaeaaea.

8. Sapo wocvkuum, L. (Sapo bvbldcatib
COBBOUTi). Pnp. From Caatile loap (in
powder), 4 oz, ; corroaive rablimate, 1 dr. ; (dia-
aolved in) redafied apirit, 1 fl. oz. i beaten to a
uniform maaa in a porcelain or wedgwood-waie
mortar.

8, (Sapo btsbabstbi, PBioiPiTAn axbi—
Sir S. Uartk.) Prap. Beat 12 oz. of white
Windaor aoap in a marble mortar, add 1 dr. of
rectified spirit, 2 dr. of white precipitate, and 10
dropa of otto. Beat the whole to a uniform
paate,

4, Sapo ETSBABena, fbhoipitaxi bubbi
(Bit B. Monk). From white Windior aoap,
2 oz.; nitric oxide of mercury (levigated), 1 dr.j
. otto of roaea, 6 or 8 dropa ; (diaaolved in) rectified
apirit, 1 to 2 fl. dr. ; aa the last. Both the above
•re employed aa atimnlant detergenta and repel-
lenta in vaiions skin diaeaaea; alao aa BATOir
AimaxPBiLiTiQTni.

Soap Powdar, Borax. Curd aoap, 6 parte; aoda
aah, 8 parta ; rilicate of loda, 2 parte ; b<nax, 1
part; mix.

Soap Powdar, London. Tellow aoq>, 6 parte;
aoda cryalala, 8 parta; pearlaah. If parta; aol-
phate of aoda, l| parta; palm oil, 1 part; mix,
spread out to dry, and powder.

Soap, Baain. Mr. H. Collier atatea the aoap
ia made by boiling 180 gr. of common yellow
reain and 300 gr. of caustic aoda in a pint of
water for two honrs, at the end of which time it
is reduced to a yellow paaiy maaa, which is to be
heated to dryness and powdered. The product
resemblea powdered reain very doaely, but dia-
solvea readily in water with the aid of a little
heat. The aolntion is aaponaceons, but never
galatiniaes. The soap diaaolvee freely in rectiifled
apirit alao. If mercury iaahaken with the aqueous
solution (20 gr. to 1 oz.) the metal ia broken up
into minute globules, which do not run together
wain, aa ea(£ globule is coated with the aoap.
Qdoroform is transformed into a creamy liquid.
In both oaaea the soap acts much better than
' tincture of quiUaia ; it gives more viacosity than
the latter. Working on the B. P. C. formulary
Unas, an excellent limmr oarbonit is obtained by
' disaolving 8 oz. of the soap in a pint of 8. V. R.
' by heat, adding 4 oz. of purified coal-tar, heating
to 180° F., setting aside for two days, and decant-
ing or flltering. The aoap gives splendid results
with cod-liver, almond, olive, and castor oils.
The plan ia to dissolve 10 gr, of the soap in 1 oz.
of arster, and shake up with 1 oz, of the oiL
Caator oil ia lesa eaaily emolaifled than the otiiera.

but Uiey do perfeetly with 6 gr. of the aoi^.
Eaaential oila are alao very readily emnlniled.
There ia an opening in thia direction for making
inhalation emulaiona, the aoap taking the place at
the magneaia of tiie T. H. P. formnljs. Thna 10
gr. of the soap, 8 dr. of the volatile oil, and water
to 8 oz., make an emulsion which mixea vary well
with water. Creoaote reqnirea 20 gr, of the imp.
6 gr, added to a drachm of apirit of camphor
makea a preparation which mixea perfectly with
water, the camphor not separating. So alio 20
gr, with 1 oz. of tincture of toln. Thymol, 18
gr,, reain soap, 80 gr,, ainrit, 8 oz., ia a good
formula for a preparation which may be dilnted.
and for such oils aa aantal and copaiba we get
good emulaions with a drachm of tlie oil, 10 gr.
of tlie soap, and 8 oz. of water.

Soap, Sand. 100 Iba, of cocoa-nut inl are
saponified with about 200 lbs, of lye at 20^ B.
The aoap is then lundened hj the addition of
about 8 Iba. salt diaaolved in water to a itauitj at
16° B., with the addition of 6 to 8 Ibe. soda aah.
The soap is now covered up and the foam allowed
to subside. After standing five to six hoora the
fob is skimmed and the soap is run off into the
coolers. Whilst this process haa been going on
the sand has been dried and sifted, and the soap
now being thoroughly emtehed, the sand is sifted
over it until 100 to 160 Iba. have been added.
The cmtching must be continued until the maaa
is perfectly cooled. The aoap is very firm and
hard, and muat be cut aa aoon as cooled. To
perfume the mixture add of eaaential oil of
lavender, thyme, and coriander, 100 grms. each.

Soap, Scouring. Take 2 Iba, soda, 8 Iba. yellow '
bar soap, and 10 quarta water. Cut the soap in
thin slices, and boil together two honis ; strain,
and it will be fit for use. The clothes ahould be
soaked the night before waahing, and to even
pailful of water used to boil them add a pound ox
soap. They will need no rubbing, but merely
rinsing (* Scientific American '),

Soap, Bia'phnrattad, £^, Sapo BULPBrBia.
Sapo bulphitbatitb, L, Pr»p. (Sir S. Jforai.)
From white aoap, 8 oz, ; subUmed sulphur, i oa.;
beaten to a smooth paste in a marble mortar with
1 or 8 fl, dr, of rectifled spirit strongly coloured
with alkanet root, and holding in solution otto lA
roses, 10 or 18 drops. In itch and varioua other
cutaneous diseases.

Soap, Tar, ^a. Sapo piou liqitidx, Sapo
PlOBtra, L. Prep. From tar, 1 part ; liquor of
potasaa and soap (in abavinga), of each, 8 parts ;
beat them together until they unite. Stimulant,
Used in paoriasia, lepra, &c.

Soap, Tnr'pentlse, Sy%. Siabkxt'8 soap;
Sapo TiBasiVTHiirs, S, TBBBBnrtHiXATTrB, L, ;
SAYOir TiBiBUTTHim, Fr, Prep. (P, Cod,)
Subcarbonate of potash, oil of turpentine, and
Venice torpentine, equij parta; triturate them
together, in a warm mortar, with a little water,
until they combine ; put the product into paper
moulds, and in a few daya slice it, and preaerve it
in a well-stoppered bottle,

SOAPS (Toilet), Of toilet soapa there are two
principal varieties :

1, (Hard.) The bams of these is, generally,
a mixture of suet, 9 parts, and olive oil, 1 part
saponified by oauatio aodaj the prodoct ia mi-

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SOAPS

ISSti

eody scented and oolonrad. Thevsiealjonuuleof

white tallow, oUve, almond, and palm-oil aoapa,

either alone or combined in varioni pioportiona,

•ndfcoited.

' 2. (Soft.) The baais of these is a soap made

of hog;'i lard and potash, varionsly scented and

eoloorcd.

8. Onido Schnitzer, writing to 'Dingler's
Jonmal' (cdu, 129 — 188; ' Jonm. of Chem. Soc.,'
new series, vol. z), says that the ose of sodium
silicate (ordinary water-glass) has proved of great
valae in the manofactore of palm oil and cocoa-
nnt oil soaps, as it increases their alkalinity, and

fiTes to thMD greater hardness and dnrability.
t is for these reasons the silicate is much used in
tiie mannfactore of toilet soaps.

He states that daring the American war, when
the price of resin soap reached a high fignre,
sodium silicate was mucn used as a snhatitute in
soap-making. The soap is fonnd to be the more
active and durable in proportion to the amount of
silica in the silicate.

Schnitzer made a series of experiments in order
to discover a mixture which, on fusii^, will yield
• silicate as rich as possible in silica wiUiont being
insoluble in boiling water, and he found the fol-
lowing proportions yielded on fusion the best sili-
cate tor tM above purposes :

100 parts of soda ash (containing 91% of
Ha,CO^, and 180 of sand. In the eolation of
silicate obtained on treatment with boiling water,
the proportion of the KagO to the SiO, would then
be as 1 to 2^.

After long boiling with water, there ordinaiilv
remains a sluny residue, which on boiling up with
fresh dilute soda lye for a long time, furnishes a
concentrated solution of silicate. This residue,
consisting of silica, with insoluble b^her silicates.
Was boiled with soda solution at 6^ Baum^, and
the solution concentrated to 40° Banm£, when the
proportion therein of NijO to SiO, was found to
be as 1 to 1*4, and on cooling there crystallised
out sodium silicate, of the formula Na^SiO, -t- 8H,0,
In white foliated crystals.

On the small sode the perftime is generally
added to the soap, melted in a bright copper pan
by the heat of a water-bath ; on the large scale
it is mixed with the liquid soap at the soap-
maker's before the latter is poured into the
frames.

The following are examples of a few of the
leading toilet soaps. See also SAVOimTaB.

Soap, Bitter Al'mond. 8yn. Saton s'liuirsi,
Fr. Avp. From white tallow soap, 66 lbs.j
essential oil of almonds, } lb. ; as before.

Savon an Bouquet. [Fr,] Frep. From tallow
soap, 80 lbs. ; olive-oU soap, 10 lbs. ; essence of
bergamot, 4 oz. ; oils of cloves, sassafras, and
thyme, of each, 1 oz. ; pure neroli, | oz. j brown
ochre (finely powdered), i lb. ; mixeid as the last.
Soap, Cin'namon. Prep. From tallow soap,
14 lbs. ; palm-oil soap, 7 lbs. ; oil of cinnamon
(cassia), 8 oz. ; oil of sassafras and essence of
bergamot, of each, i oz. ; levigated yellow ochre,
ilb.

Soap, Floaf lig. iVsp. From good oil soap,
14 lbs. J water, 8 pints J melted together by the
heat of a steam or water bath, anl aasiduooaly
beaten until the mixture has at least doubled its

volume, when it must be put into the frames,
cooled, and cut into pieces. Any scent may be
added.

Soap, Olycnin. Prep. 1. Any mild toilet soap
being liquefied, glycerin is intimately mixed with
it in the proportion of from a aoth to a 85th of the
weight of the soap. Sometimes a red, and at others
an orange tint is given to it. The scent usually
consists of beigamot or rose geranium, mixed wiw
a little oil of cassia, to which sometimes a little
oil of bitter almonds is added.

2. (Span.) 40 lbs. of taUow, 40 lbs. of hrd,
and 80 lbs. of cocoa-nut oil are saponified with
46 lbs. of soda lye, and 6 lbs. of potash lye, of
40° Baum<, when the soap is to be made in the
eold way. To the paste then add pure glycerin,
61be.; ml of Portugal, |oi.; oil of bergamot, ioi.j
bitter-almond oil, 6 oz. ; oil of vitivert, 8 oz.

Soap, Eon'sy- iVsp. 1. From palm-oil soap
and olive-oil soap, of each, 1 part; curd soap, 8
parts; melted together uid scented with the oil
of verbena, rose geranium, or ginger-grass.

2. From the finest bright-coloured yellow
soap, scented with the oils of ginger-grass and
bergamot.

Soap, Liquid Olyeeriii.— OlyearinMift, Flusslge.
Sesame or cotton-seed oil is saponified with suffi-
cient caustic potash, and while moist is dissolved
in six times its WMght of spirit of wine. The
solution is filtered, five sixths of the spirit is dis-
tilled from a water-bath, and the cool residue is
reduced to the oonsistenoe of thin honey with a
mixture of 8 parts glycerin sjad 1 part sjorit. It
is then perfumed.

Soap, Knsk. Frep. 1. A good ox suet or
tallow soap is generaUy used for the basis of this.
The scent is composed of a mixture of essence of
musk, with small quantities of the oils of berga-
mot, cinnamon, and cloves. The quantity of
musk must be regulated by the amount of fra-
grance required. The soap is usually coloured with
caramel.

2. Another kind is made with tallow and palm-
oil soap, to which is added a mixture of the pow-
ders of cloves, roses, and gilliflowers, oil of ber-
gamot, and essence of musk. The colouring
matter is brown ochre.

Soap, VKpim. From olive oil and potash.
' Soap, Qnage-flower. As utov \ la wmx,
with M of neroli or essence de petit grain, sup-
ported with a little of the essence (tf ambergns
and Portugal for perfume.

Soap, Fabn-oiL Syn. Viout soap. Hade
of palm oil and caustic soda lye. It has a pleasant
odour of violets and a lively colour.

Soap, FearL Syn. ALKOiri) obiak; CbAmi
d'axanssb, Fr. Prep. From a soap made of
laid and caustic potash lye ; when quite cold it
is beaten in small portions at a time in a marble
mortar until it unites to form a homogeneous
mass, or ' pearls,' as it is called ; essence of bitter
almonds, q. s. to perfume, being added during
the pounding.

Soap, Xondaletia. This is merely cinnamon
soap scented with the essence made with mixed
essential oils, &c., known as rondeletia. It is
coloured with brown oryellow ochre.
- Savon i la Bess. [It.1 Prep. From a mix-
ture of olive-oil soap, 86 lbs. ; best taOow soap, 84

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SODA'-SODITTM

lbs. (both new and in sbiTuig*) ; ««ter» 1 qnarti
melted in a covered bright coitperpanby the heat
of a water-bsth, then coloured with vermilion
(finely levigated), H m. ; and, after the mixture
has cooled a little, acented with otto of roiee, 8
oz. ; essence of bergamot, 2i oz. ; oil of olovea and
cinnamon, of each, 1 oz.

Soap, 8ha"ving. See Paszb (Shaving).

Soap, Tnuupa"rent. JPrap. From perfectly
dry almond, tallow, or soft soap, reduced to shav-
ings, and dissolved in a closed vessel or still, in an
equal weight of rectified spirit, the clear portion,
after a few hours' repose, being poured into mould*
or frames ; after a few weeks' exposure to a dry
atmosphere the pieces are 'trimmed up' and
stamped as desired. It may be scented and
coloured at will by adding the ingredients to it
while in the soft state. A rose colour is given by
tincture of archil, and yellow by tincture of tur-
meric or annotta. It does not lather well.

Soap, Windaor. Syn. Sapo YmsuosB, S.
VnrDB80BW»si8, L. Prap. 1. (Whitb; 8. V,
AliBUB.) The bait ' English ' is made of a mix-
ture of olive oil, 1 part, and ox tallow or suet, 9
parts, saponified by caustic soda. ' French Windsor
soap' is made of hog's lard with the addlUon of
a little palm oil. That of the shops ia merely or-
dinary curd soap scented with oU of caraway,
supported with a little oil of bergamot, lavender,
or origanum. To the finer quiditias a little of the
essence* of musk and ambergris i* occaaionaUy
added. 1} lbs. of the mixed soenta is the common
proportion per cwt.

2. (Biiowir ; S. V. FUgouB.) Thi* merely differ*
from the last in being ooloored with burnt sugar,
or (less frequently) with umber. Originally it
was the white variety, that had become mellow
and brown with age.

SO'SA. See Sodito.

SaDIUK. Na= 22-99. i^. Natsiux. The
metallic base of soda. It never occurs free, but
its compounds are abundantly and universally
diAised. It was first obtained by Sir H. Davy,
in 1807, by means of a powerful galvanic bat-
tery; but it may be more conveniently and
cheaply procured, in quantity, by the method
described under Fotabsiuk. The process, when
well condacted, i*, however, much easier and
more certain than that for the last-named metal.

iVgp. 1. {JJavUWt Improvemtnt o» Bnmnm't
Method.) 80 part* hy weight common soda
aah, 18 part* small coal, and 8 part* chalk are
placed in an iron cylinder which is lined with flire-
cla^, and heated in a reverberatory fnmace to
whiteness. The ends of the cylinder are closed,
and one end is perforated with an iron pipej
through this pipe the gas and sodium vapours
escape, the latter being condensed in an iron
receiver as in the manufacture of potassium
(• Ann. Chim. Phys.' [8], xliii, 6).

2. {Cartntr't Ame iVoeas*.) Fused sodium
hydrate is distilled with a mixture of carbon and
finely divided iron (prepared by reducing hema-
tite with CO or H, mixing it with tar and
coking). The carbon reduce* the sodium, and
the iron keep* it below the surface in direct con-
tact with the fused hydrate. The reaidue* are
lixiviated with warm iretor, and the lolntion eva-
porated to recover the (odium carbonate formed,

and the iron i* dried, mixed with tar* and oaed
over again. The distillation is carried on in caat-
iron crucibles heated in a gaa fnmace at 1000° C.
Yield 90% of the sodium present.

Prop., Jj'o. Sodium is a soft, lustrous, silver-
white metal, scarcely solid at common tempera-
tures, fuses at 96'6''^C., boila at 861°— 945^ C.
and volatilises at a red heatj it oxidises very
rapidly in the air ; when placed on the surface A
cold water, it decomposes that liquid into free
hydrogen and caustic soda with great violence,
but generally without flame, in which it difiera
tnm potaninm ; on hot water or viscid aolaiiona
it bnms with a bright yellow flame. Sp. gr.
0-9786 at 13-5° C. (Saumhauer) ; it is more mal-
leable than any other metal, and may be easily
reduced into very thin leaves ( Un) ; it conduct*
heat and electricity better than any metal
except gold, silver, and copper, and is very
electro-positive. Its other properties resemble
those of potassium, but are of a feebler character.
With oxygen it forms two oxides ; with chlorine,
bromine, iodine, fluorine, Suu, chloride, bromide,
iodide, fluoride, Ac, all of which may be ob>
tained by similar processes to the respective
compounds of potassium, which for the most part
they resemble.

UtM. Until recently sodium has been re-
garded as a mere medianical or philosophical
curiosity j it has now, however, become of great
practic^ importance from being employed in the
manufacture of silicon and borax, and of the
metals aluminium, magnesium, &c,, the price of
which the production of cheap sodium has
greatly lowered. An amalgam is employed with
great advantage in extracting gold and alver
from their ores.

n«<f. Sodium salts are recognised by their
solubility in water, and by their giving a pre-
cipitate with none of the ordinary reagents. Tbey
give a rich yellow colour to the colourless Bnnsen
or the pale blue blowpipe flame. They can, to a
certain extent, be also distinguished from potas-
sium salts by the carbonate being an easily crys-
tallisable salt, effervescing in dry air; the car-
bonate of potassium being crystallised with diffi-.
culty, and deliquescent. Platinum chloride does
not give a precipitate with sotUum chloride;
neither does picric add, perchlorate of ammonium,
nor tartaric acid.

StUm, Sodium generally occurs with potas-
sium in qualitative analysis, for the separation of
which see PoTABsruK. It may be determined
directly by Bunsen's method. Tbe alcoholic
solution of the soluble double chloride of sodium
and platinum is evaporated in a flask exposed to
the Ught and fllled with hydrogen gas. Sodium
chloride, hydrochloric acid, and metallic platinum
are formed. The latter is filtered oft, and the
filtrate evaporated to dryness after having pre-
riously transformed the sodium chloride into
sodium sulphate. The weight of the salt is ascer-
tained after gentle ignition.

Sodlnm, Acetate of. NaC,H,0,.8H,0. <^

AOBTATX OV SODA ; SODJt AOBTAB (B. P., Ph. D.),

L. Pr«j>. From carbonate of sodium by nen-

tralisation with acetic acid; but the resulting

solution is evaporated, and set aside to crystallise.

JProp., Sgo. Ita crystals are striated oblique

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SODIXTM

15S6

rfaombio prums ; it effloreice* slightly in the air,
and is Bolable in 4 p^ru of water at 60° F. Its
lolation in water forms one of the best examples
of a sopersatorated solution, in which state it is
nsed for filling the foot-warmers for railway
carriages, on account of the continaoos evolntion
of heat during its crystallisation ; for this purpose
it is said to be four times as etfectire as an eqaal
volume of water. Diuretic. — Dote, 20 to 40 gr.

Bodiitm Alnminate. 3Na,0.Al,0^ This salt
has of late been in extensive demand by the calico
printer and dyer. In France it is obtained from
twnxite, a native hydrate of alnminate, by treat-
ment with caostic soda or the carbonate. If
canstic sod* be employed, the powdered bauxite
is boiled with a solution of the alkali, whereas if
carbonate of soda be nsed, it is fused with the
b*axite in a reverberatory furnace. By the first
process the resulting alnminate of soda is dissolved
in water, and, evaporated to dryness, forms the
commercial article. If prepared by ignition, the
semi-fused mass is lixiviated with water, and then
evaporated to dryness.

Prop., <f». ^lite powder, of a greenish-yellow
hue. It is equally solublfS in both hot and cold
water, and readily decomposed by carbonic and
acetic acids, bicarbonate and acetate of soda,
chloride of ammonia, &c. Used for the prepara-
tion of lake colours, the induration of stone, in
the manufacture of artificial stone, and for the
saponification of fata in the manufacture of stearin
candle mannfaotuie, also in the preparation of an
opaque, milky-looking glass.

Alnminate of soda may likewise be procnred
from cryolite, as described under Axujc.

8odtamArs«Batea. 1. Na,HAB04.7H,0. 9gn.
ComcoK ABBEirATB o> BODA. Pnp. From soda
and arsenious oxide, the resulting araenite being
afterwards heated witii sodium nitrate, from which
it takes up oxygen.

ttop., Utet, ^. Feebly alkaline. Largely
nsed in calico printing as a substitute for the
dong-baths formerly employed.

2. HNaiAsOf. %s. HTSBo-Diaosimi ax-

SBHAIl, ABSBf ATI 0> BOOA.

JProp., ife. From white arsenic dissolved in

canstic soda solution, to which sodium nitrate is
afterwards added; the liquid is then evaporated
to dryness, the residue heated to redness, dissolved
in water, and crystallised out. Crystallises with
12Aq,, but the salt commonly sold in the shops
contains 7Aq.

Sodium Arsenite. NaiAsOg. Pnp, By dis-
solving 2 parts of white arsenic and 1 part of
sodinm carbonate in water. Used as a 'sheep-
dipping' composition, in the mannfaeture of an
arseninl soap, and for preventing incrustations
in steam boilers.

Sodiiun BeaiMt*. C(H,.CO,Na. Sgn. Sods
BSHzoAfi (B. Cod.). Ptep. Heat gently benzoie
acid and water, and add caustic soda to neutralise
the acid. Filter, evaporate, and crystallise over
sulphuric acid under a bell-glass.

Sodium Blsnlphate. VtSSO^-Ufi. Sgn. Aoio
BViiFHATB, SODiinc HmBoenr 8.; Sods bi-
817I.PHIB, L. Prep., iro. Dissolve crystallised car-
bonate of soda in twice its weight of water, and
pass sulphurous acid in excess throngh the solu-
tion. Set it aside to ciystallise. Prisms deoom-
poaed by heat into water and pyrosulphate. Its
solution is used as a preservative.

Sodium Borate. See Borax.

Sodium, Bromide of. NaBr. %». SoDU
BBomsvic. Prepared as bromide of potassium.
Monoclinic prisms eontaining 2Aq.

Sodium, Carbonate of. Na,C(V10Aq. Sjf*.
Cabbohatb at soda, Mokooabboitazb 'o> soda,
Sttboabboitaii o* B.f, Salt at BAsiLLAf , Sodji
OAXBOVAS (B. p.. Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The car-
bonate of sodinm of commerce (wABHlira bosa
nt-MT.T.A) was formerly prepared from the ashes
of seaweed, and other marine vegetables, in a
somewhat similar manner to that by which car-
bonate of potassium is obtained, and was chiefiy
imported from Spain, ko. ; but it is now usually
obtained from chloride of sodium by the action
of heat, snlidturic acid, and carbonaceous matter,
and by the ammonia-soda or ' Solvay ' process.

Prtp. 1. {L»blaiiaProeeu,'8aU-eak»' Proeau.)
The si^t is placed in an iron pan upon the hearth
of a reverberatoiy furnace (see »»gr.), and mixed
witii an equal weight of sulphuric acid] this

1

i

1

11

!

1 1

oonvorti it into sodinm bisulphate, hydroohlorio ; sulphuric add until it has become di^. _ The

acid gas being given ofl. The latter is condensed
by contact with water. The flame of the fuxnaoe
ii allowed to play upon the mixture of salt and

reaidne is then called 'salt-eake.' This is now
broken up, mixed with an equal weight of lime-
stone^ and rather more than half its weight of

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1836

SODIUH

imall coaL The mixtnie ii again lieated npon
the hearth of a reverberatory fnmace. Carbonic
oxide gai ii given oif and a reiidne is formed, eoa<
siitinff of sodinm carbonate, lime, and calciom
■nhthide ; thi» reeidne is termed ' black ash.'

The rMction may be reprefented by the follow*
ing equations :

i. H^4 + NaCl = HNaS04 + HCl.
u. HKaSO^ + NaCl = Na^^ + Ha.
iii. NagSO^-t-Cf - Na^ + 4C0.

iv. CaCO,+C - 2CO + CaO.

T. Na,8 + CaO+CO, = NB,CO, + CaS.
The ' black ash ' is now treated with water,
which dissolves out the sodium carbonate, leaving
the calclnm sulphide and lime behind. Any
sodium snlpUde that may have formed is oxidised
by blowing air through the liquid. The solution
is fln^T evaporated to dryness, ordinary ' soda
ash ' being thus obtained. Since this product
contains as impurities common salt, sodinm sul-
phate, and caustic soda, the last being formed by
the action of the lime upon the so^um carbonate,
it most be purified. Tko erode ' soda ash ' is
mixed with small coal or sawdust, snd again
heated. Carbonic anhydride is given ofl^ and this
converts the caustic soda into sodinm carbonate,
and eliminates the other impurities. The mass
is then lixiviated with water and the solution
evaporated, when oblique rhombic prisms of
common ' washing soda,' containing lOAq, separate
out. The hydrochloric acid obtained as a hye-
product in this process is used in the preparation
of bleaching powder, &c.

Ob$. During the wars of the French revolu-
tion the price of barilla (commercial carbonate of
soda) rose very high, and since this substance was
of prime importance in several of the leading
French industries, Napoleon offered a premium
for the discovery of a process by which it could
be manufactnred at home. This reward was ob-
tained by an apothecary named Leblanc, who hit
npon the principle of the process described above.
In making the ' salt-cake ' 16 cwt. of common
salt are nsnally taken, and 128-6 galls, of chamber
acid (crude sulphuric acid), of sp. gr. 1*48.

An average sample of ' salt-cake ' has the
following composition :

Normal sodium sulphate . . . 95*275
Sodium-hydrogen sulphate . 1*481
Sodium-chloride sulphate . 1*864

Calcium sulphate .... 0*923
Ferric oxide and insoluble matter . 0*821
Water 0*187

99*641

Open roasters are commonly emplo^^ed, but
Deacon's close roasters are now coming into use.
All hiurd labour is avoided in the modified process
propoeed by Jones and Walsh. Cammack and
Walker's new process is said to moderate the
violent action of the decomposition, and in
Hargreaves' process the salt-cake is manufactured
direct from salt, sulphur dioxide, and water.

In making the ' black ash ' the proportion of
the materials taken are, in the LancasUre chemi-
cal works, salt-cake, 224 lbs. ; limestone, 224 lbs. ;
coal-dust, 140 Iba. ; in the Tyne works, salt-cake,
196 lbs.; limestone 262 lbs. j coal-dnst, 126 lbs.

Eynaaton's analysis of Knglish
follows .*

Sodinm carbonate

„ sulphate

„ chloride

M silicate

„ alnminate
Calcium sulphide

„ carbonate

„ sulphite
Lime . .
Ferric oxide .
Coal .
Magneaa .
Alumina
Water.

Ferrous sulphide
Sand .
Ultramarine

black'aah is JW

. 86*88

. 0-89

. 2*58

. 118

. 0-69

. 28*68

. 8*81

. 8*18

. 9*27

. 2*66

. 7-00

. 0-25

. 118

. 0*22

. 0*87

. 0*90

. 0*96

98-60
In Maclear's improved ' black ash ' procesa the
proportion of limestone to salt-cake is 7 : 10, and
in addition 6*6 parts of qaicklime are used.

Improvements in the lixiviation of the black ash
have been derised by Shanks.

2. (&)2cay'« iVoMW.) Another process for the
preparation of commercial carbonate of sodium,
known as the ' ammonia process,' has of late yeaiw
met with considerable adoption. The history of
this process, together with the process itself, are
thus described by Dr R. Wagner (' Journal of
Applied Chemistry'): — "Six years ago [he was
writing in 1878^, when the international jury at
the Puis Exhibition expressed tlieir opinion upon
the state of the soda industry at that time, all the
judges, whether practical or theoretical men,
believed that Leblanc's process (that previously
described) would hold the field for a long time
yet. This seemed still more probable since a
process had just been introduced for recovering
the sulphur from the soda residues. At that time
all the soda in use was prepared by this process,
excepting a comparatively small amount obtained
from Chili saltpetre and ciyolitCk although them
were already tangible indications that soda could
be made on a luger scale by another method,
which would be cheaper than Leblanc's process.
" The chemical section of the international jniy
at the Vienna Exhibition, under the presidency (s
Professor A. W. Bofmann, constituted a congress
of chemical technology. This congress of scientific
men was able to antiienticate the very important
fact that although Leblanc's process might in
the future possess some importance for oert^
branches of the industry, yet in most places
another soda process would be introduced in the
immediate future, and entirely supersede that of
Leblanc. Since the time of the nris Exhibition
this new process has grown from a small germ
to a strong tree.

" The process in question, and which is called
by Professor Hofmann ' the ammonia process,' is
not new, from either a chemical or scientific point
of view. It belongs to the same methods as those
in which oxide of lead, bicarbonate of magnesia,
quicklime, alumina, silicate of alumina, oxide of
dnominm, or floodlidc acid are employed to de-
compose chloride of sodium, and convert it directly

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SODIUM

1B37

into loda or iti aarbonstei . None of these attempts
met with a gsccesa deserving of notice, although
for a century past efforts have been made to
render them practically operative. The new pro-
cess is founded upon a reaction noticed over thirty
years ago — that of bicarbonate of ammonia upon
a strong solution of common salt. The greater
part of the sodium is precipitated as bicarbonate,
while chloride of ammonium remains in solution,
from which the ammonia for a second operation
is expelled by quicklime. The carbonic acid
necessary to convert the ammonia into bicar-
bonate of ammonia, and thus make the process a
continuous one, is obtained by heating the bicar-
bonate of soda to convert it into the simple car-
bonate.

"The sensation which the ammonia process
iias created in industrial circles will render a
brief history of its development not uninte-
resting,

" So far as I know, Harrison, Dyer, drey, and
Hemming were the first to patent the ammonia
process in Qreat Britain in 1S38. G^reat expecta-
tions were excited by it, but it soon sank into
oblivion.

" Thirty or forty years ago the manufacture of
soda was by no means at tiie head of the great
branches of industry ; at that time, too, ammonia
was not to be had cheaply or in immense qnanti-
ties, and that branch of machine-building which
has furnished the necessary apparatus for chemi-
cal industries did not exist. Besides this, Anton,
of Prague, in 1840, claimed to have proved that
in the ammonia process a very considerable por-
tion ot the oommon salt stiU remained nndecom-
posed.

"After a sleep of sixteen years the ammonia

Srocess again entered the field. On the 26th of
(ay, 18S4, Turck took ont a patent in Fiance,
and on the 2l8t June, the same year, Schlcesing,
chemist of the Imperial Tobacco Factory at Pans,
took out a patent for France and Qreat Britain.
The mechanical portion and machinery for
Schloesing's process were designed by Engineer
E. Rolland, director of the tobacco &ctory. In
1855 a company was organised to work this pro-
cess. An experimental mannfaotoiy was started
at Puteaux, near Paris, but, owing to its situation
and arrangemento, as well as the salt monopoly,
it could not produce soda cheap enough to com-
pete with the other process, and hence in 1858
the experiment was abandoned. SchloBsing and
Bolland were of the opinion that sooner or later
the new process mnst come into use in making
soda.

"It mnst here be noticed that in 1868 Pro-
fessor Heeren, of Hanover, subjected the ammonia
mocess to a very carefnl test in his laboratory.
From his experimento and calculations it was as-
certi^ed that this process was better adapted to
the manufacture of the bicarbonate than of the
simple protocarbonato of soda.

" To render this sketch more complete and his-
torically true, it mnst be mentioned that T. Bell,
of England, took out a patent, Oct. 18th, 1857,
for a new soda process, which in prind^e and
practice was almost literally the same as that of
Dyer.
" It was known when the jury was working at
Toi. n. "x

Paris in 186? that essential improvemente had
been introduced into the ammonia process by the
efforts of Marguerite and De Sourdeval, of Paris,
and James Toung, of Glasgow. A more im-
portent tact, however, is that Solvay t Co., of
ConiUet, in Belgiom, actually exhibited at the
Paris Ezhihition carbonate of soda prepared by
this new process.

" Since that time the ammonia process has been
developed and perfected to such an extent, espe-
cially by Solvay, Honigmann, and Prof. Oersten-
hoefer, that as early as Febroary, 1873, A. W,
Hof mann, in his introduction to the third group
of the catalogue of the Exhibition of the Qerman
Empire, was able to make this remark : ' At all
events, the ammonia process is the only one which
threatens to become an important competitor of
the now almost exclusively employed process of
Leblanc'

" There are now large works in England, Hun-
gaij, Switzerland, Westphalia, Thuxingia, and
Baden, which employ the improved ammonia
process.

" The advantages of the new process over that
of Leblanc are very evident. 'The chief advan-
tage consists in the direct conversion of salt into
carbonate of soda, and next from the fact that
from a saturated brine only the sodium is precipi-
teted, with none of the other metals of the mother-
liquor. Besides this, the product is absolutely
free from all snlpbnr compoonds ; the soda is ct
a high grade ; the apparatus and utensils are very
simple, there is a great saving of labour and fuel ;
and no noxious gases and waste products are pro-
duced, which is of importance from a sanitary
point of view. The only weak point of the
ammonia process is the loss of chlorine, which is
converted into worthless chloride of calcium.

" The efibet which the general introduction of
the new soda process will exert upon large chemical
industries in general, and especially upon the
consumption of sulphur, the manufacture of
sulphuric add, and diloride of lime, cannot be
overlooked."

Obt. This importent process, which woidd en-
tirely supersede the Leblanc process were it not
for the hydrochloric acid prodaced as a bye-pro-
duct of the latter, depends upon the foUowing
reaction :

ISTaCl + NH^-HCO,- NH^Cl + NaHCO,.

The most approved form of working it is as
follows :

A saturated solution of common salt is mixed
with about f ite volume of ammonia liquor
(sp. gr. 0*88) ; carbonic anhydride is then passed
into the mixture, and this precipitates the Ucar-
bonate of sodium. Some of the COj escapes
absorption, and this along with the NB, passes
tlirongh a tall Tertical cylinder with perforated
shelves, throngh which trickles a solution of
oommon salt, which absorbs the CO] and NH|,
forming more bicarbonate, which collects on the
shelves. The sodium bicarbonate is heated to
convert it into carbonate, and snppply the COj.
2NaHC0,-Na^0, + HjO + COj.

The ammonium chloride in solution is decom-
posed by heating with lime to recover the ammonia,
which is used again.

2N H.C1 + CaO - 2NH, + HjO -h GaClj.
97

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Ordinary lalt-cake (sodinm rolpltate) is now
being employed also instead of common salt,
thus:

Na^O. + 2NH, + 2C0j + 2H,0 = 2NaHC0,
+ (NHJ^04.

The ammonium sulphate is fused with more
salt-cake, and steam injected.

(NHJ^Oi + Na2S04= 2NHj + gNaHSO^.

The ammonia is recovered and used over again,
and the sodium bisulphate is converted into ' salt-
cake ' by fusion with common salt.

NaHSOi + NaCl = Na^O, + HCl.

8. Another method for the direct preparation
of soda and potash from their chlorides is described
in the "Bayerisches Industrie und Qewerbe
BUtt.," 'New Bemedies,' 1878, 4. The pro-
cess is thus described by its author, Herr E.
Bohlig :

Magnesium oxalate (freshly prepared when
newly starting, but aftei the first operatdon
obtained •« a diy product in the next step) is
. allowed to drain, and then mixed in a large vat
with the proper quantities of sodium chloride, or
concentrated brine and hydrochloric acid, after
which it is allowed to stand a few hours. Decom-
position takes place almost instantaneously ; all
the magnesium goes into solution in the form of
syrupy magnesium chloride, while all the sodium
and oxalic add are deposited as a crystalline acid
salt (binoxalate of sodium).

Since the magnesium oxalate is always obtained
of the same composition and in the same quantity,
it is sufficient to determine its weight once for all,
and to take each time the previously common
•mounts of salt. The acid need not be weighed
Mtber ; it most be added in just sufficient quantity
to destroy the milky appearance which the mixture
first assumes.

The reaction is as follows :

MgCjOi + Ha + Naa ■= NaHCV)* + MgCl,

UagnodnJii+Hvdro- + Sodium sSodimn bin- + Magnesium

oxalate, chloric acid, chloride, oxalate. chloride.

The crystalline powder of sodinm binoxalate
is transferred to large draining filters, washed
with water until the acid solution of magnesium
chloride is removed, and worked up, as below
described, while still moist.

The acid solution of magnesium chloride is made
use of several times in succession as so much
hydrochloric acid, together with a quantity of
fresh acid sufficient for the reaction. Finally,
when the magnesium chloride has inconveniently
accumulated, it is worked up by itself into mag-
nesia and hydrochloric add.

In order to obttun the soda, the sodium binoxa-
late is brought together with an equivalent
quantity of magnesium carbonate and water in
a closed cylinder. As soon as the remaining
^r has been nearly expelled by the generated
carbonic acid gas, the cylinder is dosed, and a
■tilting mechanism set in motion.

A preatnie-gange attached to the cylinder
indicates a gradual rise of the prenore to two
atmospheres, but, on oontinnal stirring, this
diminishes, until, finally, the gauge stands again
at (f. The cylinder now contains a concentrated
solution of sodium Ucarbonate and a predpitate

of magnesium oxalate, which latter, being ooaraely
granular, is easily separated from the liquid, and
is used over again, after washing, for » new
operation.

The solution of sodinm bicarbonate i» _to3ed
for a short time with magnesia, obtained in dis-
tilling magnesium chloride, and both are thereby
converted into simple carbonates. Botli reactions
are shown in the following scheme :

1. NaHCjO, + MgCO, = TStaSCO, + MgCjOf
Sodinm + Uagneainm = Sodium -t- MaK*"**'"'
binoxalate. carnonate. bicaibonate. oxmlale.

a. 2NaHC0, + MgO =- Na,C0, + MgCOa + Rfi
Sodinm + Magueaia = Sodium 4- Uagneainm +WBt«r.
bicarbonate. carbonate, carbonate.

As the solution of sodinm carbonate, after con-
centration to 40° B., is incapable of dissolving
or retaining in solution any sodium oxalate, it
follows that the whole of the oxalic acid is re-
covered. The magnesia which is required for
the purpose is obtained by distilling magneaum
chloride, which thereby splits up into hydro-
chloric add and magnesia. One half of the latter
receives, as we have seen, its carbonic acid by
boiling with sodium bicarbonate; the other half
is placed, whilst still moist, upon trays, throofirh
wUch the gases of the furnace pass, and ia
thereby carbonated.

The process may also be so modified that the
sodium binoxalate is first decomposed by caostic
magnesia, and that magnannm carbonate is after-
wards added. The whole mixture is then trans-
ferred to a stirring cask, provided with openings
for the passage of cooled furnace gases, wherdiy
the caustic soda present is very soon carbonated.

As soon as a large quantity of magnesinin
chloride solution has accumulated, it is tested as
follows : — A small sample is mixed, while boiling,
with magnesium oxalate, as long as the latter is
dissolved, and then allowed to cool. There should
be no crystalline deposit of sodinm binoxalate
formed, a proof that the solution does not contun
any sodinm chloride in excess, and ia fit for ^s-
tillation. It is first neutralised by adding some
more magnesia, and evaporated over a fire in large
ketUes to a pasty consistence, short of driving oA
the hydrochloric add. It is then transferred into
the ordinary soda ibmace, where it is distilled
with a moderate fire. The eliminated hydro-
chloric add is condensed in the usual manner.

The residuary mass should not be heated red-
hot, so as not to impair its porosity or its ready
affinity for carbonic add. If, however, the first-
mentioned test shows the magnesium chloride to
contain sodium chloride the whole mass must be
mixed with magnesium oxalate, and after removu
of the precipitated sodium oxalate, satnrated with
magnesia and distilled. The same process, in all
its details, may also be employed for the manu-
facture of potash and its carbonate.

Another method of manufacture of oommerdal
soda is by heating the mineral cryolite (a double
fluoride of sodinm and aluminium) with chalk.

The aluminate and caustic soda being both
soluble in water, a stream of carbonic add ia
passed through the solution containing them,
whereby all the soda becomes converted into car-
bonate, whilrt the alumina is thrown down as an

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1E89

inioltible precipitate. This process is largely used
in Qermany.

Varions other proeesses for the manufacture of
commercial soda have been devised, some of which
are still followed, whilst othen, bong impracti-
cable, have collapsed.

Prop.,S^. Carbonate of sodinm forms. large,
transparent, monoclinic prisms, which, as ordi-
narily met with, are of the formula Na,CO,.10Aq ;
bnt by particular management may be had with
fifteen, nine, seven, or sometimes with only one
molecole of water of crystallisation (Fmmai) ; it
is solnble in twice its weight of water at 60°, and
leas than an eqnal weight at 212° F. As a medi-
dtte it is deobctruent and antacid, and is (^ven in
doses of 10 to 80 gr. It is also, occasionaUy,
used to make efferrescing draughts. When taken
in an overdose it is poisonous. The antidotes are
the same as for carbonate of potassium. The
crude carbonate is largely employed in the manu-
facture of soap, paper, textile fabrics, glass, &c.

When AVETSBOUB OAXBOirATB 0> BODIUK is

required (Soda CABBOirAfl bxbiooata, B. P., Ph.
L. ; Soda oiBBOirAa biooatuh. Ph. E. and D.),
the crystallised carbonate is heated to redness,
and, when cold, powdered ; sp. gr. 2'S.

lifty-three gr. of the dried carbonate are equal
to 148 gr. of the crystallised salt. The medicinal
inoperties of both are similar. It has, however,
the disadvantage of being diflcultly soluble in
water.

Hie ordinary carbonate of sodium generally
contains dther sulphates or chlorides, or both;
and these may be detected as under Casbonatb
o> POTASsiux. "When supersaturated with
nitric acid, it precipitates only slightly, or not at
all, chloride of barium or nitrate of sUver; and
148 gr. require at least 960 gtsin-measures of
eolation of oxalic acid" (B. P.).

Sodium, Bicarbonate of. NsHCOr Syn. Sbb-

QVIOABBOSATB O* BOSA ; SODA BIOARBOWAB (B.

P., Ph. L., E., and D.), L. Prep. This salt can be
prepared in exactly the same manner as the cor-
responding salt of potassium. Other methods
are as follows: — (1) Crystallised carbonate of
sodium, 1 part; dried carbonate of sodium, 2
parts ; triturate them well together, and surround
them with an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas
under pressure ; let the action go on until no more
gas is absorbed, which will generally occupy 10
to 14 hours, according to the pressure employed ;
then remove the salt, and dry it at a heat not
above 120° F.

(2) The bicarbonate may be more simply pre-
pared by pasting carbonic add gas thnrap^h a
solution of common salt mixed with ammonu, as
in the manufacture of the normal carbonate by
the Solvay or ammonia-soda process.

Prop.fSro- A crystalline white powder; it is
soluble in 10 parts of water at 60° F., but it can-
not be dissolved in even warm water without
partial decomposition; it has a more pleasant
taste and is more feebly alkaline than the normal
oarbonate. When absolutely pure it does not
darken turmeric paper, or only very slightly.
The dose is from 10 to 40 gr., as an antacid and
absorbent. It is much employed in the prepara-
tion of effervescing powders and drau^ts, for
which pnrpoa^~

20 gr. of commercial bicarbonate of sodium

are taken with

18 gr. of crystallised tartaric acid ;
17 gr. of crystallised citric acid ; or
I fl. oz. of lemon juice.
The quantity of bicarbonate any given sample
contains may be approximately determined by
well washing 100 gr. of the stJt with an equal
weight of cold water, and filtering the solution.
The residuum left upon the filter, dried at a heat
of 120° F., and weighed, gives the percentage of.
pure bicarbonate of sodium present (veir nearly).
The solution of this in water should give only a
very trifling white precipitate with corrosive sub-
limate ; whilst the filtered portion, which was
used to wash the salt, will give a red one if it
contains the simple carbonate of sodium. Bager's
test for the normal carbonate, which nearly always
occurs in commerdal samples, is to shake in a
stoppered bottle 1 grm. of the salt, 0-5 grm. of
mercurous chloride, and 1'5 grms. water. If the
normal salt be absent the liquid remains white
for 24 hours, if pi^sent it turns grey.

BodlUB Chlorate. NaClO,. Prep. By boil-
ing chlorate of potash (9 parts) with socUnm
sili co-fluoride (7 parts), and crystallising out.

Prop., Ifc. Begular tetrahedrons, very soluble
in water and alcohol. Largely manufactured for
the use of calico printers in the production of
aniline black.

Sodiiun, Chloride of. NaCL 8$%. SODU
OHioBtDux (B. P., Ph. L. and D.), Sods kit-
SUB (Ph. E.), L. This important and whole-
some compound appears to have been known in
the earliest ages of which we have any record.
It is mentioned by Moses (Gen. xix, 26), and by
Homer in the ' Iliad ' (lib. ix, 214). In ancient
Borne it was subjected to a duty (eee%a2 iaX\.
doniim) ; and even at the present day a similar
tax furnishes no inconsiderable portion of the
revenue of certun nations. Sodium chloride oc-
curs as rock salt in large deposits in various
geological strata, in solution in sea water, brine
springs, ka. The Tria^ formations yield the chief
BuppUes of salt in Europe, The most important
looJities in which deposits of salt occur are in
Cheshire (England^ in Oalicia, the Tyrol, and
Stassfurt. l%e Oneshire salt beds are two in .
number, each about 180 feet thick, separated
from each other by about 80 feet of clay, and ex-
tending over an area 16 miles long and 10 miles
wide. Common salt forms no small portion of
the mineral wealth of England, and has become
an important article of commerce in evei? part
of the known world. The principal portion of
the salt consumed in this country is procured ^
the evaporation of the water of brine springs. It
is also x>repared by the evaporation of sea water
(hence the term ' sea salt '), but this process has
been almost abandoned in England, being more
suited to hot dry climates or to very cold ones.

For. Bat salt; bai. xabibtb, bal kiobb;
imported from France, Portugal, and Spain, and
obUned from sea water, evaporated id shallow
ponds by the sun; laige-grained and dark-col-
oured. BbITIBH bat BALT, CkBBHIBK lABfiE-

OSAmm B. ; \^ evaporating native brine at a

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SODIUM

heat of ISO^ to 140° F.; hard cnUcal cryitala.
Both of the above are used to salt provisions for
hot climates, as they dissolve very slowly in the
hrine as it grows weaker. Chibhisb biotbd
8AXT, LUKF B., BABKKT B. ; obtained by evaporat-
ing ihe brine of salt springs ; small flaky crystals.
XjQiTDOir'B FATKKT SOLID BALI j Cheshire rock
salt, melted and ladled into moulds. Rock baIiT,

POBBII. a. ; SAI. SBMMA, BAX. E0SBIXI8 ; fouud ID

mineral beds in Cheshire, France, Galicia, Sx.;
has commonly a reddish colour.

Prop. Pare chloride of sodium crystallises in
anhydrous cubes, which are often grouped into
pyramids or steps ; dissolves in about 2| parts of
water at 60° F. ; its solubility is not increased by
heat ; it is slightly Soluble in proof spirit, inso-
luble in alcohol ; decrepitates when heated, fuses
at a red heat, and volatilises at a much higher
temperature.

Pur., dfe. The common salt of commerce con-
tains small portions of chloride of magnesium,
chloride of calcium, and sulphate of calcium;
and hence has commonly a slightly bitter taste,
and deliquesces in the air. To separate these,
dissolve the salt in four times its weight of pore
water, and drop into the filtered solution first
chloride of barium, and then carbonate of so-
dium, as long as any precipitate falls ; filter, and
evaporate the clear fluid very slowly until crys-
tals form, which are pure chloride of sodium
(' Thomson's Cbem.,' ii, 377). For medical pur-
poses the Ph. E. orders the salt to be dissolved in
boiling wat^, and the solution to be filtered and
evaporated over the'flre, skimming off the crystals
as uiey form, which must then be quiokly washed
in cold water and dried. A solution of pure salt
is not precipitated by a solution of carbonate of
ammonium, followed by a solution of phosphate
of sodium j a solution of 9 gr. in distilled water
is not entirely predpiiated by a solution of 26 gr.
of nitrate of sUver (Ph. £.).

Uig». Common salt is stimulant, antiseptic,
and vermifuge, and is hence employed as a con-
diment, and for preserving animal and vegetable
substances. It is also occasionally used in medi-
cine, in clysters and lotions.

Sodium, Dried Sulphate of. Na^Of Sgn.

80SX SUXFEAB BZ8I0CATA, EpFLOBSBOBD OlAU-

BBB 8ALT. Ezpose the crystals to a warm dry
air till they fall into powder. They lose half their
weight. The dose is reduced in like proportion.
Etodinin, Effervescing Citro-tartrate of. Sgn.

SOSiB OITSO-TABTBAB BimBTSBCBirS (B. P.), L.
Prep. Mix thoroughly powdered bicarbonate of
soda, 17 oz. ; tartaric acid, 8 oz. ; and citric acid,
6 oz. ; place in a dish or pan of suitable form,
heated to between 200° and 220° F., and when
the particles begpin to aggregate, stir assiduously
till they assume a granular form. By means of
suitable sieves separate the grannies of uniform
and most convenient size. Preserve in well-closed
bottles.

Sodium Ethylate. C^^aO. Prepared as
POTASBICV BTETU.TB, Substituting sodium for
potassium. Properties aimilw to ethylate of
potassium.

Sodium, Hydrate of. NaHO. %». Hxsiutx
ov BosA, Sosnrx BYosAm, Cavbtic bosa;
Soda hysbab, L. Prtp. Exactly in the same

manner from carbonate of sodium as potaasinm
hydrate is prepared from carbonate of potassiom.
The solid caustic soda of commerce is geoeraUjr
obtained in the Leblauc process for manufactur-
ing the carbonate of sodium j the solution ob-
tained by treating the black ash with water is
evaporated, so that the carbonate, sulphate, and
chloride of sodium may crystallise out, leavinff
the more soluble hydrate in the concentrated
liquid. The latter, which still retains a com>
pound of sodium and iron sulphides which give it
a red colour, is mixed with sodium nitrate, which
oxidises these sulphides; the liquor is then ev^
porated down until a fused mass of sodium
hydrate remains, and this is then poured into
iron moulds. In another method the black ash
liquor is allowed to filter through a column of
coke against a current of air, when the sulphide
of sodium is oxidised and the sulphide of iron
deposited on the coke. After being mixed with
a littie chloride of lime to oxidise any remaining
sulphides, the liquor is concentrated, carbonate
and ferrocyanide of sodium separate out, and the
remaining liquor, which contains the hydrate, is
then concentrated till it solidifies on cooling.

Sodium hydrate is also made from the car-
bonate very cheaply by decomposing a dilute
solution with qnickUme thus : — Soda crystals, 3
parts ; boiling water, 16 parts ; and milk of lime
(obtained by slaking lime, 1 part, with water, S
parts) is added gradually to the boiling solution.
When the liquid is found to be free of carbonic
acid, it is concentrated till the soda fuses, and
then the mass is moulded into sticks.

The 'Pharmaceutical Journal' (Srd series, i,
66) states that a pure hydrate of sodium is now
manufactured from metallic sodium by the fol-
lowing method : — A deep silver vessel, ot a hemi-
spherical form, and capable of holding about 4
gallons of water, is employed. Into wb vessel,
which is cooled externally with a current of cold
water, is placed a very littie water, and upon the
water is placed a cube of metallic sodium of
about half an inch in diameter.

The vessel is made to revolve^ so as oautinaaUj;
to bring fresh portions of liquid into contact wil£
the metal, and by this means explosion is avoided.
When the first cube of met^ nas dissolved, and
yielded a thick syrupy liquid, a littie more water
and a second tube of metal are added, and the
reaction allowed to take place as before, the vessel
being kept in motion all the tine. In this
manner several pounds of sodium may be worked
np into pure soda.

The thick syrup so resulting is next evaporated
down, heated to redness, fused, and poured into a
mould.

The danger of explosions (which, however, are
not likely to occur if proper care is taken) neces-
sitates the employment of skilled labour in this
manufacture, and constitutes a very serious draw-
back to the commercial success of the process. '

Prop. White, semi-transluoent, filurous, deli<
quescent masses, very soluble in water, and bear>
ing a very great resemblance to the corresponding
potassium compound. Sp. gr. 2-18 (FilM), It
absorbs carbonic acid gas when moist. When
heated to the meltingrpoint of cast iron it is re-
solved into its elements, HG and Na.

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SODmM

1541

Monoclinie eryitels of the fonnaU 2NaH0.
7H,0, melting at 6° C, have recently been
obtained.

Uit», ^e. It is met with in commerce as a
highly concentrated aqueous lolntion or in the solid
oondition. It is largely used in the mannfkcture
of soap, the refining of paraffin and petroleum, in
the preparation of silicate of soda and artificial
stone, ko.; it is an invaluable reagent in the
chemical laboratory, and is much used for absorb-
ing carbonic acid gas; it acts as a punful cautery
in surgery.

Schifl (vide ' Ann. Pharm.,' evil, 800) has pre-
pared the following table, showing the sp. gr. of
soda lye at 16° C. :
FveraUgc of N*OH. Spsetfle OnTity.

1 1-012

6 1-069

10 1-llB

16 1-170

80 1-286

26 1-279

80 1-8S2

86 1-SS4

40 1-487

46 1-488

60 1-640

66 1-691

60 1-648

Sodium, HypoeUa"rite of. NaOCl. ^. Csio-
butatbd 80OA, Chlobidb o> RODAt; Soda
OHLOBINATA, L. Prep. (ChriHiton.) Dried
carbonate of sodium, 19 parts, are triturated with
water, 1 part, and the miztnre placed in a proper
vessel and exposed to the prolonged action of
chlorine gas, generated from a miztnre of chlo-
ride of lodinm, 10 parts; binozide of manganese,
8 parts ; solphnrie acid, 14 parts; (diluted with)
water, 10 parts.
Sodium Hypopheaphate. See PfiosPHOsvB.
Sodium Hypophoephlte. NaH,PO, + B,0.
Prep. From calcium hypophosphite in solution,
by adding sodium carbonate and allowing the
liquid to evapotate in vacuo.

Prop., ^e. Pearly tabular crystals, deliques-
eent, solnble in alcohol. Employed in medicine
tor the same purpose as phosphorus.

Sodium HyposnlpUte. NaHSO,. Prep. Place
a concentrated solution of acid sulphite of sodium
in a weU>corked bottle along with zinc clippings
er turnings. Keep the mixture cool for half an
honr, then decant the clear solution into three
times its volame of strong alcohol. The bottle
is then filled completely with this alcoholic liquid
and tightly ccnrked. As soon as all the nnc-
sodinm sulphite has fallen down the liquid is
poured off into well-stom)ered bottles, and allowed
to stand and crystallise m a cool place ; the crys-
tals are dried hetween filter-paper, Pnrify by
recrystallisation from alcohol.
. Prop. Fine acicnlar crystals.
Ufe. As a reducing agent for indigo in dye-
ing and calico printing, and in the laboratory for
estimating free oxygen, or that element in sub-
stances which easily evolve it.

Sodium, Iodide of. Nal or NaI.2H,0. 8gu.
SoDii lOiDiDinc. Prep. As iodidh or POTAaBruK.
Tlus, as well as the bromide, crystallises in clear
Or wUtish cubes, deliquescent, and soluble in

water. The hydrated form is deposited from
water at the ordinary temperature. Used in
medicine in the same manner as the corresponding
potassium salts. .

Sodium and Iron, Pyioplioipliate of. Sjyu.
Soda bt itebbi fybophobphas, Natbttic ftbo-

JPEOBPHOBIOUK TBBBATtTX (Ph. O.), L. Prep.

Dissolve 20 oz. of pyrophosphate of soda in 40 oz.
of cold distilled water, and add gradually to the
solution, and with constant stirring, 8 oz. (by
weight) of solution of perchloride of iron (Ph.
G.), previously diluted with 22 oz. of distilled
water, as long as the precipitate is redissolved.
Filter, and to the dear, bright green liquid thus
obtained pour in 100 oz. (by weight) of rectified
spirit, wash the precipitate with more spirit,
press it between blotting-paper, and dry by a
gentle heat.

Sodium Lactate. NaC,H,0,- %"• SoDn
liAOTAB, L. Prep. Let lactic add be diluted with
three parts of water; saturate whilst boiling
with sodium carbonate ; then evaporate.

Prop. Flattened prismatic crystals and stellar
groups of needles, very deliquescent ; when heated
with metallic sodium it is converted into disodium
lactate, Na,C,H,0,.

Sodium Mangaaata. Na,Un04. Prep. By
heating sodium hydrate and manganese dioxide
together, freely exposed to the air.

Prop., Utes, t(e. Qreen saline mass. Employed
as a bleaching agent; in the preparation A oxy-
gen at a chetq) rate, and in solution in water as
' Coudy's green disinfecting fiuid.' If the water
contains no potash or soda, to he pure the man-
ganate is decomposed into the red permanganate.

Sodium, Vi'trate of. NaNO,. %*. Chili

BADTFBTBB, CXTBIC SITBI ; SOSJE HITBAB, L.

This salt occurs native lUce ordinary nitre, and is
chiefly imported into England from Sonth
America. It is refined hy solution and crystal-
lisation. It is largdy employed as a manure,
especially as a top-dressing for barley, in the pre>
paration of nitric add, and, recently, in the
manufacture of fireworks, on account of the com-

Sarative slowness with which it bums. It is
eliquescent,very soluble in water, and crystallises
in obtuse rhomhohedrons ; sp. gr. 2-26.

Sodium, Vitrite of. NaKO,. Sj/k. Sosm
NinuB. Hiz nitrate of soda, 1 lb., and charcoal,
reoenUy burned and in fine powder, li oz., tho>
roughly in a mortar, and drop the mixture in
successive portions into a day cmdble, heated to
a dull redness. When the salt has become quite
white, raiae the heat so as to li(juefy it, pour on
to a clean flagstone, and when it has solidified,
break into fragments, and keep in a stoppcned
bottle.

Sodium, Oxide of. Na,0. Sj/n, Avhtdboits
BODA. Prep., 4*0. By burning d^ metallic sodium
in air, or (pure) by heating the hydroxide with
the metal. A grey mass witii conchoidal fracture^
melting at dull red heat, volatilising at higher
temperature; sp. gr. 2-806; very deliquescent,
strongly bade, and soluble in water, forming pnre
sodium hydrate.

Sodium Peroxide. Na,0,. Syn. S. diozidb.
Prep., (fc. By heating the metal in oxygen gas,
or hj igniting the nitrate. White powder, ydlow
when heated. When exposed to the air it deli-

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SODIUH

?,nesc««« then absorbs carbonic add, and nl&nately I
orms a aolid mass of carbonate. Thrown into
water, heat is evolved, and canitic soda and oxy-
gen are formed.

Sodium, Phosphates of. There are three ortho-
phosphates, namely —

i. Normal sodinm orthophosphate,

Na,P04 + 12H,0.
ii, HydroRen-disodinm orthophosphate,

Nb,HP04 + 12H,0.
iii, Dihydrogen-sodium orthophosphate,
NaHjPO^ + iHjO.
These are tribasiCj and give yellow precipitates
with silver nitrate.
There are two pyrophosphates, namely —
i. Normal sodiumpyrophosphate,

NaiPA + lOHjO.
iL Dihydrogen-sodium pyrophosphate,

Na^^A-
These are tetoabasic, and give white precipi-
tates with silver nitrate, and do not precipitate
albumen.

Five metaphosphates are known, namely—
i. Sodium monometaphosphate,

NaPO,.
ii. Sodium dimetaphosphate,

Na^A + 2H,0.
iii. Sodium trimetaphosphate,

Na,P,0, + 6H,0.
iv. Sodinm tetrametaphosphate,

Na404.P40, + 4H,0.
T. Sodium hexametaphosphate,
N«,O..P,0„.
These are monobasic, and give white precipi-
tates with silver nitrate, and precipitate albumen.
Of these, two only will be noticed, namely,
hydrogen-dlsodinm orthophosphate (common
phosphate of soda) and normal sodinm pyro-
phosphate.

Bodiiim, Common Phos'phate of. NajHPOt.
l2Aq. Sy». HTSBoazN-sisoDiCH obtho-
PEoarBAiE, Reoubio p. o> b. ; Soda feobfhab
(B. P., Ph. L.. E., A D.), L. Frtp. 1. Take of
powdered bone ashes, 10 Ibs.j sulphuric add, 44
fl. oz.; mix, add gradually of water, 6 pints, and
digest for three days, replacing the water which
evaporates J then add 6 pints of boiling water,
strain through linen, and wash the residue on the
filter with boiling water; mix the liquors, and,
after defecation, decant and evaporate to 6 pints j
let the impnrities again settle, and neutralise the
clear fluid, heated to boiling, with a solution of
carbonate of sodium in slight excess; crystals
will be deposited as the solution cools, and by
snccessivuly evaporating, adding a little more
carbonate of sodinm to the mother-liquor till it is
feebly alkaline, and cooling, more crystals may
be obtained; these mnsi be kept in close vessels.
2. {Funohe.) To ground calcined bones, dif-
fused through water, add a little dilute sulphuric
acid to saturate any carbonate of caldum present ;
when effervescence ceases, dissolve the whole in
nitric acid, q. s. ; to this solution add as much
sulphate of sodium as the bone ash used, and
distil the whole to recover the nitric acid; the
residnum is treated with water, and the resulting
solution filtered, evaporated, and crystallised.

Prop., (f-c. It forms large, transparent, mono-
clinic prisms, which effloresce in the air, dissolve

in about 4 parts of cold watar and in 2 ^uts
at 212^ F., and fuse when heated. As a medicina
it is niilcQy aperient, in doses of ) to 1 ox., or
even more; and uitadd in doaes of 20 to 80 gr.,
frequently repeated. It has a purely saline taite,
resembling that of culinary salt, and its aqneoos
solution turns red litmus blue.

Sodinm Pyrophosphate (Vormal). 'St^fij.
lOHsO. Sg*. Sods pybophobfeab obtbiai^
UBATA (P. Cod.), L. Prep. This salt may be
obtained by heating, gently at first, and uter-
wards to a red heat, common phosphate of sodium
in a platinum crucible imtilall the water is driven
off, and the salt has become f nsed. Dissolve the
fused mass iu water, filter, and concentrate until
it has a density of 1-20, and crystallises in the cdd.
MonocUnic prisms.

Sodium, SalieyUta of. C,H4(0H).C(VTa. 8g».
Soda baIiIOSLUB. Prep. Uade by neutralising
a solution of pure salicylic add with caustic soda,
and evaporating to dryness. It must be purified
by crystallisation from alcohol. Antipyretic;
given in acute rheomatism.— Ztoo, 10 to 20 grms.

Sodium Santonate. 8gm. SosiB bahtohab.
This salt is made by digesting an alcoholic solu-
tion of santonic add with carbonate of soda,
evaporating, redissolving in strong alcohol, and
crystallising.

Sodinm, Sesqnicarbonate of. Nk,C0,.2NaHC0r
8H.0. A salt found native in South America
and on the banks of the soda lakes of Sotreoa, in
Africa, whence it is exported as 'Trona.' When
strongly heated it is resolved into Na,CO|.CO,
andH,0.

Sodium Silicate. See Qlabb, SolubIiE.

Sodium, Stan'nate of. TSa^nOfiUfi. Prep.
[QreeiuBOod S[ Cb.) Caustic soda, 22 lbs., is
heated to low redness in an iron crucible, when
nitrate of sodinm, 8 lbs., and common salt, 4 lbs.,
are added; when the mixture is at a 'flnxing
heat,' 10 lbs. of feathered block tin is stirred in
with an iron rod, both the stirring and heat being
continued until the mass becomes red-hot and
'pasty,' and ammoniacal fumes are given ofL
'Die product may be purified by solution and
crystallisation. Used as a mordant by calico
printers.

Sodinm, Stan'nita of. NaiSnO. Prep. {Oreett-
wood 4^ Co.) From caustic soda, 18| lbs.;
feathered block tin and common salt, of each, 4
lbs. ; as the last. Used to prepare tin mordants
(about 12 oz. to water, 1 gall.).

Sodinm, Hoimal Sulphate of. N^SO. Sg:
SosJl BULPEiB. Occurs native as thniardite and
in the mineral springs at Friedrichshall, Ac It
is prepared on an enormous scale as ' salt-cake '
in the manufacture of carbonate of soda (q.v.).

Prep. 1. Common salt is decomposed by the
action of sulphuric acid, or by the combined
action of snlphur dioxide, air, and aqueous vapour;
purify by recrystollisation from water.

2. As a residue in the manufacture of nitric
add from Chili saltpetre, and in other chemical
operations.

8. By exposing the hydrated sulphate (Glauber's
salts) to the -air, or by heating a ssitnisted aqueous
solution of this salt.

Prop.i Sfc. Rhombic crystals, insoluble in al-
cohol, possessing a saline, bitter taste, and a nen*

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SODITTM

154S

tnl reaction. Uaed internally for larcins ven-
tricnli, and externally ai as application in skin
diaeases of fDngoni origin. Hypoanlpliate of
soda is employed in the same cases.

Bodinm,8nl'p]uit»ef(HydTat«d). Na^4.10Aq.
Sjin. OuuBBB'a bavt; Sodm bulfras (B. p.,

Fb. L., E., ft D.), SJlL (UTBABTI0V8 OLAUBBBit)

L. Obtained by crystallisation from an aqneons
•olntion of the normal sulphate at ordinary tem-
perature.

Prop. Large, colonrless, monocUnic prisms,
.which effloresce in the air and fall to an opaque
white powder ; solnble in abont 8 parts of water
at 60°, bnt at a higher temperatnre its solnbility
rapidly lessens; insolnble in alcohol; fuses when
-heated. It is seldom wilfnlly adulterated. When
pure the solution is neutral to test-paper ; nitrate
of silver throws down scarcely anything from a
dUute solutiou; nitrate of baryta more, which is
not dissolved by nitric add. It loses 56'5% of
its weight by a strong beat. It readily forms
supersaturated solutions. These crystallise sud-
denly when a small crystal of the salt is dropped
in, and the solidification is accompanied by a rise
of temperature.

Utes. It is purgative, but being extremely
bitter tasted, is now less frequently used than
formerly. Its nauseous flavour is said to be
covered by lemon juice. — Doie, ( to 1 oz. The
dried salt (bosm bitlphab BxaiooATA) is twice as
strong. LTxraeroN GItAUBbb'b salt is a mixture
of the sulphates of soda and potash obtained from
the motber-liqnor of sea salt.

Sodlnin, BnTphlde of. Na^. Frtp. (P. Cod.)
Saturate a solution of caustic soda (sp. gr. 1*200)
with sulphuretted hydrogen, closely cOver up the
vessel, and set it aside that crystals may fbrm ;
drain, press them in bibulous paper, and at once
preserve them in a well-closed bottle.

Prop., J[e. Used in the commercial preparation
of solnble glass and sodium thiosnlphate, to make
mineral waters, and in certain skin diseases. Dr
Ringer says, " It possesses the property of pre-
venting and arresting suppuration and stopping
the formation of pus." Given for boils and car-
buncles, it also produces excellent results. — Don.
For adults, -^ of a grain, mixed with sugar of
milk, every hour or two on the tongue.

Sodium, Bulphooarbolate. Syn. Sons bttl-
PEOOABBOLAB (PoroVa). Prtp. Mix 2 vols,
of pure carbolic acid with 1 vol. of sulphuric acid
in a flask, and heat the mixture to 280° or 290°
F. for five minutes. Cool, dilute, and saturate
with carbonate of soda, evaporate, and crystallise.
The pther sulphocarbolates may be prepared in
the same manner. — Dote, 10 to SO gr., in phthisis
and zymotic diseases ; externally, as a lotion in
oznna and fetid ulcers.

Sodium, Bulphosalicylate of. i%rs. Sodjbbtti.-
FHOBAXIOTUB, L. Prtp. (WilUtmt.) By treat-
ing very pare salicylic add with abont twice its
weight of sulphuric add, then adding carbonate
of barium, and decomposing the sulphosalicylate
of barium by sulphate of soda (see 'Purm,
Joum.,' Sept. 80tb, 1876).

Sodinm Sulphovlnate. Sg*. Sosii mtxma-
riHAB, L. Prep. Sulphovinic add is first pre-
pared by poaring gradually, with great care, and
increasingly stirring with a glass rod, 1000 grms.

of 60° sulphuric add into 1000 grms. of rectified
96° alcohoL The mixture is left for some hours
in contact, then diluted with 4 litres of distilled
water, and afterwards saturated with pure bsvinm
carbonate. When the saturation is complete tlie
barium sulphate is filtered off. The solution of
barium snlpbovinate is then decomposed with
pure carbonate of soda until it ceases to give a
predpitate. The liquid, evaporated in a water-
bath, is left to crystallise. If necessaj^ the crys-
tals are purified by reciystallisation. They should
be kept in well-closed flasks.

Prop., 4^. Sodium sulphovinate crystallises in
hexagonal tables, which are slightly unctuous to
the touch, and very soluble in water and in
alcohoL If heated they give off, at 120^, the
alcohol which they contain in combination ; and
they become gradually deprived of bitterness.
Sodium snlpbovinate ought not to contain sul-
phuric add, nor have an add taste. It should
not be predpitated by barium chloride, and
espedally by soluble sulphates. The possession
of either of these properties is a proof of faulty
preparation, and that a portion of the snlpho-
vinic add has been decomposed.

Sulphovinate of soda is said to be a very efTee-
tive, and by no means unpleasant, saline aperient,
and to be unattended with subsequent constipa-
tion. The dose is from 6 to 6 dr.

Sodium, Tartrate of, and Potaisinin NaEC^H^
.0,.4Aq. %ii. . Tabibatbovfoiabba Aim SODA,

BOOHIUiB SALT, SBISNBTn'B B., TABTABIBBS
BODAf; SODSTABTABATA (B. P.), SODA POZAB8I0-

TABTBAs (Ph. L.), Sods bt potasba tabtbab (Ph.
E. & D.), Soda TABTABizAiAf, L. Prep. Take of
carbonate of sodium, 12 oz. ; boiling water, 8
quarts : dissolve, and add, graidnally, of powdered
bitartrate of potassiom, 16 oz. ; strain, evaporate to
a pellicle, and set it aside to crystallise ; dry the
resulting ciystsls, and evaporate the mother-
liquor that it may yidd more of them.

Prop., J^e. Large, transparent, hard, right
rhombic pnsms, often occurring in halves; slight^
efflorescent ; soluble in 6 parts of water at W" F.
Ito " solution ndther changes the colour of litmus
nor of turmeric. On the addition of sulphuric
acid, bitartrate of potassium is thrown down ; on
adding dther nitrate of silver or chloride of
barium nothing is thrown down, or only what is
redissolved by the addition of water " (Ph. L.).
By heat it yields a mixture of the pure carbonate*
of potassium and sodium.

Potassio-tartrate of so^um is a mild and cool-
ing laxative. — Doee, i to 1 oz., largely diluted
with water. It forms the basis of the popular
aperient called bbidutz powdbbb.

Sodium, TUofnl'pIiite of. Na,8,0, -t- BH,0.
Sgn. SosjB HYP08UI.FHIB, L. Prep. 1. Dried
carbonate of sodium, 1 lb.; flowers of sulphur,
10 oz.; mix, and slowly heat the powder in a
porcekdn dish until the sulphur melts; stir the
fused mass freely to expose it to the atmosphere
until the incandescence flags, then dissolve the
mass in water, and immediately boil the filtered
liquid with some flowers of sulphur; lastiy, care-
fully concentrate the solution for crystals.

2. A stream of well-washed sulphurous an-
hydride gas is passed into a strong solution of
carbonate of sodium, which is then digested with

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SOILS— aOLDEBINa

lolphur at a gantie heat daring uveral day«t by
evapoiating the solation at a moderate tem-
peratnre, the lalt u obtained in large and regular
crystala.

8. ^OcgpauW* proeen.) Boll a dilnte Rolntion
of canitic soda with Bulphar to saturaldon, then
pau sulphuroni acid gaa into the solution until a
small portion, when filtered, is found to have a
very pale yellow colour; when this is the case, it
must be filtered and evaporated as before.

4. A cheap recently devised process is to de-
compose the soluble calcium thioeulphate ob-
tained by the oxidation of 'alltali waste' by
means of the sulphate or carbonate of sodium ;
the solution containing the thiosulphato is then
drawn off from the predintated sulphate or car-
bonate of calcium, and set aside to evaporate and
crystallise.

Prop., I(e. Crystallises in large transparent
four-sided prisms, which in the dry stete are
unalterable in the airj it is freely soluble in
water, and possesses a cooling taste. It may be
perfectly freed from sulphide of sodium I^
agitating it with about half ite weight of alcohol;
the alcohol dissolves out the sulphide, which may
then be easily separated. This salt is now very
extensively used in the practice of photography
as a solvent for unaltered silver chloride ; also as
an 'antichlor,' to extract the last trac^ from
paper pulp.

Bodlum Urate. HNaCtN^N^Or ^n. Hxsbo-
BODnm UBATi, Occurs in the gouty concretioDS
-termed 'chalk-stones,' and sometimes as a deposit
from urine.

Sodium, yal«"rlaiiata of. NaC,H,0,. Swt,
SODJS VAIBWUTAB (Ph. D.), L. Prtp. (Ph. D.)
Dilnte oil of vitriol, 6i fi. oz., with water, \ pint;
then dissolve of powdered bichromate of potas-
sium, 9 ox., in hot water. Si pinte ; when bolJi
solutions have cooled, put them into a matrass,
uid having added of fusel oil, 4 ft. oi., shake
' them togeUier repeatedly until the temperature,
which first rises to 1B0% has faUen to 80° or 90°
P. ; a condenser having been connected, next apply
heat so as to distil over abont 4 pints of liquid ;
saturate this exactly with asolution of caustic soda,
separate the liquid from the oil which floate upon
the surface, and evaporate it until the residual
salt is partially liquefied; the heat being now
withdrawn, and the salt concreted, this last, whilst
still warm, is to be divided into fragments, and
preserved in well-stopped bottles.
' Obt. This salt is intended to be used in the
preparation of the TALlBlAirATBa o* ntow, QUI-
KinK, and zmo.

sons. These are classified by agricnltnriste,
according to their chief ingredients, as loamy,
clayey, sandy, chalky, and peaty soils. Of these
the first is the best for most purposes, bat the
others may be improved by the addition of the
mineral constituents of which they are deficient.
Sand and lime or chalk and coal ashes are the
proper additions to olayey soils, and clay gypsum,
or loam, to sandy and gravelly ones. Clayey
soils are expensive to bring into a fertile state;
but when this is once effected, and they are well
manured, they yield immense crops of wheat,
oate, beans, clover, and most fruits and flowers
of the rosaceous kinds.

The fertilisation of m^ is suggested partly
by chemical analysis, practical experience, and
geological observations. In eases miere a bairvn
soil is examined with a view to ite improvement,
it is,, when possible, compared with an extremely
fertile soil in the same neighbourhood, and in a
similar situation; the difference given by thrar
analyses indicates the nature of the manure re-
quired, and the most judicious methods of culti-
vation ; and thus a plan of improvement is sug-
gested, founded npon scientific principles.

The analysis of soils may be briefly and gener-
ally described as follows :

1. The general character of the soil, as loamy,
sandy, stony, rather stony, &c., being noted, 8 or
4 lbs. of it, fairly selected as an average sped-
men, qay be taken during a period of ordinary
dry weather. From this, after crushing or bruis-
ing the lumps with a }nece of wood, all stones of
a larger size than that of a filbert may be picked
oat, and their proportion to the whole quantity
duly registered.

2. 1000 gr. of the remainder may be next
dried by the heat of boiling water, nnm the mass
ceases to lose weight, and afterwards exposed
to a moist atmosphere for some time. The loss
of weight in the first case, and the increase of
weight in the second, indicate the absorbent
powers of the soil.

8. The matter tram No. 2, freed from siliceous
stones by garbling, may be gradually heated to
dull redness in a shallow open vessel, avoiding
wAte from decrepitotion, Ac. The loss of wdgh^
divided by 10, gives tiie percentage quantity of
vegetaUe or org^c matter present (nearly).

4. Another 1000 grains (see No. I) may be
next washed with successive portions of cold water
as lonff as anything is removed. The residuum,
after being dried, indicates the proportion of
sand and gravel (nearly).

6. Another portion of the soil (100, 200, or
more gr., according to ite character) is tested in
the manner described under Caxbohaxb and
AiiKAXiKBTST. The loss of weight in carbonic
acid indicates the quantity of carbonate of lime
present in the sample examined, 22 gr. of tJie
former bong equal to 60 gr. of the latter.

6. Another like portion of the soil may be
gently boiled for four or five hours, along with
dilnte hydrochloric acid, in a flask furnished with
a long glass tube passing through the cork, to
prevent loss (see Eths]^; after that time the
whole must be thrown upon a filter, and what
refuses to pass through (silica) washed with
distilled water, dried, ignited, and weighed.

7. The filtrate and washings from No. 6 are
next successively treated for alumina (pure da^,
lime, phosphate of lime, phosphoric acid, oxide
of iron, alkalies (potassa or soda), ammonia (both
ready formed and latent), kn. &c., in the manner
noticed under Glabb, GtrAHO, and the names of
the respective substances referred to. See Ma*

SOL'ABIHE. Sgn. SoiiAHi, SoLAimrA, L. A
peculiar basic substance, obtained from the leaves
and stem of SoUamm duleamara, or bitter-sweet,
and other species of the Solanaeea.

B0L1)ESDrO. The union of metallic surfaoes
by means of a more fusible metal fluxed between

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SOLDBBS-fiOUTTION

1646

them. The method of anfa>g>enoiu coldering, in-
Tented by M. De Bichmont, is am exception to
thii definition. In all the cases snrfaees most
he perfectly clean, and in alMolnte contact, and
the air mast he excluded, to prevent oxidation,
for this last purpose the brazier and silversmitb
use powdered borax made into a paste with water;
the coppersmith, powdered sal-ammoniac j and
the tinman, powdered resin. Tin-foil applied
between the joints of fine brass-work, first wetted
with a strong solution of sal-ammoniac, makes an
excellent juncture, oaie being taken to avoid
too much heat. See Soivnov (Soldering), wad
ieloie.

SOL'SISS. JV«p. 1. (For copper, iron, and
dark brass.) From copper and sine, equal parts;
melted together. For pale brass more sine must
be used.

2. (Fine solder.) From tin, 2 parts; lead, 1
part. Melts at 860° F. Used to tin and solder
copper, tin plates, &c.

8. (For Qerman silver.) From German silver,
.6 parts ; zinc, 4 parts ; melted together, run
into thin flakes, a)td then powdered. Also as
No. 7.

4. (Qlazier's.) From lead, 8 parks ; tin, 1 part.
Melts at 600° F.

6. (For gold.) Qold, 12 dwts.; copper, 4 dwts.;
silver, 2 dwts.

6. (For lead and zinc.) From lead, 2 parts ;
tin, 1 part.

7. (For pewter, Britannia metal, Ac.) From
tin, 10 parts ; lead, 6 peats ; bismnth, 1 to 8
parts.

8. (For silver.) From fine brass, 6 parts; sil-
ver, 6 parts ; zinc, 8 parts.

9. (For tin plate.) From tin, 2 parts ; lead, 1
part. The addition of bismuth, 1 part, renders
it fit for pewter.

BOLE. The Solea vutgarit, a welt-known fish.
It is, perhaps, more frequently eaten than any
other fiat fish, and, when skilfnlly cooked, ex-
ceeds them all in delicacy, nntritiousness, and
flavour.

SOLtrTlOH. Syn. SOLUTio. L. Under the
head of solutions (gOLTTTioins), in pharmacy,
are properly included only those liquids which
consist of water, or an aqneons menstruum, in
which has been dissolved an appropriate quantity
of any soluble sabstance to impart to the liquor
its peculiar properties. When spirit is the men-
stmnm the liquid receives the name of alcoholic
solution, spirit, or tincture. In the B. P. and the
Ph. L. & i). aqneons solutions are named liquobb
(UQVOBKI), whilst in the Ph. E., and in the old
pharmacopoeias generally, they are termed w atbim

(AQBJl).

The following list embraces all the solutions
of the British pharmacopceias, with a few others
likely to be useful to the reader. Some other pre-
parations to which the name has been given will
be found under LiQuona, TnsroruBBB, £c.

Solution of Ae'etate of Ammo"alum. 8yn.

LIQT70B AXKOlni AOITATIB (B, P.); MnrCB-

BIBU8' BFIBIT. IVep. Strong solution of
acetate of ammonium, 4 oz.; distilled water to
produce 20 oz. The aolution shonld be stored in
Dottles free from lead. Sp. gr. 1'022,
Solntlon of Acetate ef Aamroalnm (Stnag).

Si/n. LiqirciB AMuown AOST&vn pobttob, L.
iVsp. Oarlionate of ammonium, 17i oz. ; acetic
aeid, 60 oz., or snffldent; add the former to the
latter until the product is neutral ; Ustly, add dis-
tiUed water to make 8 pints. Store in bottles free
from lead. Sp. gr. 1-073.

Prop., 4^e. Ttte from colour and odour. It
changes the oolonr neither of litmus nor turmeric.
Sulphuretted hydrogen being dropped in, it is not
discoloured, neither is anything tlmiwn down on
the addition of chloride of barinm. What is
precipitated by nitrate of silver is soluble in water,
but especially so in nitric acid. Potxusa being
added, it emits ammonia; and snlphuric acid
being added, it gives off acetic vapours. The fluid
tieing evaporated, what remains is ' completely
destroyed by heat.

U*»i, ^. Solution of acetate of ammonia is
a very common and excellent febrif nge and dia-
phoretic, and, in large doses, aperient saline
liquor. Takrai warm, in bed, it generally proves
a powerful sudorific; and as it operates without
heat it is much used in febrile and inflammatory
disorders. Its action may likewise be determined
to the kidneys by walking about in the cold air.—
Doie, 3 to 6 dr. of the ordinary, i to 1 dr. of the
strong, twice or thrice daily, either by itself or
along with other medicines. Externally, as a
discatient and refrigerant lotion ; and diluted (1
oz. to 9 oz. of water) as a collyrinm in chronic
ophthalmia. For this last pnrpoee it must be free
from- excess of ammonia.

(Concentrated.) Saturate acetic acid, sp. gr.
1*03% i gall., with carbonate of ammonia (in
powder), 2} lbs., or q. s., carefully avMding
excess.

Ob», This article is in great demand in the
wholesale drug trade, under the name of ' con-
centrated liquor of acetate of ammonia' (liiQ.
AUMON. AOBT. ooKO.). It is very convenient for
dispensing.

Botatioii of Acetate of Lead. See SoLtmoir or

DiAOBTATB OV LbAD.

Solatioaof Acetate of Xorplila. 8fn. Llc^vOB

MOBFHIX AOBIATIB (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), L.

Frej), 1. (Ph. L.) Acetate of morphia, 4 dr. ;
acetic aeid, 16 drops; distilled water, 1 pint;
proof spirit, 4 pint; mix and dissolve. Sixty
drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of acetate of morphia.
— Dote, 5 to 16 or 20 drops.

2. (B. P.) Acetate of morphine, 9 gr. ; diluted
acetic acid, 18 minims ; rectified spirit, | oz. ; dis-
tilled water, 1) oz. ; dissolve in the mixed liquids.
— Doi», 10 to 60 minims.

3. (Ph. D.) Acetate of morphia, 82 gr. ; rec-
tified spirit, 6 fl. oz. ; distilled water, 16 fl. oz.
120 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of the acetate.
— Dow, 10 to 46 or 50 drops, or similar to tliat
of tincture of opium.

4. {Moffendia.) Each fi. dr. contains li gr.
of acetate (nearly). — Dote, 6 to 15 drops. Ano-
dyne, hypnotic, and narcotic ; in those cases in
which opium is inadmissible. See Mobfhia.

Solution of Aeonitia. Syn. Sormo acoititij*
{2)r THTHinU). Prep. Aeonitia, 1 gr. ; rectified
spirit, 1 dr. To I>e applied externally by means
of a sponge in neuralgic and rheumatic affections.

Solntlon of Al'um (Oemponiid). fijya. Bati's
Axtm wATBB; LiQuoB ALtnamB coKFOsrrni

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SOLUTION

(Pb. L.), Aqva ALUxnrosA ooicpoBiTAt, L.
JV«p. (Ph. L.) Almn and sulphate of zinc, of
each, 1 oz. 3 hoUine water, S pints ; dissolve and
^Iter (if necessary). Detergpent and astringent.
Used as a lotion for old ulcers, chillilsins, exooiia-
tions, &c. ; and, largely diluted with water, as an
eye-wash and injection.
Bolutioa of A]naio"nia. See Liquob o> Ax-

MOKU.

Solution of Ammo"nlo-nl'trat6 of Bil'var.

Syn. HtTHB'S TB8T; SoiiUTIO ABaSHTI AM-

MONIATI (Ph. E.), L. Frep. (Ph. E.) Nitrate
of silver (pure crystallised), 44 gr.; distilled
water, 1 fl. oz, ; dissolve and add ammonia water,
gradually, until the precipitate, at first thrown
down, is very nearly bat not entirely redissolved.
Used as a test for arsenic.
Solution of Aauno"nlo-tal'pIiate of Cop'pw.

Syn. JLlQVOB 0177BI AIfXOiraO-8T7IfEATIB {Th.
L.), CmPBI AKHOinATI BO£UTIO (Ph. E.), C. A.
AQVA, L. Pnp. (Ph. L.) Ammonio- sulphate
of copper. 1 dr.; water, 1 ^tj disaolTe and
Alter. Stimulant and detergent. Applied to
indolent ulcers, and, when largely diluted, to re-
move specks on the cornea ; also used as a test for
arsenic.

Solution for Anatom'ical Freparatioas, *e.
^». Aktibsptio aoiUTioir. iV^. 1. Nearly
saturate water with snlphnrons acid, and add a
little creasote.

2. Dissolve chloride of tin, 4 parts, in water,
100 parts, to which 8% of hydrochloric acid has
been added.

5. Dissolve corrosive sublimate, 1 part, and
chloride of eodiam, 8 parts, in water, 100 parts,
to which 2% of hydrochloric acid has been added.

4. Mix hqnorof ammonia (strong) witli 8 times
its wfdght (each) of water and rectified spirit.

6. Sal-ammoniac, 1 part s water, 10 or 11 parts.
For muscular parts of animals.

6. Snh>hate of zinc, 1 part; water, 16 to 26
parts. For muscles, integuments, and cerebral
masses.

7. (Dr Sabii^rton.) Wood naphtha, 1 port;
water, 7 parts j or wood naphtha undiluted, aa an
injection.

8. (Sir W. MwmHt.) Concentrated solution of
chloride of sine, 1 lb. ; water, 1 gall. The sub-
stances are immersed in the solution for 8 to 4
days, and then dried in the air.

9. (6<nmai.) Alum and culinary salt, of eaeh,
\ lb.; nitre, i lb. ; water, 1 g^.

10.(00041^.) a. From baysalt, aoz.;alum,
1 oz. ; bichloride of mercuiy, 1 gr. ; water, 1 innt.
For ordinaiy pnrposes.

hr. To the last add of bichloride of mercury, 1
gr. ; water, 1 pint. For very tender tissues, and
where there is a tendency to mouldiness.

e. From bay salt, i lb. ; bichloride of mercury,
1 gr. ; water, 1 pint. For subjects containing
carbonate of lime.

i. From bay salt, \ lb. ; arsenious acid, 10 gr. ;
water, 1 jnnt ; dissolve by heat. For old prepara-
tions.

«. To the last add of bichloride of mercury,
1 gr. As the last, when there is a tendency to
the softening of parts ; and, diluted, formoUusca.
These solutions are approved of by Professor
Owen.

11. (Jr. £AokM.) Nitre, 1 part; alum, 2
parts; chloride of lime, 4 parte; water, 16 or 20
parts ; to be afterwards diluted according to cir-
cumstances. For pathological specimens.

12. (lir StapUtou.) Alum, 2i oz. ; nitie, 1
dr. ; water, 1 quart For pathological specimens.

13. (For Fbatexbs— £«a«!igr.) Strychnia, 16
gr. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint.

14. Borax, 26 parts ; salicylic acid, 6 parts ;
boric acid, 10 parts ; glycerin, 80 parts ; water, 40
parts, place the whole in a porcelain dish, and
heat until a clear solution Is formed. This solu-
tion is snitable for diluting with 10 to 20 timet
its volume of water, as a preservative for meat.
A teaspoonf ul of itissufllcienttoaddtoagal]onof
milk.

Obt. These fluids are used for preserring

AKATOMIOAL FBBFABATIOITB, OBJBOTB OP IT ATCVAL

EHTOBT, &c., by immersing them therein, in close
vessels; or, for temporary pnrtmses, applying
them by means of a brush or {nece of rag. The
presence of corrosive sublimate is apt to render
animal substances very hard. See Pctbbpao-

TIOV.

Solution, AntlMptlc. See aiott.

SolntbwofAnaniate of Ammonia. Sgn. LiQroB
ABSBiriATIB Attuosix, L. Prep. (Hoep. of St
l>ouis.) Arseniate of ammonia, 4 gr. ; distilled
water, 4 oz. ; spirit of angelica, 2 Si. — JTos^ 12
to 80 minims. There are other formnlss for the
solution, differing in strength from the above.

Dr Neligan gives us Bietf s : — Arseniate of am-
monia, 1| gr. ; distilled water, S os, ; spirit of
angelica, 6 dr. — Vote, 1 to S dr.

Bouchardat says 6 gr. to 8 oz. of distilled water.
— Dote. From 12 drops to 1 dr.

Solution of Arseniate of Soda. 8f», Liqttob

ABBBiriATIg 80DAE; PBABBOK'S ABBBITIOAX BOXIT-

TI017. Frep. Arseniate of soda, 4 gr. ; distilled
water, 4 oi. — Dote, 12 minims to 30.

Solution of Aiteulate of Soda. (B. P.) Sf-
LiQUOB BODX AB8BSIATIB. Prep. Dissolve
arseniate of soda (rendered anhydrous by a heat
not exceeding 300'' F.), 4 gr., in distilled water,
1 oz. — Dote, 6 to 10 minims.

Solution, Arsenical. %•. ICnrxBAr bolvtioh >'

SOIitmO AB8BNICAUB, SOLtmO laVBBAUB, L.

Prep. 1. {Dinryit.) As bolutioh ov ABsnriTB
ov F0TAB8A, Ph. L., but of Only l-&0th the strength,
flavoured with compound spirit of balm, and
coloured to a deep rose with cochineal.

2. {Pearion.) Arseniate of soda, 4 gr. ; water,
4 fl. ox.; dissolve.— Dose, 10 to SO drops during
the day (see ielow).

Solution of Ane'^nlona Add. See Dbopb, Aotn,
and ABBBHionB AotD.

Solution of Ar'senlte of Fotaa'aa. Sjm. Fowlbb's

rnllBBAL BOLmOH ; LlQTTOB SOCABBJB ABBINITIB
(Ph. L.), lilQUOB ABBBinOAUB (B. P.), L. Ppsp.

(B. P.) Arsenious acid, coarsely powdered, and
carbonate of potassa, of each, 87 gr.; distilled
water, 1 pint ; boil until dissolved, and add, to the
cold solution, compound tincture of lavender, 6
fl. dr.; wat^, q. s. to make the whole exactiy
measure a pint. Tonic, antiperiodic, and altera-
tive.— Dote, 2 to 8 drops, gradually and cautiously
increased ; in agues and various scaly slrin dis-
eases. It is preferably taken soon after a meal.
See Absbbiovb Aon>. &c.

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1647

8ol«tioiiofAiao-eU«ld«of(lold. Sgn. Soiurio
ATTBI AlCK0in(M)HIK>BI9I (JFWmoW). JVtrp. Am-
monio-chloride of gold, 8 gr. ; distilled water and
rectified spirit, of each, 10 oz. — Dote. A. teaspoon-
fnl morning and evening in sugared water for
dyBmenorrhoea and amenorrlKEB.

Solution of Bimeconate of Korphine. Si/n.
LiQUOB HOBPHIKiB Biiaooiri.TiB (B. P.), L.
Prtp. Hydrochlorate of morphine, 9 gr. ; solution
of ammonia, a sofSciency ; meconic add, 6 gr. ;
rectified spirit, i oz. ; distilled water, a snffidency.
Dissolve the morphine in a little water by heat,
then add ammonia until the morphine cease* to
precipitate. Cool, filter, wash and drain the pre-
dpitate. Add it to enongh water to produce lioz.
Fmally add the spirit and meoonic add. Dissolve.
—Dote, 6 to 40 minims.

Solution, BUatering. I^n. Liquob BPiSPiLB-
Tiorn (B. P.) ; LiiriMBKi op OANTHABisBg. Prep.
Powdered Spanish fly, 6 oz. ; acetic ether, a snf-
fidency. Percolate with the acetic ether nntil
20 oz. are obtained.

Solntlon, Brandiah's. See Solutiok op Potabu.

Solntion of Bromine. Sgit. Liquob bbohihii
{Ponrehe), Prep. Bromine, 1 part; distilled
water, 40 parts. — Don, 6 or 6 drops, three times
a day. A stronger solution (1 part to 10) is some-
times used externally.

Solution, Bumett's. A solntion of chloride of
zinc. See SoLunoK pob Avjitoiiioaii Pbbpaxa-
TiOHS {above), also DiBurpBomrs Cohpouitdb.

SolutioB of Camplior, Carbonated. 8yn. Solctio
CAKPHOBX OABBONIOA {Svoedimr), Prep. Water
saturated with carbonic acid gas, 2 lbs. ; powdered
camphor, 8 dr.

Solution of Camphor and Chlorofbim. Syn.

SOLITTIO OAKPHOBiB BT CHLOBOPOBKI {Metm

Smith), Prep. Camphor, 8 dr.; chloroform,
1 fl. dr. Dissolve. For exhibiting camphor with
yolk of egg in emulsions.

Solution of Carbollo Acid. (Fob thi toiurtb.)
Prtp. Crystallised carbolic add, 10 parts;
essence of millefleur, 1 part ; tincture of Q/niUaia
taponaria, 60 parts; water, 1000 parts. Mix.
The saponine replaces soap with advantage. The
above should be employed diluted with ten times
its bulk of water, for disinfecting the skin, for
washing the hands, after any risk of contagion,
inoculation, &e.

Solution of Carbon (Detergant). Sgn. Liqvob
CABBOHIB SBlBBQBirB. This name is applied to
an alcoholic solution of coal-tar. Properly diluted
it is used externally in skin diseases.

Solatioii of Carbonate of Kagnesinm. Ssfn.
LiqUOB XASBBBU OABBOVATIB (B. P.). Prep.
Dissolve separately, each in half a pint of distilled
water, sulphate of magnesium, 2 oz.; and car-
bonate of sodium, 2^ oz. Heat the solution of
sulphate of magnesium to the boiling-point, add
the solution of carbonate of soda, and boQ together
until carbonic add ceases to be evolved. Collect
the predpitated carbonate of magneuum, and
wash until what passes ceases to give a predpitate
with chloride of barium. Mix the predpitate
with a pint of distilled water, and in a smtable
apparatus, charge with pure washed carbonic
add gas. Betain excess of carbonic add under
pressure for twenl^-fonr hours. Filter to remove
uncUssolved. carbonate, and again pass carbonic

add into the solution. Keep in a bottle sacarely
dosed (this contains about 10 gr. of carbonate of
magnesrom iu each fluid ounce).

&ilutioii of Chloride of Antimony. %». Ami-
xoHii OELOBlsi UQVOB (B. P.). Prep. Dis-
solve black sulphide of antimony in boiling hydro-
chloric add. Used as an escharotic, and in the
preparation of oxide of antimony.

Solution of ChIo"ride of Ar'seBie. Sj/n. Liqvob

ABBBiriOI ETDBOOHLOBIOtrS (B. P.), lilQrOB
ABBBNIOI CHLOBISI (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L.) Arsenious acid (in coarse powder), i dr.;
hydrochloric acid, li fl. dr. ;, distilled water, 1
fl. oz. ; boil nntil the solntion of the arsenions add
is complete, and, when cold, add enough distilled
water to make the whole exactiy measure a pint. —
Dote, 4 to 6 drops.

2. (B. P.) Arsenious acid, 87 gr. ; hydro-
chloric acid, 2 dr. ; distilled water, 20 oz. ; boil
the two adds with 4 oz. of tbe water nntil a solu-
tion is effected, then add saiBdent distilled water
to make up 20 oz. — Dote, 2 to 8 minims.

Solution of Chloride of Ba"rinm. Syn. So-

IiUnOir OP MXTBIATB OP BABTTAf ; LIQT70B BABII

ORLOBisi (Ph. L. and D.), Solutio babtta
KUBIATIB (Ph. E.), L. Prtp. (Ph. h. and E.)
Dissolve chloride of bariam, 1 dr. (1 oz. — Ph.
D.), in water, 1 fl. os. <8 oz.— Ph. D.), and fllta
the solution. Sp. gr. (Ph. D.) 1-088.— Dom, 6
drops, gradually increased to 10 or 12, twice or
thrice ^uly ; in scrofula, scirrhous aflections, and
worms ; tttternallv, largely diluted, as a lotion in
scrofulous ophthalmia.
Solntion of Chloride of Cal'dum. %«. So-

LTTTIOM OF HDBIAIB OF LIMSf ; CAlCn CHLO-
BIOI LIQUOB (Ph. D.), CAXOIB KUBIATIB BOLVTIO

(Ph. E.). Pref. 1. (Ph. L. 1886.) Fused
chloride of calcium, 4 oz. (crystals, 8 oz. — Ph.
E.) ; water, 12 fl. oz. ; dissolve and filter.

2. (Ph. D.) Fused chloride of caldnm, 8 oz. t
water, 12 oz. Sp. gr. 1-226. — Dote, 10 drops to
1 dr., or mon; in scrofulous and glandular dis-
eases, to.

Solution of Chloride of Zino. Sg*. Liqvob
ZDioi OBLOBiDi (6. P.). Prep. Granulated
zinc, 8 parts; hydrochloric add, 22 parts; solu-
tion of chlorine, q. s. ; carbonate of zinc, i part ;
distilled water, 10 parts. Mix the add and water
in a porcelain dish, add the zinc, and ap{>ly a
gentie heat to promote the action nntil gas is no
longer evolved; boil for half an hour, supplying
the water lost by evaporation, and allow the pro-
duct to cool. Filter it into a bottle, and add
solution of chlorine by degrees, with frequent
citation ; now add the carbonate of zinc nntil a
brown sediment appears. Filter the liquid into a
porcelain basin, and evaporate until it is reduced
to the bulk of 20.

Solution of CliIo"rlnated Lima. Syn. Blbaoe-
urs uQuis, Solution op oblobisb op iaubX,

8. OP HTPOCHLOBITB OP LIMB ; SOLUTIO OALOIB
HTPOOBLOBIB, S. OALOIB CELOBIDI, CaLOIS

OELOBIHATA LiquoB (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. D.) Chlorinated lime (' chloride of lime '),
I lb. ; water, i gall. ; triturate them together,
then transfer the mixture to a stoppered bottle,
and shake it repeatedly for the space of 8 hours ;
lastly, fllter through calico, and preserve it in a
well-stoppered bottle.

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SOLUnOK

8. Cbloride of lime (dry and good, and nibbed
to fine powder), 9 lbs. ; tepid water, 6 galli. ; mix
in a stoneware bottle capable of holding 8 galls.,
-agitate frequently for a day or two, and after 2
or S days' repose decant the clear portion, and
keep it in well-corked bottles in a cool situation.
If filtered, it should be done as rapidly aa possi-
ble, and only through coarsely powdered glass in
a covered yeasel.

8. LiquoB CAtxns OEix>BnriiTJt (B. P.). Pnjp.
Blend well together, by trituration in a large
mortar, 1 lb. of chlorinated lime with 1 gall, of
water, transfer tha mixture to a stoppered bottle,
and shake it frequently for the space of 8 hours ;
pour it on a calico filter, and let the solution
which passes through be kept in a well-stoppered
bottle. Sp. gr. 1-085.

Obt. The last is the usual strength sold in
trade, under various attiaotive names, to give it
importance. It is used as a disinfectant, bleacher,
and fumigation; and, dilated with water, as a
lotion, injection, or ooUyrium, is several diseases.
See Htfoohiabitb ot Oalotux.

Solution of ChloriMted Um», Spiritaoaa. %•.
SoLUTio ajjoia ohiobisi bpibitttoba {Cknat-
l<ar),li. Prep. Chlorideof lime, 8 dr. ; distilled
water, 2 oz. ; rectified-apiiit, 2 oz. Mix and filter.

Bolntios of CUorlaated Potas'sa. Syn. Bo-

XUTIOH OV OEIOBIOB OV FOIASRt, S. OV HYPO-
CHXOBITB 0> POTAaSA, JaYBLLB'B BLBAOKnTS-
LIQTIII); SOLUTIO POTABBJC HTP00HL0BI8,
LiQUOB FOTASBJI OHLOBIDI, L. FOTASSiB CHXO-

BnrAT^ L. ; Eav SB Jatbub, Ft. Prep. 1.
Dissolve carbonate of potassa, 1 part, in water, 10
parts, and pass chlorine gas through the solution
to saturation.

2. CSiloride of lime (dry and good), 1 part;
water, 16 parts; agitate them together for an
hour ; next dissolve of carbonate of potassa, 2 oz.,
in water, i pint; mix the two solutions, and after
a time either decant or filter. — Vtet, See. As the
last.

Solution of Chlorinated Soda. By%. SOLU-

noir OP ORLOBtDB OP 80SAt, S. OP HTPOOHIiO-
BITB OP SODA, Lababbaqub'b DIBntPBOmrft
UQVID; SOEUTIO 80DJI HTPOOHIABIS, HTPO-
OHIOBIB BODIOTTB AQUA 80LUTV8 (P. Cod^,

LiQVOB BOSS OEioBiirATx (Ph. L. and D.), L.
Prn. 1. (Ph. L.) Carbonate of soda (in crys-
tals), 1 lb.} water, 1 quart; dissolve, and pass
through the solution the chlorine evolved from a
mixttire of common salt, 4 oz. ; binoxide of man-
guiese, 8 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 2| ft. oz. (4 oz. —
Ph. L. 1886) ; diluted with water, 8 fi. oz. ; placed
in a retort, heat being applied to promote the
action, and the gas being purified by passing
through 6 A. oz. of water before it enters the al-
kaline solution.

2. (Ph. D.) Chlorinated Ume, \ lb., and water,
3 pints, are triturated together in a marble mor-
tar, after which the mixture is transferred to a
stoppered bottle, agitated frequently during three
hours, and then filtered through calico; in the
mean time carbonate of soda (cryst.), 7 oz., is dis-
solved in water, 1 pint; the two solutions are
next ndxed, and, after agitation for about ten
minutes, the whole is filtered as before. The
filtrate is to be preserved in a well-ktoppered
bottle.

8. (B. P.) Chlorinatod lime, 16 oi.; carbo-
nate of sodium, 24 oz. ; water, 1 gall. Dissolve
the soda in 2 pints of the water, triturate the
lime salt with 6 pints of the water, and filter}
well mix the solution, again filter. Keep in a
stoppered bottle in a oool dark phtce. — J)ot», 10
to 20 minims.

Ok: This solution is xued as an antiseptic,
disinfectant, and bleaching liquid, also in scarlet
fever, sore throat, &c.; it is also made into a
lotion, gargle, injection, and eye-water. Meat in
a nearly putrid state, unfit for food, is imme-
diately restored l^ washing or immerrion in thif
liquid.

Solution of CIilo"rliie. By. CELOBnra watbb;

SOLTTTIO OHLOBIVII, LiQUOB CBIABIBI (Ph. L.

& D.), CHLOBnni aqua (Ph. B.), L. Prtp. 1.
(Ph. L.) On binoxide of manganoee (in powder),
2 dr., placed in a retort, i>our hydrochloric add,

1 fl. oz., and pass the chlorine in distilled water,
i pint, until it ceases to be evolved.

2. (Ph. E.) Muriate of soda (oommon salt),
60 gr. ; red oxide of lead, 860 gr. ; triturate them
together, and put them into B fi. oz. of distilled
water, contained in a stoppered bottle ; then add
of sulphuric acid, 8 fl. dr. ; and having replaced
the stopper, agitate the whole occasionally, until
the oxide of laid turns white ; lastly, after subsi-
dence, pour otF the clear liquid into another stop-
pered bottle.

8. (Ph.D.) Introduce into a gas bottle peroxide
of manganese (in fine powder), \ oz.; add of
hydrocUorie acid, 8 fi. os., (diluted with) water,

2 fi. oz.; apply a gentle heat, and cause the
evolved gas to pass through water, 2 fl. oz., and
then into a three-pint bottie eontabiing distilled
water, 20 fl. oz., and whose month is loosely

Slugged with tow ; when the air has been entirely
isplaced by the dilorine, cork the bottle loosdy,
and shake it until the chlorine is absorbed ; it
should now be transferred to a pint stopprnd
bottle, and preserved in a dark and cool place.

(B. P.) LiQUOB OHLOBI. Frtp. Put 1 oz. of
black oxide of manganese, in fine powder, into a
gas bottle, and having poured upon it 6 fl. oz. of
hydrochloric acid, diluted with 2 oz. of distilled
water, apply a gentle heat, and by suitable tubes
cause the gas, as it is developed, to pass through
2 oz. of distilled water placed in an intermediate
small phial, and thence to the bottom of a 3-pint
bottle containing 30 oz. of distilled water, the
mouth of which is loosely plugged with tow. As
soon as the chlorine ceases to be developed let the
bottle be disconnected from the apparatus in
which the gas has been generated, corked loosely,
and shaken until the chlorine is absorbed. Lastly,
introduce the solution into a green bottle fur-
nished with a well-fitting stopper, and keep it in
a cool and dark place. Sp. gr. 1'008. One fluid
ounce contains 2*66 grains of chlorine.

Prop . , l(e. Irritant and acrid, but, when largely
dilated, stimulant and antiseptic— JTom, ( to 2
fl. dr., in \ pint of water, sweetened with a little
sugar, in divided doeee during the day ; in scarla-
tina, malignant sore throat, &c. On the large
scale liquid chlorine may be procured by passing
the gas obtained by any of the methods named
under Chi«bikb into water, until it will absorb

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SOLUTION

1649

Solntioii of Chromie Add. %». LtQiroit aoidi
OHBOKioi, L. (B. P.) Chromic acid, 1 part;
water, 8 parte. Uaed locally as a caoBtic.

Solution of Citrate of AmmooiDm. Syn. Li-
QUOB AXMONii oixBATiB, L. (B. P.) Strong
■olution of citrate of ammoniam, 6 ox., distilled
water to make 20 oz. — Dote, 2 to 6 dr.

Solution of Citrate of Ammonivai (Strong).

Syn. LiQVOB AKXONII 0ITBATI8 70BTI0B.
Citric acid, 12 oz. ; strong solution, 11 ox., or a
■nfficiency; distilled water, a sufficiency. Neu-
tralise the acid with the ammonia, make up to a
pint with water. — Dote, i to 1^ dr. — Uttt. Same
as acetate of ammonium.

Solntion of Citrate of Biramth and Asunoniun.
(B. P.) Syn. LiqvoB BUunriHi bt ^Hicoini
OiiKATiB, LiqiTOB BiBKUTHl, L. Citrate of
Usmuth, 800 gr. ; solution of ammonia, distilled
water, of each, a sufBoiency. Rub the citrate of
bismuth to a paste with a little water, gradually
stir in ammonia until the bismuth salt dissolves.
Dilute with distilled water to make 1 pint. — Dote,
itol dr.

Solution of Citrate of Kagne'sinm. Sgn. So-

LUTIO KAaSBSU OITBATIB. See MAaKIBrUH,

CiTBATi or.

(B. P.) Carbonate of magnesia, 100 gr.;
citric acid, 200 gr, ; syrup of lemons, i fl. oz. ;
bicarbonate of potassium in crystals, 40 gr.;
water, q. s. Dissolve the citric acid in 2 oz. of
the water, and having added the carbonate of
magnesium, stir until it is dissolved. Filter the
solntion into a strong half -pint bottle, add the
syrup and water sufficient to nearly fill the bottle,
tlkon introduce the bicarbonate of potassium, and
immediately close the bottle with a cork, which
should be secured with string or wire ; afterwards
shake till the bicarbonate has dissolved. — Dote,
6 to 10 fl. oz.

Solntion of Citrate of Morphia. Syn. Liquob

MOBFEIB OrCBATIB, SOXTTTIO X. O,, L. Prep.

(ItttgemUe.) Pure morphia, 13 gr. ; citric acid,
SorlOgr.; water, 1 fl. oz. ; tincture of cochineal,
2 fl. dr. — Dot*, 8 to 12 drops.

Solntion of Coal-tax. (B. F.C.) Sy». Liqttob
Piois (UBBOKIS. Quillaia bark, in No. 20 powder,
2 oz. ; rectified spirit, a sufficient qnantity.
Moisten the powder with a suitable quantity of
the menstruum and macerate for twenty-four
hours in a closed vessel. Then pack in a percolator,
and gradually pour rectified spirit upon it untU
one pint of percolate is obtained. To this add
prepared coal-tar, 4 oz. ; digest at a temperature
of 120° F. for two days, allow to become cold, and
decant or filter.

The product is an imitation of liqttob cab-

BOKIB DBTBBSBNB.

Uiei. 1 oz. to a pint of water, or a pound of
lard, yields a lotion or ointment useful as an anti-
septic and stimulant in a variety of skin diseases.
A soap is made from it which is an excellent
cleanser.

Solntion of Copal'ba. See SoLimoK, SpBomo.

Solntion of Corro'sive Sublimate. Syit. Socv-

KIOK 0> OKLOBIDB Ot HEBOVBT ; LiQUOB
HYDBABaTBI BIOHLOBIDlf (Ph. L.), L. Ptep. 1.

(Ph. L.) Corrosive sublimate and sal-ammoniac,
of eacl^ 10 gr. ; water, 1 pint ; dissolve. — Dote.
As an alteawve, 10 to 80 drops; as aa antisy-

philitio, i to 2 fl. dr., in simple or sweetened water.
It must not be allowed to touch anyUiing metallic.
It also forms a most useful lotion in various skin
diseases.

2. See LoiioH, Mbbottbiaz.

Solntion of Cyanide of Fotaaslnm. Sgn. Li-
quob POTASBI OTAXIDI (Laminff). Prep. Cya-
nide of potassinnn, 22 gr. ; proof spirit, 9 fl. dr.
This is the strength of his hydrocyanic acid,
which contains 1 gr. of real acid in 1 fl. dr.
Magendie's medicinal hydrocyanate of potash
consiste of cyanide of potassium dissolved in 8
times its weight of distilled water.

Solntion of Selphlnia. Syn, SoLVHO dbl-
tnisis {Dr TiimbuU). Delphinia, 1 scruple;
rectified spirit, 2 oz. For outward use.

Solntion of Dlao'etate of Load. See SOLunov

0> SVAiOBTAIB OV LbAS.

Solution of Btalysed Iron. (B.P.) Syn, Liqvob
VBBBI DiALTBATUB, L. Strong solution of per>
chloride of iron, 7 oz.; solution of ammonia and
water, of each, a sufficiency. Mix 6 oz. of the iron
with 2 pints of water, add ammonia, with constant
stirring, until the product has a i^tinct ammo-
niacal odour. Filter, wash and press the precipi-
tate, add it to the remaining iron, dissolve with a
gentle heat ; filter, and place the fluid in a covered
dialyser and float it on water, which is constantly
running, until it is almost tasteless. Make it to
measure 28 oz. — Dote, 10 to 80 minims.

Solution, Donovan's. See Soltttioh ot Ht-
SBioDATB ov Abbbiqc aitd Mxbouby (btlom).

Solution, EaohaxotiO(n:6ytnirg's). i8^. Soi,ir-
Tio BBOHABonoA, L. Prep. From camphor,
SO gr. ; corrosive sublimate, 60 to 100 gr. j recti>
fled spirit, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve. In syphUitic vege-
tations, and especially condylomes. It is spread
over the diseased surface, either at once or after
the application of a ligature.

Sdntion of Sthylate of Sodium. (B. P.) Syn.
LiQUOB BOSH SXHTLATIB. Sodium, 22 gr.;
ethylic alcohol, 1 oz. Dissolve the sodium in the
alcohol kept cool in a stream of cold water. It
should be f^hly made, as it darkens by keeping.

Solution of nints. Syn. LiQUOB of slmts ;

LlQUAMBR SIUOVM, LiQVOB P0TA8&B 8ILI0ATI8,

L. Prep. 1. Soluble glass dissolved in water.

2. (Sate.) Powde)red quartz, 1 part; dry
carbonate of potash, 2 parts (3 parts — Turner);
triturate them together, fuse the mixture in a
Hessian crucible, and allow the resulting glass to
deliquesce by exposure in a damp situation. — i>oj«,
6 or 6 to 80 drops ; in gouty concreticms, stone,
&c. " It resolves the stone, and opens obstruC"
tions." See Solubui Qlabb.

Solution, Qannal's. f ^ Solution TObAka-

OAl-il^^ S^^^Jl T TOMIOAL PbBPABA-

Solution, Qoadsby's. | uokb.

Solution, Goulard's. See Solution ov Sub-

AOBTATI 07 LBAO.

Solution of OnttaPordia. (B.P.) S^n. Liquob
aUTTA PBBOHA. Chitta percha, 1 part; chloro-
form, 8 ports; carbonate of lead, 1 part; mix
and dissolve ; set aside for a few days, and decant
the clear fluid.

Solntion, Hahneauum's Frophylao'tie. Syn.
Liquob siLLAsoinrjB, Soluho fbophxIiAOtioa,
L. Prep. From extract of bdladonna (alcoholic),
8 gr. ; distilled water, 6 fl. dr. ; rectified spirit, 2

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1650

SOLUTION

11. dr. s dissolve.' Used against scarlet fever. — I
Dote, 2 or 3 drops for a child under 12 months,
and an additional drop for every year above that
age to matarity.

Solution of Haitshom, Sncdnated. Syn. Li-

QT70B OOSNU OIRTI SUOOlSklVB (P. Ciod.).

Nentralise trne spirits of hartshorn (or a solution
of 1 oz. of salt of hartshorn in 1 oz. of water)
with acid of amber.

Solution of Hydri'odate of Ar'senic and Xer'-
enry. Sgn, Donovas's bolutioii; Soxvtio

UBBBKIOI BT RTSBABeTBI lODIDI, ABSBHICI BT
BSSBABaTBI HTDBI0SATI8 LIQITOB (Ph. D.), L.

iVsp. 1. {Donovan.) Tritorate metallic arsenic,
6*06 gTv mercnry, 16*38 gr., and iodine, 60 gr.,
with alcohol, 1 fl. dr., nntil dry; to this add,
gradually, of distilled water, 8 fl. oz., and again
well triturate ; next put the whole into a flask,
add of hydriooUo acid, | fl. dr., and boil for a few
minutes ; lastly, when cold, add distilled water,
q. s. to make the whole measnre exactly 8 fl. oz.

2. (Ph. D.) Pare arsenic (in fine powder),
6 gr. ; pure mercury, 16 gr. ; pore io^ne, 601
gr. s alcohol, i fl. dr. ; trituate as before ; add,
gradually, of water, 8 fl. oc., heat the mixture
until it begins to boil, and afterwards make up
the oold and filtered solntion to exactly 8 fl. oz.
6fl. dr.

3. (Wholesale.) From metallic arsenic, 61 gr.;
iodine, 600 gr.; mercnry, 164 gr.; rectified spirit,
li fl. oz. ; distilled water, 2 quarts ; hydriodic
acid, 6 fl. dr. ; as No. 1, the product being made
up with distilled water so as to measure exactly
4 pints, or 80 fl. oc., or to weigh 6 lbs. 1^ oz.
(av.), when oold.

4. (B. P.) Iodide of arsenicum, 46 gr.; red
iodide of mercnry, 46 gr. ; dissolve in distilled
water enough to make 10 oz.

Obt. Qreat care must be taken that the whole
of the arsenic be dissolved, which can only be
effected by the most careful trituration. Soubmran
recommends the employment of 1 part, each, of
the respective iodides, with 98 parts of water,
as furnishing a simpler and equally effective pro-
duct, proportions which are almost exactly those
employed by Mr Donovan. — Dote, 10 to SO drops,
twice or thrice a day, preferably soon after a meal ;
in lepra, psoriasis, lupus, and several other scaly
skin diseases. It is a most valuable medicine in
these affections.

Solntion of EydrocUorato of Cocaine. (B. P.)

Sf». LiQUOB OOOAUrX STSBOOEIiOBATIBiL. Hy-

drochlorate of cocaine, 8Sgr.; salicylic acid, igr.;
distilled water, to produce 6 dr.; dissolve.

Solntion of Hydi«oUo"i*te of Kor'phlne. Bjfn.
SOLvnov or uvriaub at kobphia; Liqvob

MOBPHLS BTSB00HL0BATI8 (Ph. L.), BOLITTIO
KOBFHLS XVBIATU (Ph. K.\ HOBPHIB IIV-
BIATIB LIQDOB (Ph. D.), L. Asp. 1. (Ph. L.)

Hydrochlorate of morphia, 4 dr. ; proof spirit, i
pint ; distilled water, 1 pint ; dissolve by the aid
of a gentle heat. 60 drops (minims) of this
solution contain 1 g^r. of hydrochlorateof morphia.
— Dote, 6 to 16 or 20 drops.

2. (Ph. E. & O.) Muriate of morphia, 90 gr. ;
rectified spirit, 6 fl. oz. ; distilled water, 16 fl. oz.
l07 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of the hydro-
chlorate. — Dote, 10 to 80 or 40 drops, or nearly as
laudanum.

8. (Apothecaries' Hall.) Muriate of vaorphiaL,
18 gr.; rectifled spirit, 1 fl. dr.; water, 1 fl. en.;
80 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. — Dote, 3 to 10
drops. See Solution o> Acbtatb or Mok-
phia, &C.

4. (B. P.) Hydrochlorate of morphine, 9 gr. ;
dilute hydrochloric acid, 1 8 minims; rectifled apiri^
i oz. ; distilled water, li oi.; mix and diaaolve.
— Dote, 10 to 60 minims.

Solntion of Hydrochlorate of Stryelmlne. (B.P.)

Sgn. LiQUOB STBTOHVIS BTI>BOOHIiOXA.TI8,

LiQUOB aTKXCBSlB. Strychnine, 9 g^.; dilute
hydrochloric add, 14 minims ; rectified apxrit,
i oz, ; distilled water, li oz. Mix the stryclmine,
acid, and water, dissolve by aid of heat, then add
the spirit. — Dote, 6 to 10 minims.

Solntion of Eypoclilo"rite of Lim*. Solntion of
chlorinated lime.

Solntion of Eypophosphitas (Componnd}.

(B. P. C.) Sfn, LiQTTOB PBBBI ETPOFHOS-

PHITI8 OOKPOSITUB. Hvpophosphite of caldnm,
820 gr. ; hyposulphate of sodium, 820 gr.; hypo-
sulphate of magnesium, 160 gr. ; strong solatioa
of hy pophosphite of iron, 6 fl. oz.; hypophospharana
add, 80% , i fl. oz, ; distilled water, a sufficient
quantity. Dissolve the hypophosphites of calelnm,
sodium, and magnesium in 12 fl. oz. of distilled
water ; add the solution of hypophosphite of iron
and the hypophosphorous add. Filter, and make
up to 1 pint by tke addition of distiUed water.
Each fl. dr. contains about 2 gr. each of hypo-
phosphite of sodium and caldnm, 1 gr. of hypo-
phosphite of magnesium, and 1) gr. of hypqphoa-
phite of iron. — Dote, i to 2 fl. dr.

Solution of rodld««fAz'senic. %m. laisaom
ABSBinci PBBIODIDI, L. iVsp. ( Woetenevder.)
Each dr. contains i gr. of teriodide of arsenic^
equivalent to ^ gr, of metallic arsenic and ^ gr.
(nearly) of iodine.

Solution of Iodide of Iron. 8yn. IiI()t;ob bbbbi
lOSlBl (Ph, U. S.). Prep. Mix 2 oz, (troy) of
iodine with 6 oz. of water, and add 1 oz. (troy) at
iron filings, stir frequently, and heat the mixture
gently till it assumes a greenish colour ; then filter
into a glass bottle containing 13 oz. of powdored
sugar, and after it has passed, pour distilled water
on the filter until the filtered liqnor, including
the sugar, measures 20 oi., last shake the bottie
till the sugar is dissolved.— -Dos*, 16 minims to
Idr.

Solntiim of Iodide of Mer'ciiiy and Potaa'atoH.

Sy». LlQtrOB lOOOHYDBABaTBATn VOfTUm

lODisi, L. Frep. (Dr CAamniy.) Iodide of
potassium, 8i gr.; binoxide of mercniy, 4i gr, ;
cUstiUed water, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve. — Doie, 2 to 6
or 6 drops, three times a day, much dihited; in
dyspepsia, indurations, enlargement ol the spleen,
dropsy, &c.
Solution of Iodide of Potas'aiain (CompoBad).

8g», lODtrBBTTBD WATBB, COKPOVHS MLVTIOV
OF lODnrB; LiQDOB POIABBII lODIBI OOMPOSI-
IDS (Ph. L. &. D.), LiQUOB lODIVBI OOXPOBITUS-

(Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L, & D,) Iodide of
potassium, 10 gr. ; iodine, 6 gr. ; water, 1 pint ;
dissolve. — Dote, 1 to 6 dr. ; in the tuaal cases
where iodine is employed.

2. (Ph. E.) Iodide of potaasium, 1 oz. ; iodine.
2 dr. ; water, 16 fl. oz. Thu is 80 timesasstrong
as the preceding. — Dote, 6 to 20 drop*.

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SOLUTION

1651

Solntloasof IfkUiis. £K^. Liqvob losi (B. P.).
j^wp. Dissolve 22 gr. of iodine and 33 gr. of
iodide of potaaaiam in 1 oz. of diatilled water.
(iMjfol't,) 8^. SoLuiiovBs lODurn vkl
lODUBBTiB. Aep. lodaretted waters, Nos. 1, 2,
and 3; iodine, l| gr., 2 gr., and 21 gr. ; water, 1
pint. Drop: — lo&ne, 1 scruple; iodide of potaa-
■iom, 2 scruplee; water, 9 dr. Zotioiu, ifo. —
Iodine, 11 gr. to 8 gr.; iodide of potassium, 8 gr.
to 6 gr. ; water, 1 pint. Sxibtfaeimii. — iodine, 1
part; iodide <tf potassium, 2 parts; water, 12
parts. Caii«<«>.^Iodine, 1 part ; iodide of potas-
sium, 1 part; water, 2 parts.

Solution of lodina with Hemlock. 8y». Solutio

lODIHII OVK OOHIO ; Db SOTTDAXOBB'S SOLTTTIOK.

(For inhaling.) Iodine, 6 gr. ; iodide of potassium,
6 gr. ; rectified spirit, 2 dr. ; water, 5 oz. 6 dr.
From 1 dr. to 5 dr. of this solution with \ dr. of
tincture of hemlock to be added to warm water at
120° F. in a glass inhaler, and used twice a day.
Two thirds of the ingredients are first put into the
inhaler, and the rest added when half the time for
inhaling has elapsed.

Solntian of Vvsa. (Alkaline). Sy». lilQVOB
BKBBi ALKALiHi. L. Frtp. (Ph. L. 1824.) Iron
filings, 21 dr.; nitric acid, 2 fl. oz.; water, 6
fl. oz.; dissolye, decant, gradually add of solution
of carbonate of potash, 6 fl. oz., and in 6 hours
decant the clear portion. This was intended as an
imitation of Stahl's Tinctnra Marias Alkalina. It
is tonic, emmenagogne, &c — Dott, 20 to 60 drops.

Solution of Iron and Alum. Syn. Solutio
IBBBI ALVMiiroaA, L. (Swaduwr.) Prep. Calcined
sulphate of iron, 10 scruples ; i\\aa, 6 scruples ;
water, sofflcient to dissolve them ; sulphuric acid,
16 drops. — DoM, 10 to 16 drops. Once a celebrated
nostrum in Qermany, under the name of Tiitetwra
uenota.

Solution, Jarelle's. See Solvhoh ov Chlo-
BiHAiKD Potash.

Sdntion, Labarraqne's. See SoLmov ov Chlo-
BiHATSs Soda.

Solution of Lime. 8f». Liiu watbb; Solutio

OAMIB HX9BATIS, LlQTTOB CAUIB (Ph. L. & D.),

Aqva oaloib (Ph. £.), L. Rvp. (Ph. L.)
Upon the lime> 1 lb., first slaked (by sprinkling
it) with a little of the water, pour the remainder (n
water, 12 pints, and shake them well together
(for 6 minutes — Ph. DO ; immediately cover the
Teasel, and set it aside for 8 hours ; then keep the
aolntton with the remaining lime (equally divided)
.in stoppered glass vessels, and, when it is to be
used, decant the required portion from the clear
solution (replacing it with moA water, and agi-
tating briskly, as before— Ph. E.).

LiQUOB CAX0I8 (B. P.). 8yn. Laa watbb.
Prep. Wash 2 oz. of slaked lime with water to
free it from chlorides, put it into a stoppered
bptUe containing 1 gall, of distilled water, and
shake well for 2 or 8 minutes. After 12 hours
the excess of lime will have subsided, and the clear
solution may be drawn oft with a syphon as it is
required for nse, or transferred to a green glass
bottle funushed with a well-ground stopper.

Ott. Cold water dissolves more lime than hot
water. 1 pint of water at 82° F. dissolves 181
gr., at 60^ it diaaolTea 111 gT-> Imt •<! 218° only

Utti, efe. Li]

Lime water is antacid, aatringenti

antiUthic tonic, and vermifuge.— i)0M. A wine-
glassful, or more, 2 or 8 times a day, in milk or
broth; in dyspepsia, diarrhoea, calculous affec-
tions, &c. ; and, externally, as a detersive and
discutlent lotion.

Solution of Lime (Saceharated). (B. P.) Syn.

LiQUOB OALOIB BAOOEABATUB. Prep. Slaked
lime, 1 part; refined sugar (in powder), 2 parts;
distilled water, 20 parts ; digest for some hours
and strain. — lioee, 15 to 16 minims in milk.
Solution of litUa, Efferreteing. Slyn. Liqvob

LTTHla BnBBTE8CBN8 (B. P.). Prep. Mix
10 gr. of carbonate of lithia and 1 pint of water
in a suitable apparatus, and charge with carbonic
acid gas under a pressure of 7 atmospheres. Keep
in bottles securely corked.

Solution, Kackenzie's. Prep. From nitrate of
silver, 20 gr., dissolved in distilled water, 1 fl. oz.
Used to wash the throat and fences, and to sponge
the trachea, in afFectiona of those parts.

Solution of Magne'sla. 8yn. Akbatid mao-

HB8IA watbb, CaBBONAIBD K. W., FlUID XAd-
ITBBIA, CoHDBSBBD BOLUTIOH OF X., CoirOBN-
TRATSD B. OV X. ; LiQUOB ICA&BB8I£ 0ABBONATI8,

Aqua X. O., L. ; Eau XAsnisiBirNE, Fr. Prep.
(IXiaeford't.) Water and Howard's heavy car-
bonate of magnesia, in the proportion of 171 gr.
of the latter to every fl. ox. of the former, are
introduced into a cylindrical tinned copper vessel,
and carbonic acid, generated by the action of
sulphuric acid on whiting, is forced into it by
steam power for 61 hours, during the whole of
which time the cylinder is kept in motion. Sir
J. Murray'a is similar. The Paris Codex orders
recently precipitated carbonate of magnesia to
be used while still moist. Antacid and laxative.
See Fluid Mashhia.

Solution, Kin'eral. See SoLimOH op Abbikitb

09 POTABBA.

Solution of Kor'phlne. See Solutiokb ov Aoi-
TATB, Htdboohlobati, and Sulphatb.

Solution of Myrrh, Alkaline. S^n. SoLuno
XYSBKX ALXALiirA (Swediour). Prep. Car-
bonate of soda, 1 dr. ; myrrh, 2 oz. ; boiling water,
8 oz. Digest in a water-bath for 2 days, fre-
quently sturing, and strain.

Solution of Hltrate of Kereniy (Acid). Syn,

LiQUOB KTDBABSTBI laTBATIS A0IDU8 (B. P.).

Prep. Mercury, 4 parts; nitric acid, 6 parts;
distilled water, 11 parts ; mix the nitrie acid with
tlie water in a flaak, and dissolve the mercury in
the mixture without the application of heat. Boil
gently for 16 minutes, cool, and preserve the
solution in a stoppered bottle. Used alone, as a
oaostic; 1 'to 2 minims to 1 oi. of water as a
gargle; and 1 minim to 2 oz. of water as an in-
jection in gonorrhoea.

Solution of Nitrate of Mercury and Ammonia.

Syn. SOLUnO HTDBABSyBI BT AKXOSIS NI-

tbatib ; Wabd'b WHITS DBOP. Prep. Nitrate
of ammonia and mercury in crystals, 1 part ; rose
water, 8 parts; digest till dissolved.
Solntion of Kltrate of Sil'ver. Sgn. Liquob

ABaBVTI HITBATI8 (Ph. L.), SOLUTIO A. IT. (Ph.

£.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Nitrate of silver
(ctyst.), 1 dr. (40 gr.— Ph. E.); distilled water, 1
fl. OS. (1600 gr.— Ph. E.) ; dissolve. Used as an
eicharotie, so. It should be kept from, the light.
See Lonov, Nitbatb ov Suybb, &c.

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1(62

SOLUTION

Solntloii of O'piun (S«d'atiTe). See Liqvob.

Solation of Peichloride of Iron. Sga. LiQVOS
PISBI FEBCHLOXisi (B. P.). Frep. Stronger
(elation of perchloride of iron (see beloie), 1 part ;
distilled water, 3 parts. — Dote, 10 to SO minima.

Bolntloii of Ferclilorida of Iros (Stronger).

8g», LiQVOB VEKBI FBBCHLOBIDI VOBTIOB (B.

P.). Prep. Iron wire, 4 oz. ; hydrochloric acid,
20i oz. ; nitric acid, H oz. ; water, a sufficiency.
Place the wire in a flask, add 121 parts of hydro-
chloric acid and 7 parts of water, heat gently
until effervescence ceases ; filter from undissolved
iron ; add to the filtrate 7 oz. hydrochloric acid ;
mix, and poor the solution in a slow stream into
li oz. nitric acid, heating to assist the evo-
Intion of red fumes. Evaporate until a precipi-
tate begins to form, then add 1 oz. of hydrochloric
acid, and water to produce 17i oz. Used u an
appUcation to diphtheritic patches, for injecting
ntevi, as a powerful styptic, and in the prepara-
tion of SOLUIIOM OF PBBCEIABtDB 0> IBON

(see above).
Solution of Perchloride of Karonty. ^i». Li>

QUOB HTBBABaTBI PBBOHLOBISI (B. P.). Prq».

Corrosive sablimate, 10 gr. ; chloride of ammo-
nium, 10 gr. ; distilled water, 20 oz.; diaiolve. —
Dote, 80 to 120 minims.
Solution of PareUoride of Xerenry (Componjid).

Sj/n. LIQT70B HTSBABaTBI, PXBOHLOBISI OOX-
POSITUB, L.J LlQUOB XBBCUBIBIJ.8 BOBXAI.B

(3rialhe),¥r. Prep. Distilled water, 16 oz. ; chlo-
ride of sodium, 16 gr. ; chloride of ammonium, 16
gr. ; white of 1 egg ; perchloride of mercury, 4 gr.
Beat the white of egg with the water, filter, (Us>
solve the salts in the liquid, and filter again.
Solntlos of Permanganate of Potasiinm. 8g».

LlQUOB FOTABSn FKBlCABaAMATIB (B. P.), L.

Prep. Permanganate of potassium, 88 gr, ; dis-
tilled water, 1 pint; dissolve. Diluted with 40
' parts of water, it is used as a gargle or as a
cleansing wash for diseased surface. — Dote, 2 to
4 dr.

Solution of Peml'trate of Iron. (B. P.) Sj/n.

SOLUTIOB OF FBBSBaQUIKITBATB OF IBOB ; FbBBI
FBBNIIBAS LIQUOB (Ph. D.), SOLVTIO PIBBBS-

QT7INITBA8 FBBBI (Kerr), L. Prep. (Ph. D.)
Take of pure nitric acid, 41 fl. oz. ; water, 16 fl.
oz. i mix, add fine iron wire, 1 oz. ; dissolve, and to
the clear solation add as much water aa will make
the whole measure 11 pints. Sp. gr. 1-107. —
JDo<«, 6 or 6 to 30 drops, or more ; in passive hs-
morrhages, mucous discharges, cluromc diarrhoaa
with prostration, &c.

SolntioB of Pmnilphate of Iron. Sg». Liquob
FKBBI FBBSUlf HATI8 (B. P.). Prep. Sulphate
of iron, 8 parts; sulphuric acid, t partj mtric
acid, } part ; distilled water, 12 parts. Add the
sulphuric acid to 10 parts of the water, and dis-
solve the sulphate of iron in the mixture with the
aid of heat. Mix the nitric acid with the re-
maining 2 parts of the water, and add the dilate
acid to the solution of sulphate of iron. Con-
centrate the whole by boiling until, by the sudden
ev<dation of ruddy vapours, tiie liquid ceases to be
black, and acquires a red colour. A drop of the
solution is now to be tested with ferricyanide of
potassiam, and if a blue precipitate be formed, a
lew additional drops of mtric acid should be
added, and the boiling renewed* in order that th«

I whole may be converted into persulphate of iron.
I When the solution is cold, make up the quantity
to 11 parts by the addition, if necessary, of dis-
tilled water. Used in making several prepara-
tions of iron ; it is also a good styptic.

Solation of Phosphoric Ether. Sy». Solutio
PHOgPHOBl jBTEBBBA, L. Prep. Sliced phoa-
phorus, 6 gr. ; rectified ether, 1 oz.; mix, set the
bottle in a dark place for S or 4 days, shaking
occasionally, and decant.

Solution for Plate. Sgn. Fllib uqitob;
SoLCTio FBO ABOSBio, L. Prsp. From alum,
cream of tartar, and common salt, of each, 1 oz. ;
water, 1 gall. ; dissolve. Used to increase the
lustre and whiteness of silver plate, the articlea
being boiled in it.

Solution of Potas'sa. ^a. Solution of

HTDBATB OF FOTABSA, LiQUOB OF POTASU,

Potash watbb. Caustic f. w. ; Liquob POiAsaa
(B. P., Ph. L.), Aqua fotassx (Ph. E.) ; Potamx
CAUSTiof UQUOB (Ph. D.), Aqua xau FUBif,

LlXrVIUJC aAFOBABVKt,AQUA BALI CAU8TI0UKt>

Lixinuv cAUBTiouKt, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.j
Lime (recently burnt), 8 oz. ; boiling distilled
water, 1 gall. ; sprinkle a litUe of the water on
the lime in an earthen vessel, and, when it ia
slaked and fallen to powder, add of carbonate of
potassa, 16 oz., dissolved in the remainder of the
water; bung down and shake freqnenUy, until
the mixture is cold, then allow the whole to
settie, and decant the dear supernatant portion
into perfectiy clean and well-stoppered green
glass botties. Sp. gr. 1-063. It contains 6-7%
of pure potassa.

2. (Ph. E.) Carbonate of potassa (dry), 4 oz. ;
quicklime, 2 oz.; water, 46 fl. oz.; boiling briskly
tor a few minutes after each addition of the milk
of lime ; to yield at least 35 fl.oz. by decantation,
after 24 hours' repose in a deep, narrow glass
vessel. Sp. gr. 1-072.

8. (Ph. D.) Pore carbonate of potassa, 1 Ih.;
distilled water, 1 gall.; dissolve, heat the solu-
tion to the boiling-point in a clean iron vessel,
gradually add to it of fresh qoicklime, 10 os.,
previously slaked with water, 7 fl. oz. ; and con-
tinue the ebullition for 10 minutes, with constant
stirring ; next allow it to cool out of contact with
the air, and, when perfectiy clear, decant it by
means of a syphon, and botUe it as before. Sp.
gr. 1-068.

4. (B. P.) Carbonate of potash, 2 parts;
slaked lime, 1| parts; distilled water, 20 parts;
dissolve the carbonate of potash in the water,
and having heated the solution to the boiling-
point in a clean iron vessel, gradually mix the
washed slaked lime, and continue the ebnlliuon
for 10 minutes with constant stirring ; decant Uie
dear liquid. — Vote, 15 to 60 mimms 8 times a
day in beer, milk, or Uittura Amygdala.

5. (nr<;A2er.) Nitrate of poUssa, 1 part, is
mixed in alternate layers with clippings of sheet
copper, 2 or 3 ports, and then heat«i to moderate
redness for about 1 an hour in a copper or iron
crucible; when cold the potassa is washed out
with distilled water, and the solution, after repose
in a dosed vessel, decanted as before. Not a
trace of copper can be detected in the liquid. The
clippings may be again used if mixed withalittk
frM) metallic copper.

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1S6S

6. (Wholetale.) From carbonate of potaah
(kali), 1 lb., and quicklime, i lb., to each gall, of
water.

7. (Bbassibk'b aikalhtb Boxtrxioir; Liqitob
POTABSJB Bbahdibhii.) From American pearl-
aihes, 6 lbs. ; qnicklime and wood ashes (from the
ash), of each, 2 lbs. ; boiling* water, 6 galls, (old
meas.); to each gall, of the clear product is added
12 or 16 drops of oil of jimiper. lliia ' solution ' is
much asked for in trade. Ordinary liqnor of
potassa is generally sold for it.

Air. "Nothing, or scarcely anything, is
fhiown down from this solution on the addi-
tion of lime water; and when it has been first
saturated by nitric acid no precipitate falls on
the addition of carbonate of soda, chloride of
barium, or nitrate of sUver. What is thrown
down by bichloride of platinum is yellowish"
(Ph^L.f.

Vtet, l(e. Liquor of potassa is antacid, diu-
retic, resolvent, and lithontriptic. — Don, 10 to 30
or 40 drops, in any bland diluent (not acidulous) ;
in heartburn, gout, calculi, indurations, scrofuia,
lepra, psoriasis, &c.

Oh». Quicklime fails to abstract the carbonic
acid from the alkaline carbonates in solutions much
stronger than those above referred to. Weaker
solutions may, however, be easily concentrated by
evaporation in iron vessels. See Potabsittk,
Hyssaik of, and baton.

Solotion of Fotas'sa (Elfervesclng). %•. Li-

QVOB T01i.aajE BTFIBVBSOBNg (B. P.); EF7BS-
TSSOnra potash WATBB, SlTFIXCABBOlrATB OP

POTASSA w. ; Aqua potassx xpvebtxsosnb (Fh.
E.), A. p. bupebcabboitatib, L. iV«p. 1. (Ph. L.
ft S.) Bicarbonate of potash, 1 dr.; distilled
water, 1 pint; dissolve, force in carbonic add
gas in excess, and keep it in a well-stoppered
bottle. Beaembles soda water, but sits better on
the stomach. It is almost specific in the early
stages of scurvy.

2. (B. P.) Dissolve 30 gr. of bicarbonate of pot-
ash in 1 pint of distilled water, filter, pass in
washed carbonic acid (obtained by the action of
sulphuric acid on ch^) up to a pressure of 4
atmospheres. Keep in bottles closely secured.

Oit. An excellent substitute for this prepara-
tion is to pour a bottle of soda water into a
tumbler containing 20 gr. of powdered bicarbonate
of potash, and to drink it immediately.

Solution of Potas'sio-tar'trate of An'timony.
j^y*. SOLUnO AKTEHOiril potabbio-tabtbatib,
AltTLKONII lABIABlZATl LltJUOB (Ph. D.), L.

iVqp. (Fh. v.) Tartarised antimony, 1 dr.;
rectified spirit, 7 fl. oz. ; distilled water, 1 pint;
dissolve. Strength, doses, and uses similar to
those of antimonlal wine (which tee), than which
it keeps better.

Solution, ProphyUc'tic. See EAEHXHAinr's
SoLonov.

Solution of Protonitrate of Kercniy. Sj/n.

LiQUOB HTDBASaXBI mTBICI (PBOTOHITBATIS)

(G..Ph.). Frep. Protonitrate of mercury, 1 oz. ;
distilled water, 9 oz. ; nitric add (1'186), 46
gr.} filter.— Z>Ofe, 1 to 5 drops.

Solation of SU'icate of Fotas'sa. See SoLvncnr
at Flints.

Solution of So'da. %«. Solution op etdbatb
OP bosa, Liquob op soda. Caustic soda watbb ;

VOL. II.

LiQUOB boss (B. p.. Ph. L.}, SODiE CAUSTIOa

LlQUOB (Ph. D.), L. Prtp. 1. (Ph. L.) Car-
bonste of soda (cryst.), 82 os. ; lime, 9 oz.; boil-
ing distilled water, 1 gall. ; proceed as for solution
of potassa. " In 100 gr. is contained 1 gr. of
(pure) soda" (Ph. L.). Sp. gr. 1 061.

2. (Ph. D.) Carbonate of soda (cryst.), 2 lbs.;
fresh-burned lime, 10 oz. ; water, 1 gall. 7 fl. oz. ;
as liquor of potassa. Sp. gr. 1-066.

8. (B. P.) Carbonate of soda, 7 parts; slaked
lime, 3 parts ; distilled water, 40 parts ; dissolve
the carbonate in the water, boil in a clean iron
vessel, gradually mixing the washed lime, and
stirring constantly for ten minutes ; decant into
a green glass bottle with air-tight stopper. Sp.
gr. 1-04,7.— Dote, i to 1 dr.

Solution of Soda (Efferveicliig). Syn. Soda

WATIB; LiQUOB aOlDM BPrBBTEBCBKB, AqUA

8. B. (Ph. £.), A. s. bupbbcabbonaub. Sods

OABBONAHS AQUA AOIDVLA, L. iVtp. (Ph. E.)

Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.; distilled water, 1 pint;
dissolve, and force carbonic acid gas into the
solution under pressure. Used as an antacid and
grateful stimulant, often proving gently laxative.
The soda water of the shops cannot be substituted
for this preparation, as, in opposition to its name,
it is usually made without soda. (B. P.) Half
the strength.

Solution, Sol'dering. Prep. Dissolve zinc in
hydrochloric acid nearly to saturation, add l-6th
part of powdered sal-ammoniac, and simmer for
five minutes. Used to make solder flow easily
and take well ; applied- with a feather. See SbL-
DBBnro.

Solution, Speol'flc (Frank's). Sgn. Spbcipio

SOLUTIOir op copaiba ; LlQUOB OOPAIBiB ALKA-

LUTA, L. Pnp. Take of balsam of copaiba, 2
parts ; liquor of potassa (Ph. L.), 3 parts ; water,
7 parts; boil the mixture for 2 or 3 minutes,
put it into a separator, and allow it to stand for .
6 or 6 days ; then draw it off from the bottom,
avoiding the upper stratum of oil, and to the
dear liquid add of sweet spirit of nitre (perfecUy
free from add), 1 part; should it turn foul or
milky, a very Uttie liquor of potassa will usually
brighten it ; if not, place it in a dean separator,
and let it stand, closely covered, for a few days,
and then draw it off bom the bottom as before^
when it will be perfectly transparent, without
filtering. Some persons add the sweet spirit of
nitre whilst the solution is still warm, mix it in
as rapidly as possible, and immediately cork or
fasten up the vessel. This is a good wa^ when the
artide is wanted in a hurry, but is objeptionsble
from the loss of spirit thereby occasioned, and
the danger, without care, of bursting the sepa-
rator.

Obt. A receipt for this artide, upon the
authority of Battley, has been going the round
of the pharmaceutical works for many years. It
is as follows :— Take 12 oz. of balsam of copaiba,
and 6 01. of calcined magnesia; rub together, add
a pint of proof spirit, filter, and then add i oz. of
sweet spirits of nitre (' Gray's Supplement ').
The product of this formula, utterly unlike
' Frank's specific solution,' is a colourless tinc-
ture, scarcely flavoured with copaiba, and holding
very littie of the active matter of the balsam in
solution, owing to the compound formed with the

98

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SOLVENT— SOMNAL

magneaia being ineolnble in spirit. Snch is the
affinity of tliiB eartli for copaiba (copaibic acid),
that it will even take it from caustic potawa.
See Copaiba and its preparations.
Solution of Snbac etate of Lead. Sgn. Ll-

QVOB as BVBACBTATB OI LIAD, L. 0> DIACETATB
OV I..ti Gom^AKD'S IXTKAOT; LiQVOB FLUXBI,
li. FLTTHBI DIAOBTATia (Ph. L.), PlITICBI SIAOB-
TATIS 80IUTIO (Ph. E.), PtUMBI BTTBAOBTATIB

HQUOB (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Ace-
tate of lead, 27 oz. ; litharge, in fine powder, 16
oz. ; water, 8 qnarts ; boil for i an hoar, con-
stantly stining, and then add enough distilled
water to make the whole measure 3 qnarta;
lastly, filter, if required, and keep it in a closed
vessel. The proportions ordered in the Ph. E. are
similar. Sp. gr. 1-260.

2. (B. P.) Acetate of lead, 6 oz. ; litharge, S^
oz. ; distilled water, 1 pint; boil, &c., as befora;
to produce 1 pint.

8. (Wholesale.) From finely powdered li-
tharge, 32 lbs.; distilled vinegar, 82 galls.; boil
in a perfectly Inight copper pan for 2 hours, cool,
add water to make up 82 gaUs., again simmer for
1 minute, cover np the vessel, and in an hour de-
cant the clear portion. Common trade strength.
(See btlow.)

Solution of Snhaeetate of Lead (Dilute). Svn.
Oom^ABD, QovjiAxd'b lotion, O.'a watbb ; Li-

QUOB PXTTKBI SIACBTATIB DILTTTVa (Ph. L^,
PLITKBI EUBAOBTAXIB LIQITOB OOItPOSITUB (Ph.

D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Liqnor of diace-
tate of lead, 11 fl. dr. ; proof spirit, 2 fl. dr. ; dis-
tilled water, 1 pint ; mix,

2. (Ph. D.) Solution of subacetate of lead
and proof spirit, of each, 2 fl. oz. ; distilled water,
i g^. ; mix, filter, and preserve it in a well-stop-
pered bottle.

3. (B. P.) Solution of snbacetate lead, 2 of
fl. dr. ; rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr. ; distilled water,
19i OS. filter through paper.

Oi(. Both the above preparations were for-
merly made with common vinegar, and hence
were coloured, but those of the Pharm. are
white. If wanted coloured, a little spirit colour-
ing may be added. The stronger liqnor is only
used diluted, and the dilute solution is now
seldom prepared by the wholesale druggist. The
lead (diluted solution) is employed as a sedative,
refrigerant, and astringent wash, in various affec-
tions. Both are poisonous. For the antidotes
see Lbas.

Solution of Sulphate of Atropine. %ii. Li-
QVOB ATBOFiirf auuHATig (B. P.), L. Prep.
Snlphate of atropia, 9 gr. ; camphor water, 161
dr. ; dissolve. — Dote, 1 to 2 minims.

Solntion of Sulphate of Copper. Sgn. Liqttob

OUFBI aULFHATIB 0OICFO8ITUB, AQTTA BTYFTIOA,

L. (Ph. L. 1746.) Snlphate of copper, 8 oz.;
alum, 8 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 2 oz. ; (by weight,)
water, 24 oz. For external use.

Solntion of Sulphate of Indigo. I^yn. LiCiVOB
nroiGK) BTTITHATIB, L. IVep. Digest 1 part of
powdered indigo in 10 parts of sulphuric acid ;
when dissolved dilute it with water. Used as a
test.

Solution of Sulphate of Korphlao. (B. P.)
Sy». LiQVOB xoBFHnrf bulphatib, L. Sul-
phate of morphine, 1 part; rectified spirit, 26

parts ; water, to produce 100 parts.— J)om, 10 to
60 minims.

Solution of Sulphate of Zinc (Compoimd). - See
SoLunoir op Aluh, Compouitd.

Solution of Bul'phuret of FotMsinm. Sgn,
Solution op htdbobulpeatb op fotabsa ; So-
LUnO P0TA8BII bulfhvbbti, Liquob FOTAa&S
ETBBOBULPEATIB, AQUA FOTAB8£ BULPHUBBTI

(Ph. D.), L. Prep. Take of washed sublimed
sulphur, 1 part; water of caustic potaasa, 11
parts ; mix, boil for 10 minutes, filter, and keep
the solution in well-closed bottles. Sp. gr. 1*117.
The product is a mixed solution of hydrosulphate
and hypoaulphate of potassa. — Dote, 10 to 60
drops, diluted in water ; and, externally, made into a
lotion ; in itch, and several other eruptive diseases.

Solution, Swan's. Sfgn. Solutio aoDiS htpo-
PHOBFHITIB, L. Prep. Mr Squire says this con-
tains 8 gr. of the salt in a drachm.

Solntion of Tartrate of Kagneda. S9»' I'l-
aUOB MAaNXBI.E TABIBATIB {Airat), L. Pttp.
Tartaric acid, 16| oz. troy; distilled water, 20
pints ; fresh calcined magnesia, difFused in 16 oz.
of distilled water, 8 oz. troy and 1 dr. — Dote. Aa
a purgative, 16 oz.

Solntion of Trinitrine. (B. P.) %it. Liquob

TBINITBIN£, L. NITBO-OLTOBBINI, L. aLYOBBINI,

L. Nitro-glycerine, 1 part (by weight) ; rectified
spirit, to produce 100 fluid parts. — Dote, i to 2
minims.

Solntion of Yeratrla. /^. SOLUno tbra-
TBIB, L. Prep. Veratrine, 1 gr.; distilled
water, 21 oz. Dr Tumbull's solution, for ex-
ternal use, is — veratiia, 1 scruple; rectified
spirit, 2 oz.

SOL'VEVT. Sg». MiNBTBUUK, L. The
liquid in which any substance is dissolved. The
substance dissolved is, occasionally, called the
'solvend' (Kirwan).

Solvent, Glazier's. Sya. Olazisb'b ficklb.
From soft soap dissolved in thrice its weight of
strong soapers' lye ; or from freshly slaked lime
made into a thin paste or cream with twice its
weight of pearlasb dissolved in a little water.
Very caustic. Used to soften old putty, and to
remove old paint.

SOKBAL. This is described as an ethylised com-
bination of urethane and cMoral. It is prepared
from chloral, alcohol, and urethane, and answers
to the formula C^EyClsOgN, thus difFering from
the chloral-urethane, hitherto used, by the addi-
tion of 2 atoms of carbon and 4 atoms of hydro-
gen. Somnal has a melting-point of 40° C, and
boils in vacuo at about 146 C. It is not in-
fluenced by the addition of nitrate of silver, nor
by the action of acids. It is administered in
doses of 80 gr., preferably with liquid extract of
liquorice, or with syrup of raspberry, aa follows :
— Somnal, 2} dr. ; aq. destill., ad 8 oz. ; ext. gly-
cyrrhiz. liq., 6 dr. One tablespoonful at night.
Such a 80-gr. dose of somnal is said to create
within half an hour of its administration a sound
sleep of six to eight hours' duration, and without
any injnrions by or after efFect. It is claimed
for somnal that it does not affect the digestion,
the breathing, or the temperature of the body,
and that it possesses all the advantages of ure-
thane and chloral hydrate without any of their
ill effects.

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SOMNAMBULISU— SOUP

1665

SOmfAKBITIiISK. Children are most sub-
jected to sleep-walking. When adults are affected
with it the caoae may generally be traced to
mental exhaustion, over-excitement, or emotional
feeling. The most preferable method of awaken-
ing a somnambulist, if this be desirable, is by
dashing cold water on the face. It is weU to oc-
casionally administer an aperient, and also to
rectify any errors of diet, if necessary, and to
remove by the exercise of jndicioas and kindly
advice, and change of scene, nndue excitement or
morbid feeling.

The other precantions, snch as securing the
feet, &c, during sleep, g^narding the windows and
the exits of the bedchamber, are so obvious as to
need no farther notice.

SOOT. 8gn. Fuxioo. Wood soot was for-
merly officinal, and reputed vermifuge and anti-
septic. The soot from pit- coal contains, besides
empyreumatic matter, sulphate of ammonia;
hence it is valuable as a manure when not too
freely applied. It is also employed by gardeners
to kul insects.

SOPOBII^CS.- Hypnotics (which tee).

BOSBITE. A crystalline saccharine substance
resembling mannite, obtained by Bonssingault
from the berries of the mountain ash. It was
obtained from the liquid containing the nnde-
composed saccharine matter remaining after the
juice of the berries had been subjected to fermen-
tation.

BOU'JEE. Sgn. SoOJBB. A species of semo-
lina. Semoletta {Semola rarita) is a still smaller
variety of pearled wheat, separated from the others
by means of a sieve. ' Baster's soojee ' is said to
be a mixture of ordini^ wheat-flour and sugar.

SOUP. A strong decoction of flesh, properly
seasoned with salts, spices, &c., for the table.
The different tastes of people require more or less
of the flavour of spices, salt, garlic, butter, &c.,
which can, therefore, never be ordered by general
roles. If the cook has not a good taste, and at-
tention to that of his or her employers, not all the
ingredients which nature and art can furnish will
give an exquisite flavour to the dishes. The
proper articles should be always at hand, and
must be proportioned until the true zest be ob-
tained. A variety of flavours may be given to
different dishes served at the same time, or even
to the same soup, by varying the condiments and
spices. At a Parisian restaurant one caldron is
made to prodnoe almost every imaginable variety
of soup,

Bonp, Cabbage, Cheap. Wash a large cabbage
and cnt it into narrow strips, throwing them into
i a gallon of boiling water containing 2 oz. of
batter. Ijet it boil for an hour and a half j then
add i a pint of milk, and flavour with pepper and
salt. Serve when hot.

Bonp, Canot. IiranssixinB bbquibbd. 4
quarts of liquor in which a leg of mutton or beef
has been boiled, a few beef bones, 6 large carrots,
8 large onions, 1 tnmip, seasoning of salt and
pepper to taste, 3 Inmps of sugar, and cayenne.

Mode. Put the liquor, bones, onions, turnips,
pepper, and salt into a stewpan, and simmer for 8
hours. Scrape and cut the carrots thin> strain
the soup on them, and stew them till soft enough
to pulp through a hair sieve or coarse cloth; then

boil the pulp with the soup, which should .be of
the consistency of pea soup. Add cayenne. Pulp
only the red part of the carrot, and make this
sonp the day before it is wanted.

Time, 41 hours. Seasonable from October to
March. Sufficient for eight persons.

Bosp, Celery. iRaBEsiENTg. 9 heads of
celery, 1 teaspoonful of salt, nutmeg to taste, 1
lump of sugar, \ pint of strong stock, 1 pint of
cream, and 2 quarts of boiling water.

Mode. Cut the celery into small pieces, throw
it into the water, seasoned with the nutmeg, salt,
and sugar. Boil it till sufficiently tender ; pass it
throngh a sieve, add the stock and simmer it for
\ an hour. Now put in the cream, bring it to
the boiling-point, and serve immediately.

2^810, 1 hoar.

Soup, Olblet. Scald and carefully clean 3 or 4
sets of goose or duck giblets ; let them stew well,
a pound or two of gravy beef, scrag of mutton,
or the bone of a knuckle of veal, an ox-tul, or
some shanks of mutton, with 3 onions, a large
bunch of sweet herbs, a teaspoonful of white
pepper, and a large spoonful of salt. Add 6 pints
of water and simmer till the gizzards (which must
be each in four pieces) are quite tender; skim
nicely, and add a ^ pint of cream, 2 teaspoonful*
of mushroom powder, and 1 oz. of butter mixed
with a dessert-spoonful of floor. Let it boil a
few minntes, and serve with the giblets. Instead
of cream, two glasses of sherry or Madeira, a
large spoonful of ketchup, and some cayenne may
be used for the seasoning- Add salt when the
sonp is in the tureen.

For the larger part of the above culinary pre-
parations we are indebted to the excellent cooking
manuals of Miss Acton and Mrs Beeton.

Soup, a Good Pamily. IirasBDiENTg. Remains
of a cold tongue, 2 lbs. of shin of beef, any cold
pieces of meat or beef bones, 2 turnips, 2 carrots,
2 onions, 1 parsnip, 1 head of celery, 4 quarts of
water, -I tMcupfnl of rice, salt and pepper to
taste.

Mode. Pot all the ingredients in a stewxMUt,
and simmer gently for 4 hours, or until all the
goodness is drawn from the meat. Strain off the
soup and let it stand till cold. The kernels and
soft part of the tongue most be saved. When
the sonp is wanted for use, skim off all the <at,
pnt in the kernels and soft parts of the tongne,
slice in a small quantity of fresh carrot, turnip,
and onion; stew till the vegetables are tendw,
and serve with toasted bread.

Time, 6 hours. Seasonable at any time, Snf-
flcient for eight persons.

Soup, Qravy. IiroBSDisiriB. 4 lbs. of shin of
beef, a piece of the knuckle of veal weighing 4
lbs,, a few pieces of trimmings of meat or poul-
try, 3 slices of nicely flavoured lean ham, i lb, of
batter, 2 onions, 4 carrots, 1 turnip, nearly a head
of celery, 1 blade of mace, 6 cloves, a bunch of
savoury herbs, seasoning of salt and pepper to
taste, 8 lumps of sugar, 6 quarts of boHing soft
water. It can be flavoured with ketchup, Leam-
ington sance, or Harvey's sance and a little soy.

Mode. Slightly brown the meat and ham in
the butter, but do not let them bum. When this
is done, pour to it the water, put in the salt, and
as the scum rises take it off; when no more ap- .

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1666

SOUP

pean, add all the other mgredient*, and let the
(onp timmeT slowly by the fire for 6 hoon with-
out Btirrmg it any more from the bottom ; take it
off, and pass it throogh a riere. When perfectly
cckld and settled all the fat should be removed,
leaving the sediment nutouched, which serves
nicely for thick gravies, hashes, &c. The flavonr-
ings should be added when the sonp is heated for
table.

2fm«, 7 hoars. Seasonable all the year. Snf -
fldent for twelve persons.

Soap, Oreeu Pea. iHaBBSiurrB. 8 innts of
green peas, i lb. of batter, 2 or 8 thin slices of
nam, 4 onions sliced, 4 shredded lettuces, the
crumb of 2 French roUs, 2 handfuls of spinach, 1
lamp of sugar, 2 quarts of medium stock.

Modt. Put the batter, bam, 1 quart of the
peas, onions, and lettuces, to a pint of stock, and
simmer for an hour; then add the remainder of
the stock, with the crumb of the French rolls,
and boil for another hour. Now boil the spinach,
squeeze it very dry, and rub it, with the soap,
through a sieve, to give the preparation a good
colour. Have ready a pint of young peas boued ;
add them to the soup, put in the sugar, give one
boil, and serve.

Time, 2i hoars. Seasonable from June to the
end of August. SufBeient for six persons.

*«* It will be well to add, if the peas are not
quite young, a little more sugar ; where economy
is essential, water may be used instead of stock
for this soup, boiling in it likewise the pea-shells,
and using rather a larger quantity of vegetables.

Soap, Hare. Cat down a hare into joints, and
. pot it into a soup-pot or large stewpan, with about

1 lb. of lean ham, in thick slices, 8 moderately
sized mild onions, 8 blades of mace, a fagot of
thyme, sweet maqoram, and parsley, with about 8
quarts of good beef stock. Let it stew vety
gently for fully 8 hours from the time of its first
beginning to boil, and more if the hare be old.
8t»un the soup, and pound together very fine the
slices of ham and all the flesh of the back, legs,
and shoulders of the hare, and put this meat into
a stewpan with the liquor in which it was boiled,
the crumb of two French rolls, and | a pint of port
wine. Set it on the stove to simmer iO minutes;
then rub it through a sieve, place it again on tiie
stove till very hot, but do not let it boil; season
it with salt and cayenne, and send it to table
directly.

Inosbsiekts. Hare, 1; ham, 12 to 16 oz.;
onions, 3 to 6 ; mace, 8 blades j fagot of savoury
herbs ; beef stock, 3 quarts ; 2 hours. Crumb of

2 rolls ; port wine, i pint ; little salt and cayenne ;
20 minutes.

Sonp, Hare, a less Expensive. Pour on two
pounds of neck or shin of beef, and a hare well
washed and carved into joints, one gallon of cold
water, and when it boils and has bem thoroughly
sUmmed, add 1^ oz. of salt, 2 onions, 1 large
bead of celery, 8 moderate-sized carrots, a table-
spoonful black peppercorns, and 6 doves.

Let these stew gently for 8 hours, or longer,
should the hare not be perfectly tender. Then
take up the principal joints, cut the meat &om
them, mince, and pound it to fine paste, with the
crumb of two penny rolls (or 2 oz. of crumb of
household bread), which has been soaked in a

little of the boiling sonp, and then pressed very
dry in a cloth ; strain, and mix smoothly with it
the stock from the remainder of the hare ; - pass
the soup through a struner, season it with cayenne,
and serve it when at the point of boiling ; if nofc
snfSciently thick, add to it a tablespoonful of
arrowroot, moistened with a little broth, and let
the soup simmer for an instant afterwards. Two
or three glasses of port wine and two dosen of
small forcemeat balls may be added to this soap
with good effect.

IHOBIDISKTS. Beef, 2 lbs. ; have, 1 ; water,
1 gall.; salt, H Of.; onions, 2; celery, 1 head;
carrots, 8 ; bunch of savoury herbs ; peppercorns,

1 teaspoonfal ; cloves, 6 ; 8 hours or more. Bread,

2 oz. ; cayenne, arrowroot (if needed), 1 taUe-
spoonful.

Soup, Haricot Bean. Take a quart of haricot
beans and let them soak all night in cold water.
Then poor on them 21 pints of cold water, add 1
onion, and put on the fii«, and when the liquid
begins to boil, let them continue to boil for three
hours. Then remove from the fire and stnun
through a wire sieve, after which retam to
the saucepan, and season with pepper and salt ;
next add 2 oz. of butter and a little milk. Then
just boil up and serve. An economical and nutri-
tious soup for the poor.

Soup, Jolienna. iHOBKoniirTB. i pint of car-
rots, i pint of turnips, i pint of onions, 2 or S
leeks, 1 head of celery, 1 lettuce, a little sorrel
and chervil if liked, 2 oi. batter, 2 quarts of
medium stock.

Mode. Cut the vegetables into strips about
1^ in. long, and be particular they are all the
same size, or some will be hard whilst the others
will be done to a pulp. Cut the lettuce, sorrel,
and chervil into larger pieces ; fry the carrots in
the butter, and pour the stock boiling to them.
When this is done, add all the other vegetables
thereto, and stew gently for nearly an hour.
Skim off all the fat, poor the soup over thin
slices of bread cut round, about the rize of abil-
ling, and serve.

Timt, H hours. Seasonable all the year. Soffi-
cient for 7 or 8 persons.

*f)* In summer, green peas, asparagus tops,
French beans, &e., can be added. When the
vegetables are very strong, instead of frying them
in butter at first, they should be blanch^ and
afterwards simmered in the stock.

Sonp, Kacaroni. Throw 4 oz. of fine, fresh,
mellow Naples macaroni into a pan of fast-boiling
water, with abont 1 oz. of fresh batter, and a
small onion stuck with 8 or 4 cloves (the onion
must be omitted for white soups). When it has
swelled to its full size, and became tender, drun
it well, cut it into half -inch lengths, and slip it
into a couple of quarts of clear gravy soup ; let
it simmer for a few minutes, when it will be ready
for table. Observe that the naacaroni should be
boiled qnite tender; bat it should by no means
be allowed to burst, nor to becoane pulpy. Serve
grated Parmesan cheese with it.

IsOBBDiEirTa. Macaroni, 4 oz. ; butter, 1 oz. ;
1 small onion; 6 cloves; i hour or more. In
soap, 6 to 10 minutes.

Soap, Mock Turtle. IirsBSDilirTB. Half a
calf's head, i lb. butter, i lb. of lean ham, 2

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SOUP

1667

tablegpoonfoli of minced panlej, a little minoed
lemon thyme, sweet marjoram, ntiil, 2 onions, a
few chopped moshrooms (when obtainable), 2
shalots, a tableipoonfnb of flonr, 2 glasses of
madeira or sherry, forcemeat balls, cayenne, salt
and mace to taste, the joice of one lemon and 1
Seville orange, 1 dessert-spoonfnl of ponnded
■agar, 8 quarts of best strong stock.

Mode. Scald the head with the skin on, re-
move the brain, tie the head up in a cloth, and let
it boil for an hour. Then take the meat ftom the
bones, cat it into small sqnare nieces, and throw
them into cold water. Kow take the meat, pat it
into a stewpan, and cover it with stock ; let it boil
gently for an hoar, or rather more if not quite
tender, and set it on one side. Meltthe butter in
another stewpan, andadd the ham, cut small, with
the herbs, pwsley, onions, shalots, mushrooms, and
nearly a pint of stock ; let these nmmer slowly
for 2 hours, and then dredge in as much floor as
will dry np the batter. Fill up with the remainder
of the stock, add the wine, let it stew gently for
10 minutes, rub it through a sieve, and pot it to
the calfs head; seaeon with cayenne, and, if
required, alittle salt; add the juice of the orange
and lemon ; and when liked, | teaspoonfnl of
poanded mace, and the sugar. Put in the
forcemeat baOs, simmer 6 minates, and serve
very hot.

Tima, 4,\ hours. Seasonable in winter. Suffi-
dent for 10 persons.

%* The bones of the head should be well
stewed in the liquor it was first boiled in, and
will make good wnite stock, flavoured with vege-
tables.

Soup, Oz-tail. A very inexpensive and nutri-
tioas soup may be made of ox-tails, but it will be
insipid without the addition of a little ham,
knuckle of bacon, or a pound or two of other
meat.

' Wash and soak 8 tails, poor on tiiem a gallon
of cold water, let them be bronght gradually to
boil, throw in 1| oz. of salt, and clear off the
•cam carefully as soon as it forms upon the sur-
fitce ; when it ceases to rise add four moderate-
used carrots, from 2 to 4 onions according to the
taste, a large fagot of savoury herbs, a hnd of
«elery, a couple of turnips, 6 or S cloves, and ) a
teaspoonfnl of peppercorns. Stew these gently
from 8 to 8i hours if the tails be very large ; lift
them out, strain the liquor, and skim off all the
&t ; divide the tails into joints, and put them into
s coni^e of quarts or rather more of the stock ;
stir in, when these begin to boil, a thickening of
arrowroot or rice flour, mixed with as much
cayenne and salt as may be required to flavour the
soup well, and serve it very hot.

IiraRssnnm. Ox-tails, 8; water, 1 gall.;
salt, 11 oz.; carrots, 4; onions, 2 to 4; turnips,
2; celery, 1 head; cloves, 8; peppercorns, i tea-

rnfol; &got of savoury herbs ; 3 to 8i hours,
a richer soap, 5 to 6 hours.
8oap,OrdijiaiyFsa. Well wash a quart of good
'split peas, and float off such as remain on the sur-
flice <n the water ; soak them for one night, and
ytai them with a bit of soda the nze of a filbert,
in jost suffident water to allow them to break to
amash. Pnt them into from 8 to 4 quarts of good
beef broth, and stew them in it gently for an

hour ; then work the whole through a neve, heat
afresh as much as may be reqidred for table,
season it with salt, or cayenne, or common pepper ;
clear it perfectly from scum, and send it to table'
with fried or toasted bread. Celery sliced and
stewed in it will be fonnd a great improve-
ment.

IirsBBDiBirTB. Peas, 1 qnart; soiked one
night, boiled in 2 quarts or rather more of water,
2 to 2i hours. Beef broth, 8 to 4 quarts; 1
hour. Salt and cayenne or pepper, as needed; 8
minutes.

Sovp, Portable. 8f». Glazb. From shin of
beef, or other like part, the soup being gently
simmered until reduced to the consistence of a
thin syrup, and then poured into small upright
jelly-pots with covers, or upon flat disbes, to lie
about } inch deep. The latter, when set, ia
divided into pieces, which are dried. Used to
make extemporaneous soup and glazes. A similar
article, prepared on the lairge scale, now generally
forms part of every ship's stores.

Soup, Potato. Hash to a smooth paste 8 Iba. of
good mealy potatoes, which have been steamed
or boiled very dry; mix with them, by degrees,
2 quarts of boiling broth, pass the soup through
a strainer, set it again on the fire, add pepper
and salt, and let it boil for five minutes. . Take
off entirely the black scum that will rise upon it,
and serve it very hot with fried or toasted bread.
Where the flavour is approved 2 oz. of onions,
minced and fried a light brown, may be added to
the soup, and stewed in it for ten minutes before
it is sent to the table.

IxaBKDiEiiTfl. Potatoes, 8 lbs.; broth, 2
quarts; 6 minutes. With onions, 2 oz., 10
minutes.

Soup, Spanish Onion. Peel two large Spanish
onions and cut them into rings ; fry them with a
little dripping in a stewpan. When the onions
have browned add 2i pints of boiling water, and
let them boil for two honrs and a half; add pepper
and salt to flavour, and a little vinegar. Thicken
with oatmeal or bread crumbs (oatmeal is the
more nourishing) ; let the mixture boil for another
haU-hour, and serve. A good, cheap, wholesome
soup.

Soup, Tnnip (tiheap). Wash and wipe the
turnips, pare and, weigh them; allow 1} lbs. for
every quart of soup, cut them in slices abonl;
{ inch thick. Melt 4 oz. of butter in a clean
stewpan, and pnt in the tomips before it begins
to boil; stew them gently } hour, taking care
that they shall not brown ; then have the proper
quantity of soup ready boiling, pour it on them,
and let them simmer in it for I hour. Palp the
whole through a coarse sieve or soup stnUner,
put it ag^ on the fire, keep it stirrod until it
lias boiled three or four minutes, take oB the
scum, add salt or pepper if required, and serve
it very hot.

iHaxxDonrrs. Tnmipe, 8 lbs. ; butter, 4 oz. ;
} hour. Soup, 2 qoarts; } hoar. Last time, 8
minutes.

Soup, VermieelU. Drop, very lightly and by
degrees, 6 oz. of vermicelli, broken rather small,
into 8 qoarts of boiling bonillon, or clear gravy
soup ; let it simmer for half an hour over a gentle
flre, and stir it often.

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SOXTBING— SPECIES

iKOBiDmrTB. Bouillon or grtvy loap, 8
qnartB ; rermicelli, 6 oz. ; SO minutes. Or (oap,
8 quarts ; vermic^i, 4 oz. ; blanched in boiling
water, 6 minutes j stewed in sonp, 10 to 16
minutes.

SOUSlKe. See Hait Liqvobs and Wnm.

BOTTS-KSOUT. See Saubb-kboitt.

SOT. Qenuine soy is a species of thick black
sauce imported from China. — Frtp. Take of the
seeds of Sqja hitpida (white huicots or kidney
beans may be used for them), 1 gall. ; b<»l them
in water, q. s., until soft ; add of bruised wheat,

1 gall., and keep the mixture in a warm place for
24 hours ; then add of common salt, 1 gall. ; water,

2 galls. ; put the whole into a stone jar, and bung
it up loosely for two or three months, shaking it
very frequently during the whole time; lastly,
press out the liquor and bottle it; the residuum
may be treated afresh with water and salt for soy
of an inferior quality.

Ob*. The soy of the shop* is, in nine cases ont
of ten, a spurious article made in this country by
■imply saturating molasses or treacle with common
salt. A better and a really wholesome imitation
is made as follows : — Malt syrup, 1 gall, (or 131
lbs.) ; treacle, 6 lbs. ; salt, ii lbs. ; mushroom
juice, 1 quart; mix, with a gentle heat, and stir
until the union is complete ; in a fortnight decant
the clear portion.

80Z0I0S0L. This substance is manufactured
under a patent, and appears in the form of a white
crystalline powder, which does not melt until
hMted to a temperature over 200° C. It is odour-
less, has a slightly acid taste, and dissolves to the
extent of 7% in cold water, being more soluble in
hot water.

The characteristic reaotions of aozoiodol are
that it readily gives off iodine vapour on heating,
and if a few drops of sulphuric acid are added to
a hot solution of the substance iodine is sepa-
rated, and may be recognised in the usual way.
Ferric chloride imparts a dark violet colour to
the aqueous solution ; silver nitrate throws down
a white precipitate, soluble in sulphuric add,
proving that the precipitate is not silver chloride,
but a silver salt of sozoiodol. The barium pre-
cipitate is soluble on heating, and from strong
■olutions separates in crystalline form. Sozoiodol
is being extensively tried in the General Hospital
of Vienna as a substitute for iodoform and sali-
cylic acid. Being devoid of odour it has a great
aidvantage over iodoform, and as it contains 42%
of iodine it is hoped that it will be as active thera-
peutically. It is used in the form of an oint-
ment made with lanoline, or as a dusting powder
with Venetian talc as a diluent.

SPAiriBH FLIES. See Canthasidbs.

SPAS'ASSAF. Sy». Spajiasbapuii, L.
Originally a cerecloth} now applied to spread
plasters; as bfabaobapux ooiaanrB, common
■trapping or adhesive plaster ; 8. TBSIOATOBIUX,
blistering plaster or tissae, £c.

The following are in occasional demand by the
pharmacist :

Sparadrap, Opinm. 8y». Sfabadbapuii opn
(3f. Sciaufelle). Prep. On a piece of black
sarcenet of a close and strong texture, properly
■tretched, spread, with a brush, 8 layers of ex-
tract of opium, softened with water, to the con-

sistence of treacle, and mixed with a sixth part of
powdered gum. Keep the plaster dry.

Sparadrap, Thapsian. Bgn. Sfabasbapttic
XHAF8LB (P. Cod.). Pnp. Yellow wax, 4i
on. ; resin, 1^ oz,; Burgundy pitch, 1} oz. ; boiled
turpentine, 1^ oz.; Swiss turpentine, \ oz. ; gly-
cerin, 1 oz. ; honey, } ox. ; resin of Uiapeia, \ oz.
Melt the first five substances together and sttun
through linen. Keep them liquefied and add the
glycerin, the honey, and the resin. When well
mixed, and of a proper consistence, spread on
strips of linen cloth.

Sparadrap, Wax. Sgu. Spabasbafux one
obbA, ToiLB DB KAI (P. Cod.). Prep. White
wax, 8 oz. ; (by wt.,) oil of almonds, 4 oz. ; (by
wt.,) Swiss turpentine, 1 oz. Melt together and
dip into it strips of linen cloth, which are to be
passed between wooden rollers, to remove the
superfluous plaster. Spread on paper it forms
waxed paper.

SPASTEIBE. Bg*. Spasxbina,L. A vola-
tile oily liquid, possessing basic propertiea, ob-
tained from Cj/tinu icoparnt or broom. It is
highly poisonous, and resembles conine and nico-
tine in its general properties.

Sparteine Sulphate. Made by neutraUsing
sparteine with sulphuric acid, crystallising.

Ueee. Has a tonic action on the heart, and is
a valuable diuretic. — Dote, i to 4 grs.

SPASMS. &/%. Cbaxp; SPABMra, L. An
involuntary contraction of the muscles, generally
of the extremities, accompanied with pain more
or less severe. Spasms are distinguished into
clonic spasms or convulsions, in which the con-
tractions and relaxations are alternate, as in epi-
lepsy ; and into tonic spasms, in which there i*
continued rigidity, as in locked-jaw. That form
which commonly attacks the muscles of the legs
and feet, especially after great exertion or expo-
sure to cold, is commonly called cramp. The best
treatment for this is immediately to stand up-
right, and to well rub the part with the hand.
The application of strong stimulants, as spirits of
ammonia, or of anodynes, as opiate liniments, has
been recommended. When spasm or cramp oc-
curs in the stomach, a teaspoonful of sal volatile
in water, or a teaspoonful of good brandy, may be
swallowed immediately. When cramp comes or
during cold bathing, ue limb should be thrown
out as suddenly and violently as possible, which
will generally remove xt, care being also taken
not to become flurried or frightened, ss presence
of mind is very essential to personal safety on such
an occasion. A common cause of spasm is indi-
gestion, and the use of acescent liquors ; these
should, therefore, be avoided, and bitters and ab-
sorbents had recourse to. See AJtmsPABicoDlcs,
and the names of the principal spasmodic diseases.

SPEAB'XDrT. SeeMiMT.

gpS'dXS. (^pharmacy.) Mixtorea of dried
plants, or parts of plants, in a divided state,
which, for convenience, are kept mixed for nse.
The dry ingredients of pills, conserves, electu-
aries, mixtures, kc, that do not keep well when
made up, or which are in little demand, may be
economically and conveniently preserved in thia
state. The word, thus applied, is obsolete ont <A
the pbarmaceutioJ laboratory.

Species, Anthelmin'tlc. l^/n. Spboibb Air-

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SPECIFIC GBAVITT

1669

VHXumrnaa, L. The dried flowering tops of
tansy and wormwood, and the flowers of chamo-
mile, equal parts ; mix, and keep them in a close
veml (P. Cod.}.

Species, AperitlTe. See Snonn, DiTJitano
(beioie).

Species, Aromat'ie. Syn. Abokatio cow-
snt; Spscibb AsoicATiox, L. iV«}>. (Ph.
Bor.) Leaves of balm and cnrled-Ieaf mint
(Mentha eritpa), ot each, 4 oz. ; lavender flowers,
8 oz. ; cloves, 1 oz. ; dry them by a gentle heat,
and then powder them.

Bpeeiea, Astrin'gent. Syn. Sfeohs astbik-
esiTTXB, it. The roots of bistort and tormentiU
and bark of pomegranate, equal parts (P. Cod.).

Species, BecMcst. (P. Cod.) 1. Leaves of
Canadian maidenhair, ground-ivy, harf s-tongue,
speedwell, hyssop tops, and poppy capsules (freed
&om seed), of each, equal parts. Cut and mix.
2. Dried flowers of mallow, catsfoot, coltsfoot, and
petab of red poppy, of each, 1 oz.; mix. The
FructAs Bechid are — Dates (stoned), 1 oz. ; ju-
jubes, 1 oz. ; figs, 1 oz. ; raisins, 1 oz.

Species, IHtter. S^n. Thbbe bittbb ebbbb ;
Sfboibs ahabs, HsBBiB AKAB£, L. The leaves
of germander, and dried tops of lesser centanry
and wormwood, eqnal parts (P. Cod.).

Species, Cap'iUiiry. Syn. Frra oapillabt

HBBB8; EBKBA QirnrQVB 0APILLABB8, L.

Harfs-tongne, black maidenhair, white do.,
golden doq and spleenwort, equal parts (Ph. L.
1720).

Species, Carmlnatire. Syn. Sfboibb oabui-
BATIYB (P. Cod.). Prep. Equal parts of ani-
seeds, caraway seeds, coriander seeds, and fennel
seeds.

Species, Cor'dlal. Syn. Potjb oobdiai. fiaw-
■bb; Sfbcibb oobsiaxbb, L. The flowers of
borage, bagloss, roses, and violets, equal parts
(Pt. L. 1720).

Species for Decoction Woods. Sy*- Sfsoibb
AS SBOOOmC UQirOBTTK (O. Ph.). iVop.
Basped gnaiacnm wood, 4 oz. ; cut burdock root,
2 oz. ; ononis root, 2 oz. ; cut liqnorice, 1 oz. ; cut
sassafras, 1 oz. ; mix.

Spedes, Diniet'ic. Syn. Apbbibkt bootb,

ArBBIUTB BFBOIBB ; SPBOIBB SIVBBTIOX, L. 1.
^rVB OBBATBB AFSBITITB BOOTS — P. Cod., and

Ph. E. 1744.) The dried roots of asparagus,
bntcher's-broom, parsley, smallage, and sweet
fennel, equal pvts.

2. (FrVB IBBBBB AFBBITITB BOOTS.) ThoSe

ot caper, dog-grass, eryngo, madder, and rest-
harrow.
Species, Emollient. Syn. Snona bkol-

UBHTBS, L. 1. (ThBBX BXOLLIBirT HBALS;

VtxaM mtoLLOBm.) The meal ot barley,
linseed, and rye, equal parts (P. Cod.).

2. (FlYB BXOLUBHT EBBBB J HbKBX (iVTB-

ora BKOLLiBirTBB.) a. The dried leaves of
groundsel, common mallow, maish-mallow, great
mullein, and wall pellitory, equal parts (P.
Cod.).

b. The leaves of mallow, marsh-mallow, French
mercury, peUitory of the wall, and violet (Fh.
E. 1744).

Species of Ene'mas. Syn. Hbbbb fob oltb-
TBBB ; Hbbbji fbo bhbxatb, L. Mallow leaves,
2 parts ; chamomile flowers, 1 part.

Species of the Five Herbs. Slf- Sfbcibs
DIETS QimrquB hbbbsj Frvi oafuiLAbt
hbbbb (Ph. L. 1720). Prep. Black and white
maidenhair, spleenwort, harf s-tongue, and golden
maidenhair.

Species fbr Fomeuta'tions. Syn. SFBona.
FBO FOiu, Hbbbx fbo voTtT, L. Leaves ot
southernwood, tops of sea-wormwood, and flowers
ot chamomile, of each, 2 parts ; bay leaves, 1
part.

Spedes, Hot. 1. (Fous sbbatbb hot bbbdb.)
The seeds of anise, caraway, cumin, and f enneL

2. (FovB lbbbbb hot bbbdb.) The seeds ot
bishopsweed, smallage, stone-parsley, and wild
carrot.

Spedes, Lax'atiTe. Syn. St Obbxain uz-

ATTVB POWDBB; SFBOnS I.AXABTEB St OEB-

KAiir, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Senna leaves (ex-
hausted with spirit), 4 oz. ; elder flowers, 2| oz. ;
aniseed and fennel seed, of each, 1^ oz. ; reduce
them to coarse powder, and, when dispensing, add
of powdered cream of tartar, 1 dr. to each li oz.
of the mixture.

Spedes, Harootic Syn. FovB nabootio
HBBBB; Species kabootica, L. Dried leaves
of belladonna, black nightshade, henbane, and
thorn-apple, equal parts.

Spedes, Pectoral. Syn. Sfboibs bbceiox,
Sfbohs ad nrpusTTK PEoroBALEa, L. Hal-
low root, 4 oz.; coltsfoot leaves, 2 oz. ; liquorice
root, H oz. ; aniseed, great mullein flowers, and
red poppy flowers, of each, 1 oz. ; orris root, i oz.
(Ph. Bor.).

Species, Parging. Syn. Sfboibs PUsaAir-
IBS, L. ; Th£ de BiXTi, Th£ db St Obbkaih
(P. Cod.), Fr. Senna, 12 dr. ; elder flowers, 6 dr. ;
fennel seeds, 8 dr. ; aniseed, 6 dr.; cream of
tartar, 8 dr. Eighty grains in a cnp ot boiliue
water for a dose j sud to be very serviceable and
largely used in France for habitual constipation.

Spedes, SeM"gerant. 1. (Foub ooid bbbdb.)
The seeds of cucumber, gourd, melon, and water-
melon.

2. (FoTTB LBSSEB COLD SBBDS.) The Seeds of
endive, lettuce, purslane, and succory.

Spedes, Beaol'vest. &fn. Fabiha bbbol-
tebtbb, L. The meal of the seeds of barley,
bean, taxe, and white lupine.

Spedes, Vnlueraiy. Sn*- Spbcibb tttlhb-
BABiJi, L.; Te£ Svissb, Fr. Prep. Leaves and
tops of wormwood, hetony, bugle, calamint, ger-
mander, hyssop, ground-ivy, milfoil, origanum,
periwinkle, rosemary, self-heal, sage, hart's-
tongue, water-germander, thyme, speedwell, flower
of Armea, flower of catsfoot, flower of coltsfoot*
ot each, equal parts. Cut and mixed.

SPECIFIC GRATITT. In order to define this
term we must consider what is meant by density.
The ma$i or quantity of matter in a given body,
as measured by its inertia, depends first on the
density of its material, and secondly, on its size
01 volume ; and the rdation is expressed by the
formula —

Density — — s ;

' volume

or more simply, denrity ie tMt matt of unit
volume, or the mass of any volume divided by
that volume. Similarly, we may define spedfic

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SPECIFIC QRAVITT

gravity ai tb« veight of »»U volmme, or the weight
of any yolame divided by that volame, t.«. —

In determining the ipeoifle gravity of any body,
the wdght of a certaio Tolvma of it is oompat«d
with that of the aame Tolmne of tome standard
Bnbstanoe. This standard is pore distilled water
for liquids and solids, and atmospheric air for
gaseous bodies and vaponrs. By modern diemists
igdrogm, the lightest snhstance in nature, is
taJcen as the standard for the specific gravity of
gases and vapours. In England the ip. gr., unless
when otherwise expressecC is always ta!ken at
60° F. (15-5° C.)t but in France it u taken at
82° F. (0° C), or ijie temperature of melting ice.
In the ' British Pharmacopoeia,' whenever specific
gravity is mentioned, the substance spoken of is
snppoMd to be of the temperature of OOP F. In
most eases, however, it is infBcient merely to note
the temperature, and to apply a correction, de-
pending on the known density of the standard
substance, at the different d^^rees of the ther-
mometric scal&

To determine He tpee^ grtaiif of a loUd,
we weigh it first in tne lur, and then in water.
In the latter case it loses, of its weight, a qnantity
precisely equal to the weight of its own bulk of
water; and hence, by comparing this weight with
its total weight, we find its specific gravity. The
rule is — Divide the total weight by the loss of
weight in water; the quotient is the specific
gravity.

Tha tpeeifie gremty of a tnbHanoe lighter than
footer may be determined by attaching it to some
substance, as a piece of lead, the sp. gr., Ac., of
which are known. In this way, by dedactingfthe
loss in wmght of the two substances, when
weighed in water, from the loss sustained by the
lead alone, when so weighed, we obtain a cUffer-
enoe (a) which, added to the weight of the
substance taken in air (i), gives the respective
'densities. From these the sp. gr. is found by the
rule of three :

(a+b): Is: hstp.ffr.

Tke tpeeifie grantiet of tubttanoet toMle m
mater are tikea in pure oil of turpentine, rectified
spirit, olive oil, or some other liquid, the density
OS which is exactly known. Sometimes, for rough
purposes, the article is covered with a coating of
mastic varnish. This last method answers for
mercurial pill.

Tkeepe^ gravitg ofanAtianee infragnunie.
*»■ «" powder, may be found by putting a portion
into a sp. gr. bottle, filling Vka Utter with dis-
tilled water, and then weighing it The weight
of water which it is found to contain, deducted
from 1000 (the weight of the botUe when filled
witii distilled water), gives a difference (o) which
bears the same relation to the sp. gr. of water
(1-000) as the weight of the powder (J) put into
the botUe does to the required sp. gr. Or —
a: 1-000: : b-.ep.gr.

The tpeoifle gravOg ((f aUoge and mixtaret,
when no condensation has occurred, is equal to
the sum of the weights divided by the sum of
the volumes, compared to water reckoned as
nni^, and is not merely the arithmetical mean

between the two numbers denoting the two sp.

§'., as is frequently taught. See Bbam (Lovffajt
YSBOXBTIK, MrSTUBBB (Arithmetic of), Ac

For the mode of determining the spedfie gmi-
vity of vapours (he reader is r^erred to the work*
on chemistry of Miller and Fownes.

The epee^ gramty tff a gat is determined by
filling a laige glass globe vrith the gas to be ex-
amined, in a perfectiy dry and pure state, at »
known temperature, and at a pressure equal to
that of the atmosphere at the time of the experi-
ment. The globe so filled is weighed ; it is then
exhausted with an ur-pump, and again weighed ;
lastiy, it is filled with div air at a known tem-
perature and pressure, and its weight once more
determined. If the pressure and temperature
have remuned the same throughout the experi-
ment the specific gravil^ of the gas is obtained fay
simply dividing the weight of the gas by that ox
the air ; but if these conditions have varied cor-
rective factors have to be introdnoed.

Tie tpee\flc gravitg of a liquid is found by
weighing it in a sp. gr. bottie, glass flask, or
other vessel of known capacity, and dividing
that weight by the weight of the same bulk cx
pure water at the same temperature ; the quotient
is, as before, the specific gravity. A bottle of the
capadty of 1000 water-grains (sp. gr. bottle)
gives the dendty of a liquid at once by simply
filUng it to the given mark, and then accurate]/
weighing it.

We reprint firom the ' Journal of the Chemical
Sodety ' (2, xi, 677) a method of determining the
specific gravity of liquids, which is said by Dr
H. Sprengel, the chemist who devised it, to be
both expeditious and accurate :

"The form of my instrument, as shown in
the aocompemying fig. 1, is that of an elon-
gated U-tnbe, the open ends of which terminate
in two capillary tubes, which are bent at right
angles in opposite directions. The siie and weight
of this instrument should be adapted to the size
and capability of the balance in which it is to be
weighed. As our usual balances indicate y^ mil-
ligram when loaded with 60 grms., the U-tnhe,

no. 1.

when charged with the liquid, should not be
heavier than 1000 gr. (—64' 799 grms.).

" The instrument which served for my determi-
nations, mentioned below, had a length of 17*7

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SPECIFIC QEAVITT

1661

em. (7 inclies), and was made of a glan tnbe, the
outer diameter of which was 11 mm. (-^ of an
inch). It need hardly be mentioned that the
U-snape is adopted for the sake of presenting a
large surface, and so rendering the instrument
sensitive to changes of temperature. The point,
however, I wish to notice more particularly (for
reasons explained below) is the different calibre
of the two capillary tubes. The shorter one is
a good deal narrower (at least towards the end)
than the longer one, the inner diameter of which
u about i mm. The horizontal part of this wider
tube is marked near the bend with a delicate line
(i). This line and the extremity of the opposite
capillary tnbe (a) are the marks which limit the
volume of the liquid to be laid.

" The filling of the instrument is easily effected
hy suction, provided that the little bulb apparatus
(as represented in fig. 2) has previously been
attached to the narroa capillary tnbe by means
of a perforated stopper, i. «. a bit of an india-
rubber tube tightly fitting the conical tubules of
the bulb. On dipping the wider and longer capil-
lary tnbe into a liquid, suction appli^ to the
open end of the indu-rubber tube wul produce a
IHurtial vacuum in the apparatus, cansing the
liquid to enter the U-tube. As the partial vacuum
maintains itself for some lime (on account of the
bulb, which acts as an air-chamber), it is not
necessary to continue the suction of the end if
the indu-mbber tube be closed by compression
between the fingers. When bulb and U-tnbe
have about equal capacity it is hardly necessary
during the fllUng to repeat the exhaustion more
than once.

" Without such a bulb the filling of the U-tabe
through these fine capillary tubes is found some-
what tiresome; the emptying the U-tube is effected
by reversing the action, and so compressing the
air. After the U-tube has been filled it is detached
from the bulb, placed in water of the standard
temperature almost up to the bends of the capil-
lary tubes, left there nntil it has assumed this
temperature, and, after a careful a4jnstment of
the volume, is taken out, dried, and weighed.

" Particular care must be taken to ensure the
correctness of the standard temperature, for a
mistake of 0-1° eanses the weight of 10 c.c. of
water to be estimated either too high or too
low by 0*14 milligram, giving rise to an error
in the fifth decimal, or making 100,000 parts
100001*4 parts. These determinations have been
made in Dupr^'s apparatus, which, when furnished
with a sensitive thermometer, allows the finctua-
tions of temperature to be fixed within the limits
of 001°. If many determinations had to be
made, I shonld avail myself of Scheibler's
(• ZmtteiriftfUr AncUgtitehe Chemie^ vol. vii, p.
88, 1868) electro-magnetic regulator for main-
taining a constant temperature.

"Apecnligr feature of myinstmment is the ease
and precision with which the measurement of the
liquid can be adjusted at the moment it has taken
the standard temperature ; for it will be found
that the liquid expands and contracts only in the
wider capillary tnbe, via. in the direction of
the least resutance. The narrow capillary tnbe
remains always completely filled. Sapposing the
liquid reaches beyond tlie mark i, it may be re-

duced through cajdllary force by touching the
point a with a little roll of filtering-paper.
Supposing, however, that in so doing too much
liquid is abstracted, capillary force will redress
the fault if point a be touched with a drop of
the liquid under examination ; for this gentie
force acts instantly throngh the whole mass of
the liquid, cansing it to move forward again to
or beyond the mark.

" As the instrument itself possesses the proper-
ties of a delicate thermometer, the time when it
has reached the standard temperature of the bath
may be learned from tite stability of the thread
of liquid inside the wider tnbe. The length of
this thread remains constant after the lapse of
about ^« minultM.

" In wiping the instrument (after its removal
from the bath) care should be taken not to touch
point a, as capillarity might extract some of the
liquid; otherwise the handling of the liquid
requires no especial precaution.

FiQ. S.

Vlii

" The capillary tubes need not be closed for the
purpose of arresting evaporation, at least that of
water. I have learned from the mean of several
determinations that the error arising from this
source amounts in one hour to f\, of a milligram.

" In cases where the temperature of the balance-
room is high, and the expansion co-effident of the
liquid to be examined is considerable, it may be
found necessary to pnt a small cap (bead-shaped
and open at both ends) over the extremity of the
wider capillary tube, for the purpose of retuning
the liquid, which during the time of weighing
might otherwise be lost, owing to its expansion.
When a cap is used the wider capillary tube need
not be longer than the narrow one."

The 'Comptes Bendus' (Ixxxvi. 350—862,
'Joum. Chem. Soc') describes a new specific
gravil^ apparatus, the invention of H. Pisani>

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i6«a

SPECTACLES— SPECTRUM ANALYSIS

The apparstas in qaestion consists of a glass vessel
about 6 C.C, capacity, closed with a perforated
stopper like an ordinary specific gravity bottle.
To the side of the vessel is joined a tube, coming
off at an angle of about 46 , about 26 cm. long,
and 4 mm. internal diameter, and graduated at
60ths of a c.c. The vessel is flUed with water,
the level of which is read off in the tube held
vertically, the finger being held over the hole
in the stopper; 2 or 8 grams of a mineral are
then placed in the flask, the stopper is replaced,
care being taken to lose no water, and the level
is again read off in the gradoated tube, held
vertically as before. The difference in the
two readings gives the volume of the mineral
taken.

SPECTACLES. See Ete, Vibiok, &e.

SPECTBOBCOPE. An instrament devised for
examining the spectra of flames in spectram
analysis (see leloto).

8PECTSUII Air ALIBIS. When a ray of sun-
light u allowed to pass through a small round
hole in the closed window-shutter of a dark room
a round white spot of light will appear, exactly in
the direction of the ray, upon a screen placed
opposite the hole in the shutter. If, however,
the ray of light be made to fall upon a prism of
glass, it is at once deflected from its straight
course upwards; that is to say, towards the base
of the prism (the lattei being placed with one
angle pointing directly downwuds), and away
from the sharp edge of the refracting surface.
On emergence it no longer forms a single ray,
but is separated into many monocoloured rays,
which as they diverge form upon the screen an
elongated band of bnlliant colours instead of the
former round white image of the sun.

In the brilliant band the individual colours
blend gradually one into the other, beginning at
that end lying nearest the direction of the inci-

dent ray, with the least refrangible colour, darl:
red ; this passes imperceptibly into orange, and
orange again into bright yellow; a pure green
succeeds, which is shaded off into a brilliant blue, .
and this gives place to a deep indigo ; a delicate
purple leads finally to a soft violet, by which the
range of the visible ray is terminated.

The prism analyses the white light (b), sepa-
rating it into the coloured rays of which it is
composed, forming a coloured image (b'), which
is called the ipeotmm.

By a similar experiment it can be shown that
the light of the celestial bodies, the electric
spark, and of all ordinary flames is of a compound
nature. In order to observe this phenomenon
with accuracy, and to study its variations accord-
ing to the kind of light employed, an instrament
has been devised called the spectroscope.

Every spectroscope is composed essentially of a
slit throogh which the light passes from its
source, and the width of which can be regulated ;
a collimating lens for making the rays which
have passed through the slit parallel ; and a prism
which may be eitiier of solid glass, or may be
hollow and filled with some refracting liquid.
Since the spectrum emerging from the prism is
very small, a telescope is usually added through
which to examine it ; the prism is also usually
enclosed in a tube, and other devices may be re-
sorted to in order to exclude all light except that
which is to bo analysed.

In the engr. Z is the source of light, C a tube
canying the collimating lens I and tiie adjust-
able slit 8; Pit the prism, and T the telescope.

Since the coloured rays composing the spec-
trum form an angle with the incident rays as
they enter the prism, it is necessary either that
the tube of the telescope and the prism should be
capable of adjustment, or that a compound prism
should be adapted as in the case of direct vision
instruments, convenient forms of which are de-
scribed at the end of this article.

When a substance is gradually heated, a tem-
perature will in time be reached when that sub-
stance becomes luminous. As the temperature
continues to rise the substance will give off va-
poun or gases which glow with some definite
coloured light. The light varies in character
according to the substance examined; thus when
potassium, sodinm, and Uthinm are heated in a

sufficiently hot fiame, luminous rays are evolved
which are respectively lilnc, yellow, and red.

Now when in the case of a metal, for instance,
the quantity present is extremely minute, and
the luminous rays proportionately scanty, this
colour may escape notice; and this is especially
the case when several metals are present at the
same time. It is in such cases that the spectro-
scope can with advantage be resorted to.

Suppose that a flame contains several metals in
a state of being vaporised. If now the light
which proceeds from this flame be allowed to
pass through a very narrow slit at A, collected by
a lens, and transmitted through a prism of dear
flint glass, or through a hollow prism B, filled
with bisulphide of carbon, all the rays of any one
colour will be refracted in a definite direction,
so that when an observer looks through the tele-
scope at C, he will perceive as many images of

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SPBCTBUM ANALYSIS

1668

the slit as there are colonrs in the flame. The
prism may be slowly moved roand by a handle
attached to a stage on which it rests, in order

that these images (the different parts of the
spectmm) may be successively brought into
right.

Any flame that emits white light — such, for in-
stance, as an ordinary gas flame — will give what is
called a continuous tpeetrum ; that is to say, a
series of overlapping images of the slit in all the
colours of which white light is composed. If,
however, a good Bunsen flame be employed, a
single image of the slit will be seen in the form
of a bright yellow line in the same place where
the brightest yellow was seen in the continuons
spectram. Were the ur in the neighbourhood of
the flame pore and completely free from dost,
this line would not appear ; it is dne to the pre-
sence of traces of sodium derived from ihe dxut
in the air, and it becomes very intense if a little
sodium chloride be held in the flame on a loop of
platinum wire.

Hot sodium vapour emits yellow light only. By
means of the spectroscope the eye can detect with
the greatest ease less than 1-3,000,000 of a milli-
giam of a sodium salt. But many other hot me-
tallic vapours emit more than one kind of light.
Hence they give two or more coloured images of
the slit in different parts of the spectrum ; this is
called the bright-line spectmm. Thos the heated
▼aponr of lithium emits a mixture of red and
yellow rays, the former predominating ; and hence
the spectmm of a flame containing this vapour
exhibits a very bright band of red light and a
comparatively dull band of yellow light. Potas-
Axaa vapour under the same conations gives a
darker red band and a feeble violet Innd of
light.

If the solar spectmm be examined many darHc
lines placed parallel to the edge of the prism will
be noticed] these are known as Frauenhofer's
lines, though Dr Wollaston discovered them.
Some, by reason of their strength and their rela-
tive positions, may always be easily recognised,
and serveas references. Sources of light which do
not contain volatile constituents furnish continu-
ous spectra exhibiting no such lines ; but if such
constituents are present, well-defined bright lines
are observed, the breadth of which is limited by
that of the slit, and these spectra are called line-
tpeetra, or bright lint spectra.

The spectra of the non-metals, whidi are of
course obtained at mnch lower temperatures, are
made up of bright bands, not lines, and the
breadth of these is independent of the shape of

the slit; these spectra are called channellai-tpaee
tptetra. Chemical compounds, such as calcium
chloride, which can be volatilised without decom-
position, yield spectra which consist of a series of
difFerently coloured broad bands.

Bunsen in his first memoir says, " Those who
become acquainted with the various spectra by
repeated observation do not need to have before
them an exact measurement of the single lines in
order to be able to detect the presence of the
various constituents. The colour, relative posi-
tion, peculiar form, variety of shade, and bright-
ness of the bands are quite characteristic enough
to ensure exact results even in the bands of per-
sons nnaccustomed to such work. These special
distinctions may be compared with the difference
of outward appearance presented by the various
precipitates which we employ for detecting sub-
stances in the wet way. Just as it holds good as
a character of a precipitate that it is gelatinous,
pulverulent, floccnlent, granular, or crystalline, so
the lines of the spectrum exhibit their peculiar
aspects, some appearing sharply defined at their
edge, others blending oB at either one side or both
sides, either similarly or dissimilarly; or soml,
again appearing broader, others narrower; and just
as in ordinary analyses we only make use of those
precipitates which are produced with the smallest
possible quantity of the substance supposed to be
present, so in analysis with the spectrum we em-
ploy only those lines which are produced by the
smallest possible quantity of the substance, and
require a moderately high temperature. In these
respects both analyticaJ methods stand on an
equal footing, but analyses with the spectra
possess a great advantage over all other methods,
inasmuch as the characteristic difFerences of
colour of the lines serve as the distinguishing
feature of the system. ... In spectrum analysis
the coloured bands are unaffected by alteration of
physical conditions or by the presence of other
bodies. The positions which the lines occupy in
the spectrum g^ve rise to chemical properties as
unalterable as the combining weights themselves,
and which can therefore be estimated with an
almost astronomical precision."

Absorption Spectra. Every incandescent body
is capable of absorbing at the same temperature
the same kind of light which it emits ; hence a
body which yields under such conditions a con-
tinuous spectrum exhibits at the same temperature
a continuous absorption spectrum, and a body
whose emission spectmm is discontinuous yields
under similar conditions a discontinnous or broken
spectrum. This selective absorption is very
general. The place of the bright lines is taken by
black lines (Frannhofer's lines) in absorption
spectra, or in other words the spectra are re-
versed.

Selective absorptdon is exhibited by certain
bodies at ordinary temperatures, and this serves
as a means of detecting the presence of the sub-
stance in question. As an example we may cite
the spectrum reaction of blood.

It is possible to detect by means of these bands
the presence of carbon monoxide and various
foreign substances in the blood, and to determine
the identity of a blood-stain several years old.

The ordinary sodiumspectrum gives two bright

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SPECTRUM ANALYSIS

^tS^.^^^^^^-": T^faespeetru.

..V 1:"° .'" position with the two bright Hneg

above

mentionwl.

Amongst other practical applications of the
spectroscope to the arts and mannfactnres may
be noticed the examination of the flame in
Bessemer steel making. There is a certain point
where the flame drops, when it is necessary to stop

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1566

SPELTER— SPHEROIDAL STATE

separately under a little black flnx ; next incor-
porate them tboronghly by stirring, and mn the
metal into the moalds, so that the face of the in-
tended mirror may be downwards j lastly, allo#
the whole to cool very slowly.

2. Pure copper, 2 }>art8 ; pure tin, 1 part. Used
to make the mirrors of reflecting telescopes. The
addition of a little metallic arsenic, zinc, and
silver renders it harder and more sosoeptible of a
high polish.

BPXLTEB. See Znro.

SPXBMACX'TI. 8y». Cbtaobttx (B. P., Ph.
L., E., & D.), L. The solid fat which is dissolved
in sperm oil in the cephalic cavity of the sperm
whije {Phyteter macrocephalmt), and which after
death separates as a solid.

JPrep. The oil is filtered off, the fat heated
with potash, and then melted down.

Prop, White, inodorous, scaly, brittle mass,
nentnu to test-papers, and when pure, nearly
tasteless. Sp. gr. 0943 at 16° C. Melting-point,
88° — 47° C. Spermaceti chiefly consists of cetylic
palmitate, C]«H„Oj,(CuH,|). It is demulcent and
emollient, and is chiefly used in ointments and
cerates.

SPEAOKUM. Syn. Tttbp hobs. Boo xoss.
Used as a surgical dressing for absorbing dis-
charge from wounds, also nrinary discharges in
diseases of the bladder and kidneys. When dry
it absorbs eight times its weight of water.

SPBUBOIO'AXi STATE. It is found that water,
or any other volatile liquid, thrown on a metallic
plate heated to dull redness, is not resolved into
vapour, but, assuming a somewhat globular form,
remuus intact until the temperature becomes
snffieiently lowered to allow of contact between
the liquid and the heated surface. It is then im-
mediately volatilised. M. Boatigny, who fully
investigated this subject, has also shown that the
same thing happens when a solid body containing
water is substituted for the liquid in the above
and similar experiments. Thus the finger or
hand, under certain restrictions, may be thrust,
with perfect impunity, into a stream of molten
metal, and ice may oe produced |by throwing
water into a red-hot cmcible. This last experi-
ment, as performed by MM. Boutigny and Pre-
Tostaye, is essentially as follows:— A thick
platinum crucible, of the capacity of 1 fl. oz., is
heated to redness over a powerful spirit lamp,
and some liquid anhydrous sulphurous acid (a
very volatile substance) poured into it by means
of a pipette ; the acid assumes a spheroidal form,
and does not evaporate ; a few drops of water are
now introduced into the sulphurous acid in the
same way ; the diluted and slightly cooled acid
instantly &Mhes off in vapour, and, robbing the
water of its caloric, leaves the latter in a frozen
state ; and, if the operator seizes the right moment,
a solid lump of ice may be thrown out of the red-
hot crucible.

By substituting for anhydrous sulphurous acid
a mixture of solid carbonic anhydride and ether,
and for water a few grains of quicksilver, this
latter may be reduced to the solid condition, and
may be turned out of the red-hot cmcible in the
form of a small frozen mass.

The spheroidal condition of " liquids is a com-
plicated result of at least four distinct causes. Of

these the most influential is the repulsive force
which heat exerts between objects which ara
closely approximated towards each other. Wlien
the temperature reaches a certain point aebaml
repulsion between the particles ensues.

"Besides this repulsive action occasioned by
heat, the other causes which may be meiAdoned as
tending to produce the assumption of the sphe*
roidal condition by the liquid are these :

"1. The temperature of the plate is so higii
that it immediately converts any liquid that
touches it into vapour, upon which the spheroid
rests as on a cushion.

" 2. This vapour ii a bad conductor of heat, uid
prevents the rapid conduction of heat from the
metal to the globule.

" 8. The evaporation from the entire surface at
the liquid carries off the heat as it arrives, and
assists in keeping the temperature below Uia
points of ebullition. The drop assumes the sphe-
roidal form as a necessary consequence of the
action of cohesion among the particles of the
liquid, and the simultaneous action of gravity on
the mass" (^;2«r).

Boutigny found that, when a liquid in a state
of ebullition was brought into contact with a sur-
face heated to such a degree as to cause the liqnid
to assume the spheroidal state, its temperatnra
immediately fell 8° or 4° C. below the boiling.
4)oint.

All liquids are capable of assuming the sphe-
roidal condition ; but, as the temperature neces-
sary for this purpose varies with the boiling-point
of each liquid (the lower the boiling-point the
lower the temperature necessary, and mce tertS),
it follows that the conducting surface requires to
be differently heated for each liquid. The exact
temperature to which the plate should be heated
to produce the spheroidal condition in any liqnid
depends x>artly upon the conducting power of the
plate, and partly upon the latent heat of the
vapour ; the less tlus is, the more nearly the tem-
perature of the plate approximates to the boiling-
point of the liquid.

Boutigny beUeved that the temperature of each
liquid, when in the spheroid condition, was as in-
variable as that of its boiliug-point ; but Boutan
has demonstrated that this is a not quite accurate
statement, since the temperature of the same
liquids, when assuming the spheroidal form, is
liable to slight divergence.

The following table, showing the lowest tem-
perature of the plate and the temperature of the
spheroid for certain liquids, is given by Boutigny :

Liquid employea.

Hate.

Tempentare of
Spheroid.

°F.

°C.

"F.

«C.

Water . . . .
Alcohol . . . .
Ether . . . .
Sulphurous anhy-
dride . . .

840
273
142

171

134

61

...

205-7

1679

93-6

181

96-4
75-5
84-2

10-S

Solids may also be made to assume the sphs'

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SPICE— SPIRIT

1667

Toidat condition, aa when, for instance, some
crystals of iodine are thrown npon a red-hot
platinQm disc, or into a platinnm crucible similarly
heated.

The nature of the plate or cmrible employed
appears to be immaterial, provided it be a good
condactor. Flatinam, silveT, copper, and iron
answer eqaaUy well ; indeed, Tomlinson has shown
that one liquid may even be made to assume the
spheroidal state on the surface of another, aa
when water, alcohol, and ether are placed upon
hot oil. If the experiment be conducted with
water it must be carefully managed, since, if the
water be allowed to sink in the oil, it soon
becomes converted into steam, with the result that
the hot oil is scattered to the danger of the
operator.

Boutigny has advanced the opinion that the
property of water to assume the spheroidal state
under the conditions we have specified will account
for certain cases of explosion in steam boilers.
Thus we can imagine a boiler which baa run dry
of water to have become intensely overheated.
Under these circumstances, when fresh water was
admitted, it would at first assume the spheroidal
state ; and as more cold water fiowed into it the
Ixnler would become thereby reduced in tem-
perature until it reached the point at which its
'Conversion into steam would take place ; the
sudden generation, large volume, and elastic force
of which would lead to the rupture of the boiler,
accompanied with explosive violence.

SPICE. A general name for vegetable sub-
stances possessing aromatic and pungent pro-
perties, and employed for seasoning or ^vouring
food.

SplMk Cattle. The following formula (^ves an
excellent condiment, a teacnpful of which should
bo given in a bran mash once a week, or of tener :
— Linseed cake, 14 lbs. ; gentian, 1 lb. ; liquorice,
1 lb. ; fenugreek, f lb. ; nitre, i lb. ; ginger
(African), t lb. ; anise, 6 oz. ; coriander, 6 oz. ;
sulphur, 6 oz. ; cinchona, 4 oz. (all ground). Mix
all the ingredients except the linseed meal, then
incorporate it gradually.

Bplce, Horse. Syn. Caw bpiob; SPBona

IQViinrB, L. Prtp. 1. Aniseed, allspice, cumin

seed, ginger, Uqnorice, and turmeric, equal parts.

2. Turmeric and cumin seed, of each, 6 lbs.;

ginger, 2^ lbs. Used by farriers.

Spice, Eit'chen. Syn. Mixkd sfios, Eitohsk
PBPPBB, &C. JPrtp. From black pepper, 2 lbs. ;
ginger, 1 lb.; cinnamon, allspice, and nutmegs,
ot each, 8 oz.; doves, 1 oz. ; dry salt, 6 lbs. ; well
ground together. Useful to flavour gravies,
soup, &c.

Spice, Klzed. Aa the last, omitting half the salt.
Spioe, Pease. See Powdxb.
Spice, Sagoilt. Prep. From dry salt, 1 lb. ;
flour of mustard, black pepper, and grated lemon
peel, of each, } lb. ; cayenne pepper, 2 oz.; all-
spice and ginger, of each, 1 oz. ; nutmeg, i oz. ;
all separately powdered.

Spi«e, Sausage (French). £^. fipiOB noraa,
Fr. Prep. From black pepper, 5 lbs.; ginger,
21 lbs. ; cloves and nutmegs, of each, 1 lb. ; ani-
seed and coriander seeds, of each, 1 lb.; powder
and mix them.

Spiee, 8«"voaiy. Prep, 1. (SSddei'*.) Prom

cloves, mace, natmegs, pepper, and salt, equal
parts. Used by cooks.

2. (Dr Kitchener':) See SpiOB, RlOOOx
(aiove).

Spiee, Soap. Syn. Kitohbvbb's soitp-bxhb

FOWSBB, EiTCHBNBB'S VBOBTABLB BBLIBH, &C.

Prep. From paisley, lemon thyme, sweet mar-
joram, and winter savoury, of each, dried, 2 oz. ;
sweet basil and yellow peel of lemon, of each,
dried, 1 oz,; mix and powder.

Spiee, Sweet (XMider'*). Prep. From cin-
namon, doves, mace, nutmegs, and sugar, equal
pcuts. Used in paatiy.

SFIOE'LIA. Sj/n. Caboldta pikx-bootj
SpiaBLiA (U. S. P.), L. The root of Spigelia
marilandiea. It is purgative, narcotic, and vermi-
fuge.— Z)of«, 10 to 40 gr., in powder or infusion
night and morning, until the worms are expelled.
Bhubarb or calomel is commonly added to it.

SPIRIT. 8f»- Sfibitub, L. Under this
term are included all the inflammable and intoxi-
cating liquors obtuned by distillation, and used
aa beverages, as bbanst, aiN, buk, &c., each of
which is noticed in its alphabetical order. Spirit
may also be obtained by fermentation and distil-
lation from all vegetable juices or solutions that
contun sugar.

The spirit used in pharmacy and chemistry is
distinguished by names which have reference to
its richness in alcohol. See Tablbb on next page.

Spirituous liquors, like all other fluids at com-
mon temperatures, expand when they are heated,
and diminish in volume when they are cooled.
It is found that 1000 galls, of proof spirit,
measured at the temperature of SCP F., will, if
re-moasored at 69°, be found to have increased in
bulk to tan 1004i gaUs. ; whilst 1000 galls, of
the same spirit, measured at 77° ^., will be only
equal to 991i galls, at 69°. These changes are
still more marked at higher strengths and at
extreme temperatures, and, from not being recog-
nisable by the hydrometer, often lead to serious
losses in trade, and to serious fluctuations in
' stock,' which, to those unaware of the action of
temperature, are perfectly unacconntable. A
gallon of proof sfnrit only weighs 9^ lbs. at 60° F.
At a higher temperature it will weigh less — at a
lower one more ; but as this weight constitutes
the standard gallon at the temperature the proof
is calculated for, it is manifest that any varia-
tions from it must result in loss either to the
buyer or seller. Hence the equity of buying and
selling liquors by weight instead of by measure.
The stock-keeper in every wholesale house should
be aware of this fact, and on ' taking stock '
should as regularly enter the temperature of his
liquors in his stock-book as he does the ' dip ' or
' wet inches.' See Alcohol, Alcohoiokbtkt,
Speoipio Obatitt, Spibits (Medicinal), Spibitb
(Perfumed), Sas.

Spirit of Acetic Sther. 5jr«>. Spntmra
ATHBBia AOSTioi (Pruss. I^), L. Prep. Acetic
ether, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 8 oz.
Spirit, Aleilteriiw. l^n. Spibitub axbxi-

TBBIUS, AQVA AI.BZITBBIA BPIBITVOSA (Ph. L.

1746). Prep. Mint, ) lb.; angelica root, 4 oz.;
tops of sea-wormwood, 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 gall,
(old wine measure) ; water, a sufficient quantity.
Distil 1 gaU.

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1668

SPIBIT

I. Tabxm of tkt Nutmaeopuidl Sfiritt.

Sp.gr.

Aleoiol, Ph. B. (alMoInte) . . 0-797
„ Ph. B 0796

nearly

pnre

Alcohol.

Ph. D. 1826
Ph. L. 1886

0-810or70%o.p.
0-816 „ 68%

*'S'ph^ (Spirit™ For-l Q.gjg _ gg^
... . ^^^

*SeeHfled Spirit (8pi.otWin9i\f.,
Spiritiu Rectiflcatns), B. P. J

8p.gr.

Jtae^ledl^yirit,yb.D. . 0-840<n-64}% o.p.

Proof lifirit(Bp\TitxiaTemaor), "1 .---
Ph. B j-0-920^

.<iIooioI (abiolute), P. Cod. . 0-797 „ —
„ (8*40") „ . 0-810., 70% „

„ (daoommeiee),P.Cod. 0-868 ,,41% „
„ (WWe) „ 0-923,. 2i%a.p.

* " Thii ntirit can he reduced to the itandard of the weaker (or proof) spirit bj adding, to
every S pints of it, 3 pints of distilled water at 62° F." (Ph. L.).

II. Tablb of tie Pritteipal Spirituoiu Liguort told in England, with their —nal Strength*, 4^.

Deiiomiiution.

•Gin (ttrongett) .

•Do. (heH ordinary)
fDo. [eordiaf) . .

tDo

^Peppermint . . .

tDo

JCloves ". . . .
XBrtten ....
{Raspherry . . .
{Noyan ....
{Cinnamon . . .

tTent

{Aniseed ....
JCaraway ....
{Lovage ....
JTJaquebaDgh . .
tOnmge cordial
JCitron ....
Rum

X(l7n.p.)

X(22n.p.
X (22 a. p.
X (24 n. p.)
X mint
do.

X (64 n. p.)

{Bom shrub . .

JDo

French brandy.

§Spirit of wine

Malt, g^rain, or molasses
spirit {tent out by Brit-
iih dittUleri) ...

HoUands . .
Whiskey (Irith)
Do. {Scotch) .

Bneane
lUrk.

B. Sh.
do.
F.

S.W.

P.S.

Oenera
P.S.
P.S.

Import
8«reii(th.

Aboat

10 o. p. to

43 o. p.

Aboat
6 o. p. to 8
or 10 Q. p.

::: }

Legtllimite

of

Slreiicth.

Not stronger
than 25 o. p.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

No limit

do.
do.
do.

Not less than
43 o. p.

Not stronger
than 25 o. p.

No limit
Not stronger
than 25 o. p.

Usoal Selliag Streagth.

Pnrnit.

ConUias
Alcohol
ofO-8U.

17 u. p.

22 a,
24 a.
60 a.

64 a. p.

64 a.

11 a. p.

64 a. p.
60 a. p.
10 a. p.

54 to 64
o.p.

{'z

CoDtains
abaolste
Alcohol.

51-60%

64%

64-8%

40%

37-4%

do.
86-6%
21%
18%

do.

48%

40-6%

60%

50-2%

Bpceilic

QrtTity at

tfflt.

0-9395

0-9445

110-
110-
||0-
||0-

1066
tol-080

0-9329
to 0-8597

no-
ne-

0-9318

0«U6
to 0-8221

0-8669

toO-9318

0-9858

• Frequently retried at 25 to 36 u. p. t Though 'permitted' at 22 to 24, are genenJly
from 25 to 35 a. p., or even weaker. J These, though • permitted ' at 60 or 64 a. p., are generally
75 or 80 u. p. § Usual strength 64 to 60 o. p. |{ The specific gravity is no guide when sugar
is present, as in compounds.

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SPIBIT

1600

Spirit, Ainy^e. See Vvsml Oeu

^iritof Aageliea. 8fn. SpismrB juroBuoai.
Pnp, Sliced angelica Toot, 8 ox.; sliced valerian,
i 01, ; braised jnniper berries, 1 oi. Pat into a re-
tort, and poor on 9 ox. of rectified spirit by wmght,
and 16i oz. of water, and macerate for 24 hoars ;
then diaw ont 12} oz. (by weight), in which dis-
aolve ^ 01. of camphor.

Spirit of Ants. SpiBrrvB wovmaisoii (Ph.
0.),L. i>rm. Ants freshly collected and bmised,
2 Ibe.; spirit of wine (at -830), 8 lbs. ; water, 8
lbs. Macerate for 2 days. Distil 4 lbs.— Do««,
20 to 60 drops; also used outwardly.

Spirit, Bine. Sfyn. SpiaiTtra ooiRtruiVB
(Ham. Ph.). Prep. Wormwood, scordiam, savin,
uvender flowers, of each, H oz. ; proof spirit, 6

Sints; distil 2} pints, and add 6 dr. of ver-
igtis, and water of ammonia, 9 oz. For outward
ose.

Spirit of Bryony (Compound). Sgn. SpiBinrs
BBTOina ooioraaiTvg (Ph. K. 1744). Frep.
Bryony, } lb. j valerian, 2 oz. ; pennyroyal, 8 oz. ;
rne, 8 oz. ; mngwort feverfew flowers, savin tops,
of each, 4 dr.; orange peel, 1 oi. ; lovage seeds, 1
oz. : brandy, 1 gall. ; distiL Without the bryony
this preparation is known as Agpia igttariea. —
JDoM, 1 oz.

Spirit of C^|epnt. i%w. Spnunra OAJiFm
(B. P.). iVep. Dissolve 1 fl. oz. of oil of c%jepnt
in 49 fl. oz. of rectified spirit.

Spirit of Cardamom. S^. SFrsmra o&b-
I>AMO]a(Ph.L. 1746). Prep. Cardamom seed,
6 troy oz.; proof spin^ 1 gafl.; water, a snfident
quantity. Distil 1 gall.

Spirit of Chlorobrm. S^n. SFiBirua otao-
BOrosHX (B. P;). Prep. Dissolve 1 fl. oz. of
chloroform in 19 fl. oz. (A rectified spirit. Sp. gr.
•871. "

Spirit of Cloves. Bjfn, SriBiTiTa cabto-
PHTIM (P. Cod.). Prep. Cloves, 10 oz.; spirit
(•884), 80 oz., by weight; draw over aU the
spirituous part.

Spirit ef Coriander, i^fn. Smxtm oo-
siAirpBi (P. Cod.). Prep' Coriander seed, 1
oz.; spirit (-0864), by wtight, 8 oz. Distil to
dryness.

Spirit, Dyer's. See Tnr MosDAirta.

^iril^ Febriflige, of Clntton. 8^. Sfisitus
ysBBiruaua Cldtiori. See Sfibit ow Htdso-
OHiiOBio Ethsb. Prep. The original form is —
oil of sulphur by the bell, oU of vitriol, and sea
•alt, of each, 1 oz. ; spirit of wine, 6 oz. Let them
digest for a month, then distil to dryness.

Spirit, noravaati. Sffn. SFntnnra noBA-
TASTI (P. Cod.). iVep. Swiss turpentine, 6 oz. ;
elemi, 1 oz. ; resin of taeamahoca, 1 oz. ; amber,
1 oz.;. liquid st^nz, 1 ox.; galbannm, 1 oz.;
myrrh, 1 oz. ; aloes, ) oz. s bay berries/l oz, ; gv
langa root, i oz.; ginger, i oz.; zedoazy root,
i oz. ; cinnamon, i oz. ; cloves, i oz. ; nutmeg,
} oz. ; leaves of cretnm marnm, i oz. Macerate
6 days and distil over a water-bath till 86 oz.
come over.

Spirit of Hmrar Sage. 8f.armsTUBUi.nM.
Prep. Flower sage, 1 lb. ; rectified spirit, 8 lbs. j
water, 1 lb. Distil 8 lbs.

Spirit of Frmeh Wine. Sgn. SFiBirva run
emLLtoi ; Bbaitdt.

Spirit of Lemon PeeL %•. Bearrm aaaa
Tos. n.

ooxnom. With lemon peel as BFIBIT 0> OBUrSB

FBXC

Spirit of Kaijoram. %«. SFtBrrua icABJOBAiua.
Prep. Sweet marjoram, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 8
lbs. ; water, 1 lb. Distil 8 lbs.

Spirit of Mastic (Componnd). Sj/n. Spdutitb
KUTI0RB8 OOKPOaiTUB. Prep. Mastic, 1 oz. ;
myrrh, 1 oz.; olibaaum, 1 oz. ; rectified s^t, 1
pint ; distiL

Spirit, Meth'ylated. Spirit of wine to which
one tenth of its volume of wood naphtha (strength
not less than 60% o. p.) has been added, the object
of such addition being that of rendering the miz"
ture unpotable through its offensive odonr and
iasto. The purification of this mixed spirit, or
the separation of the two alcohols, though often
attempted, has always proved a failure. It might
be supposed that, owing to the low boiling>p(nnt
of methylic aloohol, simple distillation would
effect this ; but experience has shown that both
spirits distil over simultaneously. This is, no
doabt, due to the dilterence of their vapour denu-
ties. Methylated spirit, being sold duty free, can
be employed by the chemical manufacturer as a
solvent in many processes for which, from Iti
greater cost, duty-paid spirit would be oom*
merdally inappUcable. But in the preparation of
medicines containing spirit, as the vehicle or
menstrunm by which more active snbstaacei ve
administered, the employment of methylated spirit
is highly improper. The Council of the Phanna-
oentical Society obtained from the Pharmacopoeia
Committee of the Medical Council the decided
opimon that " the snbstitution of ' methylated '
for 'rectified* spirit in any of the processes of
the Pharmacopceia should be strictly prohibited."

The use of methylated sinrit in the preparation
of tinctures, sweet spirit of nitre, common ether,
or any medicine to be nsed internally, is now pro-
hibited by law. Certain new regulations as to
the substances to be added to spirits to be sold as
' methylated ' came into force in September, 1891.
In addition to the usual naphtha, a cerfaun
qnantity of crude benzol is required to be added.
This interferes with the dilution test for the
presence of resinous matter.

Spirit of Orange Peel. i^n. Spibitub iv-
BAirrn (P. Cod.). Prep. The yellow part of
fresh orange peel, 1 lb. ; spirit of wine (*864), 6
lbs. : macerate for 2 days, and distil by water-bath
to dryness.

Spirit of Orlganiun. 8gn. SriBmrB OBiaun.
Prep. Wild marjoram, 1 lb. ; rectified spirit, 8
lbs. ; water, 1 lb. DistU 3 lbs.

Spirit of Fara Creaa. Sf. Sfibitcb an-
LAKTHI {Beral). Prep. Bruised Para cress
{SpUanSiet oleraeea), in flower, 1 part; smrit
(•868), 8 parte. Macerate 8 or 8 days, and ustU
8 parte.

Spirit, Proof. See Aloohoe.

Spirit Pyroaee'tic. S})n. Aobtonb ; SPiBmrB

VTBOAOBTIOUa, L. ; AO^TOITB, EbPBIT FTBO-

AO£TI()m, Fr. An inflammable volatile liquid
obtained with carbonic acid and other produete
when the metellic acetates in an anhydrons stete
are sulgected to destructive distillation. The
aoetate of kad is the most eligible salt for this
purpose.
Prep. 1. Dried acetate of lead is carefully dis-

99

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1670

SPIRIT

tilled in a large earthen or coated glass retort, by
a heat gradaally raised to redness, the volatile
products being passed through a condenser well
snpplied with cold water. The distillation is con-
tinned nntil nothing bnt 6nely divided lead (lead
pyropborns) remains in the retort. The receiver
contains crade acetone, which is to be saturated
with carbonate of potassa, and afterwards rectified
in a water-bath from chloride of calcium.

2. By passing the vaponr of strong acetic acid
through an iron tube heated to dnU redness, and
eondenmng the acetone thus formed.

Obt. & both of the above processes carbonic
add and other permanent gases are produced,
consequently the receiver must not fit too closely
to the tube of the condenser.

Prop. Colonrless, limpid, of pecuUar odour,
and very inflammable, giving a brilliant flame
without smoke; boiling-point, 182° F. ; sp. gr.
'792. It dissolves resins and essential oils. See

UbSITILOL, MsBITTL, METAOETOm, &C.

Spirit, ]^yToxyI'ic. 5y». Ptboxiqusovb bfibit.
Wood b., Mbsioihal kapeiea. Wood k., Ht-

SBATED OXIDB OP HETBTI.; SfIBITUB FTBOXT-

XIOTTB (Ph. D.), L. Alight volatile liquid, discovered
by P. Taylor, in 1812, among the limpid products
of the distillation of dry wood. It has been
shown by Dumas and Feligot to be "really a
second alcohol, forming an ether, and a series of
compounds (ubthtl bibixb) exactly correspond-
ing with those of vinous spirit, and in some points
even more complete than the latter."

Pr^. Crude pyroligneous acid (which con-
tains about 1% of the spirit) is subjected to dis-
tillation, and the first or more volatile portion
which passes over is neutralised with hydrate of
lime. After repose the clear liquid is separated
from the oil which floats on the surface, and from
the sediment at the bottom of the vessel; this,
when redistilled, forms the wood spirit of com-
merce. It may be strengthened in the same
manner as ordinary alcohol, by rectification, and
ultimately rendered pure by careful distillation
from quicldime by the heat of a water-bath. Ber-
selins recommends the crude spirit to be agitated
with a fatty oil, to remove empyreumatlc matter,
and then to rectify it, first from recently burnt
charcoal, and next with chloride of calcium.

Prop., 4*0. Pure pyroxylic spirit is a trans-
parent colourless liquid, having a penetrating
ethereal smell and a hot, disagreeable taste ; it is
very inflammable, burning with a pale blue flame.
It IS nentral to test-paper; mixes with water,
alcohol, and ether, in all proportions ; and boils at
162° F.; ro. gr. -798 at 68° F. (fiegnanU and
lAi^). Dr Ure states the sp. gr. to bo '824 at
60°: the Dnblin College makes it '846. That of
the latter mast, therefore, have contained a little
water. It does not dissolve India mbber and gutta
percha, like mineral or true naphtha.

Pyroxylic spirit is distinguished from acetone
or pyroacetic spirit by the character of its flame,
and by freely dissolving chloride of calcium, which
is quite insoluble in the latter. In a mixture of
these two liquids two dUstinct strata are formed
when this substance, either in powder or concen-
trated solution, is added.

IV^xylic spirit is distinguished from vinous
spirit by Nessler's test (which tea), by its forming

a solid crystalline salt (methylic oxalate) when
distilled with an oxalate and sulphuric add, and
by its lower boiling-point. The presence of alcohol
in a mixture of the two is readily detected by dis-
tilling the suspected sample with sulphuric acid.
The formation of common ether indicates ethylic
alcohol, and, from the amount formed, the pro-
portion of alcohol may be determined.

Cms, <f«. Chiefly to dissolve resins and volatile
oils, especially shellac, and as a substitnte for
alcohol in spirit lamps. As a medicine it is ano-
dyne and sedative, and has been beneficially em-
ployed by Drs Christison, Hastings, and ITwgan,
to allay the harassing congh, troublesome vomit-
ing, and excessive expectoration in phthisis and
some other aflections. — Dote, 6 to 80 drops, thrice
a day, in water.

Spirit, Bai'aiii. Prep. From taisins fermented
along with water, and the wash distilled by a quick
fire. Used to give a brandy flavour to malt spirit.
One gall, add^ to 160 galls, of plain spirit, along
with some colouring and a littla catechu, either
with or without a little acetic ether, makes a very
decent ' British brandy.'

Spirit of Baspberries. Sgn. SFTBirrB BlTBiti
IDJBI. Prep. Raspberries, 8 lbs. ; rectified spirit,
2 lbs. ; distil 2 lbs.

Spirit, Bac'tified. See Alooeoji, and Table I,
under SpiBlT.

Spirit of Saltf. Hydrochloric acid.

Spirit of SaMudhw. Sy*. Sfibitub babbapsab.
Prep. Sassafras, 1 troy lb.; rectified spirit
('8&), 8 lbs. macerate 4 days, and distil nearly
to dryness.

Spirit of Scurry-grass. 8mt. SnBmJB OOOH-
LBASis (Ph. G.). Prep. F^h leaves of flower-
ing scurvy-grass, 8 lbs. ; rectified spirit, 8 lbs. ;
water, 8 lbs. Distil 4 lbs.

Spirit of Scnrry-gtass (Compoiuid). Sg*.
SPIBITirB OOOHIiSABIX ooxpobitub (P. Cod.>.
Prep. Fresh scurvy-grass, 6 lbs. ; spirit ('0864),
6 lbs. ; horseradish, 10} ox. Distil 6 lbs.

Spirit of Soot. 8gn. Sfisitub TTruaiKis.
An empyreumatlc spirit was formerly distilled
from wood soot, in the same msnner as harts-
horn. An alcoholic spirit is also made from 1
part of wood soot, 6 of proof spirit, 16 of water.
Distil 4 parts.

Spirit of Soap Herbs. As essence of soup herbs,
but substituting 1 quart of brandy or proof spirit
for the rectified spirit.

Spirit of Sweet Plag Boot. %». Snarnra
OALAJn (P. Cod.). Prep. Cahunns, 1 lb. troy ;
spirit of wine ('863), 8 lbs.; macerate 4 days,
and distil nearly to dryness.

Spirit of Thyme. Sgn. Spismrs THTMI.
From lime, as spirit of sage.

Spirit of Turpentine, Ethereal. <%*. Sfibitit8
TERBBnrxHtNS STHBBBrB {Van Mofu). Prep.
Spirit of nitric ether, with as much rectified oil of
turpentine as it will dissolve. Bectified oil of
turpentine is also termed 'Ethereal spirit of
turpentine.'

Spirit of Tanilla. See EsBEiroB ov VAirtLtiA.

Spirit of Wine. See Aloohoi., and Table I,
under Sfibit.

Spirit of Wormwood (Compound). iSy». Spi-

BITUB ABBUrrEII OOKPOBITVB 7BL AQVA (Ph.
L. 1720). Prep. Dried wormwood, i Ib.j car-

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8FIBIT

1671

dunom wed, i <n. ; coriander leed, 1) oi.;
brandy, 1 gall. Diitil.

BPISITS (Kedle'inal). Syn. Spixinrs X>-
sioiVAUta, L. The spirits of pharma<7 are
either prepared by macerating the bmised seeds,
flowers, herbe, lus., in the spirit for 2 or 8 days
before distillation, and then drawing it off by a
gentle heat; or extemporaneoosly, by adding a
proper proportion of eseential (ril to pure spirit of
the prescribed strength (in tiie British Pharma-
copceia, for most distilled spirits is snbstitated a
tolotion of 1 part of volatile oil in 49 parts of
reetifled spirit — Ed.). This latter plan is very
generally adopted in the Fh. D. In the first
method, when a naked fire is employed, a little
water is put into the still along with the spirit,
to prevent empyreuma. These spirits are princi-
pally employed as aromatics and stimulant^ or as
a4jnvants in draaghts and mixtnres.

The following are the principal medicinal
spirits:

Spirit of Ammo"i>la. Sj^. Sfibitus ax-
uasiM (Ph. E.). Prtp. 1. (Ph. E.) Take of
qnicklime, 12 oz. ; shake it with water, 6i fl. oz. ;
add of finely powdered chloride of ammonium, 8
OS. ; and distil in a glass retort furnished with a
tube reaching nearly to the bottom of a bottle
containing rectified spirit, 8 pints, and kept well
cooled. A sand heat is to be employed, and the
distillation eontinned as long as anything passes
over. The product has a «p. gr. about -MS, and
shonld not effervesce with acids. The alkali is
here in the oanstic state, and in this respect it
resembles the spirit of ammonia, Fh. U. S., and
Dzond's caustic spirit of ammonia, Fh. Bor.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Chloride of ammonium, 10
01. ; carbonate of potassa, 16 oz. ; rectified spirit
and water, of each, 8 pints; mix, and let 3 pints
disfaL

8. (Ph. D. 1826.) Dissolve Si oz. of carbo-
nate of ammonia in rectified spirit, 8 wine pints.

OSf. The ammonia in the last two prepara-
tions exists in the carbonated state. They are
chiefly employed to make other preparations.

4. (AmBATBD aPIBIT OP AKKOiriA; Ll(}TTOB

AXXOBLS AiriaAxna, Spibitcb a. a. — Ph. Bor.)
Bectified spirit, 12 oz. ; oil of aniseed, 8 dr. ; dis-
solve, and add of caustic solution of ammonia
(■960), 8 oz.

6. (ASOKATIO BPIBIT OF AmiONIA, SFIBIT OP
BAIi TOIiATIXK ; SPtBITITB AKKOKLB ASOMATIOUB

— B. P., Ph. L., E.. and D.) a. (Ph. L.) Take
of hydrochlorate of ammonia, 6 oz. ; carbonate
of potassa, 10 oz. ; cinnamon and cloves, of each,
bridsed, 2} dr. j fresh lemon peel, 6 oz. ; rectified
spirit and water, of each, 2 quarts ; mix, and dis-
til 8 quarts. Sp. gr. -918.

b. (Ph. E.) Spirit of ammonia, 8 fl. oz. ; oil of
rosemary, 1^ fl. dr. ; oil of lemon ped, 1 fl. dr. ;
mix.

e. (Ph. D.) Bectified spirit, 8 pints; oil of
lemon, ) fl. oz. ; oil of nutmeg, 2 fl. dr. ; oil of
cinnamon, i fl. dr. ; dissolve, and add of stronger
solution of ammonia, 6 fl. oz. Sp. gr. '862.

d. (B. P.) Carbonate of ammonium, 4 oz.;
(trong solution of ammonia, 8 oz. ; volatile oil of
nutmeg, 4^ dr.; oil of lemon, 6i dr.; rectified
spirit, 6 pints ; water, 8 pints ; mix the oils with
the spirit and water, distil 7 pints, then distil an

additional 9 oz. ; in the 9 oz. dissolve the am-
monia and carbonate of ammonium, and gradu-
ally mix it with the 7 pints of spirit. The pro-
duct should measure 1 gall. — Dote, 20 to 60
minims in camphor water.

Oi*. The ammonia exists in the state of neu-
tral carbonate in the product of the a form<d^
but in the caustic state in those of the others.—-
Dote, i to 1 fl. dr., in water or any bland liquid ;
as a diffusible stimulant and antacid in debility,
low spirits, dyspepsia, heartburn, flatulent eoUe,
hysteria, &c. The spirit of sal volatile of tiie
shops is generally a spnrioos compound of little
more than half the above strength.

6. (Fbtid spirit op akmonia; Spibixus ax-
KONUi KariDVB — B. P,, Ph. L., E., and D.)
a. (Ph. L.) Hydrochlorate of ammonia, 10 oz. ;
carbonate of potassa, 16 oz. ; assaf oetida, 6 oz. ;
rectified spirit and water, of each, 8 pints ; mix
well, then slowly distil 8 pints. Sp. gr. '861.

i. (Ph. E.) Spirit of ammonia^ lOi fl. oz.;
assafoetida (Ivoken small), i oz. ; digest tot 12
hours, then distil 10| fl. oz. by the heat of a
vapour (water) bath.

o. (Ph. D.) Assaf ostida, li oz. ; rectified
spirit, li ^nts; digest for 24 hours, then distil
off the whole of the spirit, and mix the product
with stronger solution of ammonia, 8 fl. oz. Sp.
gr.-84fl.

d. (B. P.) Strong solution of ammonia, 8
parts ; assafcetida, in small pieces, 1| parts ; rec-
tified spirit, sufficient; macerate the assafoetida
in 15 (d the spirit for 24 hours, distil, add the
distillate to the ammonia, and make np with
spirit to 20 parts. — Dote, i to 1 dr.

Obe. The dose, Ac., are the same as those of
the last, but it is preferred for hysterical and
spasmodic affections.

Spirit, Amyl'io. S^. AlooeO£ AMTUCUM
(Ph. D.), L. See Pusai. Oil.

Spirit of In'ifeed. Syn. Spibitub Ainsi (Ph.
D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of aniseed, 8 fl.
dr. ; proof spirit, 1 gall. ; ^ssolve. Carminative.
—Doee, i fi. dr. to 4 fl. dr.

2. (EassiTTlA Ainsi— Ph. D.) Oil of aniseed,
1 fi. oz. ; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. ; mix with agi-
tation. Chiefiy used to make aniseed water.

8. (Coxpothtd bpibit op anibbes ; SpiBinra
AVIBI OOKPOBITUB — Ph. D. 182&) Aniseed and
angelica seed, of each, } lb. ; proof spirit, 1 gall.;
water, q. s. ; distil 1 gall. When coloured with
saffron, or sap green, it closely resembles the
Irish usquebaugh {Montgomery). — Dote, 1 to 4
fl.dr.

Spirit, Arqnebiuade'. See Vulbbbabt Spibit
(jbeUm).

Spirit of Balm (Compoimd). Sgn. Balh
VATBB, CASXBIJra W.; AQVA XBIiUBB oovpo-
BITA, SPtBirVB K. 0OICP08ITV8, L.; EaIT DBS

Cabxxb, Eat sb kbubsb deb Cabkbb, Fr.
Prep. (P. Cod.) Fresh fiowering tops of balm,
24 oz. ; fresh lemon peel, 4 oz. ; cinnamon,
cloves, and nutmegs, of each, 2 oz. ; coriander
seed and dried angelica root, of each, 1 oz.; recti-
fied spirit, 8 lbs. ; macerate for eight days and
distil in a water-bath to dryness. The spirit is
much esteemed in France as a stomachic, a coa-
metic, and a stimulant.

Bpiiit, Bath'lng. Soap liniment.

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1672

SPIEIT

Spirit of Qun'plior. Sj/n. Cahphobathi)
BPZBIT; SpiBirrra oakphobx (B. P., Ph. L.),Tnro-

TITBA. 0A1CPEOK2B, SPIBITUB OAXFHOBASUB, L.

Pnp. 1. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 6 oz.; rectified
spirit, 1 quart ; diasolve.

8. (B. P.) Camphor, 1 partj rectified spirit,
9 parts; dissolve. — Dote, 10 to 30 minims, in
milk or on sngar. Used as an application to chil-
blains, and in chronic rhenmatism, cholera, &c
See EasrarCB and Tinotuks.

Spirit of Car'away. 8yn. SnarruB OAXCI
(Ph. L. and E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) OU
of caraway, 2 fL dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall,; dia-
solve.

2. (Ph. E.) Caiaway seeds (bruised), i lb.;
proof spirit, 7 pints ; macerate for two days in a
covered vessel, then add of water, li pints, and
distil 7 pints. Aromatic and carminatdve. — Dote,
1 to 4 fl. dr. A similar spirit, ' sweetened with
sugar,' is drank in Germany as a diam (KcKSii-

LIQUB17B, KuHELB&AHSTWVSr),

8. (EasMinxA. OAXUi — Ph. D.) Oil of caraway,
1 fi. oz. s rectified spirit, 9 fi. ok. Used to make
caraway water.

Spirit of Cas'sia. Sgn. SnxrcUB CASgls (Ph.
B.), L. iVop. From coarsely powdered cassia,
1 lb. ; proof spirit, 7 pints j water, 1) pints, or
q. s. ; draw off 7 pints.— .Oose, fto., as the last.
It is almost nniversally sabetitiited for spirit of
cinnamon.

Spirit of Clu'iuuiioii. <Sfyti. SpiBinrs onnrA'
KOXI (Ph. L. and E.), L. Prn. 1. (Ph. L.)
Oil of <dnnamon, 2 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 galL j
dissolve.

2. (Ph. E.) From dnnamon, as spirit of
cassia. — Dote, 1 to 4 fl. dr.

8. (B. P.) Oil of cinnamon, 1 part ; rectified
spirit, 49 i>arts.

Spirit of S'thar. Slf». Spibit o> BinxHintio

XIEBB, SWBIT BPIBIT OF TITBIOLf ; SFIBITUS
XTTEBSIB (B. P.), SFIXITT78 .STHXBIB BVTiBBV-

BIOI (Ph. E.), li. Prep. 1. a. (Ph. E.) Sul-
phnric ether, 1 part ; rectified spirit, 2 parts. Sp.
gr- '809. — Ob». Tbjs preparation should be neu-
tral to test-paper, mix (clear) with water, and,
when shaken with twice its volume of concen-
trated solution of chloride of calcium, 28% of
ether should separate. — Dote, i to 2 or 8 fl. dr.;
as a stimulant and anodyne.

b. (B. P.) Ether, 1 part; rectified si^t, 2
parts; mix, — Dote, 80 to 60 minims.

2. COKPomm BPIBIT OP BTHB^ HoppKAinr'B

AHODZITB IiIQtrOB; SPIBITUS jnHBBIB OOKPO-

ercvB (Ph. L.), S. xtebbib olbobttb (Ph. D.), L.
a. (Ph. L.) Ether, 8 fi. oi. ; rectified spirit, 16
fl. oz, ; ethereal oil, 8 fl. dr. ; mix.

b, (Ph. D,) Mix, in a glass matiaas, oil of
vitriol, 1^ pints, with reetifiod spirit, 1 innt; con-
nect tiiis with a Liebig's condenser, apply heat,
and distil until a black froth begins to rise ; then
separate the npper stratum of the distiUed liquid,
and, having exposed it to the air for twenty-four
honrs, let the oil be transferred to a moist paper
filter, and washed with a little cold water; lastly,
dissolve it in a mixtore of rectified qurit, i pint;
sulphuric ether, 6 fl. oc

Obt. This compound is anodyne and anti-
spasmodic, and was once held in very great re-
pute.—jDms, i to 2 fi. dr.

8, Abohatio BPntrr op bthbb, A. s. ov sin-

PHTTBIC B,, SWXBT BUXIB OP TrTBIOLf ; BVTRl-
TUB XCHBBI8 ABOKATIOUB, L, Prep. (Fh. lu

1824,) Bruised cinnamon, 8 dr,; cardamoma, 1^
dr,; long pepper and ginger, of each, 1 dr.; recti-
fied spirit, 10 fl, oz, ; sulphuric ether, 6 fl. oz. ;
mix, and digest fourteen days. The Imst two
preparations are also frequently called 'afreet
elinr of vitrioV

Spirit of EartaliOTn. Iff*. Liquob or Stn-
BiTDB TOLATILIB oOBiru CBBVi, L. OiispnmHj
distilled from hartshorn. Dilute liquor ammonia
is now generally sold for spirit of hartshorn.

Spirit ef Eonerad'ish (Compound). JSgn.

SPIBITtrS ABMOBAOLS 0OKPO8ITU8 (B. P.. Ph.

L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) SUced horsendiah
and dried orange peel, of each, SO oz.; bmiaed
nutmegs, i oz.; proof spirit, 1 galL; water, S
pints ; distil 1 gall. Stimulant and dinretic —
Dote, 1 to 4 fi. dr. ; in dropsies, when there is
much debility. It is usually combined with in-
fusion of juniper berries or foxglove,

2. (B. P.) Fresh root, sliced, 20 parts; dried
orange peel, 20 parts; nutmeg (bruised), i;
proof spirit, 160 parts; water, 60 parts ; mix, and
distil over 160 parts, — Dote, 1 to 8 dr.

Spirit of HydToehlo"rio Ether. Sgn. Brixra

OP mrBIATTO BTHBB, CLtmOS'B PBBBXF1TSB
BPIBIT ; ^THBB HTSBOOHIABIOUB ALOOHOUOCB,

Sfibitub jitebbib xxtbiatioi, L. Prep. 1.
From hydrochloric ether and rectified tfSiit,
equal parts, mixed together.

2. (Ph, E, 1744,) Hydrochloric add, 1 pari);
rectified spirit, 8 parts; digest some days, and
distil in a sand-bath, — Dote, 1 to 3 fi. dr.; in
dyspepsia, liver complaints, hectic fever, Ac.

BpMt of Jii"niper. 8fn. SpnirtrB juxzfbbi
(B, P,), L. Prep. English oil of juniper, 1 pait;
rectified spirit, 49 parts ; dissolve. — Dote, 80 to
60 minims.

Spirit of Jiinlper (Componnd). £|y». SFiBiTTm
JUKiPBBl cokpobitub (Ph. L,, E., & D.), L.
Prep. 1, (Ph, L,) Oil of juniper, 1^ fl. dr.;
oils of caraway and fennel, of each, 12 drops;
proof spirit, 1 gall. ; dissolve.

2, (Ph, L, 1836,) Juniper berries, bmltad, 15
oz, ; caraway and fennel seed, of each, bnused, 2
OS.; proof spirit, 1 gall,; water,! quart, orq,s.;
distU 1 gall,

Obt. This spirit is stimulant and diuretic^
27om, 2 to 4 fl, dr. Mixed with twice or thrioe itB
weight of proof spirit, and sweetened with a
little sugar, it makes no bad substitnte for Hol-
lands gin.

Spirit of Lav'ender. Sgn. SptBima utav-
duIlB (B. p.. Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. F^om fresh
lavender, 2^ lbs. ; rectified sinrit, 1 gaU. ; water,
1 quart, or q. s. ; distil 1 gall, (7 pints — Ph. E.).

2. (Wholesale.) From Mitcham oil of lavender,
8 01.; rectified spirit, 1 gall. ; dissolve. Corral
and fragrant.

8. (B. P.) English oil of lavender, 1 pari::
reoti^ spirit, 49 parts ; dissolve. — Dote, 80 to
60 minims. See SpiBlifi (Perfumed), Txiro-
TtrBB, &c.

Spirit of Si'trie Ether. Sgn. Btzasx op

NIIBOUB BTHSB, SWBBT BPIBIT OP KtTtat, Nl-
TBOTTB XTHBBBAL BPIBIT, NiTBB DBOPS ; SPOUTUS
ATHBBIfl HITBIOI (B. P., Ph. L. & B.), SPXXITVB

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SFIBIT

1678

JRHIBIB VITBOBUS (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
L.) Take of rectified ipirit, 1 quart ; nitric acid,
8t fl. oz. ; add the acid by degrees to the ipirit;
then mix them, and let 28 fi. oz. distil over. An
earthenware still and condensing worm should be
emploved. Sp. gr. -884.

a. (Ph. E.) Pnie hyponitrons ether (Ph. E.),
1 part ; rectified spirit, 4 parts (both by Tolnme) ;
mix. Sp. gr. -847.

8. (Ph. D.) Nitrons or hyponitrons ether
(whicji has been washed with half of its Tolame
of liqnor of ammonia), 4 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit " in
42 fl, oz. ; mix, and preserve the compound in
small, strong, and accurately stoppered bottlee."

4. (B. P.) Nitric acid (»p. gr. 1-42), 3 parts ;
■nlphuric acid, 2 parts; copper, in fine powder
(No. 26), 2 parts ; rectified spirit, a sufficiency ; to
SO parts of the spirit add giadniUly the sulphuric
acid, stirring them together; then add to this,
also gradually, 2} parts of the nitric add. Put
the mixture into a retort or other suitable appa-
ratus, into which the copper has been introduced,
and to which a thermometer is fitted. Attach
now an efficient condenser, and, applying a gentle
heat, let the spirit distil at a temperature com-
mencing at 170^ and rising to 175 , but not ex-
ceeding 180°, until 12 parts have passed over and
been eollected in a bottle kept cool, if necessary,
with ice-cold water ; then wiUidraw the heat, and,
having allowed the contents of the retort to cool,
introduce the remaining half of nitric acid, and
resume the distillation as before, until the

Sroduct has been further increased to 14 parts,
[ix this with 40 parts of the rectified spirit, or
as much as will make the product correspond to
the tests of specific gravity and percentage of
ether indicated in the B. P. Preserve it in well-
dosed vessels.

CHkar. and Tutt. Transparent and nearly
colourless, with a very light tinge of yellow,
mobile, inflammable, at a peculiar penetrating
apple-like odour, and sweetish, cooling, sharp
taste. It effervesces feebly, or not at all, when
shaken with a little bicarbonate of soda. When
agitated with solution of sulphate of iron and
a tew drops of sulphuric acid it becomes deep
olive-brown or black. Sp. gr. -840 to -845.— Dow,
1 to 2 fl. dr.

Air., ife. Puro spirit of nitric ether boils at
about 100° F., scarcely reddens litmus paper, and
" gives oft no bubbles of carbonic acid gas on the
addition of carbonate of soda" (Ph. L.). " When
agitated with twice its volume of concentrated
solution of chloride of calcium 12% of ether slowly
■epwates" (Ph. E.).— Dom, i to 8 fl. dr., as a
febrifuge, a diaphoretic, diuretic, antispasmodic,
&c. ; in various afFections.

Ob*. The mass of the sweet spirits of nitre
of the shops is of very inferior quality, and is
•oarcely, if ever, made directly from spirit that
has paid the dut^. One, and a very large portion
is obtained from Scotland; another from the
manufacturers of f olminating mercury ; and a
third — and, in fact, the principal part — from cer-
tain persons in the neighbourhood of the me-
tropoUs, who employ contraband spirit for its
preparation, as this a^cle is not nnder the ezdse.
Becently methylated niirit has been employed for
the purpose.

Sweet spirits of nitre, sp. gr. '860, is now com-
monly and publicly sold in quantity at a price
which is only about 2-3rds that of the spirit in it
if the latter had paid duty. The spirit obtuned
from the manufacturers of fulminating mercury
frequently contains no inconsiderable quantity of
hydrocyanic acid.

The mere admixture of nitric or hyponitrons
ether with alcohol does not afford an officinal
aFm. .STEBB. iriTB., as this al?rays contains alde-
hyde, which, according to Prof. Liebig, is an
essential constituent of the officinal compound.

Spirit of Sitrou Ether. Syn. Spibitub
maaaia misosi (B. P.). See Sfibit ob Nitsio
Etexb.

Spirit of Snt'meg. Sfn. SPtBiivB imaamoa
(B. P., Ph. L. and E.), S. inrcis xobokatx, L.
Fnp. 1. (Ph. L. and E.) Bruised nutmegs,
2i 01.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water, 1 pint, or
q. s. ; distil a gallon. Cordial and carminative.
— Dote, 1 to 4 fl. dr. ; chiefly used to flavour mix-
tures and draughts.

2. Essmrru ktbutios ho80eatjb (Ph. B.).
Oil of nutm^B, I fl. oz.; rectifled spirit, 9 fl. oc
Used in dispensing.

8 (B. P.p Volatile oil of nutmeg, 1 part;
rectifled spirit, 48 parts; dissolve.— £o<«, 80 to
60 minims.

Spirit of Pennyroy'aL Sgn. SfiBinrs VU'
uson (Ph. L.), S. uvsina PT7Lxaii, L. Ftep.
1. (Ph. L.) Oil of pennyroyal, 8 fl. dr. ; proof
spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve. Stimulant, antispas-
modic, and carminative. — Dom, ^ to 2 fl. dr.

2. ESSSBTIA KKHTHJB FULBOII (Ph. D.). Oil

of pennyroyal, 1 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz.
Used chiefly in dispensing.
Spirit of Pep'permlnt. Sgn. Spibittb Toarraa

PIPBBITS (B. P., Ph. L.), S. KEKTHS (Ph. E.)

L. Pr«{7. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of peppermint, 8
fl. dr. ; proof spirit, 1 gall. ; dissolve.

2. (Ph. E.) Qreen peppermint, 11 lbs. ; proof
spirit, 7 pinU ; macerate two days ; add of water,
q. s., and distil 7 pints. — Dote, t to 2 dr.

8. Ebbbntu ubtstbm pipbbiis (Ph. D.).
Oil of peppermint, 1 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 9 fl.
oz. See Ebbbkob ov Pbppbbxint.

4. (B. P.) English oil of peppermint, 1 part;
rectifled spirit, 49 parts ; dissolve. — Dote, 80 to
60 minims, or for children nnder flve years, 1 to
8 minims.

Spirit of Fimen'to. Sgn. Spibit ot aliv-
BPiOB s Spibitub pixBNTiB (1%. L. and B.), L.
JPtep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of pimento, 2 fl. dr.j
proof spirit, 1 gall. ; dissolve.

2. (Ph. E.) From pimento (bruised), i lb.;
and proof spirit, 7 pints; as bpibis OV OAB&VAT.
Carminative and stomachic. — Dote, 1 to 4 fl. dr.;
in flatnlent colic, dyspepsia, Ac.

8. EssBimA vncEVTM (Ph. D.). Oil of
pimento, 1 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Csed
to make pimento water, and in dispensing.

Spirit of Fine-tops. S^. Spibitub tubio-
KUM pnn, L. See Balsah, Bioa.

Spirit of Sosa'maiy. £^«. Spibitub bob-
KABnri (B. P., Ph. £. and £.), L. Prep. 1.

(Ph. L.) As BPIBIT OP PIKBHTO.

2. (Ph. E.) Rosemary tops, 2} Ibe.; rectifled
spirit, 1 gall.; as BFIBIT OP IiATBKSBb. Fra-
grant and stimulant.

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1674

SPIKITS

8. EgBINTIA BOBKASIKI (Ph. D.). Al BBBBVOB

ov vatsino.

4. (B. P.) Oil of rosemary, 1 part; rectified
spirit, 49 parts ; dissolve. — Data, 10 to 80
miiums.

Spirit of Spear'mint. Sj/n. SFtBiTFa innrTHJB

TIBIDIB (Ph. L.), S. UBJTTEJB BATIT«, L. Prep.
1. (Ph. L.) A* BPIBIT 01 FBFFBBinirT (Ph.

L.).

2. ESBBNTIA XBICTKS TIBIDIB (Ph. D.). Ab

BBBBHOB 01 FBPFBKMnrT (Ph. D.). The uses and
doses are also the same.

Spirit of Btdphn'ric E'ther. See Spibix ov
ElSKR (above).

Spirit of Vitriol (Sweet). See AsOKAHO
SriBlT ov Etrbb {above).

Spirit, Vvl'nerary. 8gn. Vitlbbbabt watbb,
Abquxbusasb; SpnuTTTB Tuunaujuva, L. j
£au s'ABQiTBBTrsASB, Fr. Prep. 1. Dried
tops of sage, wormwood, fennel, hyssop, mar-
joram, savory, thyme, rosemary, calamint, halm,
peppermint, and scordium, fresh leaves of an-
gelica and basil, and lavender flowers, of each,
4 oz. ; proof spirit, 2 galls. ; digest for fourteen
days, and distil over li galls.

2. Bosemary leaves, 1) lbs.; leaves of thyme
and summits of milfoil, of each, i lb. ; jnniper
berries, 8 oz.; proof spirit, 2 galls.; distil over
6 quarts.

Obt. This preparation is stimulant and vul-
nerary, and is in great repute on the CSontinent
as a cosmetic and cordial.

SPIRITS (Ferfuned). Sgu. Sfibitub oix>bi-
VBBi, Odobbb BPiBiTiToai, L. The odoriferous
spirits of the perfumer are, for the most part,
prepcued from various aromatic and odorous suh-
stances, by a similar process to that described
under Essbitcbs and Sfibitb (Medicinal); but
in this case a perfectly pure, flavourless, and
scentless spirit must be employed. The distilla-
tion should also be preferably conducted by
steam, or the heat of a water-bath, and the dis-
tilled spirit should be kept for some time in a
cellar, or other cold situation, previously to being
osed. When simple solution of an essential oil
in the spirit is adopted, care should be taken
that the oil is pale and new ; or, at least, has not
been much exposed to the air ; as in tliat case it
would contain resin, which wonld make the per-
fumed spirit, or essence, liable to stain delicate
articles of clothing to which it may be applied.
Host of the 'eauz' and 'esprits' of the per-
fumers are prepared by one or other of the above
methods. It is found, ho wever, that the perfumed
spirits of some of the more delicate flowers can-
not be well obtained by either infusion or dis-
tillation, or by the simple solution of their essential
oils in spirit ; or, at least, they are not usually
so prep«u«d by the foreign perfumers. The
spirits of orange flowers, jasmine, tuberose, jon-
quil, roses, and of some other flowers, and of
eassia, vanilla, &c., are commonly prepared by
digesting pure rectified spirit for three or four
days on half its weight of the respective pom-
mades or oils, obtuned by infusion or contact.
The operation is performed in a closed vessel
placed in a water-bath, and frequent agitation is
employed for three or four days, when the per-
tomed Sforit is decanted into a second digester.

containing a like quantity of oil to tlie first.
The whole process is repeated a second and a
third time, after which the spirit is allowed to
settie and is then decanted. It now forma the
moat fragrant and perfect odoriferous spirit (ex-
trait) of the Continental perfumer. The prodnet
is called 'esprit ' or < extrait of the first infnsdon.'
The three portions of oil are then treated again
with fresh spirit in the same manner, and thus
spirits or essences of inferior quality are obtained,
which are distinguished by the perfomers as I^oa.
2, 8, 4, &c, or 'esprits ' or ' extraits of the first,
second, third,' &c., operation or infusion. In
some, though only a very few cases, the spirits
are af terwimls distilled.

The strength of the spirit for the oonoentrated
essences should not be less than 66 o. p. (erp. gr.
'8376) ; that for eanx, esprits, and extrait^ not
less than 86 o. p. (sp. gr. -8728). The str^igth
of the second qnalii^ of the last three most be
fully proof (sp. gr. -920). See Alcohok, I>XS-
TiLLATios', Ebbbkcb, Oiu, PoiciLUiB, ftc., and
belote.

Eau d'Ambre Boyals. [Fr.] From essences
of ambergris and musk, of each, 1 fi. oz. ; spirit
of ambrette and orange-flower water, of each, I
pint ; rectified spirit, 1 quart; mix.

Ean d'Ange. [Fr.] From flowering tops of
myrtle (bruised), li lbs. ; rectified spirit 7 pints;
water, 8 pints ; digest a week, add of common
salt, 2 lbs., and distil 1 galL

Ean d'Arquebnaade. [Fr.] See yxranoLtxr
Sfibit (above).

Eau de Bouquet. [Fr.1 From spirits of rose-
mary and essence of violets, of each, 1 fl. oi. j
essences of bergamot and jasmine, of each, 1 fl.
dr. ; oils of verbena and lavender, of each, \ fl.
dr. ; orange-flower water, 1 fl. os.; ean de rose^ i
pint ; rectified spirit, 1 quart; mix.

Ean de Bouquet de nore. [Fr.] From s^ts
of rosemary and roses and essence of violete, of
each, i fl. oz. ; oil of cedrat and essence of amber-
gris, of each, 1 fl. dr. ; orange-flower water, 6 fl.
oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint.

Eau des Cannes. [Fr.] See Spixn* at Bum
(Coicpouim).

Ean de Cologne. [Fr.] Sgn. Cozoexi
WATBB ; Aqua CoLovmraiB, A. C. BPiBTnTOBA,
Sfibitub Colonibnbib, L. For the production
of good eau de Cologne it is absolutely esseotial
that the spirit be of the purest description, both
tasteless and scentless, and that the oils be not
only genuine, but recently distilled, as old oils
are less odorous, and contain a considerable quan-
tity of resin and camphor, which prove injurious.
When fiowers and the flowering tops of plant*
are ordered, it is also necessary that they be
either fresh gathered or well preserved, witnout
drying them. To produce an article of the finest
qnali^, distillation should be had recourse to. A
very excellent eau de Cologne may, however, be
produced by simple solution of the oils or es-
sences in the spirit, provided they be new, pale-
coloured, and pure. The mass of the ean de
Cologne prepared in England, some of which
possesses tiie most delicate nagrance, and is nearly
equal to the best imported, is made vrithout dis-
tillation. In the shops two kinds of this article
are generally kept — French and Gterman. That

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SPIRITS

1871

prepared by Farina of Cologne ii esteemed
the best, and is preferred in the faahiooable
world.

JVop. 1. From esaanoes of bergamot and
lemon, of each, 1 fl. dr. ; oil of orange, i dr. ; oil
of neroli, 20 drops ; oil of rosemary, 10 drops ;
essence of ambergris apd mnsk, of each, 1 drop ;
fectlfled spirit, i pint ; mix.

2. Essence of bergamot, 8 fl. oz. ; essence of
lemon, 8 fl. dr. ; essence of cedrat, 2 fl. dr.; oils
of neroli and rosemary, of each, 11 fl. dr. ; oil of
balm, i fl. dr. ; rectified spirit, li galls, j mix.

8. (Cadet Oattinetmrt.) Take of pore neroli,
-essences (oils) of cedrat, orange, lemon, berga-
mot, and rosemary, of each, 24 drops ; lesser car-
-damom seeds, i oz.; spirit at 82° Banm£ (sp. gr.
'869), 1 qnart J digest a few days and then distil
li pints.

4. (Farina.) Take of rectified spirit, 6 galls. ;
«alamns aromaticas, sage, and thyme, of Mcb, i
dr.; balm-mint and spearmint, of each, 1 oz. ;
-angelica root, 10 gr. ; camphor, 15 gr. ; petals of
Toaes and violets, ^ each, 8 dr. ; lavender flowers,
li dr. ; orange flowers, 1 dr. ; wormwood, nut-
meg, cloves, cassia lig^nea, and mace, of each, 20
gr. ; oranges and lemons, sliced, of each, 2 in
number ; bmise or slice the solids, macerate with
agitation for 48 honrs, then distil off 2-8rds, and
add to the product — essences of lemon, cedrat,
balm-mint, and lavender, of each, 1 fl. dr. ; pnre
neroli and essence of the seeds of anthos, of each,
80 drops ; essences of jasmine and bergamot, of
-each, 1 fl. oz. ; mix well and fllter, if necessary.

6. (P. Cod.) Oils of bergamot, lemon, and
<wdrat, of each, 8 oz. ; oils of rosemary, lavender,
and neroli, of each, li oz.; oil of cinnamon, f
OS. ; n>irit of rosemary, 1 qnart ; compound spirit
-of baun (ean de melisse des Carmes), 8 pints ;
reetlfled spirit, 8 galls. ; digest for 8 days, then
'distil 8 galls.

6. (Dr A. T. Thonuon.) Oils of bergamot,
orange, and rosemary, of each, 1 fl. dr. ; car-
^bunom seeds, 1 dr. ; rectified spirit and orange-
flower water, of each, 1 pint ; mix, digest for a
^Vi and then distil a pint.

7. (Tromnudorff.) Oils of neroli, citron, ber-
gamot, orange, and rosemary, of each, 12 drops ;
HalalMr cardamoms, bruised, 1 dr. ; rectified
•pirit of wine, 1 qnart ; mix, and, after standing
S or 8 days, ^til a qnart.

Oi«. Ean de Cologne is principally used as a
perfume, but a very large quantity is consumed
In fashionable ladies as a cordial and stimulant.
For this purpose it is dulcified with sugar. A
piece of linen dipped in Cologne water, and laid
across the forehead, is a fitsmonable remedy for
headache.

Ban d'Sltgance. [Fr,] From spirit of Jessa-
inin^ 1 pint ; rectified spirit and spirits of hya-
cinth and storax, of each, i pint; tinctures of
atar-anise and tolu, of each, 2 fl. oz. ; tinctnre of
Tanilla, 1 fl. oz.; essence of ambergris, | dr.;
mix, and in a week decant the clear portion.

Ian deTramboises. [Fr.] Prep. From straw-
berries (bruised), 16 lbs. ; rectified spirit, 1 gall.;
digest, and distil to diyiiess in a salt water or
steam bath.

San d'HOlotnpe. [Fr.] Prep. From essence
of ambergris, i fl. dr.{ vanilla, i oz.; orange-

flower water, } pint; rectified spirit, 1 qnart;
digest a week, and filter.
Ian d'Hongrie. [Fr.] Sgn. HmroABTWATiB;

AQVA HVNaABICA, SFIBITUa BOBICASUn OOKFO-

8IT0B, L. ; Eau SB LJi Bsim d'Honsbib, Fr. A
fragrant stimnlant and cosmetic. Sweetened with
sngar it is also used as a liqnenr.

Prep. 1. Rosemary tops (in blossom), 4 lbs.t
fresh sage, i lb. ; bruised ginger, 2 oz. ; rectified
spirit, li galls. ; water, i gall. ; macerate for 10
days, add of common salt, 8 lbs., and then distil
11 pints.

2. From oil of rosemary (genuine), li fl. dr.;
oil of lavender, i dr. ; orange-flower vrater, i
pint; rectified spirit, 1) pints; mix. Sfibit O*
BOBBlCAST (see oioM) is now commonly sold for it.

Eand'Ispahan. [Fr.] Prep. From oil of the
bitter orange, 2 fl. oz. ; oU of rosemary, 2 dr. ; oils
of cloves and neroli, of each, 1 fl. dr. ; oU of spear^
mint, i fl. dr. ; ean do rose, 1 pint ; rectified spirit
7 pints; mix. It is better for distillation. Used
as eau de Cologne.

Ean de Jasmin. [Fr.] See Ebfsti db Juxnt
Odobaittb (beloK).

Eau de Lavande. [Fr.] Bg*. LAVXNSm

WATBB, DOUBLB DI8TIIJ;BD £. W. ; AQVA U-

taksttilB, a. Ii. oDORnfEBA, SPIBITU8 L., L. Prep,
1. From the flowering tops of lavender (fresUy
and carefully picked), 7 lbs. ; rectified spirit, S
galls. ; macerate for a week, add of water, i gaU. ;
(holding in solntion) common salt, 8 lbs.; and
distil 2 galls.

2. From Mitcham oil of lavender, 8 oz. ; essence
of musk, 4 oz, ; essence of ambergris and oil of
bergamot, of each, li oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 galls.;
mix well. Veiy flne.

S. (Breutde.) Oil of lavender, 20 oz.; oil of
bergamot, 6 oz. ; essence of ambergris (finest), i
oz. ; rectified spirit, 6 galls. ; mix.

Oht. The products of the last two formula are
better for distillation ; bnt in that case the essences
of ambergris and musk should he added to the
distilled spirit. The oils should be of the best
qnaliiy and newly distilled, and the spirit shonld
be perfectly scentless.

It may be useful to observe here that the com-
mon lavender water, double distilled Uvender
water, or spirit of lavender of the shops, is made
with spirit at proof, or even weaker ; hence its
inferior qnalily to that of the more celebrated
perfumers. 1 oz. of true English oil of lavender
IS all that will properly combine with 1 gall, of
proof spirit without rendering it muddy or
cloudy.

Eau de lavande is a most agreeable and fashion-
able perfume. The article produced by the second
formula has received the commendation of Her
Majesty and many of the nobility.

Eau de Lavande de KiUeflenrs. Prep. To each
qnart of the ordinary eau de lavande (No. 2 or 8)
add of oil of cloves, li fl. dr. ; essence of amber-
gris, i fl. dr.

Ean de lavande (Ammoniaoal). Prep. 1. To
lavender water, 1 pint, add of liquor of ammonia, i
fl. OS.

8. (P. Cod.) English oil of lavender, 1 oz.j
spirit of ammonia, 2 lbs.; dissolve. Used as a
stimulating scent in fainting. See PbbvukbS
(Ammoniated).

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1676

8PIBIT8

£an de Imot. [Ft.] Sec Tnrcnvxi oi Ax-

UOSlk, COXFOUNI).

Eaa de Huiehala. [Ft.] ^•. Exibatcdb
lUSsOHALB, Ft. iV*p. 1. From unbergm and
grain mask, of each, 20 gr. ; oili of bcrgamot,
layender, and cIoTes, of each, 1 ox. ; oili of m-
aafraa and origanum, of each, i fl. dr. ; rectified
(pirit, 2 quarts; macerate with agitation for a
week.

a. liectified apirit, 1 pint ; euence of Tioleta, 1
01. ; easenoes of bergamot and oeillets, of each, )
oc; orange-flower water, i pint; mix.

Eau de MOiue. [Fr.] See Spdut oi Balk,

COKPOUNO.

Ean de HleL [Fr.] Sy». HoiriY waiib,

SWBBT-BCBITTSD H. W. ; AQUA XXUiIB, A. K. OSO-

■onBA, L. JPrap. 1. Take of ipirit of roaes
(No. S— Hsee oAove), 2 quarto ; apirit of jannine and
lectified spirit, of each, 1 quart; essence of
Portugal, 1 fl. oz. ; essences of vanilla and musk,
of each (No. 3), i fl. oz. ; flowers of benzoin, 11
dr.; mix, agitate, and add of eau de fleurs
d'oranges, 1 quart. Delightfully fragrant.

2. Honey (finest), i lb. ; essence of bergamot,
i OS.; essence of lemon, i ox. ; oil of cloTes, 12
drops; mask, 12 gr. ; ambergris, 6 gr. ; orange-
flower and rose wa]ber, of each, 1 qtutft; rectified
(pint, 1 gall. ; macerate for 14 days, with freqnent
agitation, and filter,

Ob*. The last is often coloured with 20 or 30
gr. of saffron, and made into a ratafia with sugar.
HoiTBT WATBB VOB THB EAZB is a different article
from the above. It is obtained by the dry distilla-
tion of honey, mixed with an equal weight of
clean sand, a gentle heat only being emj^yed.
The product ia yellowish and acidoloDs, from the
presence of acetic acid. This last is tised to pro-
mote the growth of the hur.

Ean de MUleflenn. [Fr.] &/». Ext&aitdb
KttxBPLBTTBB, Fr. JVcp. 1. From grain musk,
12 gr. ; ambergris, 20 gr- ; essence ^ lemon, li
ox. : oils of cIoTes and lavender (English), of each,
1 oz. ; neroli and oil of verbena, <d each, i dr. ;
rectified spirit, 2 quarts ; macerate in a closed
vessel and a warm situation for a fortnight.

2. Balsam of Peru (genuine) and esaenoe of
doves, of each, 1 oz. ; essences of bergamot
and musk, of each, 2 oz. ; essences of neroli and
thyme, of each, i oz. ; eau de fleurs d'oranges,
1 quart ; rectified spirit, 9 pinto ; mix well. Very
fine.

8. Essence of bergamot, i oz.; ean de la-
vande and essence of jasmine, of each, 1 oz. ;
orange-flower water, 8 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 1
pint; mix.

Ean de HonsseUlne. [Fr.l From ean de
fleors d'oranges and spirit of clove gilliflower,
of each, 1 quart; spirit of roses (No. 3 — see
above), spirit of jasmine (No. 4), and apirit of
orange flowers (No. 4), of each, 2 quarto '; essences
of vanilla and musk, of each (No, 3), 2 fl. oz. ;
aanders-wood, i oz. Very flne.

Ean de Vaphe. [Fr.] See Watbbb (Per-
filmed).

Ean tarn Paxellle. [Fr.] 1. From essence of
bergamot, 6 dr. ; essence of lemon, 8 dr.; essence
of citron, 4 dr. ; Hungary water, 1 pint ; rectified
■pint, 6 quarto ; mix and distil.

2. Grain musk, 20 gr.; ambergris, 26 gr.;

oils of lavender and cloves, of each, 1 oz. ; eaaenoe
of bergamot, i oz. ; <»la of aaasafras and ori^aiiaxii*
of each, 20 drops ; rectlfled spirit, 1 g^all. ; xziaoe-
rate for 14 days.

Eau, Bomain. [Fr.] From essence of aunlier-
gris, 1 fl..oz. : tinctnro of benzoin, 4 fl. oz. ; spirit
of tuberose, | pint ; spirit of acacia flowers and
tincturo of vanilla, of each, 1 pint; spirit of
jasmine, 3 pinto ; mix.

BandeBoaUrea. [Fr.] From spirit of roaea^
1 pint; spirito of cucumber, angelica root, and
celery seeds, of each, 1 pint ; spirits of jasmine and
orange flowers, of each, i pint; tinctore of ben-
zoin, 2 fl. oz. : mix,

Ean de Tiolatte. [Fr,] See Espbit db Vzo-

LBTTXB (btloij).

Esprit d'Ambr«tte, [Fr.] See Embbob.

Esprit de Bergamotte. [Fr.] From eesenoe
(oil) of bergamot (beat), 6 oi.; essence of am-
bergris (pale), 2 fl. oz. ; essence of musk, i fl.
oz. ; oil of verbena, 2 fl, dr, ; rectifled s^rit» 1
gall.; mix.

Esprit de Bonqnet. [Fr,] From Mitcham oil
of lavender, 1 oz, ; oils of doves and bergamot,
of each, 8 fl, dr. ; essence of musk, 1 fl. dr. ; otto
of roses, 10 drops ; rectifled spirit^ 1 quart.

Esprit de Flenn. [Fr.] See SriBlx ov TEX
Fi«wbb8 op Itaxt (jktlow).

Esprit de Jasmin. [Fr.] Sg*- £^tr SB Ras-
kin, Fr.

Esprit de Jasmin Odorante. [Fr.] From sjurit
of jasmine and rectified spirit, of each, 1 l^t;
essence of ambergris, 1 fl. dr.

Esprit de Jonqnille. [Fr.]

Esprit de la Belne. [Fr.] From oil of berga-
mot, 1 fl. oz. ; essence of ambergris, 2 fi. dr. ; otto
of roses, 1 fl. dr, ; rectifled spirit, 1 quart.

Esprit de Bondeletia. [Fr.] Sf». Ezxbait
DB BOHSBiiBnA, Fr. From Mitcham oil of lavea-
der, 3 oz.; oil d doves, li oz. ; oil of bergamot,

1 oz, ; essences of musk and ambergris, of eadi,

2 fl. dr. ; rectified spirit, 3 pinto.

Esprit de Boaa. [Fr.] 1. From spirit oC
roses, 1 pint; essence of ambergris and oil of
rose geranium, of each, i fl. dr.

2. From otto of roses, 2 dr.; neroli, i dr,;
rectifled spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve, add of chlo-
ride of caldnm (well dried and in powder),
li lbs. ; agitate well, and distil 7 pinto. Very
flne.

Esprit de Suave. [Fr.] From the essence* of
cloves and bergamot, of each, li fl. dr. ; neroU,
i fi. dr. ; essence of inusk, 1 fl. oz. ; spirit of
tuberose and rectified spirit, of each, 1 ^ntj
spirito of jasmine and ciusia, of each, 1 qnart;
dissolve, then add of eau do rose, 1 pint, and mix
well.

Esprit deTalB. [Fr.] 1^. Sfibit ov uncoH
THTKi; Spibitvs THTm, L. From tops of
lemon tiiyme, 2 lbs,; proof spirit, 1 gall,; distil
7 pints.

Esprit de Tiolettes, [Fr,] JSfgit. Sptaix o*
yioLBrg, E88XK0B or t,, E, of obbib. From
Florontine orris root, redooed to coarse powder,
i lb. ; rectified apirit, 1 pint ; by simple macera-
tion for a fortnight, A stronger and finer article
(bsbbbob op tiolbtb) is prepared from orris
root, 6 lbs,, to rectifled spirit, 1 gall. ; by perco-
lation.

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8PIE0NE— SPONGE

167*

Xztnit de Bouquet. [Fr.] Extatct of nose-
gay-

Extndt de Kajficluae. [Fr.] See Eau db
MAHiCHJJUa [above).

Extrait de HiUeflenn. [Fr.] See Eau db

MTTiTiBWiBTTBa (ohove).

Eztnit de Sondeletia. [Fr.] See Espbit
(oiow).

OdeuT, IMIectable. [Fr.] From oiia of laven-
der, bergamot, rose geraniam, and doves, of each,
1 fl. dr. ; eauz de rose and fleurs d'orange, of each,
i pint ; rectified spirit, 11 pints.

Odmr Suave. [Fr.] See Ebfbit (above).

Spirit of Cytherea. From the spirits of violets,
tuberose, clove gillyflower, jasmine (No. 2 — see
above), roses (No. 2), and Portugal, of each, 1
pint ; orange-flower water, 1 quart; mix.

Spirit of the Flowers of ItaUy. Sj/u. Ebfbit
SB ELBTrBS, Fr. From the spirits of roses (No. 1—
see above), jasmine (No. 2), oranges (No. 3), and
cassia (No. 2), of each, 4 pints; orange-flower
water, 3 pints ; mix.

Vl^rla Ferftuue. , See EiPBlx SB la Bbihb
{above).

8PIB0HB. English proprietary article for the
cure of consumption. Contains dilorof orm, gly-
cerine, iodide of potassium, and an odorous sub-
stance which has not yet been defined. Price is
said to he £3 for 2| dr.

SFIT'Tnra O? blood. See HxKOTTTBU.

SFLIBT. This is the common name given to
an enlargement of the hone in horses; which
generally occurs below the knee, between the
large and small splint-bones, nsnaUy on the inside
of the limb. It mostly results from fast driving or
riding,orfrom the animal havingheenmnch worked
while young, or made to unduly traverse haird or
paved roads. The splint is a frequent cause of
lameness if it develops just under tiie knee, since
it interferes with and droumscribes the free
movement of the joint. It is very essential to
have recourse to prompt measures directly this
affection shows itself.

The treatment usually prescribed is the constant
application to the part of cold water if the splint
be accompanied by much tenderness or inflam-
mation. This may be accomplished by bandages
leaked in cold water, taking care to renew the
cold water as soon as it becomes warm. Hr
Finlay Dun advises the horse, where practicable,
to stand for an hour several times a day up
to the knees in a stream or pool of water. In
addition he prescribes rest for ten days or a fort-
night, and when the heat and tenderness have
been subdued the application of a blister, or of
biuiodide of mercury ointment, or the hot iron.

BFOVGE. Sgn. S pohoia, S. oraionrAua, L.
Sponge is a cellular fibrous structure, produced
by marine animals of the humblest type, belong-
ing to the sub-kingdpm Protozoa. The finest
quality ia imported from Smyrna, and is known
asTvBXXTSFOKaB; another, called WhtIxsiait
or Basmu. SPOirOB, is much less esteemed, being
coarsoi dark-coloured, and very rotten.

Sponge, as collected, and also as generally im-
ported, contains many impurities, more especially
sand, most of which may be removed by beating
it, and by washing it in water. Amusing dis-
putes often arise between the smaller importers

and the wholesale purchasers on this subject—
the privilege of beating it before wdghing it, the
number of minutes so employed, and even the
siio of the stick, being often made important
matters in the ' haggling.'

1. BlSAORBS BPOVaB (WHITB SFOKOB ; BPOH-

OIA sbaIiBAIa) is prepared by soaking ordinary
sponge in very dilute hydrochlpric acid, to remove
(siloareous matter, then in cold water, changing
it frequently, and squeezing the sponge out eaw
time, and next, in water holding aiittU sulphuric
or sulphorooa add, or, still better, a very little
chlorine, in solution; the sponge is, lastly,
repeatedly washed and soaked in clean water
scented with rose or orange-flower water, and
dried.

2, The sponges are first soaked in hydrochloric
acid to remove the lime; they are then washed in
water, and afterwards placed for ten minutes in
a 2% solution of permanganate of potassium.
When taken out they have a brown appearance ;
this is owing to the deposition of manganoua
oxide, and may be removed by steeping the sponge
for about two minutes in a 2% solution of oxalic
acid, to which a little sulphuric acid has been
added. As soon aa the sponges appear white they
are well washed out in water to remove the acid.
Strongly diluted sulphuric add may be used
instead of oxalic add.

8. Sponges can he bleached by first soaking
them in hydrochloric acid, diluted with li parte
of water, until no more carbonic add is given
off; then wash in pure water, and afterwards
leave in a bath composed of 2 lbs. of hyposul-
phite of soda, 12 lbs. of water, and 2 lbs. of
hydrochloric acid. If the sponge be afterwards
dipped in glycerin and well pressed, to remove
excess of liquid, it remains elastic, and can be
used for mattresses, cushions, and general
upholstery. Sponge mattresses prepared in this
way are now finding great favour. It is, of
course, not necessary to bleach the sponge wher«
it is intoided to be used for such purpose*
('Pharmacist').

BtTBITT BPONaX (SFORSIA ITBTA — Ph. D.) iS

prepared by heating the cuttings and unsaleable
.pieces in a dosed iron crucible until they become
black and friable, avoiding too much heat, and
allowing the whole to cool before exposing it to the
air. It was formerly in great repute in broncho-
celo and scrofulous complaints. — Doee, 1 to 3 dr.,
in water, or made into an electuary or loxengea.
When good, burnt sponge evolves violet fumes of
iodine on being heated in a fiask along with sul-
phuric add.

COICFBISBXS or WAXBS BPONSB (BPOtrOIA

OBKATA, B. 0O1CFBBB8A) is sponge whlch has been
dipped into mdted wax and then compressed
between two iron plates until cold. When cut
into pieces it forms ' bporsb xbntb,' which are
used by surgeons to dilate wounds.

The following notes on sponge are abstracted
from a paper by H. B. Marks :

The sponge is an animal bdonging to the J?ori.
fera class, and is formed of organic matter around
a homy skeleton. When first taken out of tiie
sea sponges are covered with a bluish-black skin,
and discharge a very offensive, thick, milky
fluid. To purify them pressure is first resorted

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1678

SPONGES— SPOTS AND STAINS

to. They are then scraped with a hnife to rid
them of the skin, and afterwards thoroughly
washed in the sea, when only the skeleton re-
mains. If the cleansing process he carefnlly
done the sponge in its skeleton state becomes
elastic, and proves pleasant in nse ; hnt should
the process be only partially attended to, no
amount of after-cleansing vrill avail, and the
«ponge will always remain more or leM sticky
and disagreeable.

Many experiments have been made on the grow-
ing sponges by artificial means; bnt although
from a scientific point of view success has been
-achieved, no result of oommerdal valne has yet
been obtained. Pieces cut from the living sponge
and replanted, it has been found, will continue to
^row, and two pieces cut from the same species
of sponge will unite if placed together; but
parts from different species fail to unite, how-
'ever closely they may he fixed together. The
four important sponge-fishing grounds of the
world are the Mediterranean Sea, Florida, the
West Indies and Bahamas, and Cuba. At the
end of the first year's growth sponges attain
the size of a smaJI lemon, at the end of the
second that of a large orange, while at the end
■of the third year they are twice or three times
the last-mentioned size. Beyond this no positive
information has been obtained, but it is thought
that they are very slow of growth, and that the
very large species are probably very ancient.

The introduction of diving apparatus, and the
largely increased demand for the article, has
caused much deterioration in the Mediterranean
4ponges, as, by the improved apparatus enabling
the diver to stay a considerable time under the
water, every year large and small sponges are
gathered indiscriminately, and before the latter
nave time to grow. To remedy this, efforts have
been made to bring about laws to prevent the
Ashing being carried on in the same spot, except
after a lapse of three years. There are four
methods of spooge-fishing in vogue at the present
time. First, by means of fhi native naked diver ;
aecond, by the diving apparatus; third, bynet-
flshing ; and fourth, by the harpoon. After de-
scribing at length the ditCerent modes, and trac-
ing the extent of the various fishing-grounds, the
lectxirer went on to speak of sponge-buying. It
was, he said, no easy task, and many years of
«xperience had proved that the oldest buyers
were very often serioasly at fault in their specu-
lations. A buyer, to be snccessful, must be well
acquainted with the large number of classes and
their variations in valne.

The bleaching of sponges is a process which
requires great attention, the success of the opera-
tion depending to a large extent on the care
bestowed. The general method is by steeping the
sponges successively in preparations of add and
permanganate of potash.

From the statistics which liad been gathered
the Mediterranean sponge fishery showed the
largest yield, with an annual prodaction amount-
ing to £260,000, and employing from 4600 to
6000 men. Florida stood second with from
£60,000 to £70,000, bringing employment to
1200 men. The Bahamas showed an output
worth £60,000, employing 4600 men; and in

Cnba the employment of TOO men prodnoed a
yield of £60,000. In round numbers the total
amount reached £600,000 worth for the whole
world.

Spongla Deeolorata. Sf». Dxooioubiskd
SFOKGs, Bliaoekd sfohob. Prep. Sponge,
permanganate of potassium, hyposulphite of ao-
dium, hydrochloric acid, and water, of each, a
sufficient quantity. Free the sponge from sand
and any other obvious impurities or damaged
poridons by beating, washing, and trimmings;
then soak it for about fifteen minntes in a suffi-
cient quantity of solution of permanganate of
potassium, containing 120 gr. to the pint, wring-
ing the sponge out occasionally and replacing it
in the liquid. Then remove it and wash it vrith
water until the latter mns off colourless. Wring
out the water, and then place the sponge into a
solution of hyposulphite of sodium contuning 1
troy oz. to the pint. Next add, for every pint of
the last-named solution used, 1 fl. oz. of hydro-
chloric acid diluted with 4 fl. oz. of water. Mace-
rate the sponge in the liquid for about fifteen
minntes, expressing it frequently and replarang
it in the liquid. Then remove it, wash it tho-
roughly with water, and dry it. In the case of
large and dark-coloured sponges this treatment
may be repeated until the colour has been re-
moved as far as posnble.

Sponge, To Clean a. There is nothing more
pleasant for washing the skin than a fresh good

3>onge, or the reverse when not kept thoroughly
ean. Without the greatest care a sponge is apt
to get slimy long before it is worn out. It may
be made almost as good as — in &ct, often bettor
than new, by the following process : — Take about
2 or 8 oz. of carbonate of soda, or of potash ;
dissolve in 81 pints of water ; soa^ the sponge in
it for twenty-four honia, then wash and rinse it in
pure water. Then put it for some hours in a
mixture, 1 glassful of muriatic acid to S pints of
water ; finally, rinse in cold water, and dry tho-
roughly. A sponge should always be dried, if
possible, in the san every time it has been used.

SFOVOSB employed In Washing Wounds,
Purification of. M. Leriche advises the sponge
to he first saturated with a solution of 4 parts of
permanganate of potassium in 100 parts of water ;
then passed through a solution of sulphurous acid,
and finally washed thoroughly* with water. The
sponges are said to become perfectiy disinfected
and deodorised, whilst the tissue is not affected
by the treatment.

8POBOKT0H. See StrrpHTntoirB AirsTDBtDB.

SPOTS and STAXHTS. 1. On. and Obbasb
SPOTS on boards, marble, Ac, when recent, may
be removed by covering them with a paste made
of fuUer's-earth and hot water, and the next day,
when the miztura has become perfectly dry,
scouring it off with hot soap and water. For old
spots, a mixture of fuUer's-earth and soft soap, or
a paste made of fresh-slaked lime and pearlasfa,
will be better ; observing not to touch the last
with the fingers.

2. Rbcbitt bfohi of on, obbasx, or wtx, on
woollen cloth or silk, may be romoved with a UtUe
clean oil of turpentine or benzol ; or with a little
fuUer's-earth or scraped French chalk, made into
a paste with water, and allowed to dry on them.

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SPRAIN— STAQGEBS

16TO

They may alio be generaUy removed by meana of
a rather hot flat-iron and blotting-paper or apongy
brown paper, more eipecially if the cloth, or one
of the piecee of paper, be nrat slightly damped.
Oij> oja and aaaASE sfotb require to be treated
with ox-gall or yolk of egg, made into a paste
with foller's-earth or soap. Piurr bfots, when
recent, generally yield to the last treatment. Old
ones, however, are more obstinate, and require
some fnller'a-earth and soft soap made into a paste
with either ox-gall or spirit of turpentine.

The 'American Chemist' gives the following
method for extracting grease spots from books or
paper : — Qently warm the greased or spotted part
of the book or paper, and then press npon it
pieces of blotting-paper one after another, so as
to absorb as mncb of the grease as possible. Have
ready some fine, clear, essential oil of tnrpentine
heated almost to a boiling state (this operation
ought to be very carefnlly accomplished, as the
tnrpentine is a highly inflammable body) ; warm
the greased leaf a little, and then with a soft,
clean bmah, wet with the heated tnrpentine both
rides of the spotted part. By repeating this
application the grease will be extracted. Lastly,
with another bmsh dipped in rectified spirits of
wine go over the place, and the grease will no
longer appear, neither will the paper be dis-
oolonred.

Fhuu and wunh btaikb, on linen, commonly
yield easily to hot soap and water. It not, they
must be treated as those below,

Ihk spots and bbobnt laomtoxram on wash-
able febries may be removed by dropping on the
part a little molted tallow from a common candle
before washing the articles j or by the application
of a little lemon jnice, or of a little powdered
cream of tartar made into a paste with hot water.
Old ink spots and ironmonlds will be found to
yield almost immediately to a very little powdered
oxalic acid, which must be well rubbed upon the
spot previously moistened with boiling water, and
kept hot over a basin filled with the same.

Boettger recommends the use of pyrophosphate
of soda for the removal of ink stains from colonred
woven tissues, to be applied in the form of a con-
centrated solution. The recent ink stains are
readily removed, but older stains require washing
and mbbing with the solution for a long time.

Staxitb arising from alkujbs and AI.KALIBB
IjquOBS, when the colours are not destroyed, give
way before the application of a little lemon juice;
whilst those arising from the weaker acids and
acidulous liquids yield to the fumes of ammonia,
or the application of a little spirit of hartshorn
or sal volatile.

Staisb of XABxnra isz mav be removed by
soaking the part in a solution of chloride of lime,
and afterwards rinsing it in a little solution of
ammoma or of byposnlphate of soda; or they may
be rubbed with the lanctnre of iodine, and then
rinsed as before. .

If iTSio AOtD STAIHB, TO SBHOTX. The yellow
stain left by nitric acid can be removed either
from the skin or from brown or black woollen
garments by mcnstening the spots for a while with
permanganate of potash, and rinsidg with water.
A brownish stain of manganese remuns, which
may be removed from the skin by washing with

aqueous solution of sulphurous acid. If the
spots are old they cannot be entirely removed.
See BaIiLS, Clotebb, Hawdb, Sootntiire, SlAora,

SFBADT. Sy». Sublttxatio, L. An injury
of a join^ in which it has been strained or twisted
in aa unnatnral manner, without actual disloca-
tion. Pun, swelling, and inflammation are the
common consequences, which must be combated
by repose with refrigerant lotions, or warm fomen-
tations, according to circnmstances. Where there
is simple stiffness and weakness, exercise is often
serviceable.

nvatmmil /or ih« Morit and otitr AnimaU.
Foment. Apply lead lotion and refrigerants.

I> FOB OTBB use connter-irritants, or red iodide
of mercury ointment, or the firing iron ; and if
for a horse a high-heeled shoe.

8PBAT. The Cltipea tprattu*. linn., a small
fish of the herring family, abounding on our
coasts. Qntted, coloured, and pickled, it is sold
for anchovies, or as British anchovies, and much
used to make the sauce of that name. Sprats
contain about 6% of fat.

BPSmraEL'SPUHP. See Aib-PVKP.

BPSnTKIiXS. See BoOKBnrDnro.

BPBTTCE. See Beeb, EsaBiroB, and Powsebb.

SPUBK. See AxAsou.

SaxnU.. Sfn. SoiixA(B.P.,Ph.L..E.,A;D.),
L. The bnib at ' Uryinea tciUa' sliced and dried.
In small doses, sqwll acts as a stimulating ex-
pectorant and diuretic ; in larger ones, as an emetic
and purgative, ^th the first intention it is
generally given in substance (powder), in doses of
1 to 8 or 4 gr. ; with the latter, either made into
vinegar or oxymel (which tae). It is au excellent
remedy in coughs, Ac., after the inflammatory
symptoms have subsided.

8TAG6XSS. There are two varieties of the
disease known under this name by which horses
are affected, viz. stomach staggers, and grass or
sleepy staggers. The first, which occasionally
kills the horse in twelve or fifteen hours after the
attack, is generally induced by an overladen
stomadi and improper food. The animal has
perhaps partaken largely and rapidly, and after
too long a fast, of some diet to which it is unac-
customed, such as vetches, clover, or grass. These
undergo decomposition within the stomach and
intestines, and g^ve rise to such an evolution of
gas as either to set up inflammation of the stomach
and intestines, or to lead to their rupture, in which
latter case the result is, of course, fatal. The
symptoms are a quick and feeble pulse, attempts
at vomiting, a staggering gait, whilst very fre-
quently the animal sits on its haunches like a
dog. Sleepy staggers, which is a more chronic
manifestation of the disease, is most common
during the summer and autumn months, and
generally occurs amongst horses fed on tough
and indigestible food, snch aa vetches or rye-
grass, from which drcumstances the complaint
has been called ' grass staggers.' Both kinds of
the disease require the same treatment.

Mr Pinlay Dun prescribes a brisk purge, con-
sisting of 6 dr. of aloes in solution, with a dr. of
calomel and 2 oz. of oil of turpentine ; also the
injection every hour of clysters, oonsisting of salt,
soap, or tobacco smoke^ we abdomen being at the

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1680

STAINED GLASS— STARCH

Mune time diligently nibbed and fomented with
water nearly boiling. To ward off atnpor be re-
commends the frequent adminiatration of 2 or 8
dr. of carbonate of ammoDiH, witb an ounce or
two of spirit of nitrons ether, or of strong whiskey
toddy, combined with plenty of ginger. To guard
against a return of the attack light and easily
digestible food should be ndministered every four
or five hours, and occasional mild purgatives
should be given.

Horses are also subject to another form of
staggers, called 'mad staggers.' This disease
originates, however, in causes wholly dissimilar
from those just stated, being the result of pbre-
nitis or inflammation of the brain. The animal
is frequently very furious and excited, and seems
wholly unable to control itself, throwing itself
madly about, and attempting to run down any-
body that comes in its way ; it is also frequently
unable to keep on its legs, and when it falls,
plunges and struggles violently.

The treatment recommended is prompt and
copious bloodletting, combined with active purges
and enemas, with refrigerant lotions to the head.

STAIHES QLASS. The art of painting or
staining glass resembles enamel painting, in the
effect being produced by fluxing certain metallic
substances, as oxides or chlorides, on its surface,
by means of heat applied in a suitable furnace.
The operations it embraces are difficult, and re-
quire great promptitude and experience to prove
successful. The colours or compounds employed
are, for the most part, similar to those noticed
imder Evakbl and Fasti.

STAIBS. Discolorations from foreign matters.
Liquid dyes are also frequently termed 'stains.'
See Sf OIB, Ac, and below.

Stains, Blood. Spots of dried blood on wood,
linen, &c, however old, are easily recognised by
the microscope; but simple stains or marks of
blood of a alight character, especially those occur-
ring on iron or steel, are recognised with greater
difficulty. To obviate this, H. Zollikofer adopts
the following plan: — The spot is removed, by
scraping, from the surface of the metal, and the
lesulting powder is digested in tepid water, when
a liquid is obtained which exhibits the following
reactions:

1. The liquid is neutralised with acid, and
heated to ebullition, when opalisation occurs, or a
dirty red coagnlum forms.

2. The coagnlnm is dissolved in hot liquor of
potassa ; the solution, if blood (heematin) be pre-
sent, is diacliromatic, or appears green by trans-
mitted light and red by reflected light.

3. By the addition of concentrated chlorine
water, in excess, to either solution, white flocks
of albumen and chlorhssmatin separate, which
•re free from iron, as tested by sulphocyanide of
potassium.

Obt. The last two reactions are said to be
characteristic. Veiy old spots most be boiled in
water containing a Uttle liquor of potassa. See
Dr Taylor's ' M^ical Jurisprudence,' and BIjOOD.

Freti blood-stains should be treated with a
weak solution of common salt, |; this will
generally remove them effectually.

Stains, Bookbinder's. See Lbathzb, Max-
Bixira, &c.

Stalnt, CoBfactiOBtr't. These are aiinilar to
those noticed under Liqusub. Mineral colfxirs,
especially mineral blues, greens, and yellows,
must on no account be used, as they are nearly all
dangerous poisons ; nor is there any inducement
to use them, since the vegetable snbatanoes re-
ferred to afford, by proper management, every
shade that can be possibly required. These ataiiu
are also used for (»kes and pastiy.

Stains, Liquenr. See Liqukvb.

Stains, Map. See Max 8, Yiltbt CojjOvss,

&0.

Stain Bemover (for textile fabrics). 1. Soap
bark extract, 1 ox. ; borax, 1 oz. ; fresh ox-gall, 4

01. i tallow soap, 16 oi. Mix the borax, extract,
and gall together by triturating in a mortar, then
incorporate the soap so as to produce a plastic
mass, which may be moulded or put up in boxea.

2. Oleic acid, 1 part; borax, 2 parts; fresh ox-
gall, 6 parts; tallow soap, 20 parts. Mix the
borax and ox-gall, then incorporate the soap, and
lastly mix in the oleic add.

SIAM'iaaiBQt. Sgn. Blsbitab, L. Occa-
sionally this depends on some organic affecUon,
or slight malformation of the parte of the mouth
or throat immediately connected with the utter-
ance of vocal sounds; but, much more frequently,
it is a habit resulting from carelessness, or ac-
quired from example or imitation, Wlien the
latter is the case, it may be generally removed by
perseveringly adopting the plan of never speaking
without having Uie chest moderately filled with
air, and then only slowly and deliberately. Haaty
' and rapid speaking must not be attempted until
the Iiabit of stammering is completely subdued.
Nervous excitement and confusion must be
avoided as much as possible, and the general
health attended to, as circumstances may direct.
This variety of stammering is commonly distin-
guished by the person being able to sing without
hesitation. Stammering depending on ^ongation
of the uvula, and other like causes, may be gene-
rally removed by a simple surgical operation.

STAH'HIC ACID. Peroxide of tin.

8TASCH. C,Hu,Ot. jS^. Aictu.cbous vbcdi.A;
AxYLUK, L. One of the most important and
widely diffused of the proximate principles of
vegetables, being found in greater or less quantity
in every plant. The mealy and farinaceous seeds,
fruits, roots, and the stem-pith of certain treea
consist chiefly of starch in a nearly pure state.
Wheat contains about 75% and potatoes about
16% of this substance. From these sources the
f ecula is ol>tained by rasping or grinding to pnlp
the vegetable structure, and washing the mass
upon a sieve, by which the torn cellular tissue
is retained, whilst the starch passes through
with the liquid, and eventually settles down
from the latter as a soft, white, insoluble powder,
which, after being thorougMy vrashed vrith cold
water, is dried in the air, or with a very gentle
heat.

Wheat biaxoe (Ajcn.vx, B.F., Ph. L.,E., & D.)
is commonly prepared by steeping the flour in
water for a week or a fortnight, during which tim e
the saccharine portion ferments, and the starch
grannies become freed, for the most part, from
the glutinous matter which envelops them, by the
disintegrating and solvent action of the lactic

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STABCH

1581

acid generated by the fermentation. The loar
liquor is then drawn off, and the feculons reaidae
washed on a sieve ; what passes through is allowed
to settle, when the liqnid is again drawn off, and
the starch thorongUy washed from the slimy
matter; it is then drained in perforated boxes,
cnt np into sqnare lamps, placed on porons bricks
to absorb the moistmre, and, lastly, air- or stove-
dried.

In the preparation of starch from potatoes
(potato sturch) and other like vegetable sub-
stances, the roots or tabers, after being washed
and peeled, either by hand labour or by ma-
chinery, are rasped by a revolving grater, and,
the pidp washed on h^ sieves until freed from
fecnlons matter. Successive portions of the pulp
are thus treated until the vessel over which the
sieves are placed, or into which the washings mn,
is sufficiently full. The starch held in saspenoon
in the water having subsided to the bottom, the
water is drawn off, and the starch stirred up with
fresh water, and again allowed to subside. This
operation is repeated several timeswith freshwater
until the stareh is rendered sufficiently pure for
commercial purposes, when it is washed and dried
as before. The waste fibres and the washing
waters are used as manure.

The starch manufactory at Hohenziatz treated
1216 tons of potatoes for starch between the 4th
October, 1874, and the fith Febmary, 1876. The
waste water, after passing through precipitating
vats, Ac., for the purpose of collecting all the
particles of starch, was conducted into a reservoir
and mixed with spring water. This water was
conducted over a meadow of 18'6 acres, and then
passed to a meadow of 4*95 acres, and from this
to the third and last, which contained 6-19 acres.
The 29-64 acres received the water from 1064
tons of potatoes, or for each acre 4*88 cwt. of
potash, 1-26 cwt. of phosphoric acid, and 1*27 of
nitrogen.

The following table shows analyses (1) of potato
water ; (2) of tixe same diluted : (3) of water from
the first meadow; (4) water nom the second
meadow; one litre contained —

1.

s.

8. 4.

">g.

ng-

mg. mg.

Whole solid matter

1857-8

828-8

822-8

262-0

Organic matter . .

1184-2

101-8

88-0

78-8

Inorganic matter .

728'8

222-0

848-8

183-2

Potash

212-6

65-0

41-2

8-2

Phosphoric acid. .

66-6

6-5

trace

trace

Nitrogen . . . .

140-7

12-0

4-0

91

Ammoipa . . . .

87-4

0

0

0

Nitric add . . .

8-8

trace

trace

traoe

The disappearance of ammonia and phosphoric
acid in 2 is accounted for by the precipitation of
phosphate of magnesium and ammonium on the
addition of the spring water.

The harvest in hay before the use of potato
water was 19-13 cwt. per acre, and afterwards
81-88 cwt. The composition of the hay is better
than before, a* will be seen by the following
comparative table :

Moisture
Weody matter
Mineral mstter .
Soluble in ether .

Albumen

Eztractable matter not containing
nitrogen

1.

16-00

22-66 ,

7-64 ,

2-00 .

10-89 .

t.

15-00

28-88

8-69

2-80

16-86

41-81 . 86-84

100<X)*100O0

• 'Dingl. Polyt. Joum.,' cciiv, 894—896
(• Joum. Chem. Soc*).

In the manufacture of starch from rioe and
Indian com (rice starch, maize starch) a very
dilute solution of caustic soda, containing about
200 gr. of alkali to each gallon of liquid, is em-
ployed to facilitate the disintegration and separa-
tion of the gluten and other nitrogenised matters.
A weak solution of ammonia, or sesqnicarbonate
of ammonia, is also similarly employed with ad-
vantage. The gluten may be recovered by satn-
ratang the alkali with dilute sulphuric add.
Such starch does not require boiling, and is leM
apt than wheat starch to attract moisture from
the atmosphere. Most of the so-called ' wheaten
starch' of commerce used by laundresses is now
prepared from rioe.

To whiten the starches made from damaged
roots and grains, and the coarser portions of those
from sound ones, a little solution of chloride of
lime is occasionally added to the water, followed
by another water containing a very little dilute
sulphuric acid; every trace of the last being
afterwards removed by the copious use of pure
soft or spring water.

The bluish-white starch used by laundresses is
coloured with a mixture of smalts and alum in
water, and is regarded as unfit for medicinal
purposes.

Prop., (f c. Starch is insoluble in cold water,
and in alcohol and most other liquids, but it
readily forms a gelatinous compound (amidin)
with water at about 175* F, ; alcohol and most of
the astringent salts precipitate it from its solu-
tions; infusion of galls throws down a copious
yellowish precipitate, contuning tannic add,
which is redissolved by heating the liquid ; heat
and dilute acids convert it into dextrin and
grape-sugar; strong alkaline lyes dissolve it, and
ultimately decompose it. Sp. gr, 1-53.

To the naked eye it presents the appearance
of a soft, white, and often glistening powder;
nnder the microscope it is seen to be altogether
destitute of crystalline structure, but to possess,
on the contrary, a kind of organisation, being
made of multitudes of litUe rounded trans-
parent bodies, upon each of which a series of de-
pressed parallel rings, surrounding a central spot
or hilum, may be traced. The starch granides
from different plants vary both in magnitude and
form. Those of potato starch and canna starch
(tous-les-mois) are the larg^est, and those of rice
and millet starch the smallest, the dimensions
ranging from ^^ to the m^iia °^ an inch. The
granules of arrowroot and tous-les-mois are
ovoid, those of potato starch both oblong and
circular, those of tapioca muller-shaped, and those
of wheat starch circular.

Jdentif. One of the commonest frauds piae-

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1682

STABCHmO—STABS

tiled upon ibe prafeaiion and the pTiUic u the

admixture of the cheaper Itinds of starch, chiefly
potato farina, with arrowroot, and the vending of
mannfactnred for genuine tapioca, lago, and other
articles of diet used for invalids and children.
These sophistications are most easily detected
with a good microscope. Drawings of the prin-
cipal starches will he found under the substances
from which they are obtained, as ' arrowroot,' &c.

The following is an ontUne of the process
followed at Messrs Orlando Jones and Co.'s
factory:

Bice is bought in the haslt, haslted in the rice-
mills on the premises, and separated into large
and small grains; the large are sold for use as
rice, the small, as a matter of economy, converted
into starch. It is first ground, then treated with
a very dilute solntion of caustic soda to dissolve
oat toe gluten. This solution is run off and
wasted. Many experiments have been made, but
without success, to discover a method of recover-
ing the gluten. After various washings with
dilute soda the mixture is run into settling-tubs,
and kept gently agitated hy revolving stirrers to
allow the fibre to settle, while the starch is still
in suspension. The starch and water is then
^phoned to other tubs, where it is allowed to
&fOnt. The thick pasty mass is dried in cen-
trifugal machines until of'suiBcient consistency
to be made into cuhes of 6 or 8 inch side. These
are dried to a certain degree in stoves heated by
steam, and are then transferred to the hands of
nrls, who with large knives trim off the slightly
discoloured surface. One or two strokes of the
knife are enough to slice off the whole of a side.
The cubes are then wrapped in glazed paper and
stacked in store-rooms maintained at a gentle
heat, where thejr renaun for at least three weeks,
genUy drying. When the parcels are opened
after this period, it is found that the starch,
without any further treatment, has broken up
into the well-known columnar pieces. It is
noticeable that the ends of the columns are at
the surface, the fissures extending at right angles
thereto. The process is not one of crystallisation,
properly so called, but is apparently the same
that produced the curious structure of the basalt
at the Giant's Causeway, and may be seen in
action on mud banks drying when the river is
low.

Stareh Glaie. Frep, Borax, 10 oz.; starch,
80 oz. ; stearic acid, i oz. ; absolute alcohol, 6 dr.
Dissolve the stearic acid in the alcohol and mix
with the starch ; expose to the air until diy, then
add the borax and sift.

Starch, Glazing. iVep. Melt 5 parts of stearic
acid, add 6 parts of absolute alcohol, and tritu-
rate the mixture with 95 parts of wheat starch.
Starch prepared from this takes easily a fine
polish. The effect is the same as adding a piece
of stearin to the starch before the boiling water
is poured upon it.

Starch Follah. Fnp, Lard, 7 oz. ; white wax,
i oz. ; glycerin, } oz. ; strong solution of am-
monia, 1 oz. ; citronella oil, 6 drops. Melt the
wax and lard together and stir constantly until
of a creamy consistence, then add the pnfnme,
and incorporate the glycerin and ammonia pre-
viously mixed.

Starch, I'odide of. Sfn. AxTix lOsroTTM,
Amu lODATiw, L. Prap. (Ph. Castr. Kd-

thena.) Iodine, 24 gr.; rectified spirit, a. few
drops; rub them to a powder; t£en add of
starch, 1 oz., and again tntnrato until the maas
assumes a uniform colour, Becommended 1>y Dr
A. Buchanan, of Qlasgow, as producing the sltezs-
tive effects of iodine, without the usual ixritant
action of that medicine. — Dote. A teaspoonfa],
or more, in water-gruel, or any bland liquid, twice
or thrice a day.

Starch, Soluble Iodide of. {PHit.) Frep.
Iodine, 12 grms. ; starch, 100 grms.; ether, q. a.
Dissolve the iodine in the ether, poor the reaolt-
ing solntion over the starch, and triturate nntn
the ether has sufficiently evaporated. Put the
product in a porcelain capsule and expose it to
the heat of a boiling water bath for half an hour,
with occasional stirring. This treatment is
sufficient to render it entirely soluble in hot
water.

Dr Bellini strongly recommends iodide tA
starch as a valuable antidote in cases of poison-
ing by caustic alkalies, alkaline or earthy boI-
pludes, and vegetable alkaloids. The advantages
attending its employment, he says, are — that it
may be administered in lai^ doses ; that it does
not possess the irritating properties of tree
iodine ; and that it readily forms harmless com-
pounds with the substances named. To avoid
the subsequent decomposition of the latter, he
advises its administration to be followed bj an
emetic. As an antidote to alkaline and earth;
sulphides, the author thinks it preferable to all
others. In cases of poisoning by ammonia, caus-
tic potash, or soda, it is apphcable when add
drinks are not on huid.

STABCHOrO (Clear). Muslins, &c., are ' dear-
starched' or 'got up' by laundresses in the fol-
lowing manner: — Binse the articles in three
waters, dry them, and dip them into thick-made
starch, which has been previously strained through
a piece of muslin ; squeeze them, shake them
gently, and again hang them up to dry; when
they are dry, &p them twice or thrice into dear
water, squeeze them, spread them on a linen
cloth, roU them up in it, and let them lie an hour
before ironing them. Some persons put a morsd
of sugar into the starch, to prevent its sticking
whilst ironing, and others stir the starch with a
candle to dfect the same end ; both these prac-
tices are as injurious as unnecessary. The best
plan to prevent sticking is simply to use the beat
starch, and to make it well, and to have the irons
quite dean and highly polished. Mr W. B.
Tegetmeier recommends the addition of a small
piece of paraffin (a piece of paraffin candle-oid)
to the starch, to increase the glostinesa of the
ironed fabric.

STABS (in pyroteclutg). Prep. 1. (Bril-
liant— Marth.) Nitrate, 62^ purto; sulphur
and black antimony, of each, 18 parts; reduce
them to powder, make them into a stiff paste
with isinghun, li parts, dissolved in a mixtm-e of
vinegar, 6i parts; and spirits of wine, 13 parts;
lastly, form this into small pieces, and whilst
moist roll them in meal gunpowder.

2. (WuTtx—Stiggieri.) Nitre, 16 parte; sd-
phnr, 7 parts ; gunpowder, 4 parts; as the last.

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STAYESACBK— STEAM

1S88

8. (OoLsnr buv.) o. (Suggieri.) Nitre
and gnnpowder, of each, 16 parta ; aolphor, 10
parts; charcoal, 4 parts ; lamp-black, 2 puts ; mix,
and pack it into small paper tubes.

b. (Swgyieri.) Nitre, 16 parts; snlpbor and
gonpowder, of each, 8 parts ; charcoal and lamp-
black, of each, 2 parts; as the last.

e. (JfoTfi.) Mealed gunpowder, 66} parts;
solphnr, 11 parts; charcoal, 22^ parts ; as More.
Used for the ' garniture ' of rockets, &o. See

PlBOTBOHinr.

STAVIS'ACSE. Sy». Statbbaobx Bbbsb;
SlAPHIBAeBIS BBXIlrA, STAPBISAaHIA (Ph. L.

and D.), L. " The seed of Delphiuium ttapM-
ttm-ia, Limi." (Ph. L.). This article is power-
fiuly emetic and cathartic, but is now scarcely
ever vied internally. Mixed with hair powder, it
is used to kill lice. An infusion or ointment
made with it is srid to be infallible in itch, but
its use requires some caution.

STATS. Syn. Cobsbt. Stays, "before
womanliood, are instruments of barbarity and
torture, and then they are needed only to give
beanty to the chest. It is the duty of every
motber, and every guardian of chilm'en, to in-
quire tiie purpose for which stays were intro-
duced into female attire. Was it for warmth P
If so, they certainly fulfil the intention very
badly, and are much inferior to an elastic woollen
babit, or one of silk quilted with wool. Was it
to force the ribs, while yet soft and pliable, into
the place of the liver and stomach, and the two
latter into the apace allotted for other parts, to
engender disease and deformity to the sufferer
and her children for generations P Truly, if
this were the otg'eet, uie device is most suc-
cessful, and the intention most ingeniously f nl-
meA" (Xrat. WiUon).

"Only observe," exclaimed Dr John Hunter —
"only observe, if the statue of the Medicean
Venus were to be dressed in stays, and her
beautiful feet compressed into a pair of exe-
crably tight shoes, it would extort a smile
from an Heraclitus, and a horse-laugh from a
Cynic"

"Tbe Turkish ladies express horror at seeing
Englishwomen so tightly laced" (Ladg M. W.
Mont€igiu). See Dibtobtiokb.

STEAK. The application of steam of the
laboratory, as a source of heat, is commonly
effected by means of double pans, to the space
between which steam, at a moderate pressure, is
introduced, the arrangements being such as to
permit of the condensed steam, or distilled water,
being removed, by means of a cock, nearly as
soon as formed, or as may be desirable. Another
plan is to place coils of metal pipe along the
bottom of cisterns, vats, &c., formed either of
wood or metal, and to keep them supplied with
high-pressure steam.

" It is quite susceptible of positive proof, that
by no arrangement yet discovered can more than
two thirds of the heat generated by a riven
quantity of coal, during combustion, be fairly
absorbed and utilised in any of our mannfac-
toriai ; and, moreover, there arc undeniable facts
which demonstrate that seldom, in the burning
of coal, are more than three fourths of the totiU I
heat, which might be eliminated, actually ob- 1

tained ; thus justifying the supposition that one
half of all the co^ now consumed ia virtually
wasted and lost to sociel^.'^ To lessen, as much
as possible, this loaa various improvementa have
bem made, " which, for the most part, have con-
sisted in lengthening the flues, ^d exposing a
larger surface of the boiler to the action of the
heated air passing from the furnace to the chim-
ney." " Bemembering that air ia an extremely
bad conductor of heat, and that water about to
be converted into steam is also a bad conductor,
it is evident that time must form an important
element in the perfect transmission of heat from
one of these to the other; and hence, with a
great velocity of current existing in Uie flues,
very little heat would pass from air, however
hi^h its temperatore, to water contained in a
boiler, and so drcumstanced with reapect to its
all but graaeous condition." The results al the
experiments on fuel made at the Museum of
Fnctical Oeology by Sir H. De la Beche and Dr
Lyon Playfair go clearly to show that " to open
the damper of a steam-boiler furnace is pretty
generally to diminish the effective power of the
fuel." " OneaX, wasto of coal now arises from this
simple circumstance; and much of the heat of
the flre, which ought to go to the boiler, is lost
by its [too3 hasty transmission up the chimney.
If, however, there be thus far room for improve-
ment in the direction just indicated, still wider is
the vacant space caused by imperfect combus-
tion, or, in technical phrase, 'bad stoking,'
merely because the stoker, to economise his
labour and to avoid trouble, throws on to the
bars of his furnace a thick layer of fuel, by
which loss is caused in two or three directions.
These are, principally, imperfect combustion, and
the volatilisation of fuel, as smoke, &c., from an
inaofSdent supply of air, and from a mass of
mere red-hot coke or cinder, two or three inches
thick, lying between the boiler and the hottest
part of the furnace ; which last, according to Dr
Kennedy, ia abont one inch above the fire-bars.
Besides wliich, "in passing over this red-hot
coke the carbonic acid would be converted into
carbonic oxide, and thus not only remove a quan-
tity of carbon equal to its own, without yielding
any additional heat, but actually with the pro-
duction of cold, or, in other words, the absorp-
tion of heat " (' Diet. Arts, Manuf ., and Mines '}.
This points to the evident policy of using
a smoke-consuming furnace, as noticed else-
where.

Another matter worthy of remark ia the con-
stant wasto of heat, and, consequently, of fuel, in
laboratories and manufactories in which steam ia
employed, owing to the exposed condition of the
pipes, boilers, and pans. All of these should be
well ' clothed ' or covered by some non-conducting
medium, to prevent loss of heat by radiation, and
by contact with the atmosphere. Not only does
economy dictate such a coarse, but the health and
comfort of the workpeople demand that the atmo-
sphere in which they labour should be as little
heated and poisoned as possible.

A cubic inch of water, during its conversion
into steam, under the ordinary pressure of the
atmosphere, expands into 1696 cubic inches, or
nearly a cubic foot.

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1684

STBABIC ACID

Tablb ^ eorretponding Preuurt aiitd Tfemptra-
tare* of Sttam. By Abaso and Dcxoks.

Fnunxein

Tenpenture,

Fmrarain

Tompentan,

Atmospharra.i

T.

Atnaapherei.<

F.

DegKu.

DcfnM.

1

212-

13

880-66

u

284-

14

886-94

2

250-6

15

892-86

2i

268-8

16

898-48

8

2»5-2

17

408-88

Si

28fi-

18

408-92

4

2987

19

418-78

4i

800-8

20

418-46

6

807-6

21

422-96

6i

814-24

22

427-28

6

820-86

28

481-42

6i

826-2S

24

486-56

•7

881-7

26

489-84

n

886-86

80

467-16

8

841-78

86

472-78

9

860-78

40

486-59

10

868-88

46

489-14

11

866-85

eo

610-6

12

874-

1 Estimating 14-6 lbB.=il atmoaphere.

One part, by weight, of ateaiD, at 212° F., whan
condensed into cold water, is foond to Im capable
of rainng 6-6 part* of the latter from the freeiing
to the boUing point. See Fitkl, Frr-ooAir, Skokb,
Ac.

STEASIC ACID. C„Ha.CO,H. Syn. SraAiuir
(Commercial). This is obtained from stearin (see
heUno) by saponification.

Brtp. 1. Bepeatedly dissolve and dystalliae
commercial steuic acid in hot alcohol, until its
melting-point becomes constant at not less than
158° P. Pore.

2. {Cheereul.) Saponify mntton snet with
caustic potash, and dissolve the soap in 6 times
its weight of hot water ; to the solution add 40 or
50 parts of cold water, and set the mixture aside
in a temperature of about 62° F. j after a time
separate the pearly matter (stearate and palmitate
of potash) which falls, drain and wash it on a
filter, and dissolve it in 24 parts of hot alcohol of
sp. gr. 0-820 ; collect the stearate of potash which
nils as the liquid cools, reciystallise it in alcohol,
and decompose it, in boiling water, with hydro-
chloric acid ; lastly, wash l£e disengaged stearic
acid in hot water, and dry it.

3. (Commercial.) Ordinary tallow is boiled in
large wooden vessels by means of high-pressure
steam, with about 16% of hydrate of lime (equiv.
to 11% of pure lime), for 8 or 4 hours, or until
the combination is complete, and an earthy soap
is formed, when the whole is allowed to cool ; the
product (stearate of lime) is then transferred to
another wooden vessel, and decomposed by adding
to it 4 parU of oil of vitriol (diluted iritn water)
for every 8 parts of slaked lime previously em-
pWed, the action being promoted by steam heat
and brisk agitation; ^ter repose, the liberated
fat is decanted from the sediment (sulphate of
lime) and water, and is then well washed with
wato-, and by blowing steam into it; it is next

allowed to cool, when it is reduced to aRmvingn hy
machinery, and in tlus divided state is pUtoed in
canvas bags andsabmitted to the action of a power-
ful hydtralie press, by which a large portiaii of
the oMc add which it contuna is expelled ; the
pressed cakes are then a second time exposed to
the action of steam and water, again cooled, and
coarsely powdered, and again submitted to tli«
joint aewm tit steam and pressure; th^ are,
lastly, melted, and east into blocks for sale.

dbt. The commerdal product is a more or leaa
impure mixture of stearic acid and other tatty
bodies, particularly the so-called ' margarie acid,*
now generally regiirded as a mixture of palmitiB
and stearic a«dds. The hard, f atl^ acids of wege-
table origin, now so extensively used as randln
materials, are obtained from the natural oils and
butters by the process known as ' sulphniic acid
saponification,' which consista in treating the tmttj
bodies with 6% or 6% of ooncentiated snlidnoic
acid at a high temperature (about 860^ F., pro-
duced by superheated steam), and distilling the
resulting mass by the aid of steam heated to about
660^ F. Frequently the operations of hot and oold

Sreadng are resorted to in order to tree the pro-
net from the softer fats.

By a patent process employed at Price's candle
works the natural vegetable fats are deoomposed
into their oonstituenti (fatty acids and glycerin)
by the action of superheated steam alone, without
previous ' saponificalaon ' with alkali or sulphuric
acid.

Another method for the preparation of com-
mercial stearic acid is that of Messrs Uoinier and
BoTZtigny, This process is thus described in the
'Chemical Technology' of Messrs Ronalds and
Bichardson : — 2 tons of tallow and 900 galls, of
water are introduced into a large rectangular vat
of about 270 feet capacity. The taUow is melted
by means of steam aidmitted through a pipe coiled
round the bottom, and the whole kept at the boil-
ing heat for an hour, during which a current of
sulphurous acid is forced in. At the end of this
period 6 cwt. of lime, mixed with 860 galls, of
water, are added, llie mixtore soon becomes
frothy and viscid. The whole is now agitated in
order to prevent the sudden swelling up of the
soapy materials. The pasty appearance of the
lime soap succeeds, and it then agglomerates into
small nodular masses.

The admission of sulphurous a<ad is now stopped;
but the ii^ection of the steam is continued until
the small masses become hard and homogeneous.
The whole period occupies 8 hours, but the ad-
mission of the sulphurous acid is discontinued at
the end of about 8 hours. The water oontaimng
the glycerin is run oft through a tube into cistetos
prepared to receive it.

Retorts are used for preparing sulpharoas acid,
into which are put sulphuric acid and peoes of
wood ; upon the application of heat the sulphur*
oua acid passes oS, and is conveyed by leaden
pipes into the vessels containing the tallow. The
Ume soap formed is then moistened with 12 cwt.
of sulphuric add at 160° F., dUuted with 60 galls,
of water. The whole is thoroughly agitated and
the steam cautiously admitted, so as not to dilate
the acid too much until the deoompoution ii
general at all ptnnts. This occupies about 8 honn.

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STEABIN— STEEL

US5

and in 8 or 8 hours more the sulphate of lime has
collected at the bottom, while the fatty acids are
floating on the surface of the solution of the bisnl-
phate of lime. Several processes of washing with
steam and water are necessary to ensure tiie re-
moval of the sulphate of lime, Ac, and after
settling for 4 hours the fatty acids are forced
through a fixed siphon into a vat, where they are
again washed with water ; they are then siphoned
at last into a trough lined with lead, on the bottom
of which are placed leaden gutters, pierced below
bv long pegs of wood. The fatty acids are then
placed in bags and subjected to pressure in the
stearin cold press.

In 1871 Prof. Bock, of Copenhagen, after a
careful microscopic and chemical investigation,
discovered that the neutral fats were composed of
a congeries of little globules enclosed in albumi-
nous envelopes. To tiie presence of these latter
substances m the fat he attributed the difficulty
of eliminating the fatty acids from it by means
either of sulphuric acid, except in excess, or of
allukli, except under great pressure j conceiving
that both these agents, as employed under the
usual methods, were expended in ruptoring and
destroying the albuminous coverings.

The inconveniences arising from the above pro-
cesses are, in the case of the excess of the sul-
phuric add, a considerable destroction of the
fatty acid, as well as the necessity of its distilla-
tion, and the consequent danger of conflagration ;
whilst in the case of the alkali, this must either
be used in quantities much greater than theory
requires, or else be heated under great pressure,
at the risk of giving rise to an explosion.

In Prof. Bock's process these dangers, together
with the waste of material, are avoided. By sub-
mitting the fat for a limited time and at a given
temperature to the action of a small quantity of
sulphuric acid, the albuminous envelopes are
broken and pwrtiy destroyed. The neutral fat
thus liberated is then placed in open tanks in
water, by which, after the expiration of several
hoon, it becomes decomposed. When this is
completely effected the glycerin, dissolved in the
water used for the decomposition, is removed; the
fatty acids which remain behind, and which
amount to 94% of the original fat, being at this
stage of the operation dark brown or bUckish in
colour.

In this condition they are placed in open tanks,
and dilute solutions of certain reagents are poured
upon them, whereby the albuminous dSbri* as well
as the colouring matters with which they are as-
sodated become oxidised, whilst the spedflc gravity
of these latter is in consequence so increased as to
cause them to subside to the bottom of the tank,
leaving the fatty acids, now greatiy whitened, in
the upper port of the liquid.

The acids, after being washed 8 or 8 times with
dUnte acid and water, are then cooled, and hot-
pressed in the usual manner, and the stearic add
thus obtained is said to have a higher melting-
point and to be larger in yield than tiiat obtiuned
by any other method, an oleic add of excellent
quality being at the same time produced.

In a French patent carbon disulphide is em-
ployed to increase the fluidity of the oleic add, so
thi^ the warm pressure of the crude stearic acid
TOL. n.

is avoided. The addition of the carbon disulphide
may be made either before or sifter the cold press-
ing of the stearic add. The crude fatty add is
melted in a special apparatus, and 20% of the di-
sulphide la mixed with it whilst in the fluid state.
It is then left to cool and subjected to cold pres-
sure. The stearic add thus obtained should be
free from oleic acid.

JProy., S[c. Pure stearic add crystallises in milk-
white needles of the same specific gravity as
water, and freezing at 69° C, which are solubl«
in ether and in cold alcohol, and form salts with
the bases, called stearates. The commercial add
is made into candles. For the method of estimat-
ing stearic add see P^luitio Aon>. See
CaitdiiSS, Fat, Oilb (Fixed), and Tallow.

STE'ASnr. C,Ht(CuH„0^,. The solid por-
tion of fats which is insoluble in cold alconol.
There are three stearins or glyceryl stearates.

Fnf. Pure strained mutton suet is melted in
a glass flask along with seven or eight times its
weight of ether, and the solution allowed to cool ;
the soft, pasty, semi-crystalline mass is then
transferred to a doth and is strongly pressed as
raindly as possible, in order to avoid unnecessary
evaporation ; the solid portion is then redissolved
in ether, and the solution allowed to crystallise
as before.

Prop., ^. White ; semi-ciystalline ; insoluble
in water and cold alcohol ; soluble in 225 parts of
cold ether, and freely so in boiling ether. It
melts at 130° F. The ' stearin ' of commerce is
stearic add.

BTiASOVTSBTB. The name given by Her-
berger to the solid crystalline compound which
separates in the cold from certain volatile oils.
Buio calls it stereunn.

8T£EL. This important material may be de-
fined as iron chemically combined with suffident
carbon to give it extreme toughness and hardness
without brittleness. According to one of our
greatest authorities on metallursy, steel is a com-
bination of iron with from 0'1% to 1-8% of car-
bon, these nnmbers referring respectivdy to the
softest and the hardest varieties.

The influence of traces of foreign matters is
very important in the economy of steel, and a

freat deal of research is at the present time being
one in this country by Professor Roberts- Austen,
in France by the brothers Le Chatelier Demond,
and by other sdentists, and it is expected that
very soon some important deduction will be made
from their experiments.

By FOnrcel and other authorities silicon in
small quantities is supposed to be a useful ingre-
dient in steel, and to increase its capacity for
being hardened; an opinion dissented from by
others, who hold that its presence has a tendency
to diminish the malleability and ductility of the
metal.

Faraday and Stodart believed that the addition
of small quantities of chromium and iridium to
steel served to improve its quality, and the same
has been asserted of tungsten and titanium ; but
on these points there is still a divergence of
opinion, and no satisfactory dedsion has yet been
arrived at concerning them.

Manganese has also been credited by Hadfield
and others with the property of improving steel,

100

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1686

STEBL

bnt as it lias lieen found that only a very minute
quantity of the manganese is taken up by the
steeli an indirect influence may possibly be ezer-
dsed by it, viz. its power of carrying away any
prqudicial excess of sulphur and phosphorus with
it; and in this manner it may contribute to the
increased purity of the metal. Steel that con-
tains manganese is always harder, stronger, and
mora ductile than steel which does not. The
addition of manganese to cast steel constitutes
Heath's patent, the chief advantage of which is
that blistered steel made from British bar iron
can be substituted for the much more expensive
Swedish and Russian iron in certain branches of
-iron manufacture.

Among the various substances which are fre-
quently present in malleable iron and in cast iron,
those which are more prqudicial to the quality of
steel are sulphur, phosphorus, and copper. 0*06%
of sulphur in steel renders the metal brittle and
'red-short;' 0*1% of phosphorus renders steel
'cold-short,' t. «. unworkable at ordinary tem-
peratures; 0'6% of copper renders steel decidedly
red-short, and for this reason iron smelted from
ores containing copper pyrites is not suitable for
making steel.

Within the last few years great attention has
been paid to the investigation of the chemistry of
steel. The researches of Despretz and f^my

tend to the conclusion that nitrogen ezerciaes >
very important influence over the phenomana of
' steeling,' and that carbon plays a less neoesaary
part ; wbile those of Carron and Deville still refer
the formation of steel to the chemical oomlnns-
tion of iron with carbon. There is no teat of the
value of steel bqrond its elasticiiy and tamper,
and the fineness, equality, and smoothneas ot Ha
grain.

Cast iron, wrought iron, and steel are all oom-
binations of iron and carbon, differing' in tJh«
amount they contun of the latter element. Ac
cast iron contains a larger and wrought iron a
smaller proportion of carbon than steeC it foUowa
that to convert the cast iron into steel its ezoesa
of carbon most be removed ; whilst converaeIjr> to
make the wrought iron into steel, the reqniaite
amount of carbon must bo added to it.

Thus it is that the various processes for the
mannfteture of steel (with the exception of those
which propose to obtain it direct from the ores)
are directed to one or other of these ends, vis.
the deearbnration of cast or pig iron, and the ear-
buration of wrought or malleable iron.

1. In the first, or deearbnration method, the
oxygen of the air plays an important part. Best
wrought iron is heated with coal or charcoal, in
some works on the refining hearth, in others npon
the bed of the puddling furnace. The oxygen of

Tkafi>Uo»iMg TAVL^from ' Pagem't Indttttrial Cktmitfty,' givM ike Compotition qf tmerti Jarnds

<lf Ste»l.

Kind of StMl.

Uctlitj.

Fe.

Hn.

Cn.

Carbon.

8i.

S. 1 P. ' AsUiaTitr.

Com-

Graphi-

1 1

0-379

Uncd.
1-698

tic.

; 1

Natural steel .

Siegen

0-088

Karsten.

W ft

Solingen

**•

...

1-670

...

0020

... 'Lainpadins

Puddled steel .

Harts

0-012

1-880

...

0-006

(AlO-12) trace iBraans. !

Cement steel .

English

*..

...

1-807

0100

Berthier.

It >f

Qerman

0-416

0(«0

... Bromeis. '

Cast steel . .

Sheffield

• .•

0-960 i 0-230

...

»

tt fl • •

tt

...

1-768

...

...

Karsten. I

M *» ■ •

French

...

0-650

0-040

.

1

Sword steel .

Damascus

0-070

1-069

(Ni0-07Wo0-0l)

...

tt w

tt

...

trace

0-776

...

(Ni 0-21 Co trace
Wo trace)

1

WootK . . .

Indian

...

...

1-500

0-600

... 1 ...

ft • • •

tt

98-092

...

1-383 1 0-812

0046

(As 0-037) ...

H^. '

Cast steel . .

German

...

trace

0-300

1-180

0-330

(NiO-12) 0-020

...

II 19 • •

English

...

0-024

0-066

1-275

0-218

(As 0 007) ...

...

Bessemer steel

Dowlais

...

0-576

0025

0-490

0-009

0-003

0-086

» i»

Sweden

trace

0D85

0008

trace

0025

Brusewitt.

" >»

.*•

...

0179

0-300

0-044

0-083

»» »

0-256

0-700

0 032

tM

M

n >i

<••

...

0-464

0-950

0047

„

0-082

tl

» »»

*••

...

0-866

1-060

0-067

(>

„

%t

Wired . . .

fiarrow-in-
Furnesa

...

0-214

0-200

0-179

0-030

0-026

%»

R«ilheadss .

Oemun

...

0-S86

0138

0-806

0-040

0O34

'

BaUs. . . .

>••

..*

0-264

0-150

0-091

0-026

0-032

» 1

„ ■ . .

«••

...

0-688

0046

0-684

0O46

0O93

" 1
M <

Boilerplates .

••*

•

0-186

0-260

0-016

0-010

1

n

» »

...

0-278

0-800

0-066

0-040

0-041

" 1

1

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STEEL

168r

the' air bams off tlio excess of carbon from the
iron, and steel is left. Fayen says that when the
iron contains slag, the ferrous silicate present in
this takes part in the reaction.

The steel obtained by this method is called
»atiiral tttel. It is afterwards subjected to
forging, and is employed in the manufacture of
springs for maohineiy, railway carriages, wheel
tyres, ploughs, and other farming implements.

Krupp's cast steel, manafactured at Essen, near
Cologne, is a natural steel, being made on the bed
of a puddling furnace. It is obtained from hss-
matite and spathic ores, coke being used for the
smelting. The proportion of carbon in Krupp's
steel is abont 1*2% . When required for ordnance
it is fused with a little bar iron in pots, each of
which holds 80 lbs. It sometimes happens that
in the manufacture of a huge gun or cannon the
contents of as many as 1200 of these pots are re-
qnired. When this is the case the pots are
emptied of their molten contents simultaneonsly
into a channel leading to the cast, 400 well-
drilled men being required to carry oat the opera-
tion.

It is very essential that castings of such magni-
tude shonld be allowed to cool very gradually.
They are therefore enveloped in hot cinders for
two or three months, after which they are ready
for the forging.

2. Tha oarburation method. This is gene-
rally effected by the process known as ' cementa-
tion,' which is carried out as follows : — Two chests,
made of fire-brick or stone, one narrow end of
each of which is shown in the accompanying
plate, are so fixed in a dome-shaped furnace that
the fiames from the hearth beneath can effec-
tually play aronnd them.

The process renders it necessary that the tem-
perature of the furnace should be
steadily maintained for some days j
and this is achieved by surround-
ing the furnace with a conical wall
of brick-work, as shown in the mgr.
The chests are usually aboat 10 or
12 feet in length, 3 feet in height,
and 3 feet in depth. A layer of char-
coal of a fineness to pass through
a sieve of a^-inch mesh, or of soot,
is placed on the bottom of each
chest, and upon this the bars of
wrought iron which are intended
for conversion into steel. The bars
inside mnst be of iron of the best
quality and generally about 8 inches
broad and } of an inch thick.
When arranged regularly a little
distance apart, the intersticies between them are
. filled up with charcoal, with which they are then
covered to a depth of about an inch. Similar
layers of bars, similarly arranged, sncceed this
first one, nntU the chests are filled. They are
then covered in to a depth of 6 inches with a
luting of damp clay or sand. Each chest when
thus filled contains from 6 to 6 tons of iron. One
of the bars projects through an opening at the
end of the chest, to facilitate an inspection of it
from time to time, so that the progress of the
operation may be j udged. The materials of which
the cheats are composed render it important that

the temperature of the furnace should be carefully
and gradnally increased, as a too sudden accession
of heat would lead to damage. The temperatuie
necessary to effect the corburation of the iron has
been found to be that required for the melting of
copper, viz. 1996° P. When this temperature is
reached it is maintained for eight or ten days, or
even longer, the period depending upon the thick-
ness of Qie iron, and the degree of hardness it is
desired to possess. Six or eight days are sufficient
to yield steel of a moderate degree of hardness.
At the end of the requisite time the fire is gra-
dually put ont, and the chests as gradually cooled,
a process which occupies about another ten days.

The effect of the treatment to which the iron
bars have been subjected has been, in the first
place, to entirely alter their interior structure ; for
if they are broken asunder at any part, instead of
showing the fibrous arrangement observable in
bar iron, they present a closely granular one.
In the second pUice, chemical anuyses demon-
strate that the iron has combined with about
1% of carbon, and that this combination has
not only taken place on the surface of the bar,
but hM extended throughout its whole sub-
stance. It is because of this perfect impregna-
tion of the iron by the solid carbon that the
process by which it has thus been converted
into steel is called ' cementation.' The converting
furnace in the cementation is usually of the
form shown in the engr. (see next page).

N, N are two fire-brick boxes, 3 x 4 x 12 feet,
open at their npper surface. C is the fireplace,
which mns the whole length of the furnace. A is a
vaultof fire-brick covered in by the arch B. D, D
are flues. E, E, short chimneys. F, a dome of brick,
which encloses the whole. Q is the man-hole,
through which the boxes N, N are charged.

Two suggestions have been offered in explana-
tion of the blistered surface presented by the
steel. One of these, the theory of Mr T. H. Henry,
is that part of the carbon, in penetrating into the
body of the bar iron, has combined with the small
quantity of sulphur present in the iron, and that
the bisulphide of carbon thus formed, becoming
vaporised by the elevated temperature in escaping
through the soft surface of the metal, has caused
its blistered condition. The second conjecture is
that the blebs have arisen from the extrication of
carbonic oxide, which had been formed in the bar
by the union of the carbon with the small quantity

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1688

STEEL

of oxide of iron or alag accidentally remuning
in it.

Oraham.has ibown that loft iron has the power
of absorbing or occlnding at a low red heat 4-16

times its yolume of caTbonic oxide, which the
metal, when it becomes cold, retains, but which
it parts with when snbjecled to a temperature
such as that which prevailed in the cementation
box. This fact seems to offer a reasonable con-
firmation of the reaction it has been surmised
takes place during the cementation process, and
which is supposed to be as follows :

The small quantity of atmospheric oxygen
remaining in the chest unites with the carbon
to form carbonic oxide. This carbonic oxide
gives up half its carbon to the iron (which
thereby becomes converted into steel), and in
doing so changes to carbonic acid, which be-
eomes reduced to carbonic oxide by the absorp-
tion of more carbon from the charcoal, which
carbon the carbonic oxide again transfers to the
iron.

The above reaction may not improbably occur
throughout the substance of the bar. By some
chemists cyanogen compounds are supposed to be
present in the cementation powder, and the cya-
nogen contained in these is supposed to be tbe
carrier of the carbon to the iron.

"The blistered steel obtained by this process
is, as would be expected, far from uniform, either
in composition or texture ; some portions of the

bar contain more carbon than others, and the
interior contains numerous cavities. In order to
improve its quality it is sabjected to a process of
fagoting similar to that employed in the caae of
bar iron; the bars of blistered steel, being cat
into short lengths, are made up into bundles,
which are raised to a welding heat, and plihced
under a tilt hammer weighing about 2 cwt.,
which strikes 200 or 800 blows in a minnte ; in
this way the several bars are consolidated into
one compound bar, which is then exteniled under
the hammer till of the required dimensions. The
bars, before being hammered, are sprinkled with
sand, which combines with the oxide of iron upon
the snrface and forms a vitreous layer, which
protects the bar from oxidation.

"The steel which has been thus hammered
is much denser and more uniform in composi-
tion ; its tenacity, malleability, and ductility are
greatly increased, and it is fitted for the maan-
factnre of shears, files, and other tools. It is
commonly known as shear steeL Double ahear
steel is obtained by breaking the tilted bars in
two, and welding these into a compound bar.

" The best variety of steel, which is perfectly
homogeneous in composition, is that known as
cast steel, to obtain which about 30 lbs. of blis-
tered steel are broken into fragments, and fused
in a fire-clay or plumbago crucible, heated in a
wind-furnace, the snrface of the metal being
protected from oxidation by a little g-Iass melted
upon it. The fosed steel is cast into ingots,
several crucibles being emptied nmultaneously
into the same mould. Cast steel is far superior
in density and hardness to shear steel, but, unce
it is exceedingly brittle at a red heat, great care is
necessary in forging it. It has been found that
an addition to 100 parts of the cast steel, of one
part of a mixture of charcoal and oxide of man-
ganese, produces a very fine grained steel, which
admits of being cast on to a bar of wrought iron
in the ingot mould, so that the tenacity of the
latter may compensate for the brittleness of tbe
steel; when the compound bar is forged, the
wrought iron forming the back of the implement,
and the steel its cutting edge " (Bloxam's ' Che-
mistry, Inorganic and Organic ').

Another distinct method from the cementation
one, by which the carburation of iron is effected,
is that in which scrap or malleable iron is mixed
with pig or cast iron, this latter being fused with
the scrap iron in quantity sufficient to afford
such an amount of carbon as is necessary to con-
vert tbe mixture into steel. Steel made by this
operation is entirely homogeneous; the tilting
process which precedes the casting of the steel
obtained by cementation is therefore unnecessary.
The pig-iron is placed on the bed (made of re-
fractory sand) of one of Siemens' regenerative
furnaces, heated by gaseous fuel. The tempera-
ture in this furnace is so intense that the pig-
iron becomes perfectly liquid, and, when in this
condition, the scrap iron, which has been pre-
viously heated to redness in an adjoining refrac-
tory furnace, is added, and becomes dissolved
by it.

In the manufacture of Bessemer steel both the
carburation and decarburation processes are prac-
tised. From 1 to 6 tons of pig or cast iron in a

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STKEL

1689

molten atste are ran from a eontinnoiu blait, cu-
pola, or reTerberatory furnace, with an apparattu
known as a converter, which ia prerionaly heated
to redneis by means of coke. The coDTerter ii
flf^ored nndor two aspects in the annexed en-
graving.

This vessel, which is generally made of boiler-
plates of sheet iron, has an inside lining, con-
dating of a siliceous fireproof material, and is
perforated at the bottom with a number of con-
centric little openings, which are the orifices of
as many little tnbee or tnyires, that lead into
an ontside main tube, as shown in the tr^r. By

means of these tabes condensed air is tateoi into
the mass of melted metal, which is soon thrown
into violent commotion, and sends ont a shower
of ignited sparks. The oxide of iron formed at
' the same time, being set into active movement by
the incoming blast of air, is brought into intimate
contact with every particle of the carbon and
silicon contained in the east iron, and converts
the former into carbonic oxide, which bums with
its characteristic flame at the mouth of the con-
verter, and the silica into silicic acid, which
enters into the slag, and floats, in the form of foam,
on the top of the heavier molten, iron.

The removal of the carbon (which is recognised
by the ^soontinuance of the carbonic oxide flame)
being thns accoiqplished, the iron has next to be
submitted to the carbureting operation. This is
performed by running into the liquid iron in the
converter such a quantity of molten pig or cast
iron as contains the required proportion of
earbon.

The i^iron used for this purpose generally
contains, in addition to a large amount ox carbon,
a very perceptible quantity of manganese. The
converter is then l^ means of trunnions tilted,
so that its contents can be run into a ladle and
transferred to the necessary moulds. The time
of conversion occupies from ten to twenty
minntes.

By Bessemer process the sulphnr present in
the pig-iron is almost entirely eliminated; the
greater part of the silicon is also separated, toge-
ther with the carbon, and almost in the same
proportion ; but the phosphorus is not removed,
and, owing to the oxidation of some iron, the
amount is actually greater in the finished steel
than in the pig-iron (Paven's 'Industrial Che-
mistiy,' edited by B. H. Paul, Ph.D.}.

Beuemer steel Is in large demand, and is ex-
cellently suited for rails for railroads, cannon,
boiler-plates, annour-plates, and similar heavy
material, for the manufacture of which it has
largely supplanted wrought iron; but it is not at

all adapted for the manufacture of knives, razors,
lancets, or similar instruments, in which a sharp
or keen edge is desirable.

Latterly attempts have been made to obtain
steel direct from the ores. The efforts made
have been greatly stimulated by the invention
of the regenerating furnace of Siemens. In
these furnaces, in which an intense tempera-
ture is obtained by means of the combustion of
inflammable gases (chiefiy consisting of carbonic
oxide, hydrogen, and carouretted hydrogen), the
ore, afto: (in one process) being melted in hopper*
by means of the burning gases, runs down, and is
gradually dissolved in some melted pig-iron placed
on the hearth of the furnace. When this latter
has been suflSciently diluted with the decarbonised
iron the operation is complete.

Propttitt qf StaeL The efi'ects of temperature
upon steel are remarkable, and a knowwdge oi
them has proved of great practical utility in the
manufacture of the various steel-ware articlea
that are so indispensable to our every-day wanti
and needs. If forged and soft steel is heated,
and then suddenly cooled, it becomes bald, tiie
hardness varying with the temperature and the
rapidity with which this has been reduced. The
higher the temperature and the more rapidly it is
cooled, the greater will be ite hardness. Steel
which has been heated until white-hot, and then
suddenly plunged into a bath of oold mercory,
acquires a hardness nearly eoualling that of the
diunond. That, however, which the steel gains
in hardness it loses in pliancy and elastidty, be-
coming exceedingly brittle.

Soft steel, which has been made hard by heat-
ing it to redness, and by subsequent sudden im-
mersion in cold water, may be reconverted into
soft steel by again heating it to redness and
allowing it to cool slowly. By stopping short,
however, of heating it to redness, its hardness
mw be proportionally modified.

Hence steel articles, varying as much in the
qualities of hardness and elastidty as a lancet
and watoh-spring, are made either by 'heating
down' hard steel to requisite temperature and
allowing it to cool, or by 'heating up' soft steel
to the necessary point and also letting it gradually
oooL When steel is so treated it is said to be
tempered at ammealed. It polished steel be heated
over a flame to a temperature of 480° F. its sur-
face becomes of a very pale yellow colour; the
colour passes through different shades of yellow

and blue with each successive increase of tem-
perature, until when raised to 600° F. it become*
blackish blue.

These effects are due to the formation on the
surface of the steel of films of oxide of different
degrees of thickness, and to the action of the
light on these. They are precisely analogous to
those which are caused when a ray of reflected
light falls upon any other body, the surface of
which ia composed of thin layers, which are con-
tinually changing iu thickness, such as a soap-
bubble, or a thin coating of tar or oil swimming
on water, and which are exemplified in Newttm's
rings.

As each shade of colour is an index of the tem-
perature of the steel, and as this determines its
adaptability for various purposes, all that the

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1690

8TEBE0CHR0MY— STERLINO

workman haa to do, when he reqniroa it for any
■pedal object, U to heat it by the proper methods
(«ach as a bath of oil, or tallow, or melted metal)
until it acquires the desired colour, and then to
allow it to gradnally cool.

The following table, exhiUting the diffeiant

melting-points of steel when employed in tlie
manufacture of different kinds of works, together
with the corresponding colours, the oompoaition
of the metallic baths, ac, is from Dr Wagner's
'Handbook of Chemical Technology,' edited by
W. Crookes, Esq., F.B.S.

Compaiitioii of UsUUic Btth.

i »

Letd. Tin.

Lancets 7 . . 4 . .

Boxors 8 . . 4 . .

Penknives 8i . . 4 . .

Fain of soisson 14 . . 4 . .

Clasp-knives, joiners' and carpenten^ tods 19 . . 4 . .

Swmds, cutlasses, watch-springs . 48 . . 4 . .

Stilettos, boring tools, and fine saws . 60 . . 2 . .

Ordinary saws {^s^'^ofl}" •

Udting-

point.

Cokwr.

aaofc.

. Hardly pale yellow.

828' „

. Pale yellow to straw yellow

288°,,

. Straw yellow.

264° „

. Brown.

265°,,

. Purplish colour.

288°..

. Bright blue.

292°,.

. Deep blue.

816°..

. Blackish blue.

Steel is of a greyish-white colour, and has a
sp. gr. varying from 7*6224 to 7'8131 {Karttett).
Poring hardening its physical and even its chemi-
cal poperties are modified, and it experiences a
slight increase of volume. The property that
steel possesses of becoming hard after being
heated to redness, and suddenly chilled, does not
belong to pure iron, such as may be obtained by
electrolysis. Unlike pure iron, too, steel presents
a granular instead of a fibrous stmcture whan
broken, the best samples closely resembling silver
in this respect. The chemical difference between
hard and soft steel appears to consist in the much
more intimate combination of the carbon with
the iron in the hard variety than in the soft. In
this latter kind the carbon seems to be only me-
chanically mixed, for if it be immersed in hydro-
chloric acid the iron is dissolved, and leaves the
carbon behind. Steel is the most tenacious of all
metals ; its tenacity varies with its temper. Some
kinds require a load of seventy tons per square
inch to break it. Its melting-point, about 1800°
C is between that of pig-iron and of malleable
iron; it is less easily magnetised, but its mag-
netism is more permanent than is that of pure
iron; it is less oxidisable on exposure to moist
air than is malleable iron. In elasticity steel is
superior to malleable iron.

What is termed eate-hardeinftg (which tet) is
a process by which small articles of iron, such as
keys, gun-locks, &c., are superficially converted
into steiel. It is performed by heating the articles in
contact with powdered charcoal. Another method
is to make the iron red-hot, and then to sprinkle
powdered potassium ferrocyanide all over it.

BTEBEOCHSOKT. This ig a branch of the pic-
torial art confined to the embellishment cS. walls
and monuments. In the operations by which it
is accomplished it will be seen that the soluble
nlicates (water-glass) play an important part.

The foundation for the future picture or
coloured design must be of some durable stone or
imperishable cement. Over this is first placed a
layer of lime mortar, to which is applied, when it
is dry and has become sufficiently nard, a solu-
tion of water-glass, by which all the interstices
of the mortar are filled up. Another coating of
mortar made of sharp sand and a lye of chalk is
next laid on, and this, after it has been carefully
smoothed, properly levelled on the surface, and

become quite diy, is washed over and thorougrhly
impregnated with water-glass solution. Wliea
this last layer has become dry it is ready to
receive the ptunting, which must be executed in
water colours. After laying on these colours
may be permanently fixed by covering them with
water-glass. The following are the colours
used : — Zinc white, chrome green, chrome oxide,
cobalt green, chrome red, sine yellow, oxide of
iron, sulphide of cadmium, ultramarine, ochre.
Ilk. Yennilion is inadmissible, since, in fixing-,
it turns from red to brown. Cobalt ultramarine^
on the contrary, increases greatly in brilliancy
upon the application of the fixing solution. Bte-
reochromatic paintings are found to be very dur-
able, and impervious to damp, smoke, or varia-~
tions of temperature.

STE3X0TTFE KXTAL. See Txpb Mktai^

STEBlnrO. The truth of the old proverb,
that "all is not gold which glitters," is often
painfully experienced by the purchaser of mo-
dem jewellery.
SUrUaig Valmt of Oold of diffimt dtgne* of

' Fiuautt.'
Carats Talne per u. Vmj.

fine. & *. 4.

24 caraU 4 4 Hi

(Britith ttandartC)

(loweit SaU-mark)

23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
16
14
13
12
11
10

9

8

7

6

6

4

8

2

1 earat 0

4

1

6

S

17 10*

3 14

4

8

10

9*

3

7

S

3

8

8t

8

0

2

2 16

n

2 IS

1

2

9

6»

6

0

2

H

1 18 11

16

4

11 10

8

84

4

9

1

H

0 17

8

0 14

2

0 10

7*

0

7

1

0

8

6

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STEBEO METAL— STILL

1»91

The foregmng table will, therefore, prove highly
nsefal to the reader in determining the value
of articles in gold, provided he aioertain the
' flneneu ' of the metal, dther h; examination
or written warranty.

BTSBSO KXTAL. A remarkable alloy re-
cently invented by Baron de Boethom, of
Vienna, and need in place of ordinary gnn-metal.
It coniiata of copper and spelter, with small pro-
portions of iron and tin, and to these latter its
peculiar hardness, tensile strength, and elasticity
are attributed.

STESOFtrS KASISITS, Fabricins. Thb Nisht-
PBKonre Obouhd Bietli. It was fondly ima-
gined that this beetle was altogether useful to
agriculturists by destroying other insects. Curtis
had this opinion, and beUeved that it was the
natural enemy of wireworms. Like many others
of the Oeodiphaga, it feeds npon the roots of
plants as well probably as npon insects. West-
wood says of the Carabida that " some of the
species generally found in corn-fields are clearly
ascertained to feed upon growing gr^n." There
can be no doubt that the Steropu* madUhit feeds
eagerly upon mangel-wurzel plants, as it has been
caught fiequejiily flagrante dtlioto. It attacks
tbeae plants just under the ground, or level with
the gronnd, at the point where the root begins,
and bites away the soft substance.

Sometimes the plant is bitten through and
through, or all ronnd tiie collar of the root, so
that it is completely killed. In other cases it is
partially cut throogh, and cannot develop a large
or healthy root.

The beetle begins its operations directly after
the plants have been singled, and their roots have
begun to swell, and for three or four weeks it is
able to do inconceivable mischief. Like many of
the beetloB of this family it works at night, and
is therefore difficult to detect actually at its work
of destruction.

In 1886 a report was received from Shropshire
of a strange attack upon mangel plants. These
were a cajntal plant when hoed out, but signs of
failing were noticed soon after this, and they fell
away one by one. Upon pulling the leaves the
plants gave way just at the junction between the
leaves and roots, and there was evident proof
that at this point the plants had been bitten
ronnd 1^ some insect. The farmer stated that no
insect could be found. He was advised to hunt
in the very early morning, and soon forwarded
specimens of Steroppi madidat taken in the
voiy act of gnawing the plants.

Two or three different attacks were reported in
1885. In 1886 injury to mangel-wnizel plants
of a somewhat serious nature was traced, after

B patient watching, to this insect in a large
Aeld in Kent. 'It was stated that the stnl of this
field was light, and that there were a good many
stones in the soil, which was on the Lower Green-
sand formation. Reports of damage by thu
insect came also from a farm in anouier part of
Kent, where flint stones abound, and from one near
Salisbory in Wilts, npon which flints are plentiful.
This insect is common in England, and is
known also in Qermany, Switzerland, France, and
Belgium, according to C. Q. Calwer ('£^er-
boch').

Life Sittoty. This beetle belongs to the genna
Sttroptu, a subdivision of the family Feroniida,
of the section Chodephaga of the Colboftbba.
It is black in colour, and has no wings. It is
eight lines long. The female lays her eggs under
the ground, generally under stones. The larvB
which come from the eggs in abont eight days
are a* long as the beetle when full grown, and
are dark, with six legs and a pur of spines or
bristly points at the end of the body. They chimge
to pnpe, and pass the winter in this form. The
larva do not ii^inre mangel-wurzel plants.

iV«e<»<to». As these beetles have no wings
their range of mischief is limited. After an
attack the land should be deeply ploughed, and
mangels should not be planted in fields adjacent.

JiMMeiMS. When mangel planta fail, and the
cause is ascertained to be the 8ttrop»t nutdidn*,
ashes, sawdust, or sand saturated with paraffin
should be scattered on both sides of the drills,
or roote of planta, and lightiy dropped in close
to the plants. Soot would be serviceable if fresh,
pungent, and pure. Frequent horse-hoeings and
side-hoeings would disturb the insect (' Beports
on Insects Injurious to Crops,' by Chas. Wnite-
head, &q., F.ZJ3.).

KTJCTll'OSOOFX. An instrament employed in
auscultation. It consists of a tube (usually made
of wood, sometimes of gutta percna) widening
considerably at one end, and but slightly at the
other. The wide end is applied to the chest or
other part of the patient, the physician putting
his ear at the other end ; and from the sounds
emitted by the heart, longs, &&, the state of
these parts is ascertiUned.

STIWIVa. A method of cooking food inter-
mediate to frying and boiling, performed by
simmering it in a saucepan or stewpan, .with
merely sufficient water to prevent burning, and
to effect the object in view ; the whole being
served up to form the ' dish.' It is undoubtedly
the most simple and economical, and, when skil-
fully conducted, one of those best calculated to
develop the flavour and nutritious qualities of
animal food. The following is one of the most
popular stews :

Stew, Irish. JVm. (Soger.) Take about 2
lbs. of scrag or neck of mutton ; divide it into
ton or twelve pieces, and lay them in the pan ;
add 8 large potatoes and 4 onions cut into slices ;
season with 1^ teaspoonf uls of pepper, and 3 do.
of salt ; cover all with water, put it into a slow
oven, or on a stove, for two hours, then stir it all
np well, and serve it up in deep dishes. If a
little more water is add^ at the commencement,
you can take out, when half done, a nice cap of
broth.

BTIOXATA KAISIS (' oorn nlk,' the stiginata
of maize, Zea maj/e). Demulcent and diuretic, in
catarrhal affections of the kidneys and bladder.
Qives the best results in cases of uric and
phosphatic gravel, chronic cystitis, and mucous
or purulent catarrh. Fluid extract. — Don, 1 dr.

STILL. A vessel or apparatus employed for the
distillation of liquids on the large scale. The
forms of still, and the materials of which they
are made, vary according to the purposes for
which they are intended, some being exceedingly
simple, whilst others are eqnally elaborate and

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STILL

JM

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STILL

1698

complicated. The »»gr. reprewnts the mcnt com-
mon and nseful apparatoi of thia kind, and the
one almost exclosively employed in the laboratory.
It \m osed aa foUowi : — kStet the fluid and other
matters (if an;) are put into the still, the head is
pat on and connected with the worm-tnh or
refrigerator, and the joints are all securely Inted.

a. Bodyof still, which intfb* sithar pUced in • itesm Jadut

or in a hrick farnaee.
i. Still head or capital.
c. Worm-tah.

i. Fewter worm or refrifarator.
«. Cold-watar pip«.
/. Wiata-plpa.
g. SeceiTcr.

For ordinary liqnids, a stiff paste made with Un-
seed meal and water, to which a little chalk may
he added, answers well for this purpose. For
oonosive liqnida, nothing is better than elastic

to a very extended heated surface ; whilst it affects
the eraporation of the alcohol from the wash by
passing a current of steam through it.

The wash is pumped from the ' wash charger *
into the worm-tub, which passes from top to
bottom of the rectifier. In circulating through
this tube it experiences a slight elevation of t^-
peratnre. Arrived at the last convolution of the
tube in the rectifier, the wash passes by the tube
K in at the top of the ' analyser.' It falls, and
collects on the top shelf till this overflows, whence
it falls on the second shelf, and so on to the
bottom. All the time this operation is going on
steam is passed up from the steam boiler through
fine holes in the shelves, and through valves open-
ing upwards. Aa the wash gradu^y descends in
the analyser it becomes rapidly weaker in alcohol,
partly from condensation of steam which is passed
into it, and partly from loss of alcohol, either eva-
porated or expelled by the steam, till when it
arrives at the bottom it has parted with the last
traces of spirits.

At the same time the vaponr, as it rises through
each shelf of the analyser, becomes constantiy
ric^T in alcohol, and contuns less and less watra
because of its condensation ; it then passes from
the top of the analyser in at the bottom of the
lower compartment of the rectifier. Here it
ascends in a similar way, bubbling through the
descending wash, until it arrives at F, above which
it merely circulates round the first windings of

bands or rings interposed between the joints,
. which are then ' brought home,' as it is called,
with screws or clamps. Heat is next applied, and
the worm-tub is supplied with cold water in suffi-
cient quantity to keep its contents cool, so that
the liquid may ilrop from the end of the refrige-
rator quite cold and unaccompanied with vapour.
For highly volatile liquids a closed receiver should
be provided.

Of the various forms of distilling apparatus
that patented by Coffey in 1832 is the one almost
universally employed in this country. It fields
the strongest spirits obtainable on a large scale.
Coffey's still (of which a drawing is given on the
opposite page) efiecta a great economy in the expen-
diture of heat, by catiamg the liquid to be exposed

Siameiii' Diitilling Apparatoa.

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1694

STILL

the waah-pipe, the low temperstore of which con-
dense! the spirits ; which, collecting on the shelf
at V, flows ofl° b; the tube into the finished spirit
condenser.

To still farther effect a saving of heat, the
water for supplying the boiler is made to pass
through a long coil of pipe, immersed io boiling
spent wash, by which means its temperatore is
raised before it enters the boiler.

Another variety of distillatory apparatus is that
of Siemens (see page 1698), much employed in
the distillation of brandy.

It consists of two mash stills set in a boiler, and
capable of being alternately used by means of the

DcTosnt'i Distilluig Appuitas.

three cocks (a, b, and o). l is the boiler ; P one
of the mash retorts ; K is the low wine receiver ;
K the fore wanner, a reservoir in which the con-
densed water intended as feed water of the boiler
is collected ; O is the dephlegmator ; B a reservoir
for the vapours condensed in c.

From the dephlegmator the vapour passe* to a
condenser, not shown in the ngr., page 1592.

The mash warmer consists of a cylindrical por-
tion (t >), the lower part of which has an indoita-
tion (o). In the cylinder is placed a smaller por-
tion (o o) of the real mash, oontaimng a vessel,
fitted with the heading tube (/ n). The upper
part of the fore warmer is fitted to the lower part
by means of the flange (i A) ; r is
a stirring apparatus, which is fre-
quently set in operation daring
the process of dutillation. The
vapours from the second still are
carried into the depression (e)
under the fore warmer, which, in
order that the vaponn may come
into contact with the phlegms, is
covered with a sieve.

The vapours surround the under
part of the mash reservoir, and
enter into the tnbe (/), through
which they pass to the lower cy-
linder of the dephlegmator. The
condensed water of the dephleg-
mator is conducted into the reser-
voir (a). The upper and under
parts of the fore warmer are
made of cast iron, but the interior
bottom and heating surfaces are
made of copper. This kind of
fore warmer has the advantage of
uniformly distributing the heat,
while it can be easily cleansed.

The dephlegmator (c) is so con-
trived that the rectified vapour
can be conveyed to the condenser
by two separate pipes placed in
an opposite direction to each other,
which are joined again in close
proximity to the condenser.

The remainder of the details
will be seen by studying the
«s?r.

Another distilling apparatus is
that known as Derosne's, which is
an improvement upon one invented
by Cellier-Blumenthal. This ap-
paratus is only designed for the
distillation of wine.

The engr. annexed gives a
representation of it.

It consists of two stills (A and
a'); the first rectifier (b); the
second rectifier (c) ; the wine
warmer and dephlegmator (d) ; the
condenser (p) ; the regulator (b) ;
a contrivance for regulating the
flow of the wine from the cis-
tern (e).

The still a', which, as well as
the stUl A, is flUed with wine, acts
as a steam boiler. The low wine
vapoura evolved when they have

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1696

srrived in the rectifiers come in contact with an
nnintermpted stream of wine, whereby dephleg-
mation ii effected; the vapour, thus enriched in
alcohol, becomes stronger in Uie vesaet (d), and
thus arrives at the cooling apparatus (v). In
order that a real rectification should talce place in
the rectifiers the stream of wine shonld be heated
to a oertun temperature, which is imparted to it
by the heating of the condensed water. The
steam from the still a' is carried by means of the
pipe (z) to the bottom of the still A.

Both stills are heated by the fire of the same
fnmaoe. By means of the tnbe b' the liquid con-
tained in the still A can be run into the still A'.
The first rectifier (b) contains a number of semi-
oircular discs of unequal size, placed one above
the other, and which are so fastened to a vertical
centre rod that they can be easily removed and
cleansed. The larger discs, perforated in the
manner of sieves, are placed with their conoave
iur&ces upwards.

In consequence of this arrangement the vapours
ascending from the stills meet with large su^aoes
moistened with wine, which, moreover, trickles
downward in the manner of a cascade from the
discs, and comes, therefore, into very intimate
contact with the vaponrs. The second rectifier
(o) is fitted with six compartments ; in the centre
of each of the partition walls (iron or copper
plates) a bole is cut, and over this hole, by means
of a vertical bar, is fastened an inverted cup,
which nearly reaches to the bottom of the com-

partment wherein it is placed. As a portion of
the vapours are condensed in these compartments,
the vapours are necessarily forced through a
layer of low wine, and have to overcome a pres-
sure of a column of liquid 2 cm. high. The fore
warmer and dephlegrmator (d) is a horiMntal
cylinder made of copper fitted with a worm, the
convolutions of which are placed vertically. The
tnbe K communicates with this worm, the other
end of which passes to o. A phlegms collects in
the convolutions of this tube, which is richer in
alcohol in the foremost windings, and weaker in
those more remote; this fluid, collecting in the
lower part of the spirals, may be drawn off by
means of small tubes, thence to be transferred^
either all or in part, by the aid of another
tube and stopcocks to the tnbe O, or into the
rectifier.

By means of the tube L the previously warmed
wine of the dephlegmator can be run into the rec-
tifier. The condenser (p) is a cylindrical vessel
closed on all sides, and containing a worm com>
municating with the tube o.

The other end of the condensing tube carries
the distiUato away. On the top of this portion of
the apparatus the tube k is placed, by means of
which wine is run into the dephlegmator. The
cold wine flows into the cooling vessel by the
tube I. uMiHij

Another variety of distillatory apparatus^ ^in-
vented by Langier, is that represented in the
accompanying engr.

The fluid intended for distillation flows from
the tube « into the funnel p, thence into the
vessel A, entering its lower part, and serving to
condense the alcoholic vapour. From this vessel

the warmed fluid passes by means of the tnbe]|r
into the lower part of the second vessel (b), where
dephlegmation takes place by means of a con-
densing tnbe. From b the fluid flows through

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1696

STILL

the tube e into the teoond itill (o), which ii
heated by the hot gwe* erolved from the flie
kept burning under the first still (o) ; in the still
o the floid ondergoes a rectification, and the
vinaisei flow by the tube a into the still D ; m
is the pipe for conveying the hot vaponr from D

Fia. 1.

Fie. i.

into 0 ; the tube b canies the alcoholic Trnpoiin
into the dephlegmator. The tobe d conveys
the phlegma into the still 0 ; g and A are glass
ganging tabes for indicating the height o£ the fluid
in the interior of the stills ; the tube / oonT«ys
the unoondensed ▼apoun from the dephlegmator
into the condensing apparatus, while t carries
the Tapoors formed in the vessel b into the con-
densing appaiatns.

The alcohol condensed in the cooling appaTataB
flows into the vessel o, provided with a hydro-
meter, which shows the strength of the liquid.
The cooling apparatus of the vessel B consists
of seven compartments or sections formed by wide
spirals, to each of which, at its lower level, is
attached a narrow tube, all of which tabea are
connected to the tube d, which latter conveys
the condensed flnids back into the still.

Fig. 1 is a very simple form of apparatus.
A is a cylinder made of cast iron or copper, in
which the fluid to be distiUed is heated by a Bpiial
tube made of copper. The inlet of thia tabe is
shown at b, and tiie ontlet at a : e serves to cany
offthe vinasses; B is the dephlegmator, through
which the fluid to be distilled continually flows in
a downward direction, while the vapour of the
low wine evolved in a ascends uninterruptedly.

The dephlegmator is so constmcted as to have
u large a surface and as many points of contact
as possible. The vapour ascends to the reserrmr
(b), and passes into the rectifier (o) by the tube
V. The condensed portion returns through the
tube H to the dephlegmator, whilst the uncon-
densed vapour passes on to the condenser of the
vessel (d), where it becomes condensed, and is
carried off throngh u. The liquid intended for
distillation is kept in a tank (not shown in the
tmfr.) placed above the ap-
puatos, and is conveyed
to the latter by the tabe
I, fitted with the stopcock
K, so that the liquid ai^
rives first in D, is next con-
veyed to c, thence through
a into the dephlegmator,
and finally into the cy-
linder.

Divers adaptations for
heating by steam have
been arranged, in a very
convenient form, by lb
Cofi°ey. His so-called Es-
CULAPUK 8TIIX affords
the pharmaceutical che-
mist the means of con-
ducting the processes of
ebullition, distillation, eva-
poration, desiccation, Ik.,
on a small scale. The an-
nexed ei^r. (fig. 2) re-
presents his apparatus.

B, a burner supplied
with gas by a flexible tnbe ;
0, the boiler or still ; I, an
evaporating pan fixed over
the boiler, and forming the
top of the still head; K,
a vslve for ^shutting off
the steam from i when it

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STIHUIjABTS— STOBH-GLASS

1597

paiws throagh the tvAe x, otherwise it would
pus through L, and commnnickte heat to the
drying closet (o o), and from thenoe to the con-
denser (t t) ; 0 is a second evaporating pan over
the drying closet.

For further information on the subject of stills
consult ' Ure's Dictionary,' ' Ulustiated Clhemistry,'
and Wagner's ' Chemical Technology.'

STIX'TTIiAXTS. afu. Smnn^AirTU, L. Medi-
cines or sgents which possess the power of excit-
ing vital action. They are divided into general
stimulants, or those which effect the whole
system, as mercniy or hark ; and local or topical
■timuluits, or those which affect a particular or^an
or part only, as mustard applied as a poultice.
Diflosible stimulants are general stimulants the
effects of which are rapid out fngadons, as ether
or alcohol. " Much discrimination and caution
are required in the administration of articles of
this class, because, if given when inflammation is
present, they are liable to create more mischief
than benefit; but they are called for when, on
the decline of that condition of an organ or
organs, a state of relaxation or torpidity exists.
In this state of things a gentle stimulation ma-
terially assists the functions, and is productive of
mnch benefit."

BTnrOB. See Bitbb.

STIS-ABOTIT. Thick gruel formed of oatmeal
and water boiled together. When eaten with
cold milk, it forms the porridge of the Scotch ;
and when mixed witli the liquor in which meat
or vegetables have been boiled, it is called beef
brose, kale brose, &c.

8T0CZ, among cooks, is condensed soup or jelly,
used to make extemporaneous soup, broUi, £e.

STOK'ACH AFn»riI0S8. Those of a cha-
racter to admit of being usefully noticed in a
popular work are referred to under the heads
Appzrm, Dtsfipbia, Sioxhesb, kc.

Dr Budd recommends small doses of ipeca-
cuanha as a remedy for those cases of indigestion
in which digestion is slow, and the food lies
heavily on the stomach, and there is an inability
for mental or bodily exertion for some time after
meals. He says it should be given in the morn-
ing, &sting, and in qoantity barely sufficient to
occasion a slight feeling of vermiculating motion
in the stomMh, but without causing any sensa-
tion of pain or nausea. The dose to produce this
effect varies from i to 8 gr. He thinks there is
no other medicine which appears so effectual in
removing the affections in question. Small doses
of rhubarb, 'ginger, and cayenne pepper have a
similar kind of action, and may be given singly
or together for the same puipose. " I generally
prescribe from 1 to 1 gr. of ipecacuanha, in a
pill, with 8 or 4 gr. of rhubarb. With many, a
favourite remedy for the discomfort resulting
from slow digestion is a gnun of cayenne pepper,
with 8 or 4 gr. of rhubub. The best time for
giving these me^cines is shortly " (say half an
hour) " before any meal after wluch a sense of
oppression is usually felt."

STOPP^BS, when obstinately immoveable in
bottles, are the most safely treated by patiently
hitting them upwards alternately on opposite
sides with a piece of wood. When this fuls the
part may be dipped into hot water.

"Another method of removing a bottle-stopper
is to insert its head into a chink, and then en-
deavouring to torn the bottle with both hands.
If the neck of the stopper breaks, the hand is ont
of the way of danger. An upright board, such
a one as supports the ends of a set of shelves,
should be selected in a convenient situation in
the laboratory, and a vertical slit cut through it
about a foot in length, an inch in width above,
but gradually decreasing in size, so as to be about
one third of an inch at the bottom. Tlie top of
the hole may be about the hdght of the breast.
This aperture will in one part or another receive
and retain the head of sJmost any stojmer, and
prevent its turning with the bottle. Then by
wrapping a cloth about the bottle and grasping
it witii both hands, the attempt to turn it round
so as to move the stopper may be made with any
degree of force which .it may be thought safe to
exert. The force employed should never be
carried so far as to cause fracture anywhere, but
the attempts, if unavailing with the application
of a moderate degree, should be desisted. Ano-
ther and very successful method of removing a
stopper is to turn the bottle round when held
horizontaUy over the small flame of a spirit lamp
or candle applied to the neck. The heat should
be applied only to the part round the ping of the
stopper, and in a few moments, when that has
become warm, the stopper should be tapped with
the piece of wood as before stated. As soon as
the stopper moves by tapping it is to be taken
out, and must not be replaced till the glass is
cold.

" The application of heat in this manner must
be short, and the operation altogether, to be suc-
cessful, must be a quick one. If the contents of
the bottle are fluid, it should be so inclined that
they must not become heated ; if they are vola-
tile this method should be tried very carefully,
lest the vapour formed within should burst the
bottle.

" It is often advantageous to put a little olive
oil round the edge of the stopper at its insertion,
allowing it to soak in for a day or two. If this
be done before the heat be applied, it frequently
penetrates by increased facility j by oi( heat^
and tapping very obstinate stoppers may be re-
moved.

" When a stopper has been fixed by crystallisa-
tion from solution, water will sometimes set it
free, and it is more efficacious in such cases than
oil, because it dissolves the cement. When the
cementing matter u a metallic oxide or sub-salt,
a little muriatie acid may be useful if there be
no olgection to its application arising from the
nature of the substance within " {Famda^).

A writer in ' New Bemedies ' suggests that, in
attempting to extricate the fixed stopper by
means of knocking with a piece of wood, l^e mo-
tion given to it when putting it in should be re-
versed, that is, the stopper should be knocked
from rigkt to left.

STOBM-OIiASS. A philosophical toy, consist-
ing of a thin glass tube about 12 inches long and
I inch in diameter, about three fourths filled with
the following liquid, and covered with a brass
cap having an almost capillary hole through it, or
else tied over with bladder.

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STOVES— STBAWBEBET

The aolntion. Take of camphor, 2 dr. ; nitre,
li dr.; sal-ammoniac, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 2^ fl.
oi. ; dissolve, and place it in the tube above
referred to. Used to foretell changes of the
weather.

STOVES. In England the open grate or fire-
place, because of its cheerf al appearance and the
sense of comfort it suggests when filled with
glowing coal, is the favourite and general recep-
tacle for the fuel with which we warm our apart-
ments. The cosy appearance, fiowever, of our
old-fashioned English grate, constitutes ita chief,
if not its only merit ; for it not only fuls in uni-
formly warming and effectively ventilating our
apartments, bnt it more or less sets into circula-
tion a number of draughts of cold air, and besides
occaaonally filling our rooms with smoke, and
«poiling our furniture 1^ the deposition of soot
and dust, wastes our fuel, by allowing it to
escape unconsumed in the shape of smoke, and
thus pollutes the atmosphere of our cities and
towns.

In France, Germany, Belgium, Bussia, and other
European conntries, as well as in Canada and other
parts of America, the stove or closed fireplace is
used. The domestic stove of these countries is
made either of sheet or cast iron, or fire-clay. The
iron stoves, being mostly composed of thin plates,
soon absorb and radiate the heat ; and although
this property enables them to rapidly warm an
-apartment, it has the disadvantage, if the stove
becomes red-hot, of allowing the escape through
the heated metal into the surrounding air of the
carbonic acid generated in the stove ; and further-
more, in its immediate vicinity converts a portion
of it into carbonic oxide. Such stoves must neces-
aarily be unsafe unless used in well-ventilated
apartments. (Dr Bond has suggested coating
them with soluble glass as a remedy for this.)
Another effect of the over-heating of the stove is
to desiccate or parch the air, and to render it irri-
tating when breathed. The fire-clay stoves are
free nom these drawbacks, and continue to radiate
from their surfaces a large amont of heat, even
when the fuel with which they have been supplied
is consumed. But although we exclude the close
stove from our sitting-rooms and dormitories, it
is in frequent requisition in halls, picture gal-
leries, churches, theatres, lecture-rooms, and the
like.

' Stove literature,' if such a term may be ap-
plied to the various treatises descriptive of the
multitude of patterns in use which have emanated
alike from inventors and their critics, is so volu-
minons that it is impossible for us to attempt to
give even a list of the numberless stoves in use,
to aay nothing of a commentary on their relative
value. Of close stoves suitable for heating spaces
other than dwelling or sleeping rooms, mention
may he made of Amott's stove, and one known
as 'the Belfast.' These stoves are serviceable
when it is desirable to keep up a fire for some
time, as in heating a lobby. They have the ad-
vantage of requiring little, if any, attention after
the fuel has been placed in them and ignited.

Of late years gas stoves, both for heating and

cooking purposes, have come largely into use.

One of those for the former purpose is called the

' "Fyropnenmatic." The inner part of this appa-

ratus is formed of lumps of fire-clay tiA'veraed. by
vertical air-passages which communicate -with tlie
external air by a special channel. The sir be-
comes heated as it passes through the Inmps of
fire-clay, and, rising to the top of the sfcowe,
esespes tbereftrom by an outlet into the room.
Another so-called 'ventilating' warminK S^b-
stove is Mr George's 'Culirogen.' It oonauts at
a stove made of thin-roUed iron, inside of irhich
is a ooil of wrought-iron tubing open at the top
of the stove. The lower end of this tubing is in
connection with an iron pipe which is carried
through the wall of the apartment, and fed with
air from without. Gas is the fuelgenerally uaed
to heat the inside of the stove, 'nie continnoixs
current of air as it rushes into the iron pipe from
without thus becomes warmed as it ascenda into
the coil, which it leaves to become diffused into
the surrounding apartment, whilst the prodncta
of combustion of the gas used as fuel are, by
means of a pipe attached to the stove, carried
into the chimney, as with coal fires.

A gas cooking apparatus possesses many advan-
tages over an ordinary coal fire. In the first plaee,
it is more cleanly ; in the second, it affords a much
more uniform and equable temperature; in the
third, it forms no smoke ; and in the fourth, it is
more economical, as well as expeditious.

Mr Eassie gives the following practical sugges-
tions to intending purchasers of gas-stoves :

"It is not necessary here to enter into a de-
scription of any of the numberless common pskt-
tems extant, bnt it might be well to record the
opinion of the best engineers, tliat tiie simplest
gas-stove is the best. They should not he sur-
rounded by a non-conductine material, as that
affords no advantage, but the contrary. An
Aigand or fish-tail burner shonld also be nsed
instead of rings pierced for so many separate jets ;
and where practicable the Bnnsen burner should
be employed, as the mixture of common ur with
the gas not only prevents the formation of soot,
bnt also intensifies the heat."

STSABIS'MUa. ^n. Squnrrnrs. This need
not be described. When one eye only is affected,
an excellent plan is to blindfold the sound eye
during several hours each day, until the affection
be removed. When both eyes are affected, a pro-
jecting piece of pasteboard, in the line of tiie
nose, may be worn as much as possible with the
same object. In bad cases of squinting inwards,
as it is called, the division of the internal rectus
muscle of the eyeball by a skilful surgeon is said
to often relieve the deformity.

STBAiraiTLATIOH. See Uusaisa.

STKAFflKG. Spread adhesive plaster. Used
to dress wounds, &c.

STBA8S. See Emakbl.

STSAWBESBT. 8$n. FluoABlA, L. The
fruit of Fragaria vetea, Linn., or strawberry
plant. Strawberries are, perhaps, the mildest A
all the cultivated fruits ; they are cooling, and
slightly laxative and diuretic; rubbed on the
teeth, they dissolve the tartar, and whiten them.
They were formerly in repute in gout, stone, and
consumption. The root of the plant is aperients

Strawberry Sisence, Pactitions. Nitric ether,
1 part ; acetate of ethyl, 6 parts ; forminate of
ethyl, 6 parts ; bnttyrate of ethyl, 6 parts ; nli-

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STRAW PLAIT— STRTCHNINB

opiate of methyl, 1 part ; acetote of amyl, 8 parts ;
batynte of amy), 8 ports; g^lycerin, 2 parts;
alcohol. 100 parts (' Fharm. Joarn.').

8TSAV FLAIT, and the articles made of it,
are bleached by exposing them to the fames of
boming sulphur in a close chest or box ; or by
immersing them in a weak solution of chloride of
lime, and afterwards well washing them in water.
Water acidulated with oil of vitriol or oxalic
-acid is also used for the same purpose. Straw
plait may be dyed with any of the simple liqoid

STSIHGHALT. The same as Choua, which
tee.

STSOS'Tinil. Sr. The metalHo base of the
earth strontia. It was discovered by Sir H. Davy
in 1808. It closely resembles barium, but is less
lustrous, '^th chlorine it oombines to form a
chloride of strontiam, a somewhat deUqnesoent
salt, soluble in 2 parts of cold and in less of boil-
ing water, and freely soluble in alcohol. With
oxygen it forms an oxide.

Tett. Strontium salts are precipitated by sul-
phuric acid and alkaline carbonates and sulphate.
They are distinguished from barinm by not giving
such a decided precipitate with snlpluttes, and by
not being precipitated by bichromate of potas-
sium. From calcium, by sulphates of calcium
solution giving a precipitate^ and by oonoentntted
solutions giving a precipitate wid^ chromate of
potassium. It is distinguished from magnesium
by the insolubility of its sulphate.

Stroatinin, Oilda of. SrO. Sgn. PitOTOxn»
ov BTBoirTiojf, Stboittia. Prep. Quite pure
crystalline nitrate of strontium.
■ Prop. Greyish-white powder, uniting with
water to form a white, somewhat scAuble substance,
the hydrate of strontium, Sr(HO)i.

With acids it forms varions salts, of which the
carbonate is a white insoluble powder, and the
nitrate a white crystalline salt, soluble in 6 parts
of cold water, and in alcohol; communicating a
brilliant red colour to flame.

STSOFHAVTEBr. C^HsfOig. A glncoside
obtained by T. R. Fraserfrom strophanthus seeds.

Prep. To extract of strophanthus in water,
add tannic acid, collect the precipitate, and digest
with fresh lead oxide. Dissolve the residua in
alcohol and Alter ; to the solution add ether in
large excess, when the strophanthin will be slowly
precipitated. Dissolve the precipitate in weak
alcohol, pass carbonic acid gas through the liquid
to remove lead, filter, evaporate in a vacuum.

Thus obtained it is colourless and imperfectly
-crystalline, freely soluble in water and alcohol,
insoluble in ether and .chloroform. Intensely
Utter. Adds quickly change it to glucose.

Ueet. Similar to itrophanthna. — Doee, ,^ to

BTB0FHA9THUS. The ripe seeds of Stro-
pioHthut Mepidut DC., var. KcmM, Oliver,
freed from their awns (B. P.). Nat. Ord. Apo-

-OTNACBS.

The plant yielding these seeds is a creeper
found growing in various parts of Africa, where
it tops the highest troes in the forest. The
natives prepare from it the Komb<! arrow poison,
which in the Oabon district is called Inje, Onaye,
•or Onage. The natives pound the seed to an oily

mass, with which they coat the stem of their
arrows. The effect of the poison on wild animals
is to cause stupor, foaming at the mouth, and
death. The flesh of the beast is eaten after
cutting away the part near the wound. The
seeds are contained in two pod-like follicles,
bearing a plumose or feathery awn of great
beauty. Their colour is greenish fawn covered
with adpressed hairs ; a ridge runs along one side.
Length about f in., breadth ^ in. Kernel white
and oily, taste very bitter. The 'active principle of
the seeds is ttropkanthim, a bitter glncoside and
powerful poison. Strophanthus is a valuable
cardiac tonic, and strengthener of the heart*
muscle ; small doses increase the systole and slow
the contractions ; it exerts a more powerful action
upon the heart, and a less powerful action on the
blood-vessels than digitalis. It does not produce
the digestive troubles and cumulative action
observed with digitalis, and does not lose its effects
by the system becoming habituated to it. — Dote,
tincture 2 — 10 minims.

BTBOFH'ULITB. A papular eruption peculiar
to infanta. There are several varieties.: — In
strophulus intertinctus, red-gum, or red gown, the
pimples rise sensibly above (£e level of t& cuticle,
possess a vivid red colour, and are usually distinct
from each other; they commonly attack the
cheeks, forearm, and back of the hsjid, and, occa-
sionally, other parts of the body. In strophulus
albiduB, or white-gum, thera are a number of
minute whitish specks, which are sometimes
surrounded by a slight redness. The two pre-
ceding varieties commonly occur during the first
two or three months of lactation. In strophulus
confertns, rank red-gum, or tooth-rash, which
usually appears about the fourth or fifth month,
the pimples usually occur on the cheeks and sides
of the nose, sometimes on the forehead and arms,
and still less frequently on the loins. They are
smaller, set closer together, and less vivid, but
more permanent than in the common red-gum.
In strophulus volaticus small circular patches or
clusters of pimples, each containing from six to
twelve, appear successively on different parts of
the body, accompanied with redness ; and as one
patch declines, another patch springs up near it,
by which the efflorescence often spreads gradually
over the whole face and body. In strophulus
candidue the pimples are larger than in the pre-
ceding, and are pale, smooth, and shining; it
principally attacks the upper parts of the arms,
the shoulders, and the loins. The last two
varieties commonly appear between the third
and ninth month.

The treatment of the above affections consists
chiefly in removing acidity and indigestion and
duly regulating the bowels by an occasional dose
of magnesia or rhubarb, or both combined.
Diarrhoea may be met by the warm bath and
the daily use of arrowroot (genuine), to which
a teaspoonful or two of pure port wine has been
added; and itching and irritation maybe alleviated
by the use of a lotion consisting of water, to
which a little milk, lemon juice, Ixnax, or glycerin
has been added.

BTRTCHlnHS. CnHt,IT^ 3f/». Stxtoh-
imrA, SiBTOHViA (B. P., Ph. L., E., and D.), L.
iVqp. 1. Dissolve hydrochlorate or sulphate of

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1600

STETCHKINE

atrychnine in distilled water, and throw down
the alkaloid with ammonia, carefully BToiding^
ezceBS ; rediasolve the precipitate in not rectified
nurit, and collect the cryitals which form aa the
bqaid cools.

2. (Fh. D.) Jfra. vomica (in powder), 1 lb., is
digested for 24 hours in i gall, of water a^da-
lated with 2 fl. dr. of sulphuric acid, after which
it is boiled for half an hour, and the decoction
decanted ; the residuum is boiled a second and a
third time with if fresh i gall, of water acidu-
lated with 1 fl. dr. of the acid, and the nndis-
solved matter is finally submitted to strong
expression ; the decoctions are next filtered and
concentrated to the consistence of a symp, which
is boiled with rectified spirit, 8 pints, for abont
80 minutes, hydrate of calcium, 1 ox., or q. s.,
being added in successive portions during the
ebnllition, until the solution becomes distinctly
alkaline ; the liquid is then filtered, the spirit dis-
tilled off, and tiie residuum dissolved in diluted
sulphuric acid, q. s. ; ammonia, in slight excess, is
added to the filtered solution, and the precipitate
which falls is collected upon a paper filter, and
dried; it is next redissolved in a minimum of
baling rectified spirit, and digested with | oz.
of animal charcoal for 20 minutes; the fil-
tered liquid, aa it cools, deposits strychnine in
crystals.

8. (Ph. B.) Nux vomica, 1 lb.; acetate of
lead, 180 gr., solution of ammonia, q. s. ; rectified
spirit, q. s.; distilled water, q. s. Subject the
nnx vomica for two hours to steam in any con-
venient vessel ; chop or slice it ; dry it in a water-
bath or hot-air chamber, and immediatdy grind
it in a coffee mill. Digest the powder at a
gentle heat for 12 hours with 2 pints of the
spirit and 1 pint of the water; strain through
Imen, express strongly, and repeat the process
twice. Distil off the spirit from the mixed fluid,
evaporate the watery residue to about 16 oz., and
filter when cold. Add now the aceteto of lead,
previously dissolved in distilled water, so long as
It occasions any precipitete ; filter ; wash the pre-
cipitete with 10 oz. of cold water, adding the
washings to the filtrate ; evaporate the clear fluid
to 8 oz., and when it has cooled add the ammonia
in slight excess, stirring thoroughly. Let the
mixture stand at the ordinary temperature for
12 hours; collect the precipitete on a filter, wash
it once with a few ounces of cold distilled water,
dry it in a water-bath or hot-air chamber, and
boil it with successive portions of rectified spirit,
till the fluid scarcely tastes bitter. Distil off
most of the spirit, evaporate the residue to the
bulk of about i oz., and set it aside to cool.
Cautiously pour off the yellowish mother-liquor
(which contains the brucia of the seeds) from the
white crust of strychnia which adheres to the
vessel. Throw the crust on a paper filter, wash
it with a mixture of two parte of rectified spirit
and one of water, till the washings cease to
become red on the addition of nitric acid;
finally, dissolve it by boiling it with 1 oz. of
rectified spirit, and set it aside to crystallise.
More crystals may be obtuned by evaporating
the mother-liquor. [Strychnine is more readily
obtained, and in greater purity, from St Igna-
tius's bean.] The usual dose of strychnia and

ite salta to commence with is from 1-SOth to
l>12th of a grain, to be veiy slowly increasKd,
carefully watching ite eSecte. Magendie says

the salte are more active than thmr base.

iVop. A white inodorous powder; or ""-'".
but exceedingly brilliant, transparent, oolonrlflBS,
octahedral crystals ; soluble in about 7000 parte
of water at 60°, and in 2S00 parts at 212° F. ;
freely soluble in hot rectified spirit ; inaolohle in
absolute alcohol, ether, and solutions of tiia
caustic alkalies ; imparte a distinctly bitter taste
to 600,000 times ite weight of water (1 part in
1,000,000 parts of water is still perceptible —
Fownee) ; exhibite an alkaline reaction ; and
forms salte with the acids, which are eanly pre-
pared, are crystallisablei, and well defined.

Tntt. 1. Potassium hydrate and the car-
bonate produce, in solutions of the salte of
strychnia, white predpitetes, which are inadnble
in excess of the precipitent, and which, when
viewed throngh a lens magnifying 100 timea^
appear aa aggregates of small crystalline needles.
In weak solutions the precipitete only sepaistea
after some time, in tiie form of crystalline
needles, which are, however, in this case, per-
fectly visible to the naked eye. 2. Ammonia
gives a similar precipitate, which is soluble in
excess of the precipitant. 8. Bicarbonate of so-
dium prodaoes, in neutral solutions, a like white
precipitete, which is insoluble in excess, but
which redissolves on the addition of a single drop
of acid; in acid solntifms no precipitete occurs
for some time in the cold, but immediately on
boiling the liquid. 4. Nitric add dissolves pare
strychnia and ite salte to colourless fluids, which
beojme yellow when heated. Commerdal stiych-
nine, from containing a little bmcine, is red-
dened by this test. 6. A minute quantity of
strychnine being mixed with a small drop of con-
centrated sulphuric acid, placed on a white cap-
sule or slip of glass, forms a colourless solution,
but yields, on the addition of a very small oystal
of bichromate of potassium, or a very nunute
portion of chromic acid, a rich violet colour,
which gradually changes to red and yellow, and
disappears after some time. The 1- 1000th of a
grain yields very distinct indications. 6. Pure
oxide or peroxide of lead produces a similar
reaction to the last, provided the sulphuric add
contain about 1% of nitric acid.

PoU. The characteristic symptom is the
special influence exerted upon the nervous
system, which is manifested by a general con-
traction of all the muscles of the body, with
rigidity of the spinal column. A profound calm
soon succeeds, which is followed by a new tetanic
seizure, longer than the first, during which the
respiration is suspended. These symptoms then
cease, the breathing becomes easy, and there is
stupor, followed by another general contraction.
In fatal cases these attacks are renewed, at inter-
vals, with increasing violence, until death en-
sues. One phenomenon which is only found in
poisonings by substances contMning strychnine
is, that touching any part of the body, or even
threatening to do so, instantly produces the
tetanic spasm.

Treat. The stomach should be immediately
cleared by means of an-emetic, tickling the fiinces.

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STRTCHNOS— STURDY

1001

Ac To conntenct tbe asphyxia from tetanns,
tco., artiflci&l respiration Bhoufd be practised with
diligence and care. The patient may be kept
fully under chloroform or ether ; chloral hydrate
and bromide of potassium may be given. "If
the poison has been applied externally, we ought
immediately to cautmse the part, and apply a
ligature tightly above the wound. If the poison
has been swallowed for some time, we should give
a purgative clyster, and administer draughts con-
taining sulphuric ether or oil of turpentine,
which in most cases produce a salutary effect.
Lastly, injections of chlorine and decoction of
tannin are of value." -

Aeeording to Ch. Ounther, the greatest reliance
may be placed on full doses of opium, assisted by
venesection, in cases of poisoning by strychnia or
DUX vomica. His plan is to administer this drug
in the form of solution or mixture, in combination
with a saline aperient.

Utet, Sfe. It is a most frightful poison, pro-
ducing tetanus and death in very small doses.
Even ^ gr. will sometimes occasion tetanic
twitehings in persons of delicate temperament.
i gr. blown into the throat of a small dog pro-
duced death in six minutes. In very minute
doses it acta as a useAil tonic in various nervous
diseases, chronic diarrhcea, leucorrhoBa, &c.; in
tlightly larger ones it has been advantageously
employed in certain forms of paralysis, in tic-
doulourenx, impotence, &c. — liote, A to -^ gr.
(dissolved in water by means of a drop of ac^c
or hydrochloric acid), gradually and cautiously
increased until it slightly afFeots the muscnlaf
system. Externally, f to ^ gr. at a time.

The Edinburgh College ordered the nux vomica
to be exposed for two hours to steam, to soften
it, then to chop or slice it, next to dry it by the
heat of a vapour-bath or hot air, and, lastly, to
grind it in a coffee mill. In the process of the
Fh. L. 1888 magnesia was employed to effect the
precipitation. In the last Fh. L. stiychnine ap-
pears in the Materia Medica. Most of that of
commerce is now obtained from St Ignatius's
bean, which, according to Oeiseler, yields 1^%
of it; whereas 8 lbs. of nux vomica produce
little more than 1 dr. Commercial strychnine
may be freed from bracine by digesting the
powder in dilute alcohol.

The salts of strychnine, which are occasionally
asked for in trade, are the acetate (stryohniffi
acetas), bydrochlorate or muriate (s. muiiaa— Fh.
]>.), hydriodate (s. hydriodas), nitrate (s. nitras),
phosphate (s. phosphas), and sulphate (s. sulphas).
All of these may be easily formed by simply neu-
tralising the acid, previously dilated with 2 or 8
parts of water, with the aUialoid, assisting the
solution with heat ; crystals are deposited as the
liquid cools, and more may be obtained by eva-
porating the mother- liquor.

STBTCmrOS. see Nirx Vokioa, and BxAir,

St leVATITTS'S.

STUCCO. The name of several calcareous
cements or mortars. Fine stucco is the third or
last coat of three-coat plaster, and consists of a
mixture of fine lime and quartzose sand, which,
in application, is " twice hand floated and well
trowelled." See Caif bktb.

STUTITN'O. Seasoning, placed in meat, poal>
VOL. u.

try, game, &c., before dressing them, to give
them an increased relish. The same materials
formed into balls are added to soups, gravies,
Ac., under the name of Fobcbubai.

Frep. 1. (For fowls, &c.) Shred a little ham
or gammon, some cold veal or fowl, some beef
suet, a small quantity of onion, some parsley, a
very littie lemon peel, salt, nntineg, or pounded
maee, and uther white pepper or cayenne, and
bread crumbs, pound them in a mortar, and bind
it with 1 or 2 eggs.

2. (For hare, or anything in imitation of it—
Mrs Smidell.) The scald^ liver, an anchovy,
some fat bacon, a little suet, some parsley, thyme,
knotted maijoram, a little shallot, and either
onion or chives, all chopped fine, with some
crumbs of bread, pepper, and nutmeg, beaten in
a mortar with an egg.

8. (For goose.) From sage, onion, suet, and
crumb of raead. Geese are now, however, more
commonly stuffed with veal stuffing.

4. (For veal — Soger.) Chop i lb. of suet, put
it into a basin with f lb. of bread crumbs, a tear
spoonful of salt, a i do. of pepper, a little thyme
or lemon peel chopped, and 8 whole eggs j mix
well.

OS*. 1 lb. of bread crumbs and one more egg
may be used; they will make it cut firmer. This,
as well as No. 1, is now commonly employed for
poultry and meat. Ude, a great authority in
these matters, observes that " it would not be
amiss to add a piece of butter, and to pound the
whole in a mortar." " Qrated ham or tongue may
be added to this stuffing" {Siuiuiell). This is also
used for turkeys, and for ' forcemeat patties.'

8TUFFE50 (Birds, ftc.). The skins are com-
monly dusted over with a mixture of camphor,
alum, and sulphur, in about equal quantities ; or
they are smeared with B^ccenr's arsenical soap,
noticed under Soap. According to Craoe Cid-
vert, carbolic acid, which is worth only about 2s.
per galL, is superior to all other substances for
preserving the skins of birds and animals as
well as corpses. See Taxidebut, Pbaotioax.

STURDY. This disease, known also by the
name of Qas, which attacks cattle and sheep,
but more particularly the latter, is caused by the
presence in the bnun of the animal of a hydatid
— a creature enclosed in a sac of serous fluid.
This hydatid develops from the ova of the tape-
worm in the animal's body, whence it has gained
an entrance with the grass which constitutes the
cattle or sheep's food, upon which it has been
voided by dogs and other animals.

It is most common in sheep of from six to
eight months old, and, as might be expected, with
those which feed in damp meadows. The animals
attacked by it turn round and round in one posi-
tion, lose their gregarious habits, seem dazed, and
refuse their food; which latter circumstance fre-
quently causes death by inducing starvation.

As regards the treatment of this disease, Mr
Finlay Dun writes: — "A stout stocking wire
thrust up the nostrils has long been used with
occasionid success to get rid of the hydatid ; but
the use of the trocar and cannla now sold by most
surgical instrument makers is much safer and
better. The sheep is placed with its feet tied
anon a table or bench, and the head carefully
*^ 101

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8TnB0BX)N— SUET

examined, when a soft place may often be de-
tected, Indicating that the hydatid lies nnder-
nieath. A portion of the skin ii diuected back
and the trocar and cannla introdaced, when the
hydatid will often come away ai the trocar ii
mthdrawn." Mr Dan lays that, "should the
trocar fail to extract it, it must be drawn to the
surface by a small syringe made for the purpose.
Furthermore^ the wound, after the removal of
the hydatid, must be treated with a cold water
dreasing."

All cattle similarly affected shonld be treated as
above.

STUS'QXOH. Several species of Adptnnr
pass under this name. The common sturgeon is
the AciptHter tlurio, Linn. The roe is made
into 'caviare,' the swimming-bladder into 'isin-
glass.'

STT. Syn. Stti, Stiak; Hobsxoluk, L.
A small inflamed tumour or boil at the edge of
the eyelid, somewhat resembling a barleycorn. It
is nsoally recommended to promote its matura-
tion by warm applications, since " the stye, like
other fumuculoos inflammations, forms an excep-
tion to the general rule that the best mode in
which inflammatory swellings can end is resolu-
tion."

STTPTICS. 8gn. Sttftica, L. Substances
which arrest local bleeding. Creasote, tannic
add, alcohol, alum, and most of the astringent
salts belong to this class.

Stjrptic, Broechieri's. A nostrum consisting of
the water distilled from pine tops.

Styptic, Eaton's. A solution of sulphate dis-
guised by the addition of some unimportant sub-
stances. " Helvetius's styptic was for a long
time employed under this title" (Petri*).

Styptic, Helvetlns's. Sgn. Sttftioitk Hbl-
TXni, L. Iron filings (fine) and cream of tartar,
mixed to a proper consistence with French brandy.
See PowDBB, Hbltbtiub'b.

Styptic Bnspinis. Tannic acid, 6 parts ; biaady,
10 parts ; rose-water, 120 parts ; dissolve.

STT'BAZ. Sign. Stosaz, Siosaz bai.8AX ;
Sttbaz (Ph. L. & E.), L. A balsam prepared
from the inner bark of Liquidamhar orientalit.
Two or three varieties are known in commerce —
liquid storaz {ttgrax liquida) ; lump of red storaz
(i. in mat*it), which is generally veiy impnre ;
storax in tears («. t» laahtymit) ; and storaz in
reeds («. ealamita). The last are now seldom
met with in trade,

PsiPABBD BTOBAX ($tgrax colata, «. prapa-
rata, B. P., Ph. L.) is obtained by dissolving
storax, 1 lb., in rectified spirit, 4 pints, by a gentle
heat, straining the solution through linen, distil-
ling off greater part of the spirit, and evaporating
what is left to a proper consistence bv the heat of
a water-bath. It is less fragrant than the raw
dmg.

Storax U stimulant, ezpectorant, and nervine.
It was formerly much used in menstrual obstruc-
tions, phthisis, coughs, asthmas, and other breath
diseases. It is now chiefly used as a perfume. —
Dote, 6 to 20 or 80 gr. (10 to 20 gr. twice a day—
B. P.).

A flactitlona strained itonuc is made as follows :
—1. Balsam of Peru, 1 lb. ; balsam of tolu, 4 lbs. ;
mix.

2. Qnm benzoin, 8 lbs. ; liquid storsx, S Iba. ;
balsam of tola and Socotrine aloes, of each, S lis. ;
balsam of Pern, 2 lbs.; N.S.W. yeUow gtim, 7
lbs. ; rectified spirit, 7 galls. ; digeaC with fraqnent
agitation, for a f oriaiight ; strain and distil olf the
spirit (about 6| galls.) until the reaidaain hsM •
proper consistence. — Prod., 28 lbs.

8. Liquid storax, 1 ox.; Socotrine aloea, i lb. ;
balsam of tolu, 2 lbs. ; rectified spirit, q. a.

8UB-. See Nomvoi.ATirKK and Sajas.

SU'BSKIC ACn). C,Hu(COjH),. ObbOned
by boiling rasped cork, palm oil, or castor oil, for
some time in nitric acid.

SIFBLIMA'TIOB. The process by which 7flla.
tile substances are reduced to the state of T^ionr
by heat, and again condensed in the solid focaa.
It differs from ordinary distillation in bmng can*
fined to dry solid substencea, and in the heat em-
ployed being, in general, much greater.

SUB'STAVTIYK C0L0UB8, in the art of dye-
ing, are such as impart their tints to cloth and
yams without the intervention of a mordant ; in
contradistinction to a^ective colours, which re-
quire to be fixed by certain substances which hare
a joint af^ty for tiie colouring matter and the
material to be dyed.

SUCCnr'IC acid. C«H,0«. Sgn. AciDim
Buconriouit. There are two modifications, otdi-
nary succinic acid and isoenocinic acid. The
former need only be considered. It occurs ready
formed in ambmr and certain lignites, and oooa-
sionally in the animal organism. — Prep. 1. Fiona
amber, in coarse powder, mixed with an equal
weight of sand, and distilled by a giadually in-
creased heat; or from the impure add obtuned
daring the distillation of oil of amber; the pro-
duct in both cases being purified by wr^tjditg it
in bibnlous paper, and submitting it to stimig
pressure, to remove the oil, and then resnUim-
ing it.

2. From malic add, by fermentation. The
juice of mountain ash berries is neutralised with
chalk, and the calcium malate thus obtuned is
mixed with water and yeast or decaying cheese in
an earthen jar, and kept warm for a few days.
The calcium sncdnate thus obfauned is decom-
posed with dilute sulphuric add, and the snoeinie
add purified by recrystallisation from water and
by sublimation.

Prop., S^e. Colourless, inodorous, monoelinic
prisms; soluble in 23 parta of water at 20*" C,
and in 4 parts of boiling water; fusible at 180°
C, and volatile, without decomposition. Its salts
are called 'succinates,' most of which are solnUe.
Succinate of ammonium is used as a test for iron.
Succinic add is distinguished from benxoic add
by its greater soInUlii^, and by giving a brownish
or pale red bulky {veoipitate with fonric chloride
in neutral solutions; whereas that wit^ bmioic
add is paler and yellower.

Utm, (Jv. Saccinic acid is antispasmodic,
stimulant, and diuretic, but is now addMU used.
— VoMe, 6 to 16 gr.

SITC'COST. Chicory, or wild endive. See
Cbioobt.

SDSOSITICS. See DuFHOBBTloa.
BU'ST. Sgn. SarvK, L. This is prepared
from the fat of the loins of the ^eep or
I bullock by melting it by a gentle heat, and

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SUFFOCATION— SUQAB

160S

atraioing tbe liquid fat. In thia state it forms
the ASBPB OVZLLTTB (Ph. D.), BSWll (Fh. L. ft E.),

evrvu OTHLnv, or bbtttk vjuebaxattm, em-
ployed in medicine and perfumery, as the basis of
(nntmenta, cerates, plasters, pommades, &c.

Svet, Kel'ilot. 8y». Sxmc itELiLOTi, L.
Prtp. From snet, 8 lbs. ; melilot leaves, 2 lbs.;
boil until the leaves are crisp, strain, and allow
it to cool veiy slowly, so that it may 'grain
well.' Used by fiirriers, and to make melilot
plaster.

SUnOCA'TIOV. The treatment varies with
the cause. See Abfetzia, Chabcoai, SBOWimra,
HAirsnra, Svifbubbttbd Htdbogbit, &c.

SITG'AB. CqH»Oi,. 8yn. Cabb bttoax,
Saoohabobb, Saochabobiosb ; Sacchabttk, L. ;
StroBB, Fr. Thia well-known and most nseful
substance is found in the juice of many of the
canes or grasses, in the sap of several forest trees,
in the nectar of flowers, in many seeds, and in the
roots of rarions plants. In tropical climates
it is extracted from the sugar-cane (Saccharum
Dffieinarwn), in China from the sweet sorgho
{Sorghmm tacekarcttum), in North Am«ica from
the sngar maple {Acer taccharinum), and in
France, Germany, Russia, and Belgium from
white beetroot (Beta tmlfforit, var. alia).

Until of late years the ordinary sugar con-
sumed in this country was that chiefly sent from
the West Indian islands. South America, the
Mauritius, Ac, and was the produce of the sugar-
cane; recently, however, large and increasing
quantities of beetroot sugar have found their
way into the English markets from the Conti-
nental factories, at such a price and quality as to
serionsly threaten the future of the sugar-cane
industry.

The Saeehamm offleinamm, or sugar-cane, of
which there are several varieties, ranges in height
from 6 to 16 feet, and in diameter from 1 to 8
inches. In order to obtain the saccharine juice
contained in it, the cane, stripped of its leaves, is
cut just before the commencement of inflorescence,
the period in which it is richest. As the sap or
juice is found to abound most in sugar when taken
from the lower part of the stem, the cane is cut
off nearly close to the ground.

The stnmp which remains develops into a fresh
plant, and one plant thus treated will last several
years, not, however, withont a gradaal diminution
in the size and quality of the successive crops.

In South America and the West Indies a variety
known as the Otaheite cane is extensively culti-
vated, since it is very productive, and yields a
large amount of juice.

The annual average produce in raw sngar per
aero of land is in —

Demetaia

. 4480 lbs

Louisiana

. . 1800 „

Hanritius

3600 to 6600 „

Jamaica

. . 1344 „

IndU

. . 896 „

Bio Janeiro .

. . 2100 „

Java

. . 8360 „

Sugar-cane growing in the below-mentioned
places has, according to the analysis of the three
chemists whose names are appended, the following
composition :

Pfligot.

Sugar

. 180

Water

. 72-1

CeUuloee

. 9-9

Salts .

. —

(»)

W

Dupuy.

leery.

17-8

20^

72-0

690

9-8

10-0

0-4

0-7-

-1-2

The cane, therefore, may be said to yield 90%
of joice, which latter contains from 18 to 20 purta
of pure sngar. However, the actual quantity
obtained is rarely if ever moro than 1 lb. of sugar
to a gallon of juice, or 10% , and much mora fre-
quently only 8% .

A large part of this loss is due to the pro-
longed exposure of the cane juice to heat during
its repeated boilings, whereby a large proportion
of its ciystallisable sugar is converted into the
uncrystallisable variety, which passes away in the
form of molasses or treacle. Another important
cause of loss is the retention of a large amonnt of
juice by the cane.

The following figures will convey an idea of
the enormous quantities of sugar consumed yearly
throughout the globe. They are taken from the
1888 edition of Messrs Lock and Newlands
Brothers' ' Handbook for Planters and Refiners.'

Y«r 1 Aggreg»te

lb».Mr

jeoMumptioD.

hasd.

United Kingdom -

. 187518,374,643

62-80

Holland .

. 1874

8,000,000

26-08

Belgium .

. 1874

1,000,000

28*19

Hamburgh (imports

) . 1873

2,228,788

—

Germanv .
Denmark .

. 1874

6,120,000

16-60

. 1878

533,881

33-80

Sweden .

. 1873

630,741

16-90

Norway .

. 1873

193,086

12-70

France .

. 1874

6,000,000

16'60

Austria and Hungar

f . 1874

8,400,000

16-10

Switzerland

. 1878

881,296

16-90

Portugal .

. 1874

800,000

8-40

Spain

. 1878

81,817

0-64

Russia and Poland .

. 1874

4,000,000

6-40

Turkey .

. 1874

600,000

8-80

Greece .

. 1871

86,800

6-60

Italy

. 1873

865,350

8-60

United States .

. 1873

13,040,500

87-80

British America

. 1875

1,721,386

61-40

BrazU

. 1874

642,857

8-00

Peru

. 1874

570,000

6-61

River Plate States .

. 1874

1,000,000

48-90

Other Southern and

Cen-

tral American Stat

es . 1874

600,000

—

West Indian It

lands

(British and foreig

d) . 1874

1,000.000

—

North and South Afr

ica . 1874

1,000.000

—

Australia .

. 1874

1,718,148

85-90

India, China, and

the

Eastern and F

acific

Islands .

. —

25,000,000

"""

The late Dr Edward Smith found that 98%
of indoor operatives partook of 7i oz. of sugar
per adult weekly ; that 96% of Scotch labourers
use it, and 80% of Irish. He further states
that in Wales sugar is commonly used to an
average extent of 6 oz. per adult weekly; but

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that there is a marked difference in the rate of
coDgnmption in the northern and soatbem por-
tions of the Principality. In North Wales, for
example, the average amount per head is Hi oz.,
whereas in South Wales it is only 8 oz.

The manufacture of sugar is exclusively con-
ducted on the large scale. The recently cot
canes are crushed between rollers, and the ex-
pressed juice is suffered to flow into a suitable
vessel, where it is slowly heated to nearly the
boiling-point, to coagulate albuminous matter.
The crushed canes generally supply the fuel
De<^ed for this purpose. The ashes left after the
combustion of the canes are carefully collected
and nsed as a manure for future crops of sugar-
cane, as they are rich in potash, &c.

The cut below represents a press for the extrac-
tion of the juice from the canes. By means of
the screws (* «). tl>e rollers are adjusted to the
proper distance apart j the upper roller is half
the size of the two lower ones, and all are moved
by cogged wheels fitting on to the axes of the
rollers. The sugar-canes
are transferred from the
slate gutter {d d) to the
rollers (a c), which press
them a little ; and from
thence they are carried
over the arched plate (n)
to the rollers (c&). The
pressed sugar-canes fall
over the gutter {/), the
expressed juice collect-
ing in g g, and running
off through A. A small
quantity of milk of lime
is then added to the
juice to remove mechan-
ical impurities, and the
skimmed and clarified
juice, after being suiB-
ciently concentrated by
rapid evaporation in
open pans, is transferred to coolers, and thence
into upright casks perforated at the bottom, and
so placed that the syrup, or nncrystallisable
portion, may drain off into a tank or cistern from
the newly formed sugar. During the period of
crystallisation it is mquently agitated, in order !
to hasten the change, and to prevent the forma-
tion of large crystals. The solid portion of the
product forms moist, raw, or muscovado sugar ;
the nncrystallisable syrup, molasses or treacle.
The term ' molasses ' is usually restricted to the
drainings from raw sugar, and ' treacle ' to the
thicker syrup which has drained from refined
sugar in the moulds.

Saw sngar is refined by redissolving it in
water, adding to the solution albumen, in the
form of serum of blood or white of egg, and,
sometimes, a little lime-water, and heating the
whole to the boiling-point; the impurities are
then removed by careful skimming, and. the
syrup is decolourised by filtration through re-
cently burnt animal charcoal. The clear decolour-
ised syrup is next evaporated to the crystallising
point t* tiaouo, and at once transferred into
conical earthenware moulds, where it solidifies,
after some time, to a crystallised mass; this.

when drained, washed with a little clean syrcri.
and dried in a stove, constitntes ordinary I.m:'
lump, or refined sugar. Sometimea, in wa^iis^
the crystallised mass for the purpose of rtra-rT-
ing the coloured syrup which is mingled with \\,
the process known as ' claying ' la followed.

In this case, instead of white symp being nsed
a layer of a thin paste of day is poured into tU
mould on to the base of the inverted sugar ccix.
through which the water escaping' from the cUt
paste permeates, and carries with it the coloorf^
syrup. Neither the mud nor the clay mixes vtti
the sugar, but remaining on the t<^ they fe-y.
become hard, when they are removed. As \^
symp running from the moulds atlll contunj >
large quantity of crystalline cane sugar, tlu» m
recovered as follows :

The syrup, after bdng sufficiently ooncaitntnl
by boiling in a vacuum pan, is removed at:
allowed to cool, when it assumes the appeanuiii
of a crystalline magma known as ' crnshed sugar.'

Crushed sugar is a mixture of a large qoantitt

of sugar crystals with nncrystallisable symp.
To get rid of this latter from the crystals, the
mass is placed in quantities bf 3 or 4 cwt. at a
time in a 'centrifugal machine.' This, of which
an engraving is given below, consists, as will br
seen, of a drum fixed on a vertical axis. Tli<'
walls of the drum are made of perforated metal,
or are formed of meshed wire-work, and tb<
drum itself enclosed in an outer metal cylinder,
which is fixed, and, of course, unperforatcd.
When the drum is made to revolve on its axis at
the rate of 1000 or 1200 revolutions in a minuU^,
the syrup flying off by centrifugal action, and
escaping through the perforation at the sides r.f
the drum, is received into the outer cylinder,
whence it escapes by a trongh into a proper
receptacle, leaving behind the crystals in tht.'
interior of the drum.

a is an open drum of fine-meshed wire-work,
caused to revolve in the cast-iron vessel (ft &), by
means of the bevel wheels (e d), gearing with a
motive power. The motion of the drum can be
stopped by means of the brake («), and regulatt^
by the weights placed at o.

When the crystallisation of sngar is allowed to
take place quietly and slowly, the product ii

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1606

sngsr-csndy. The eTaporation at a low tempera-
tore in Tacnum pans has the effect of diminish-
ing the yield of treacle. One half of the sagar

contained in the cane nsnally remains in the
molasses. To obtain this many methods have
been prepared, bat one of the most important
depends apon the formation of basic strontium
saocharosate, which being insoluble in syrup can
be separated ; it is then decomposed by the action
of carbonic acid, and caused to yield crystallisable
sugar.

Prop. Pure cane sugar crystallises from
aqueous solution in hard, transparent, monoclinic
prisms, which when broken emit a curious bluish
ught. Sugar requires for its solution only l-3rd
of its weight of cold and still less of boiling
water j it is practically insoluble in cold rectified
spirit; aqneons alcohol dissolves it, and Schie-
bler has constructed tables showing this soln-
Inlity in alcohol of difterent strengths— a very
important matter in the manufacture of liqueurs
{^>ide 'Berichte deutsch. Chem. Qes.,' v, 848).
It melU at 160°— 161° C, and cools to a glassy
amorphous mass (barley-sugar) ; at higher tem-
peratures it suffers rapid decomposition, and
fuses to a brown, unciystallisable mass (caramel,
CjjHigOa, which is used for tinting liquids brown).
At still lil|;her temperatnres sugar becomes car-
bonised, giving off aldehyde, acetic acid, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, marsh gas, &c. ; long
boiling with water lessens its tendency to crys-
tallise. When sngar is boiled with dilate acids,
t.g. hydrochloric acid, it is transformed into invert
sngar, which is a mixture of equal quantities of
dextrose and levolose; it takes up water thus:

CuHaO,, + H,0 = C,HuO, + C,H„0,
Cue nigu 4- Wtter a D«xtia« + LctbIom.

Certain ferments also have the power of effect-
ing the transformation. Whenyeastisadded toa
•oration of cane sugar moist sugar is formed on
standing, and this is then broken down into car-
bonic acid and alcohol by the action of the yeast-
oells. Cane sugar acts as an antiputrescent, and

is therefore used in the preservation of fruits, &c.
Cane sngar stands to dextrose and levulose in the
same relation as the ethers do to their correspond-
ing alcohols. Its aqueous solution dissolves
alkalies, earths, and many metallic oxides with
facility. The presence of cane sngar in solutions
containing certain metallic salts prevents the
predpitation of their oxides by alkalies. The
oxides of copper and iron are amongst those thus
kept in solution. Sugar also possesses the power
of effecting the partial or complete reduction of
many metallic oxides if boiled with their salts.
The first result is exemplified in the case of the
chromates ; for if a chromate be added to a solu-
tion of sngar, and to the mixture a few drops of
free acid, the chromic acid suffers reduction to
chromic oxide, which, dissolving in the excess of
acid, imparts a green colour to the liquid. Mer-
curic salts become reduced to mercurous, whilst
the salts of gold throw down a precipitate of the
metal in fine powder. The action of strong oil
of vitriol on cane sugar is very energetic. The
sngar is instantly reduced to a black cluurred
mass, whilst carbonic and formic acids are g^ven
off. The same effects are produced by exposing
it to dry chlorine at a temperature of 100° C.
By nitric acid of sp. gr. 1*26 cane sngar is con-
verted into saccharic acid; if a stronger acid be
employed, oxalic acid is produced. Triturated
with 8 parts of lead oxide the mixture takes fire.
When a mixture of concentrated nitric and sul-
phuric acids is poured on to cane sugar, an ex-
plosive compound, resembling gun-cottion, is pro-
duced. This body is known as ' nitro-sugar.'
Cane sugar combines with several oxides and
hydroxides, forming metallic compounds; these
are called saccharosates, and amongst them those
of sodiam, ammonium, calcium, strontium, lead,
and iron are the best known. Sp. gr. 1'693 at
3-9° C.

Fw. Moist or muscovado sugar and crushed
lamp sugar are occasionally adulterated with
chalk, plaster, sand, potato flour, and other
fecola; but frequently with starch (fecnla),
sugar, or potato sugar («m further on). These
fr«ids may be detected as follows :

TfU. 1. Pure cane sugar dissolves freely and
entirely in both water and proof spirit, forming
transparent colourless solutions, wliich are nn-
afiected by either sulphuretted hydrogen or dilute
sulphuric acid.

2. Its solution bends the Inminons rays in cir-
cumpolarisation to the right, whereas grape
sugars bend it to the left. (Of late years, owing
to the little difference in price between the two,
this form of adulteration has been abandoned.—
Ed.)

3. [Ckmallxar^ Boiled for a short time in
water containing 2% or 8% of caustic potash,
the liquid remains colourless ; but it turns a more
or less intense brown, according to the quantity,
if starch sngar is present. Even 2% or 3% of
starch sugar may be thus detected.

4. (If. Krantx^ A filtered solution of 83 gr.
of cane or beet sugar in 1 fl. oi. of water, mixed
with 3 gr. of pure hydrate of potassium, and then
agitated with li gr. of sulphate of copper in an
air-tight bottle, remains clear, even after the lapse
of several days ; but if starch or potato sugar be

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SUGAS

present a red predpitate is fonned after lome
time; and if it is present in considerable qnan-
tity the copper will be wholly converted into
oxide within twenty-font hours, the solation turn-
ing first bine or green, and then entirely losing
its colour.

6. (Fehling.) A solation of cane sugar is
mixed with a solation of sulphate of copper, and
hydrate of potassium added in excess; a blue
liquid is obtained, which, on brang heated, is at
first bat little altered; a small quantity of red
powder falls after a time, bat the liquid long
retains its blue tint. When grape sugar or f ecnla
sugar is thus treated, the first application of heat
throws down a copious yellowish predpitate, which
ramdly changes to scarlet, and eventually to dark
red, leaving a nearly colourless solution. This is
an excellent test for distinguishing the two varie-
ties of sugar, or discovering an admixture of grape
sugar with cane sugar. The -nl'lrs I""^ "^ g'"^P^
sugar may be thus detected. The proportion of
oxide of copper produced affords a good criterion,
not only of the purity of the sugar, bat also of
the extent of the adulteration. "DEtbles should be
consulted when this test is nsed quantitatively.

6. (ZVofltmsr.) Copper sulphate, caustic soda,
and alkaline acetate solution, added in this order
to a solution of cane sugar containing grape sugar,
will precipitate copious oxide on warming.

7. Biffard (' Joum. de Pharm. et de Chimie,'
1874, 49— 'Pharm. Year-book.' 1874), taMng

advantage of the fact that sugar, like tartaric,
malic, citric acid, and albumen, prevents the pre-

' dpitation of iron by ammonia, employs iron as a
means for estimating sugar. A solation contain-
ing sugar and iron in a certain proportion, when
satorated with ammonia, will form a compound
of a fine red colour, which remains dear if no

' alkaline earthy metals are present, fiiffard has
applied to sugar the method proposed by Juette
for the estimation of tartaric add. He observed
that a neutral or add solution of crystallised

. perchloride of iron, when heated for a consider-
able time to 100° C, requires 2*710 grms. of
sugar, if 100 milligrammes of iron are to remain in
solution in the presence of ammonia. If, on the
other hand, the solution is prepared simply by
dissolving crystallised perchloride of iron in pure
water, without the addition of an add, 100 milli-

, grammes of iron only require 2'587 grms. of
sugar to remain dissolved. In this case tiie liquid

. is perfectly clear, and remains so ; but if a
smaller quantity of sugar be added, it is turbid,
and deposits peroxide of iron. To estimate
the sugar by this process, 26'870 grms. of the

. substance to be tested are dissolved, the solution
mixed with a few drops of oxalate of ammonia
to predpitate the lime, filtered and made up with
water to 250 c.c. ; 25 c.c. of this mixture require
the addition of as many milligrammes of iron as
there are per cents, of pure sugar in the example

' under examination, and by two tests the following
results will be arrived at : — With • aiilligrammes
of iron the solution is clear ; with ■ + 1 milli-

' grammes of iron the solution is precipitated ; s re-
. presenting the number of per cents, of sugar
. contained in the sample.

8. Ferret's method for the determination of
sugars by means of normal solutions is as follows :

— He prepares a standard solution of copper by
dissolving 89'276 grms. of sulphate of copper,
very pore, and dried between several folds ox fil-
tering paper, and makes it up with distilJed
water to 1000 c.c. Each c.c. of this solution
contuns 0^1 grm. of copper. On the otber
hand, he dissolves about 26 grms. of pure
cyanide of potassium in one litre of distilled
water. Of this solation 10 c.c. are taken maoA
put in a flask, to which about 20 c.c. of amm<nuA
are added, and the liquid is kept at a tempera-
ture of 60° or 70° C. He pours in the copper
solution drop by drop by means of a boratte
graduated into tenths of a c.c. until there
appears the blue tint characteristic of salts of
copper in an ammoniacal solution. The number
of degrees of the burette are then read oft, and
indicate the quantity of copper which has been
required to produce the reaction. The solation of
the sngar in question (previously inverted if it i>
required to determine crystalline sugar) is then
placed in contact with an excess of Fehling's
Uquor, and reduced in the water-bath. The whole
is filtered in order to collect the predpitato o£
suboxide, which is first well washed with hot
water, and dissolved in nitric acid, diluted with
an equal volume of water, and a few fragments
of chlorate of potassa are added. This solation
is effected on the filter, which is then carefnlly
washed In acidulated water. The filtrate to which
the washings are added is then mixed with water
enough to make up 100 or 150 cc, and is then
poured by means of the burette into 10 c.c of
cyanide, mixed with 20 c.c. of ammonia as above,
stopping when the blue colour appears, and read-
ing off the quantity of copper employed. From
the former experiment it is known how much
copper 10 c.c. of the cyanide ' solution require.
Hence it is easy to calculate the total amount of
copper which has been present as suboxide. The
amount of sugar is then found from the data that
9298 parts ^ copper equal 5000 of oystalUne
sngar, or 5268 of glucose (" Comptes Bendus " —
• Chem. News,' January 6th, 1877).

9. The specific gravities and crystalline forma
oflier other means of distinguishing the varieties
of sugar. For other methods consult Tucker's
' Manual of Sugar Analysis,' p. 287.

Cottelmding Semarkt. Refined sugar (bao-

OHABtrif — Ph. L., B. PUBUM — Ph. £., B. FUSITI-

CAivx — Ph. D.),'raw sugar (s. oomrrsB — Ph. K.),
and molasses or treacle (baooeasi tax. — Vk. L.
and E.) were officinal.

The relative sweetening power of cane sugar is
estimated at 100 ; that of pure grape sugar at
60; that of common fecula or starch sngar at
80to40.

Several improved processes have been intro-
duced during the last few years for treating the
juice. Host of these refer to the machinery.
Mr Fryer's ' ooncretor ' very quickly evaporates
the clarified juice, and turns it at once into a solid
mass which can easily be packed. Large vacnom
pans are now a great feature of the sngar re-
finery. Heckmann's pan will boil down at one
time 20 tons of juice, while that of Messrs Adam,
of Greenock, will deal with 27 tons.

The strontia process is now very widely oaed.
It consists in precipitating the sngar from the boil-

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1607

ingby adding rtrontiam hjdrate; the precipitate
■olatiott, CuH^OiCStO), Ib well washed with hot
water, and afterwards suspended in boiling water
•nd allowed to cool, when most of the strontia is
deposited as hydrate, and the remainder is preci-
ptated by blowing in carbonic acid gaa.

Tabu $iomiitff tka Spteifle WeigM of Sugar
SobMont with tHa eormponding paroentagt
of Came Sugar at 17-6° C— OXKL^OH.

'centage

SpeeUe

Peteeatif*

SpeeUc

• Sngir.

Weight of Sol.

Cane Sugu.

Weight of Sol

76 . .

1-388.842

87 , .

1-164,056

74 . .

1-876,828

36 . .

1169.026

78 . .

1-870,846

86 . .

1-164.088

78 . .

1-868,910

84 . .

1149.073

71 . .

1-867,618

83 . .

1144.160

70 . ,

1-861,168

32 . .

1-139.861

6d . .

1-344,860

31 . .

1-134,406

68 . .

1-888,694

80 , .

1-129,686

67 . .

1-882,870

29 . .

1124.800

66 . .

1-826,188

28 . .

1-120,048

66 . .

1-320,046

27 . .

1-116.380

64 . .

1-813.946

26 . .

1-110.646

68 . .

1-807,887

26 . .

1-106,996

62 . .

1-801,868

24 . .

1-101.877

61 . .

1-295,890

23 . .

1096.792

60 . .

1-289,952

22 . .

1-092.240

69 . .

1-884,054

21 . .

1-087,721

68 . .

1-278,197

20 . .

1-083.284

67 . .

1-272,879

19 . .

1-078.779

66 . .

1-866,600

18 . .

1074,856

66 . .

1-260,861

17 . .

1-069.966

64 . .

1-265.161

16 . .

1-066.606

63 . .

1-849,600

16 , .

1061,278

63 . .

l-248,877

14 . .

1-066,982

61 . .

1-838.293

18 . .

1-062.716

60 . .

1-282,748

12 . .

1-048.488

49 . .

1-227,241

11 . .

1-044.278

48 . .

1-221.771

10 , .

1040,104

47 . .

1-216.889

9 . .

1-036.961

46 . .

1-210,946

8 . .

1-031,848

46 . .

1-206,689

7 . .

1-027.764

44 . .

1-200.269

6 . .

1-028,710

48 . .

1-194,986

6 . .

1-019.686

48 . .

1189.740

4 . .

1-015,691

41 . .

1184.681

3 . .

1011,726

40 . .

1-179.368

2 . .

1-007,788

89 . .

1174,221

1 . .

1-008.880

88 . .

1-169,121

0 . .

1-000.000

The presence of certain saline bodies in a solu-
tion of cane nigar exercises a rery prqadidal
effect upon it, since these, by combining with tht
mgltr, give rise to compounds which contribute to
the more or less reduction of the sugar to tike uu-
erystalUsable condition, and to aoonseqnent in-
crease of the molasses.

One of the chief constituents of the sugar-
cane that possesses this objectionable prqpeity is
potash in combination with acids, both organic
and inorganic A patent for the removal of these
potash salts has been taken out I7 Messrs New-
Wds. The patentees proceed upon the facts
that the solubility of alum in water is very
trifling, and that it contuns only 1-lOth part of
its weight of potash. They add to a concentrated
up a strong solution <n sulphate of alumina

aving by a previous examination of the symp
lined the quantity required). Sulphate of

potash is thereby formed, and this uniting with
the sulphate of alumina, the resulting alum after
a time deposits in a crystalline form at the bottom
of the vessel containing the sugar solution. This
being run off into another receptacle, the free
add of which it now contains a large quantity is
neutralised with lime or chalk, boiled, filtered,
and passed through charcoal.

The addition of the lime also throws down the
alumina liberated by the reaction, which carries
with it and removes certain injurious nitrogenous
principles previously present in the saccharine
liquid.

Some few years back Messrs Dubrunfaut
and F^ligot. being cognizant of the fact of the
insolubility, in boiling water, of the compounds
of sugar with lime, based upon it a method of
smarating crystallisable sugar from treacle.
Peligot has obtained from common treacle one
fourth of its weight of crystallised sugar by dis-
solving the precipitated sugar lime in water, and
separating the lime by passing into the mixture
a stream of osrbonic acid 3 but the strontia process
is now largely used for this also.

Sugar may be obtained from nearly all sweet
vegetable substances by a process essentially
similar to that described above.

Sugar, Al'nm. Sy«. Sacoeabtth Ai,rai-
VATCU, Alxtkbn 8AOCHABIHUX. L. Prep. From
alum and white sugar, in fine powder, equal
parts, formed into minute sugar-loaf shaped
lumps with mucilage of gum-arabic made with
rose-water. Used to make astringent lotions and
eye-waters.

Sugar, Barley-. 8yn. SAOCHABtrx eobdi-
AirM, Pbkisiuic, Saoohabdv purisriTX, L.
When sugar is melted in a little water (barley-
water was formerly used) it cools to a glassy mass
(barley-sugar) enclosing a little water. — Frep,
Take of sutron, 12 gr. ; hot water, q. s. j sugar, 1
lb.; boil to a full ' candy height,' or that state
called ' crack.' or ' crackled sugar.' when 8 or 8
drops of clear lemon juice or white vinegar must
be added, and the pan removed irom the fire and
set for a single minute in cold water, to prevent
its burning; the sugar must be then at once poured
out on an oiled marble slab, and dther cut into
pieces or rolled into Cylinders and twisted in the
usual manner. One drop of oil of citron, orange,
or lemon will flavour a considerable quantity.
White barley-sugar is made with a strained de-
coction of barley instead of water, or starch is
added to whiten it.

Sugar, Beetroot. Sgn. Saoohabtw bkj:, L.
Sugar obtained from the white beet. Chemically
sp«Uang it is cane sugar or saccharose, and when
well re&ied is quite equal to and indisting^uishable
from the refined produce of the sugar-cane.

Conntriei when Ptodnction in Factories

Faetoiies exist. 1877-8. exiatiac-

Oermany. . . . 876,000.000 kilos. . 880
France .... 885,000,000 „ . 618
Austria, Hungary . 846,000,000 „ . 248
Russia, Poland . . 260.000,000 .. . 888
Belnum .... 60,000.000 „ . 168
HoUand, Sweden,! 25,000,000 „ 48

Denmark . </

1,870,000,000

1674

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1608

SUGAB
Fie. 1.

Uiii^i'm^y^::;-^iA^y:'i-^i:ifi:i^,:iii:.,i!i;>fii^A ,::/:,,./,^^:,.^/,::,:y^..,..A:.<^>>>y.',y/./.:<,/.i-/,.:,i/.Z?7.

Fio. 2.

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8U0AB

1609

_ In the foregoing table the name* of the conntrie*
mwhich this plant is chiefly cultivated are given,
together with the amount of autcar produced in
«ach in 1877-«.

The white beet is nsed in preference to the red
wieties, not only because of the colour of iU
^uice, but also in consequence of its being richer
u> «ugar. The roots vary in their yield of sugar
according to quaUty and the season of the year.
Th(^^ generaUy in best condition in October.
According to Wagner the constituents of the
•ngar-beet are as follows :
Water g2y

c^ose* !.';;■■ *j!|

Albomen. casein, and other bodies ! '. 1-5
Fatty matter J.^

Org^c substances, citric aeid, pectin, and'
pertic acid. Asparagin, aspartie acid,
and betam, a substance having, acoord-
mg to Schiebler, the f ormuU CuH-Jf ,0.

Organic salts, oxalate and pectato 6f cal-
cium, oiaUte and pectate of potassium
and sodium .

Inorganic salts, nitrate and sulphate of
potash, phosphate of Ume and magnesia

avJ«^'? "^ \^^ '^- °* "^ y^eld'on an
average 1 cwt of nw sugar, or 8 per cent

With Uiis analysU compare the foUoirinff
■nalysis of the sugar-cane by Dr Phipson
Water .... 7104^

^°S^ ■ . . . 18-02
Cellulose . . . ,9.5^

Albmninoas matter , . 0-66
Fatty and colouring matter 0-86
Halts soluble in water . 0-12'
,, insoluble „ , . o-16
8"^"* • . .0-20

. 8-7

Derived from
the air.

Derived from
the soil.

100-00
The first operation in the manufacture of beet-
root sugar after washing and cleansing the roots
\»"pP«™t»°n whichsometimes reduces their weight
10% or 20% ) is the extraction from them of the
juice. This may be effected either by—

1. Pressnre.

2. Centrifugal power.
8. Dialysis.

^- ■P*''i*»re. The roots being put into a proper
crushing machine are reduced to a uniform pulp,
which in some manufactories is subjected to
pressure, wrapped in linen cloths, under stone or
iron rollers, and in others is placed in bags and
placed under an hydraulic press, the resulting
juice being collected in proper receptacles.

2. Cmtriftigal Power. This method is that gene-
rally employed for separating the juice from the
pulp, which thus yields between 60% and 60% of
jnice. A weak saccharine solution, also used in
sugar manufacture, is afterwards obtained by
mixing the residue of the pulp with water, and
subjecting it to the same process.

8. DialgtU. The application of the principle
of diffusion for the extraction of the sugar from
the beetroot originated with M. Robert. The
fresh roots, cut into thin slices, are immersed in
a little more than their own weight of water
beated to about 120° F. The crystalloid sugar

thus diffuses out through the coll membrane which
encloses it into the surrounding water, leaving the
pectous and colloid matters, such as albumen,
gum, &c, behind. The operation, which is so
managed as to bring the same water into~ contact
with successive quantities of root, yields a saccha-
rine solution of nearly the same strength as the
natural juice. The solution so obtain^ is, after
concentration, Sus., converted into sugar. The
same process is said to have been tried with cane
sugar, and with equally satisfactory results.

The succeeding stages of the manufacture of
beet sugar,suchasreflning, liming, decolourising,
Slc, are the same as those already described under

Beet sugar is in every respect identical irith
cane. It was discovered in 1747 by Marggraf, of
Berlin, but it did not come into use untU about
the beginning of the present centnry, its manu*
f acture at this period in France being necessitated
by an edict of the first Napoleon's, which pro-
hibited the importation of cane sugar into that
country.

The »ttgn. on opposite page represent a common
type of vacuum pan used in the sugar refineries.

Fig. 1 g^ves a perspective, and fig. 2 a sectional
view of this evaporating pan.

The boiling pan (b) consists of two air-tight
hemispheres, snrmounted by a funnel, connected
by the tube I with the condenser (a). The
appaiatns is supplied by steam by r t, the steam
circulating in the boiUng pan by means of the
pipes (jj), fig. 2. By opening the lever valves (/)
the juice can be run by means of the pipe 0 into
the pan (ji). When the pan, after continued
boiling, requires to be refitted, the pipes I and w
are connected to an air-pump. The manometer
(h) shows the state of the air pressnre, which can
be regulated by opening the pipes connected to
the vacuum chamber. By means of the gange
cylinder (a) the quantity of syrup in the boiUng
pan can be ascertained, the gange cylinder being
connected to the bcnlingpan by the pipes a and i,
and the height read off from the gauge-tube (•).
The syrup can be removed, for the purpose of
ascertaining its consistency, from the gauge
cylinder by means of either of the three pipes
(e, e, d). By u steam can be admitted to the
boiling pan uid condenser. 0 is generally of stout
glass, and enables the state of the juice to be seen.
g is the grease cock ;/ the manhole. The condenser
consists of the jacket (b), arranged to prevent the
mixing of the juice with the water used for con-
densation, a is the gaoge. The pipe («) con-
veying water to the condenser terminates in a
rose. > is a thermometer showing the interior
temperatnre of the boiling pan.

The air-pump being set in operation the tube
o is opened and the gauge cylinder filled by the
jmce rising from q. By closing m and opening g
the jmce is admitted to the boiling pan. When
this is half ftill the steam pipe (t) is opened, the
steam qnickly heating the contente of the pan to
the boiling-pmnt. The condenser is then placed
in working; by opening the pipe I the steam
of the juice passes into the condenser, where it
is speedy condensed, passing with the water
through /3.
Sn^, Diabet'le. Qrape sugar found in ih«

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1610

SUQAB

oiine of perions safiering with diaMu mtUUu*.
In diabHt* xntipidut a sabatance having the
general properties of a sagar, hat deititute of a
eweet taate, appears to be produced {Thiuard).

Sugar, Qel'atin. See QLZcooiirK.

Sngar, Grape. C,H„Og.H,0. Syu. Oltioou,
Dbztbobi, Fbuit suqxb ; Saoohabuic utm, 8.
nuoxuB, L. This substance is found in the
jaice of grapes and other fruit, aasodated with
leruloee as invert sugar, in the urine of diabetic
patients, and in the liquid formed bj acting on
starch and woody fibre with dilute iDlphiiric
acid.

Pry>. 1. From the juice of ripe grapes or an
infusion of the dried fruit (raisins), by saturating
the acid with clialk, decanting the clear liqnid,
evaporating to a s;rup, clarifying with white of
egg or bullock's blood, and then carefully eva-
porating to dryness ; it may be purified for
chemic^ purposes by solution and crystallisation
in either water or boiling alcohoL Like other
sugar, it may be decolourised by animal char-
ooiil.

2. From honey, by washing with cold alcohol,
which dissolves the fluid syrup and leaves the
solid crystallisable portion.

On the large scale it is prepared from starchy
matter. See Stasch Susab.

Prop, It is less sweet and less soluble than
cane sngar, requiring 1^ parts of cold water for
its solution ; the sweetness of cane sugar '. dex-
trose .'.'6:8; instead of bold crystals, it forms
grannJar warty masses, without distinct crystal-
fine faces ; it reduces Fehling's solution ; it does
not easily combine with either oxide of calcium or
oxide of lead; with heat, caustic alkaline solu-
tions turn it brown or black; with chloride of
Bodinm it forms a soluble salt, which yields large,
regular, and beautiful crystals. It rotates the
plane of polarisation to the right + 112° when
fresh, + 56° after standing. For uses see Stakch

The various fruits contain grape sugar in the
' following proportions :

Hi Cent.
Ftach. 1-67

Apricot . . 1'80

Plum . . 212

Baspberry . . 4O0
Blackbeiiry. 4*44

Strawberry . . 5"7S
Bilberry . 6*78

■ Currant . . 6*10
Flam . . 6-26

Gooseberry . 7-16

Cranberry . 7-46 (JVst ««»im)

Pear , . . 802 ialO-B^S. Wolff)

Apple . . 8-37 (fr«i«ii»«*)

„ . . . 7-88 to 8-04 (J. Volf)

Soar cherry . 8*77
Mulberry . 9-19

Sweet cherry . 10'79

Orape. . . 14-93

Oit. Cane sugar is converted into grape sugar
during the process of fermentation, and by the
action of acids. See Sugab, and Susab, Staboh
{below).

Sugar, Invert. A mixture of about equal

parts of dextrose and levuloae. It exiata to aoiae
extent in most fruits, in the sap of many plantm
and trees, in honey, &c.

Prep. Cane sugar is converted into inven
sugar by hydrolysis, that is, by boiling witb Tery
dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid.

Sngar, Xaple. Sgn. Sacohabtjx ACKKirmc.
L. From the juioe of the sugar maple, Ajeew
tacekariimm. It is identical with cane mgar,
but is almtys impnie.

In the United States and the British odoniea
of North America considerable quantitiea of this
iogar are made. The juioe is obtained by boring
through the bark of the tree to a depth of about
a quarter or half an inch. Each tree haa generally
two perforations made in it, and thinr are always
made on tliat side of the tree which faoea towards
the south, and at a distance of about 80 inches
from the ground. The juice flows into anitaUe
vessels, into which it is eondacted by reeds placed
under the perforations. The period choaen for
tapping the trees is that during which it is known
the sap is ascending, from March to May. Some-
times the tree undergoes a second tapping in the
autumn, but this is not generally practised, inas-
much as it is ii^urioua to the tree. A daily yield
of 6 galls, of juice from each incirion is looked
upon as a ' good run,' and if these 6 gaUs. be the
produce of an old tree or ' old bush ' they will
yield 1 lb. of sugar. In a young tree or 'young
bush ' the yield of sugar from the same qoaatity
of sap is only lialf . By proper care the same tree
may be tapped 80 or 30 years fallowing. Unlike
the sugar-cane, the . joice in the maple is the
richest in sugar the highCT it is fonnd from tiie
ground. The thick saccharine liquid is c(moen-
trated every 24 hours. The raw crystallised
sugar undergoes no refining, and being made into
blocks is then sent to market.

Sugar, Kilk. CjtHaOu.H^. Hgn. SuSAX ot

MILK, LAOTOBK, LaCTOBIOBB J SaOCHABUX I.ACTIS

(Ph. D.), L. Prep. Gently evaporate clarified
whey until it crystallises on cooling, and purify
the crystals by digestion with animal charcoal
and repeated crystallisations.

Prop., Sfe. White, translucent, very hard cylin-
drical masses or four-sided prisms ; soluble in
ahoot 6 parts of cold and in 2 parts of boiling
water; nearly insolnble in alcohol and ether;
ammoniacal plumbic acetate precipitates it from
its solutions. When an alkaline solution of grape
sngar is boiled with the salts of copper, silver, or
mercury, it reduces them; it produces right-
handed rotation of a ray of polarised light (ap.
rotatory power =• + 52- 53° at 20°) ; by boiliiig
with dilute acid it is converted into gdUtetota
(CgHijO^; treated with nitric acid it yields made
acid, with small quantities of saccharic, oxalic,
and tartaric acid. Milk sugar is not susceptible
of the vinous fermentation, except under the
action of dilute acids, which convert it into grape
sugar ; in solution it is converted by fermentation
into lactic or butyric acid by the action of caaeine
and albuminous matter. Milk contains abont 6%
of it (Boru*ii»$amU).

Obi. Sngar of milk is chiefly imported from
Switzerland. In this country it is chiefly nsed
as a vehicle tar more active medicines, especially
among the homceopathista.

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8UQAB

1611

Sugar, Staich. 8yn. Potato BvaAX, Fjbotu
8. ^Hiis 18 grspe sugar obtained by the action
of diastaie on atarcb, in the manner noticed under
•Qvu (British), or by the action of dilute snlpharic
acid on starch, or of the strong acid on lignin, or
on substances containing it.

Prep. 1. From com. The com is fint steeped
in soda lye; it is then groand wet and passed
through levoMng sieves to separate the husks
and gluten. The starch is carped through long
troughs, in which are placed transverse pieces of
wood, against which the solid particles of starch
lodge, and are thus separated from the washing
waters. These wash-waters run into a large cis-
tern, where it undergoes fermentation into weak
vinegar. The starch in the wet state is then put
into a mash-tub, and treated for from 3 to 8
hours with 1% of sulphuric acid. The acid
liquor is neutralised with chalk and evaporated
in vacuum pans, and after being separated
from the sulphate of lime it is run into bar-
rels and allowed to crystallise. The sugar is
sometimes manufactured in blocks 6 inches

3nare and dried on plaster plates in a current
dry air, as hot air would discolour it.
Large quantities of grape sugar are now pro-
duced in Oennany, France, and in the United
States, particularly in New Orleans, BnffiJo, and
Brooklyn.

Uiet. Starch sugar (glucose, potato sugar,
&c.) is much used by brewers and distillers for
making alcohol, as well as by confectioners ; dyen
and a^co printers use it to reduce indigo. M^en
specially prepared for the use of brewers the
blocks are crushed into small pieces about the size
of malt grains. Our eicise authorities prohibit
the entrance of glucose into a brewer's premises
in the liquid state. In the brewing of pale spark-
ling ales grape is esteemed more than either cane
sugar or malt, and is said to yield a more sound
and wholesome liquor, and one free from the
aoidi^, impurity, and treacly sweetness frequently
found in beers brewed from raw or inferior sugars.
Qlucose may also be obtained from cellulose, but
the process is too expensive to admit of being
practically worked.

2. Potato starch, 100 parts j water, 100 parts ;
sulphuric acid, 6 parts ; mix, boil for 35 or 40
hours, adding water to make up for evaporation ;
then saturate the acid with lime or chalk, decant
or filter, and evaporate the clear liquor. Under
pressure the conversion is more rapid. — Prod.,
106%.

8. " The starch of potatoes can be converted
into glucose by digestion for a few hoars with
parings of the potato. This operation is largely
practised by German farmers in the preparation
of food for fattening hogs. An exceUent starch
sugar can be prepared from Indian com, which
will yield alcohol one eighth cheaper, and quite as
pure as that from cane sugar" ('Joum. of
Applied Chemistry ').

i. Shreds of linen or paper, 12 parts ; strong
snlpbnrie acid, 17 parts {£raco»»ot ; 5 parts of
acid and 1 part of water — Vogtt) ; mix in the cold ;
in 24 hours dilute with water, and boil it for 10
hours ; then neutralise with chalk, filter, evapo-
rate to a syrup, and set the vessel aside to
crystalUse. — Prod., 114% < Sawdust, glue, Ac,

also yield grape sugar by like treatment See
LieiriN.

Sugar, Unerystalllsable trait (levulose— left-
handed sugar). C,H„0,. Prep. Invert cane
sugar by heating it with dilute sulphuric acid.
Allow it to stand in the light, and strun off the
clear syrup which forms.

Prop. Much sweeter than dextrose. Under
proper conditions this sugar can be got to crys-
tallise from alcohol. It does not ferment so
readily as dextrose; it also reduces cupric solution
less r^dily. It rotates the plane of polarisation to
the left.

Sugar firom other Sources. Considerable quan-
tities of East Indian cane sugar or jaggery are
yielded by certain Indian palms, the principal
of which are the Are»ga tacehariftra and the
Phanix lylvittrit, or wild date. Another source
whence large quantities of cane sugar are pro-
cured is the Sorghum eaeeharattun, or sugar- grass.
This plant is extensively grown in Ohio, and
yields annually more than 16,000,000 galls, of
juice, which is made into sugar.

The preparation of syrup from the melon
(OMeumU mtlo) is fast assnming some importance
in America. The juice of the fruit is stated to be
free from those non-saccharine substances which
make the extraction of beet and cane sugars such
an expensive matter.

The following sugars, besides those which have
been dealt with, are known :

Oalaetote. C(HuO,. From milk sugar by
boiling it with dilute sulphuric acid ; also from
plum gum.

a-Aeron. C(H|,Ot. By the action of baryta
water on acrolein dlbromide.

JfandOM. C,H qO| . By the action of platinum-
black on mannitol.

Fortune. C,H|^,. By the action of lime on
paraformaldehyde.

Sqfflnote. CigHaOu + 6H,0. From beet sugar
molasses.

Meletitoie. C^HaOij. From larch manna.

Mgeote or trtialote. CnHnOn. From Turkish

Melitote. Cifitfl^ From the eucalyptus.

MaUote. CuH^Oi]. From malt.

Smeal^. C,HnO(. By fermentation of meU-
tose, a substance found in eucalyptus manna.

Sorbinose. C,HuO(. From the berries of the
mountain ash trae.

BffeeU of the Varietiet of Sugar on PolarUed
Light. Both sucrose or cane sugar and dextrose
produce rotation upon a ray of polarised light.
The plane of rotation is rotated to the right by
sucrose rather more powerfully than by dextrose.
It is remarkable that the unerystalllsable sugar of
fruits produces an opposite rotation, viz. to the
left. Since the degree of rotation is proportionate
in columns of equal length to the quantity of
sugar present, it has been proposed to employ this
property in order to determine the quantity of
sugar present in syrups {Miller), The foUowing,
according to Berthelot, are the rotatory powers of
the diflerent varieties of sugar if equal weights
of each are dissolved in an equal bulk of water ]
the quantities of each sugar are calculated for the
formula annexed :

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1612

SUGAR-BOILINO— SUINT

VMtoty.

Fonanlt.

Botation.

Tempen-
tare.

'F.

•C.

Saerose (cane

sugar)
Helezitose
Mycose .
UeUtose . .
Dextrose (grape

sugar)
Malt sugar .
Lemlose (fruit

EnoSyn .
Sorbin .
Lactose (milk

•agar)
Glucose of ditto

(galactose)
Inverted cane

■ugar

(C„H„0„)
(C,H„03

(cJhSoS

(C.H„0.).

(C.H,A)

Right 78-8°

,. 941°
» 198°
,. 102°
„ 67-4°

.. 172°

Left 106°
Right 60°
Left 46-9°
Right 66-4°

.. 88-8°

Left 28°

66
67

183
18-9

SUOAB-BOIMBa. The art or business of the
confectioner or sugar-baker; the candying of
sugar. The stages are as follow :— Well-clarified
and perfectly transparent syrup is boiled until
a 'skimmer' dipped into it, and a portion
'touched' between the forefinger and thumb, on
opming them, is drawn into a small thread,
which crystallises and breaks. This is called a
' weak candy height.' If boiled again, it will
draw into a larger string, and if bladders may
be blown through the ' drippings ' from the
ladle, with the mouth, it has aoqu&ed the second
degree, and is now called ' bloom sngar.' After
still further boiling, it arrives at the state called
' feathered sugar.' To determine this re-dip the
skimmer, and shake it over the pan, then give it
a sudden flirt behind, and the sngar inll fly
ofi like feathers. The next degree is that of
' crackled sugar,' in which state the sugar that
hangs to a stick dipped into it, and put directly
into a pan of cold water, is not dissolved oK, but
turns hard and snaps. "The last stage <k refining
this artiele reduces it to what is called ' carmu
sugar,' proved by dipping a stick flrst into the
•ugar, and then into cold water, when, on the
moment it touches the latter, it will, if matured,
snap like glass. It has now arrived at a 'full
candy height.' Care must be taken throughout
that the fire is not too fierce, as, by flaming np
against the sides of the pan, it will bum and dis-
colour the sugar; hence the boiling is best con-
ducted in steam jacketed pans.

Any flavour or colour may be given to the
candy by adding the colouring matter to the
symp before boiDng it, or the flavouring essences
when the process is nearly complete. See Staikb,
Ac.

STJGAS-CAirST. Sg*. Saoos^bitk cah-
J>n>rX, S. OBTBTALLnrUK, S. obybtaxlizatttx,
L. Sugar crystallised by leaving the saturated
Wrup in a warm place (90° t» 100° T.), the
shooting being promoted by placing sticks, or
threads, at small distances from each other in
the liquor; it' is also deporited from compound

syrups, and does not seem to retain mnch of the
foreign substances with which they are loaded.
Brown sugar-candy is prepared in this way from
raw sugar; white do., from reflned sng^ar; and
red do., from a syrup of reflned sugar which has
been coloured red by means of cocluneaL

Sugar-candy is chiefly used as a sweetmeBt;
and, being longer in dissolving than sugar, in
coughs, to keep the throat moist; reduced to
powder, it is also blown into the eye, as • mild
escharotic in films or dimness of that orgaji.

SUQAS or LIAS. AceUte of lead.

SUQAS-FLTJXS. Sya. Bokbovb. DsAGiiBB.
Fr. These are made by various methods, among
which are those noticed under Dbops (Confec-
tionery), LozBiroBB, and Pabtelb, to wbick may
be added the following : — Take a qnantity of
■ugar syrup, in the proportion to their aiae, in
that stttte called a ' blow ' (which may be known
by dipping the skimmer into the sngar, shsiking
it, and blowing through the holes, when psu-ta of
light may be seen), and add a drop or two offany
esteemed flavouring essence. If the ' bonbon* '
are preferred white, when the sugar has cooled a
little, stir it round the pan till it grains and
shines on the surface. When all is ready, pour
it through a funnel into little dean, brig-ht,
leaden moulds, which must be of various shapes^
and be previously slightly moistened with oil of
sweet almonds; it wUl then take a proper form
and harden. As soon as the plums are cold, take
them from the moulds; dry them for two or
three days in the air, and put them upon paper.
If the bonbons are required to be coloured, add
the colour just as the sugar is ready to be taken
off the fire.

Cbtbtallibbd bohbonb are prepared by dust-
ing them with powdered double-refined lump
sngar before drying them,

LlQlTBUB BOXBONB, uow SO beautifully got up
by the Parinan confectioners, are obtwned by
pressing pieces of polished bone or metal into
finely powdered sugar, filling the hollow spaces
so formed with saturated solutions of sugar in
the respective liqueurs, and then spreading over
the whole an ample layer of powdered sugar. In
the conrse of three or fonr days the bonbons
may be removed, and tinted by the artist at will.
Instead of white powdered sngar ordered above,
coloured sugar may be used. These bonbons are
found to be hoUow spheres, containing a small
quantity of the spirit or liqueur employed, and
will bear keeping for many months. See Swbr.
KBATB, &c. ■

SUQAS8 (Medicated). Syn. Saoohabissb;
Saochasa kbdicata, L.; Sacceaboi.£8, Sac-
CHABUXE8, Fr. Some of these are prepared by
moistening white sngar with the medicinal sub-
stance, then gently drying it, and rubbing it to
powder ; in other cases they are obtained in the
manner noticed under Pitlvbbvlent JBxtbaotb,
or OLBOBAOOHABinc. The most valuable prepa-
ration of this class in British jiiarmacy is the
saccharated carbonate of iron (fbbbi oabboitai

CTTM BACOEABO— Ph. L.).

SuABT. Sheep while browsing abstract a ix>n-
siderable amount of potash, which, after baring
passed into the blood, &c., is sweated through the
skin and deposited Oh the wool as miW. The

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SULPHATE— SULPHOCTANOQEN

1618

substance constatntes sbont one third part of the
weight of crade merino wool (Chevrtul). The
fatty acida of suint are compounds of oleic, stearic,
and palmitic acids (J2«icA and ITTbricht). Suint
is nsed as a manure in agriculture, and as a source
of potassium salts and illuminating gas.

Bnlnt, Oaa ttom. By this is understood a gas
prepared from the fatty materials present in the
soap-suds used in washing raw wool and spun
yams. The water containing the suint and soap-
suds is run into cisterns, and is there mixed with
milk of lime, and left to stand for twelve hours.
A thin precipitate is formed> which, after the
supernatant clear liquor has been run oft, is put
upon coarse canvas for the purpose of draining
off any impurities, sand, hair, &c., while the mass
which runs through the filter is put into a tank,
in which it forms, after six or eight days, a pasty
mass, which, having been dug out and moulded
into bricks, is dried in open air. At Bheims the
first wash-water of the wool is nsed tor making
both gas and potash, because the water contains
no soap and only suintate of potash, potassium
sndorate. Havrez, at Verviers, has recently pro-
posed to employ suint — which, by-the-b;e, is very
rich in nitrogen — for the purpose of making f erro-
cyanide of potassinm.

The dried brick-shaped lumps are submitted to
distillation, yielding a gas which does not require
purification, and which possesses an illuminating
power three times that of good coal-gas. The
wash-water of a wool-spinning mill with 20,000
spindles yields daily, when treated as described,
about 500 kilos, of dried suinter, as the substance
is technically called. One kilo, of this substance
yields 210 litres of gas. Annually about 150,000
kilos, of suinter are obtained, and this quantity
will yield 31,500,000 liti«s = 1,112,486 cubic feet
of gas. Every burner consuming 35 litres of gas
per hour, and taking the time of burning at 1200
hours, the quantity of gas will sufSce for 760
burners, and as a spinning-mill of 20,000 spindles
only requires 600 burners, there is an excess of
gas supply available for 250 other burners.

SUL'FEATE. Syn. Sulphas, L. A salt of
sulphuric acid. There are three kinds of sul-
phates. In normal sulphates both atoms of
hydrogen in sulphuric acid are replaced by a
metal, as NgSOf! in acid sulphates one atom only
is BO replaced, as KHSO4 ; and in double sulphate
the hydrogen atoms are replaced by two different
metals, as EA1(S0J2-

SULTHIBE. A ult consisting of sulphur and
a metal or other basic radical. See StrLPHiTBBTTSi)

ETDBOGEir.

SULFHIKDTL'IC ACH). C,Hg(SOrOH)aK,0^
Sfn. tirsiaoTiir sigrxpHOirio acid. An in-
tensely blue pasty mass, formed by dissolving 1
part of indigo in about 16 parts of concentrated
sulphuric acid. Used in dyeing Saxony cloth.
See Sulphate op Iitdioo.

SUL'FEITE. A salt of sulphurons acid. Snl-
phnrons acid forms two classes of salts: the
normal sulphites, in which both atoms of hydro-
gen are replaced by a metal, as Na^SO^ ; and the
acid sulphites, in which one atom only is replaced,
as KHSO,.

BTTLPHOCASBOUC ACID. CaH4(0H)S0,H.
(SvLPHOCABBOiiATBa.) Carbolic acid, when acted

upon by bases, yields a class of salts termed ear-
bolates. These compounds are very unstable j
they readily absorb water from the air, which sets
free carbobc acid ; they usually have the powerful
odour of the latter. When, however, equivalent
weights of carbolic and sulphuric acids are mixed,
union takes place, a definite double add results,
and the salts formed by this double acid with the
various bases are entirely different from the simple
salts of carbolic acid. They are very stable, very
soluble, possess neither odour nor taste of car-
bolic acid, and are singularly beautiful in crystal-
line form.

Prop. Sulphocarbolic acid cryatallisee in long
colourless needles; unlike carbolic acid, it is
soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, in any pro-
portions.

Sulphocarbolate of Calcium (Ca[C,H,S04],-i-
Aq^ is obtained in very long, fine, densely inter-
lacing crystals, which form in bulk, by their
interlacement, a porous mass. Unlike the nsoal
lime salts, this is exceedingly soluble. This fact
overcomes the great difficnlty of treatment when
in disease there is a deficiency of lime in the body,
especially in rickets, in which disease the want of
lime in the bones gives rise to distortions.

Solphocarbolate of Copper (Cu[CgH,S04]^
forms fine prismatic crystals of a blue colour. It
is nsed as the zinc snlpbocarbolate, chiefly as a
lotion and dressing, in Uie proportion of 3 to 10
gr. to the ounce of distilled water.

Snlphocarbolate of Iron (Fe[C,H5SOj2) forms
colourless or pale green rhombic plates. It is
readily administered, and seems in some instances
to be preferred to other salts of iron. It seems
to have been of especial use in the skin diseases
of children, wherein there is much formation of
matter.

Bulphocarbolats of Sodium (Ka[CaHJS04.Aq)
forms brilliant, clear, rhombic prisms. The salt
is very soluble in water. This salt can be
administered as a medicine in doses of 20 to
60 gr.; it is slowly decomposed, carbolic acid
being evolved. It thus becomes a very simple
means of obtaining the beneficial effects of the
administration of this antiseptic without the
difficulties and dangers which attend it in its un-
combined irritant and caustic form. It has
proved of great service in the treatment of infec-
tious diseases. Administered in the severest
cases of diphtheria, malignant scarlet fever,
typhoid, erysipelas, &c., the remedy has proved of
extreme value.

Snlphocarbolate of Zine (Zn[C,HBS04],) is
chiefiy employed in solution as a lotion. By high
surgical authorities it is considered to answer all
the purposes of the antiseptic dressing of carbolic
add. It is inodorous, and has very slight irri-
tating action.

The Sulphocarbolates of Potassium (ECgHgSOt)
and Ammonium (KH4CgH5S04) are also brilliant
crystals; they are freely soluble, administered
with the greatest ease, and have been used with
success as remedial agents.

SULPHOCTAK'Oasir. CNS. A well-defined
salt radical, containing sulphur united to the ele-
ments of cyanogen. Its compounds are the sulpho-
cyanides, most of which may be formed by directly
saturating hydrosulphocyanic add with the oxide

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SULPHOFOBH— SULPHUB

or hydrate of the base ; or, from the anlpho^aaide
of potassium and a solable salt of the base, by
doable decomposition.

SUXFHOroSK. Syn. STTLFHoroBKint, L. An
oily liquid obtuned by distilling 1 part of iodo-
form with 3 of sulphide of mercury.

SUIFHOarAL. C;H„S,04. It is chemicaUy
dietbyUulphondimethylmethane, and occurs in
colourless prismatic crystals slightly soluble in
water, more so in alcohol or a mixture of alcohol
and ether. Professor Olt, of Prague, gives his
experience of snlphonal as being an excellent
hypnotic. In most cases tranquil and prolonged
sleep supervened after the administration of 1 to
2 grms.

Dr Perregaux, of Montreux, finds this drug
particularly suitable in cases of nervous insomnia,
and is also very nsef d1 in cases of severe neuralgic
pain. He gives doses varying from 1'5 to 8 grmi.,
which is sufficient to produce quiet and refreshing
sleep of ftve to six hours' duration. He, however,
observed some accessory cerebral symptoms follow-
ing the use of this remedy, such as initial mental
excitement and atactic disturbances of certain
fine movements of the hands. Hence the ques-
tion arises whether prolonged use of this new
hypnotic can be altogether harmless in regard to
the cerebral cortical function (' British Medical
Journal').

Mr Codolly Norman, Medical Superintendent
to the Bichmond Asylum, Dublin, reports (' Dublin
Journal Medical Science ') several cases of in-
sanity and mental disorder In which snlphonal
proved most valuable. As also Dr Iiojacono,
assistant in Professor Bianchi's Clinique for
mental diseases at Palermo, has recently reported
the results of experiments made with sulphonal
on patients tattetiog from mental diseases. The
drug was administ^ed in syrup of doses of 1 to 4
grms. In no case did the drug fail to give
tranquil and refreshing sleep, besides having a
marked effect as a general sedative. In cases of
acute maniacs of hysterical delirium and epilepti-
form convulsions the paroxysms were either pre-
vented or greatly mitigated.

Dr Kiach, of Berlin, gives his experience of
thif drug as producing most rapid effects as an
hypnotic on individuals suffering from nervous
complaints in doses of 7 to 16 gr. at bedtime.
This produced sleep during the whole or greater
part of the night. In cases of neuralgia of rheu-
matic origin 16 to 80 gr. produced good results,
whilst one of gastric neuralgia was unaffected.

SiriiFHOPHS'HIC ACID. A synonym of sul-
phocarbolic acid. See SttlpeOOXBBOIiATBB.

SUIfHOTnTlC ACID. C,H,.HSO,. ^. Sin,-

PHBTHTUC ACID ; AOIDUX BTTLFHOmnOITlC, L.

This substance is formed by the action of heat on
a mixture of alcohol (1 purt by weight) and sul-
phuric acid (2 parts hj weight); it is the inter-
mediate product which is developed in the pre-
paration of ether. The salts are called sulpho-
vinates or snlphethylates.

SWBWm. 8 = 31-98. [Eng.,L.] 8g». Bsnf.
Biora; SountB, Fr. Occurs in the free state In
many volcanic districts, e.g. Iceland, California,
Italy, ITew Zealand. In Sicily, from which the
chi<^ supplies come, it exists in beds associated
with blue clay. As sulphuretted hydrogen it is

found in many mineral waters ; in combination
with metals it forms numerous ores known as
sulphides or sulphnrets, e.g. galenn, cinnabar,
iron and copper pyrites combined with oxygen
and a metal. It is plentifully distributed as snl-
phates, e.^. gypsum, Glauber's salt, Ac; in this
latter form it occurs also in the tissues of *'««"»^i«
and plants.

Prep. 1. As ' rough ' sulphur from ores nrluch
contun more than 12% by mixing them in far-
naces with a little fuel, igniting and smothering
with earth ; the sulphur liquefies and is caught in
wooden moulds, or high-pressure steam is applied
to the ores contuned in an iron vessel.

2. The ores are heated in a boiler with a 66%
solution of calcium chloride at 120° C.

8. By extraction with carbon disolphide.

4. By driving off the sulphur in the form of
vapour by the application of heat, and condensing
the vapour in a cooled receiver.

Var. The principal of these are —

AXOBFBOX78 SITXPEVB, BSOWIT B. ; SCXPHITB

AXOBFETTv;, S. FCsouH, S. nrrosxs, S. srssnt,
L. Prepared from sublimed sulphur, by melting
it, increasing the heat to from 320° to 860° F^
and continuing it at that temperature for alxmt
half an hour, or until it becomes brown and
viscid, and then pouring it into water. In this
state it is ductile, like wax, may be easily moulded
in any form, is much heavier than usual, and
when it has cooled does not agun become fluid
until heated to above 600° P. The same effect is
produced more rapidly by at once nunng ihe
temperature of the melted mass to from 43(f to
ilSCf F. The soft mass soon becomes brittie

•gain.

Pbbcipiiatsd sflphitb, HSS&&TB or BtUfHn,
MiLx ow B.; Sttxpevbis htsbab, Lao uuitPHUitn,

SULPEUB FKXOIPITATVX (Ph. L.), L. pTtp. 1.

From sublimed sulphur, 1 part; dry and recently
slaked lime, 2 parts ; water, 26 parts, or q. s. ; bcil
for 2 or S hours, dilute with 25 ports more of
water, filter, and precipitate with dilute hydro-
chloric add ; drain, and well wash the preditttate,
and dry it by a gentle heat. ResemUes sublimed
sulphur in its general properties, but is much
paler, and in a finer state of division.

2. (B. P.) Sublimed sulphur, 6 oc; slaked
lime, S oz. ; hydrochloric acid, 3 tL oi., or q. s. ;
distilled water, q. a Heat the sulphur and lime,
previously well mixed, in 1 pint of water, stirring
diligently with a wooden spatula, boil for IS
minutes, and filter. Boil the residue agwn in i
pint of water and filter. Let the united filtrates
cool, dilute with 2 pints of water, and in an open
place, or under a chimney, add in successive
quantities the hydrochloric acid previously ^uted
with 1 pint of water until effrarreacenoe ceases,
and the mixture acquires an acid reaction. Allow
the precipitate to settie, decant off the super-
natant liquid, pour on fiesh distilled water, asd
continue the purification by aflusion of distiDed
water and subsidence, nntu the fluid ceases to
have an acid reaction, and does not precipitate
with oxalate of ammonia. Collect the precipitated
sulphur on a calico filter, wash it once with i!a-
tilled water, and dry it at a temperature not ex-
ceeding 120° F.

Prop. A greyish-yellow powder free from

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1616

srittinen, uid with no smell of sulphuretted hy-
orog^en.

Obt. Many pharmacists regard Lac bttlfhtbis
and SmciFHUB pbjeoifitatuk as distinct snb-
stancea, and assume that by millc of sulphur is
intended a preparation made by an old pliarma-
-copoeial process, in which sulphuric acid being
■employed, the sulphur so precipitated contains
froni 60% to 76% of sulphate of lime. Pareira,
Royle, Attfleld, and some other authorities, hold
that IiAO eoveavsM and Suxphttb p&soititatuic
are aynonymooa; whilst others, including Professor
Redwood (one of the compilers of the B. P.), enter-
tain a contrary opinion.

Boix BUif Hint, Cavb a.. Stick 8. ; Scxfhttb

Iir BAOOTTLia, S. IK B0TUIJ8, S. BOTTrHDini:, L.
This is cmde sulphur, poiified by melting and
skimming it, and then ponring it into moulds.
That obtuned during the roasting of copper
"pyrites, and which forms the common roll sulphur
of England, frequently contains arsenic.

SUBLEKBS BtrrrHTTB, Fl«WBB8 0> BUXPEVB;
FlABBS BITLFEimiB, SUIiPHUB (Ph. L.), STTLFHTTB

evBLiKATTni (B. p.. Ph. E. & D.), L. Ptepared
by subUmingmilphur in iron vessels. Formedical
purposes it is ordered to be well washed with
water, and dried by a gentle heat. " A slightly
gritty powder, of a flne greenish-yellow colour,
without taste and without odoor till heated"
(B. P.).

Octahedral Sulphur. In this state it is often
found in nature in large transparent crystals,
which, however, are best obtained fVom a eolation
■of flowers of sulphur in carbon disulpUde, which
at the ordinary temperature dissolves about l-8rd
of its weight, and on slow evaporation deposits
octahedra.

SvLFHiTB vmnc. Black BrnPRini, Cbitdb e.,

HOBBB BBIXBTONB ; SVLPHVB XIOBVX, S. CABAL-

LIHCK, S. SBIBBITIC, L. This is cmde native
«alphnr: It is a grey or mouse-coloured powder.
The residuum in me subliming pots from the pre-
paration of flowers of sulphur is now commonly
substituted for it. It generally contains much
aneniCk and is consequently very poisonous.

Pmr. The sublimed sulphur of the shops is
now, in general, of respectable qoality, but the
precipitated sulphur frequently contains about
2-8rds of it* weight of sulphate of lime (plaster
of Paris), owing to the substitution of sulphuric
acid for hydiochlorie acid in its manuncture
(see Pbboifitatkd Sui.phitb, abott). This i«
readilydetected by strongly heating a littie of
the suspected sample in an iron spoon or shovel,
when the sulphur is burnt or volatilised, and
leaves behind the sulphate of lime as a white ash ;
this, when mixed with water and gentiy dried,
gives the amonnt of the adnltemtion. A still
simpler plan is to dissolve out the sulphnr in the
sample with a Uttie hot oil of turpentine; the
undissolvad portion U foreign matter.

JVm. Balphnr melts to a clear thin fluid at
116° C., uid in open vessels rapidly takes fire at
260° C, banting with a blmsb flame. It is easily
electrifled. It is insoluble in both water and
alcohol; it is soluble in oil of turpentine and the
fttfy oUs, and freely so in bisnlphide of carbon.
Abovt thirty diflbrent ciystallographic modiflea-
tions of siuphar are known to exist. With

oxygen it unites to form sulphurous anhydride,
and with the metals to form sulphides. Sp. gr,
1-982 to 2-015, according to its state.

Deteet. and JBttim. Sulphur is most easily
detected in a substance by mixing it with pure
sodinm carbonate, and fusing before the blowpipe
on a piece of sound charcoal ; the fused mass is
placed upon a bright silver coin and moistened
with water ; the smallest quantity of sulphur js
recognised by the formation of a brown or black
stain upon the bright surface. The proportion of
sulphur is best determined by oxidising a known
weight of the substance by strong nitric acid, or
by fusing it in a silver vessel with ten or twelve
times its weight of pure hydrate of potash and
about half as much nitre. The sulphur is Uins
converted into sulphuric add,- the quantity of
which can be determined by dissolving the fused
mass in water, acidulating the solution with nitric
acid, adding barium chloride, and weighing the
resulting sulphate. See OBSAinc Subbtakcbb.

Diet, (fo. Sulphur is extensively used in the
manufacture of gunpowder, in bleaching, sul-
phuric add, Ac When swallowed, it acts as a
mild laxative and stimulating diaphoretic; and
has hence been long taken in various chronic
skin diseases, in pulmonary, rheumatic, and gouty
affections, and as a mild purgative in piles, pro-
lapsus ani, &c. Kxtemally, it is extensively used
in skin diseases, especially the itch, for which it
appears to be a specific. — Doee, 20 to 63 gr., hi
sugar, honey, treacle, or milk.

Obe. Sulphur is now extensively recovered
from alkali waste, which contains large quantities
of calcium sulphide. Various processes have been
proposed, but one of them, the ' Chance process,'
is the most important, as it promises to prolong
the struggle between the 'Leblanc' and 'am-
monia soda' manufacturers of alkali till such
time as the chlorine shall be recovered in the latter.
Chance's sulphur-recovery process consists in
pumping carbonic acid gas through the 'vat
waste;' this causes sulphuretted hydrogen to be
given off, which is subsequently used either for
making sulphnrie acid or sulphur. In the latter
case the solphnretted hydrogen is mixed with a
carefully regulated supply of air and passed
through a kUn containing some porous material,
when the hydrogen only is burnt, and the sulphur
is deposited in condensing chambers.

The theory of the operation is illustrated by the
following ibrmulss :

CaS + H,0 + CO, = CaCO, + H,S.

CaS + H^=Ca(HSV

Ca(HS), + COj + H,0 = CaCO, + 2H,S.

H,S + 0-H,0 + S.
Sulphur, CUo"rides of. Three of these com-
pounds exist. 1. HoNOOHLOBtDE. SgCIg^ I'rep.
By passing dry chlorine gas over the surface of
sidphar melted in a bulled tube or small retort
eonaeeted with a well-cooled receiver. The pro-
duct is a deep oiange-yellow and very mobile
liquid, which possesses a disagreeable odour, and
boils at 138° C. ; sp. gr. 1-7066. It is soluble in
bisulphide of carbon, and in bensol, without de-
composing. It dissolves sulphnr in large quan-
tities at the ordinary temperature. This property
has been largely used for the purpose of vul-
canising caoutchouc.

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1616

SULPBURATION— SULPHUBETTBD HTDBOOEN

8. SVLPHTTB DiCHLOSIDB. SCI,. iV«p. By
pMUDg chlorine gu into the monomlphide at s
u>w temperatare, and then removing the ezceu of
CI with dry COj. A brown liquid.

8. SUUHUB TSTSACHLORISB. SCI4. Prtf.

By saturating the dichloride with chlorine gas at
28° C. A light, mobile, yellowish-brown liquid.
Svlphnr, I'odide of. 8,1,. Sgn. BnciosiOB

OV SVIiPHUSS SULPHTTBia lOSIDVIC (Ph. L.),
SVLPHVS lODATUM (Ph. D.), L. Prap. Into a
glass flask put 1 part of sublimed sulphur, and
over it place 4 parts of iodine; insert the cork
loosely, and place the flask in a water-bath ; as
soon as its contents melt, stir them with a glass
rod, replace the cork, remove the bath from the
fire, and let the whole cool together. When cold,
break the iodide into pieces, and place it in a
wide-mouthed stoppered bottle. Bnutiful semi-
crystalline, dark grey mass, resembling native
suphide of antimony.

JJtet, Sfo. It is stimulant and alterative. An
ointment made of it has been recommended by
Biett and others in tuberculous affections of the
skin, in lepra, psoriasis, lupus, prurigo, &C.

Iodide of sulphur stains the skin like iodine,
and is readily decomposed by contact with
organic substances.

SULPEUBA'TIOB'. The process by which
silk, cotton, and woollen goods, straw plait, &c.,
are subjected to the fumes of burning sulphur, or
sulphurous acid, for the purpose of bleaching or
decolourising them. On the large scale this is
effected in closed apartments, called ' sulphuring
rooms,' to which sufficient air only is admitted to
keep up the slow combustion of the sulphur. On
the small scale, as for straw hats, bonnets, &c.,
a large wooden chest is frequently employed in
the same way.

8UL'PUU££T. 8gn. Sitifhidb; Suxphv-
XBTTTX, SuiiPHilDtrit, L. See Sui-phisb.

SUL'PHTTBETTSD ET'SBOaEK. H,S. 8if».
Htdboobn bulfhidb, Dietdbio bulfhisb,

HTSBIO glTLPEIDE, HTSBOBUU BUBIO AOIS,

Sulphuretted hjdrogen occurs in nature amongst
the gaseous products given off by volcanoes, as
well as in many mineral waters, amongst which
may be instanced those of Harrogate, in England,
of Moffitt, in Scotland, and of Bareges, Eanz
Bonnes, St Sauveur, &c., in the Pyrenees. It is
also evolved from decaying animal matter con-
taining albumen, such as white of egg, as well as
from putrefying animal and vegetable substances
when in contact with a soluble sulphate, and is
always one of the gases present in the air of
dnuns and sewers.

Pirep. 1. Sulphuretted hydrogen may be pro-
cared by the direct union of hydrogen and sul-
phur, as by passing hydrogen into boiling sulphur.
But this method of procuring it is rarely adopted.

2. The much readier process of acting upon a
metallic sulphide by an acid constitutes the means
by which the chemist almost invariably obtains
this g^.

About an ounce of ferrous sulphide, previously
reduced to small pieces, is placed in a bottle, and
then there is poured on to it a fluid ounce of sul-
phuric acid diluted with 8 times its bulk of
water, when the following reaction ensues : —
PeS + H,S04= H,S + FeSOv

The foUowing sketch shows a convenient fans
of apparatus.

The cooled diluted acid is poured throo^b the
thistle funnel upon the ferrous sulphide, and the
evolved gas passing through the small Intemie-
diate wash-bottle into the bottle at the loado's
right hand, is absorbed by the water therciit con-
tained, the operation bemg continued until the
water has become saturated with the gaa. The
glass tubes are connected with vnlcaniaed India
rubber, as shown in the above engr. DUnted
hydrodiloric add is frequently snbiriatated for
suli^uric In this process, tiie gas obtained,
owmg to the contamination of the iron aniphide,
is more or less impure.

8. When sulphuretted hydrogen ia reqoind in
a state of purity, 1 ox. of antimonions aniphide
must be employed instead of the iron sulphide,
and instead of sulphuric 8 or 4 parts of hydro-
chloric add. As heat must be apjdied to the
mixture, it will be necessary to substitote a ttaak
for the larger bottle, and to support it on a retort
stand. In other respects the apparatus needs no
alteration.

4. Sulphuretted hydrogen is also obtunable
when paraffin is heated at a moderately elevated
temperature with sulphur, the reaction being
attended with an abundant evolution of the gas,
and a simultaneous separation of carbon.

Ob$.^ The solution of sulphuretted hydrogen,
which is so indispensable to tiie ehemist, abd con-
sequently in such constant requisition in the
laboratory, unfortunately very quickly decom-
poses into water and sulphur, which depoaita at
the bottom of the vessel containing it. To dimin-
ish as much as possible the tendency to deterio-
ration, the solution should be made dther with
boiled water, or with the clear spoilt solution.

When a constant supply of sulphuretted hy-
drogen gas is required it is best to use a Kipp's
apparatus, such as is shown in the accompanying-
engr. The two globes b and d are connected by
a narrow neck, whilst the tubulus of thff third
globe < passes sir-tight through the neck of &
nearly to the bottom of d.

The middle globe b contains lumps of sulphide
of iron, and dilnte sulphuric add is poured
through the bent thistie funnel until the lowest
globe d is filled, and a portion of the add has
oome in contact with the sulphide. The gas
passes off at « through the waah-bottle to the
right of the figure. When it is desired to stop
the current of gas the stopcock is closed, and the
gas accumulating in b forces the add in d up the
tubulus into the upper globe.

Qiutlitia*, i-c. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a
colourless indammable gas, somewhat heavier
than air, its sp. gr. being 1-174. It possesses a
sweet taste, and an odour like that of rotten

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8ULPHUBETTED HTDEOGEN

1617

«erg;*> When ignited, it bums with a bloiih
flame, to water and solphorons anhydride if the'

combnstiou take place in a gofficient qnantity of
air, but if the supply of air be too limited, sol-
phnr is deposited. Under a pressure of 17 atrno*
spheres it is condensed to a colourless and very
mobile fluid, which Unls at —61*8° C, and freezes
at — 85° C. to a transparent solid. Both the gag
and its aqneons solution exercise a feebly acid
reaction on litmus.

Sulphuretted hydrogen is highly poisonous ;
when inhaled in any qnantity it causes fainting ;
and in smaller quantities, even when considerably
diluted by air, if breathed for any length of time,
it acts as a dangerong depressant and insidious
poison. Upon the lower animals it acts with
fatal rapidity, even if diluted with 800 or 1000
parts of atmospheric air. Transmitted through
tubes heated to redness, sulphuretted hydrogen
becomes partially decomposed into its elements,
hydrogen and sulphur. Water at 32° F. takes up
4-37 times its bulk of this gas, and at 60°, 8-23
times its bulk ; hence the importance of collecting
it over warm water if required in the gaseous
form.

In the presence of moisture, sulphurous anhy-
dride and sulphuretted hydrogen, if equivalent
quantities of each react upon each other, become
decomposed into sulphur, water, and pentathionic
acid; hence the value of snlphurons acid as a
disinfectant. The deposited snlphnr is found
always to occur in the electio-positive condition.
Chlorine, bromine, and iodine also decompose
gnlphnretted hydrogen with deposition of sulphur,
and formation of hydrochloric, hydrobromic, and
hydriodic adds. Sulphuretted hydrogen turns
Sliver black, hence egg-spoons are gil&d to pre-
vent them heing tarnished.

Sfdrotulphatet or Sulphidei. Sulphuretted
hydrogen or hydrosulphuric acid, as it is some-
times called, when brought into contact with bases
in solution, gives rise to compounds, which by
some chemists are regarded as hydrosnlphates or
roij. n.

combinations of the base with hydrosulphuric
acid ; and by othen as sulphides or combinations
of the met^ with sulphur, the latter reaction
being attended with the elimination of water, as
when a base is acted upon by hydrochloric acid.
By those who hold the former view the reaction
would be as follows :

K,0 + H^-K,O.H^.

In the latter case it would be thus represented :
K,0 + H^=K^ + HjO.

The latter is the more general opinion, and it
receives support from the fact that when sul-
phuretted hydrogen is passed into the solution of a
metallic salt, an insoluble precipitate of a sulphide
of the metal is thrown down. Thug, when the
gas is passed into a solution of cnpric sulphate,
the precipitate consists of hydrated cupric sul-
phide; ths liberated sulphuric acid renders the
liquid, which was before neutral, acid. The larger
number of sulphides so formed, combining with
water at the instants of their precipitation, occur
as hydrates.

There is also a class of sulphides known as
hydrosulphides, snlphydrates, or double sulphides,
in which an equivalent of the metal is replaced
by an equivalent of hydrogen. Examples of these
are the potassic hydroenlphide (KHS), sodie
hydrosnlphide (NaHS), and ammonic hydroenl-
phide (H^XHS). No such combinations occur
with hydrogen and the metals of the earth proper,
and of the iron group.

Tuti. Many of the hydrosnlphates or sal-
phideg may be detected by dropping on them
some hydrochloric acid, when the cbaracterigtic
gmell of sulphuretted hydrogen will be imme-
diately evolved from them. Very gmall quantities
of a sulphide may be detected as follows : — Place
the suspected sulphide in a small test-tube, on the
upper part of which is inserted a piece of blotting-
paper moistened with asolntion of plumbic acetate;
then carefully pour some hydrochloric acid on to
the substance, when, if it be a sulphide, the paper
will become browned or blackened.

Many small quantities of the solnble sulphides
are revealed in neutral or alkaline solutions by
the rich purple colour which they form on the
addition of a solution of sodic nitro-pmsside.
Most of them, when heated before the blowpipe,
give off the smeU of sulphurous acid.

The qnantitative determination of free sol-
phurettal hydrogen, or of a soluble sulphide in
any solution is conducted as follows : — The liquid
to be tested is mixed with a small quantity of a
cold solution of starch, made slightly acid with
acetic acid. A solution of iodine of known
strength, dissolved in potassium iodide, is then
adde^ until the Uqnidjust begins to turn blue from
the action of the excess of iodine on the starch.
In this process the snlphnretted hydrogen con-
verts the iodine into hydriodic acid, whilst sulphur
is liberated.

Of course the qnantity of sulphuretted hydro-
gen is calculated from the qnantity of iodine
employed. The reaction is —

2H^ + 2I,=4HI-hS^

The value of sulphuretted hydrogen as a re-
agent has already been alluded to. It throws
down most of the metals from solutions of their
salts in the form of insoluble sniphides, the

loa

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SULPHURIC ACID

Bulphidea so prodaced in many cases being dis-
tingnished from the others by a characteristic
colour. The snlphnretted hydrogen thus presents
the metal in a form in which it can, in many
instances, be easily and with certainty recog-
nised. Thus snlphide of lead is black, <^ arsenic
yellow, of antimony orange, of manganese salmon
colonr, and of zinc white.

By means of snlphnretted hydrogen, also, the
chemist is enabled to separate the metals into
groups. For instance, from solntions containing
-certun metallic salts, sulphuretted hydrogen
throws down the metals as sulphides, provided
the solntion has been previously made slightly
add. Copper, arsenic, tin, and cadmium are
some of we metals thrown down nnder these
conditions.

The salts of iron, nickel, cobalt, and certain
others, although they do not yield preeipitates
nader like circumstuices, are found to do so if
their solutions are made alkaline instead of acid.
Again, there are other salts, those of the alkalies
and alkaline earths, which, when sulphuretted
hydrogen is passed through their solutions, give
no precipitates either in acid or alkaline solutions.
The chemist, therefore, in the course of an analy-
sis, frequently avails himself of a knowledge of
these facts to separate certain metals from each
other.

Hydrogen, Fertidpliide of. ^. Htdbio

FEBSITLFHIDE, HtSBOOSN DIBCLPHIBE. Pnp.

One part slaked lime, 2 parts flowers of sulphur,
and 16 parts of water are boiled together, and
the clear cold solution decanted into some dilute
hydrochloric acid; the persulphide subsides at
the bottom as an oily fluid. Hydric persulphide
has a great resemblance to hydric peroxide in
qualities. It bleaches organic matters, and is
decomposed with violence when brought into
contact with the oxides of manganese and silver.
It easily decomposes into sulphur and sulphuretted
hydrogen ; its vapour attacks the eyes.

SmiPHU'BIC ACID. H,804. Si/n. On at

TITXIOL, BaiTIBH O. OF T., VlIBIOUO AdDf:

Acisirx siTLFEtrBiovii (B. P., Ph. L. & E.),

AoiDlrX SmbPHTTBIOITK TBHALB (Ph. D.), AdDTTK
TITBIoiJOUirf, L. This acid, in a concentrated
form, was discovered by Basil Valentine towards
the end of the 16th century. At first it was ob-
tained by the distillation of green vitriol, but is
now made from sulphurous anhydride, obtained
by the combustion either of sulphnr or of certain
sulphides. In consequence of the growing demand
for snlphnr in the manufacture of gunpowder,
nltrsmarine, and for the destruction of the vine
paramtes in the vineyards of France, Italy, and
Spain, sulphuric acid is now seldom made by
burning sulphur, but, with few excepti(xis, by
roasting iron pyrites or bisulphide of iron.

Since 1746, when Dr Boebuck proposed the use
of leaden cluunbers, the production of sulphuric
add has been steadily increasing, until at the
present time upwards of 100,000 tons are annually
consumed in Great Britain, and a very large
quantity is exported. The price is now about
l)d. per lb., whereas the original oil of sulphur
prepared by Valentine cost 2s. 6d. per lb.

Of the other sulphides employed in vitriol
making may be mentioned galena, or native sul-

phide of lead, which, when roasted, g:iveB up half
its sulphur. The chief consumption of this mineral
is in the Harz. Copper pyrites is also naed in the
Harz, as well as in Swansea and Glasgow. Blende.
or native sulphide of zinc, is also occaalonsJly had
recourse to.

In addition to the above snlpbides the vitriol
maker in England, France, and Germany has
lately largely availed himself of a compound known
as 'Laming's mixture,' which is an impure oxide
of iron that has been used in purifying oosU-gas
from sulphur. Laming's mixture is conseqnently
rich in this element.

Associated with the pyrites in small quantities
are various substances, some of which, becoming
volatilised when the ore is burnt, enter the cham-
bers with the mixed gases, and thns find their
entrance into the acid, whilst others remain behind
in the iron residue of impure ferric oxide left on
the hearth of the furnace after roasting. The
former of these foreign bodies, which are foand
in most commercial acids, are described below
under the section 'Purification.' Amongst the
solid non- volatile matters, the extraction of which
from the burnt iron has been found in many
works to yield a profit, are zinc, copper, silver,
and thallium.

At Wolcrum, in Germany, the sine which
exists in the residue in the form of sulphate is
extracted by lixiviation, and then treated with
common salt, the reaction giving rise to the pro-
duction of sulphate of soda and chloride of zinc.
The soda obtained is sufficient to pay for the
working of the operation, whilst a good profit is
made by the sale of the large quantities of chloride
of zinc which are thus yielded (" Development of
the Chemical Arte during the Last Ten Tears,"
by Dr A. W. Hofman— ' Chemical News,' -nA. ixv,
1879).

The copper, which in some residues is met with
to the amount of 4% , also pays for extraction,
and is sold to the smelter. It is first converted
into chloride, and then precipitated by iron. The
ulver is recovered by Claudef s process, which
consists in precipitating it from a saline soId-
tion, in which it is in the state of a soluble chloride,
by iodide of potassium.

In the Widnes Copper Woifa the silver so
extracted yields an annual profit of £8000 (Am^-).

Thallium is found in the fine dust caused 1^
the combustion of the pyrites, which dust depoeiti
in the fines between the f urTiace and the cham-
bers. The metal is extracted from the dost by
treating this latter with dilute sulphnric acid.
The resulting sulphate is converted into chloride,
and again reconverted alternately into sulphate
and chloride several times, the sulphate last ob-
tained bdng reduced by metallic zinc (Aid.).

Selenium is also a frequent oonstitaeut m the
fine dust. Some ores, after bdng snbjeeted to
roasting, yield iron capable of bdng worked.
This is more particularly the ease witii the Spanish
and Portuguese pyrites.

Prep. The following is an outline o( the pro-
cess by which sulphuric add n obtained, and of
the chemical changes which occur during its
mannfacture:

The sulphur or sulphide bdng pbeed on the
hearth of the furnace, shown at A in tiie accom-

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161»

panying »ngr. (gee p. 1620), when heated from
below, Boou takes fire, and combining^ with the
oxygen of the atmospheric air, the admisdon of
whicli into the fnmace is regulated by an experi-
enced workman, by the door shown in the plate,
forms salphnrODS anhydride. An iron pot, stand-
ing on the hearth of the fnmace, contains a mix-
ture of nitrate of soda and oil of vitriol, and this
becoming heated by the burning snlphur, decom-
position of the salt ensnes, and fames of nitric
acid are given off. The snlphorous anhydride and
nitric add gases thus formed together with air
are carried into large leaden chambers, standing
on, and supported by, massive frameworks of stoat
timber. Steam is aunitted continuously by several
jets (see mgr^ into these chambers, whidi are
covered at the bottom with water to a depth of
about 2 inches.

As soon as the mixed gases enter the chamber
and come into contact with the steam, the snl-
phnroas anhydride acts on the nitario acid,
forming sulphuric acid, which falls into and is
absorbed by the water on the floor of the cham-
ber ; and nitric oxide, which u liberated in the
chamber.

The following equation will illustrate the re-
action:

2HN0, -I- SSq, + 2H,0 = SH^^ -i- 2N0.

170 parts by weight of nitrate of soda are re-
quired to oxidise to sulphuric acid 96 parts of
snlphur, whereas rarely more, and frequentiy less
than 6 parts of soda are required \n the vitriol
maker. This saving of material is effected by the
function performed in the chamber by the nitric
oxide resulting from the decomposition of the
nitric acid.

The nitric oxide reacting upon the air in the
chamber abstracts oxygen from it and becomes
converted into nitric peroxide, thus :
2NO + 0,=2NO^

Nitric peroxide is a very unstable compoaud,
and directly it comes into contact with the fresh
sulphuroas anhydride entering the chamber, it
oxidises it in the presence of water to snlphnric
acid, thus :

NO, + SO, + H^ = E^SO< + NO.

This d^>ortment of the nitric oxide being con-
tinuous, it will be seen it acts the part of a carrier
of oxygen from the atmospheric air contained in
the chamber to the snlphnroos add, and by so
doing (theoretically) renders any further supply
of nitrate of soda than that required to start the
process unnecessary.

As soon as the sulphuric acid on the floor of
the leaden chambers has aoquired the sp.gr. of
1-6, and contains 70^ H,S04, it is drawn off, and
concentrated by boiling in shallow leaden pans to
the density of about 1-72, and contains about 80%
HjSOt, after which it is further concentrated in
green glass or platinum retorts until the sp. gr.
reaches 1-84, and contains about 98% ^SO^.
When of sp. gr. from 1-85 to 1-60 it is called
chamber acid, and is used in the manufacture of
salt-cake, sulj^hato of ammonia, some kinds of
nutnnre, and nitric add. Sulphuric add of sp. gr.
1'72 is mostiy employed in the preparation of
snperphosphato of lime. After ooncentraticm to
1*84, the clear add is put into large globular
bottles of green glass (carboys), surrounded with

straw and basket-work, and is sent into the market
under the name of 'oil of vitriol.'

The leaden chambers in which the chemical
changes take place, that result in the formation
of the add, vary greatiy in dimensions in different
works, being Bometimes as much as 12 or 16 feet
high, 16 or 20 wide, and from 150 to 800 feet
long. They are mostiy partially divided, by in-
complete leaden partitions, known as curtains, so
arranged on the roof and the floor as to cause the
currents of mixed gases to come into collidon,
and bring about their admixture. Where there
are a number of small separate chambers they are
connected by means of leaden tubes. A chamber
having a capacity of 26,000 cubic feet will yield
10 tons of add weekly.

The sheets of lead used in the construction of the
chambers are united by the melting together of
their edges. If cement were used, it would be
speedily attacked and destroyed by the acid and
gaseous products.

In 1746 the first vitriol factoiyin Great Britain
was set up at Biriningham by Dr Roebuck, with
whom originated the idea of the leaden chambers.

The continuous process for the manufacture of
sulphuric add above described was devised in
1774 by a calico printer of Rouen, and improved
by Chaptal.

yariona attempts have been at different times
unsuccessfully made to supersede the old process.
Of these we may mention —

1. The proposal to oxidise sulpharons add by
means of chlorine in the presence of steam.

2. Fersoz's method to oxidise sulphurous acid
by means of nitric add, and to regenerate the
mtric oxide resulting from the reduction of the
add by the oxygen of the air in the presence of
steam.

3. a, by the deoompodtion of gypsum by super-
heated steam at a red heat; or h, by decomposing
the gypsum by chloride of lead.

The &ilure of the above and other efforts has
led to the chemist turning his attention to the
elaboration and perfection of the old process, in
the working of which considerable improvements
have been introdaced within the last ten or fifteen
years ; improvements resulting not only in a di>
minished cost of production, but in the mann-
facture of a purer, and therefore better acid.

The proper construc-
tion of the furnaces,
ovens, and grates on
which the firing of the
snlphur or pyrites takes
place, together with
the flues, is an im-
portant condition in
the manufacture of
the acid; and to this
end a great deal of
sdentiflc knowledge
and experience hare
lately been applied
with excellent effect.

J

Of the man^ improve-
ments in this direction
for bnming poor ores
of pyrites is a con-
trivance much used in Oermany, where the furnace

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SULPHURIC ACID

on which it ia carried ont is known as Oer«ten>
hater's oven. It is shown in the preceding
drawing.

The fnmace is fitted inside with a nnmber of
little fire-clay projections, arranged as shown in
the plate, in banks or terraces, the function of
which is to prolong the exposure of the pyrites
to heat. The furnace having been preyioosly
rused to a red heat, by means of a coal or wood
fire (which is then extinguished), the pyrites are
admitted into it through the hoppers (a). At
the base of the hoppers are grooved iron rollers,
which crush the lumps of ore as they enter the
chambers, and by thus reducing their size, expose
a larger amonnt of surface to the action of heat.
The greaXei part of the sulphur of the pyrites ia
thus burnt off, as the lumps pass from terrace to
terrace, the heat at the same time generated by
their combustion being sufBcient to keep np that
of the furnace. A moderate blast of air is ad-
mitted at e, whilst the snlphurons acid formed
ascends through d into the leaden chambers, the
si>ent pyrites falling out through the apertures
at 0.

Another improved furnace is Ferret's, which is
largely used in France. In this small lumps of
pyrites are placed on horizontal plates, and ex-
posed to the hot gases generated in kilns below.
The gases, on their way to the chambers, sweep
over the pyrites and rob them of their sulphur.

The most important and noticeable improve-

ment, however, of late years in nilphiirie add
mannfacture is the addihon to the plant ot the
Gay-Lussac and Glover towers. Previoos to thia
invention, the sulphuric acid of commeroe,
amongst other impurities, always contained ap-
preciable quantities of certain oxides of mtrogfen.
the results of which were not only the oontemioi^
tion of the acid, but a waste of snbstsncea irlucfa,
properly ntilised, are essential for the con-rna-aiou
of the sulphurous and sulphuric acid, and tlie loaa
of which leads to an increased oonsnmption of
nitrate of soda. Under the old method, these
valuable oxides of nitrogen, which, with s laiK^
amount of nitrogen and a small quanta^ at
oxygen, constituted the spent air of the laat
leaden chamber, were carried off into the air, and
consequently lost. Now, instead of bein^ allowed
to diffuse into the atmosphere, they are made to
pass through a tower or chamber (shown at c)
filled with coke, throngh which a thin streain at
sulphuric acid is made to trickle. In itrns'rg'
through the coke, therefore, the exjnring spent
gases come into contact with the sulphuric acid,
to which they give np their oxides of nitrogen.
From the tower (o) the acid flows into a cistern
(d), whence it is pumped np to the top of another
tower (e), called a Qlover's tower, which is atber
filled with broken flints or arranged with indined
shelves, as shown in the plate. In this tower the
acid meets with a current of hot snlphurooa acid
and air coming up from the furnace, which de-

T^ ^ i\ ^-fr^rT~^^r^

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1681

prive it of the ozidea of nitrogieii, and the gamoiu
mixture enters the chunben, whilst the deni-
trified add flows aS into a suitable reserroir.

Since the intiodaction of the above, the con-
sumption of nitrate of soda is sometimes lessened
hj more than one half.

^ Another Tery recent improvement, the inven-
tion of a German chemist named Sprengel, is the
snbstitntion of water spray, blown in by steam,
for steam jets, in the leaden chomben. By this
method a saving of coal to the extent of one third
is said to be effected.

In theory, 1 molecole of solphnr requires only
8 molecules of oxygen to convwt it into sulphuric
add, viz. 2 to form sulphurous anhydride, and 1
to convert the latter into sulphuric anhydride,
which combines with 1 molecule of water to form
the add. Thus 1 kilogram of sulphur requires
1600 grms. or 1055 litres of oxygen, which is
•qnivaloit to 6276 litres of air containing 4820
litres of nitrogen; when pyrites is used a far
larger quantity of air is required, for the obvious
reason that the pyrites becomes converted into
ferric peroxide. One kilogram of pyrites
requires for its combustion nearly 6600 litres
of air.

In well-regulated works the spent and escaping
gases should not contain more than 2% at oxygen.
If from 100 kilograms of sulphur 806 kilograms
of strong acid of sp. gr. 1*84 be obtained, the re-
sult is regarded as very satisfactory; more fre-
quently the prodoct from 100 kilograms of sulphur
does not exceed 280 or 290 kilograms.

Pwrif, Commercial sulphuric acid frequently
contains nitrons add and other oxide* of nitro-
gen, arsenic, lead, and saline matter. The nitrous
add may be removed by adding a little sulphato
of ammonia, and heating the acid to ebullition
for a few minutes. Both nitric and nitrous acid
are thus entirely decomposed into water and
nitrogen gas. The arsenic may be get rid of by
adding a little sulphide of barium to the acid,
agitating the mixture well, and, after repose, de-
canting and distilling it. Lead, which exists as
snlpbate, may be separated as a white precipitate
by simply diluting the acid with water. Saline
matter may be removed by simple rectification.
A good way of pnri^^ing oil of vitriol is to heat
it nearly to the boiling-point, and pass a current
of hydrochloric add tiirough it; the arsenic is
thus carried over as the volatile chloride of arsenic,
while the nitrons .and nitric acids are expelled
almost completely. To obtain a perfectW pure
add it should be distilled after the removal of the
Bitroas acid and arsenic by the methods indicated
above. The distillation is most conveniently con-
ducted, m the smaU scale, in a glass retort con-
taining a few platinum chips, and heated by a
sand-bath or gas flame, rejecting the first i fi. oa.
that comes over.

According to Dr Ure the capadty of the retort
shonld be from four to eight timea as great as the
Tolnme of the add, and connected with a large
tabular receiver by a loosely fitting glass tnbe, 4
feet long and 1 to 2 inches in diameter.

The recdver should not be surrounded with
cold water. We find that tragmente of glass, or
of rock crystals, may be advantageously substi-
tuted for platinum-foil, to lessen the explodve

violmee of the ebullition ; and it is better to heat
the retort at the sides rather than at the bottom.
Sulphuric add which has become brown by ex<
posure may be decolourised by heating it gently,
the carbon of the organic substances being thus
converted into carbonic add.

The following teble exhibits the sp. gr. of
different degrees of concentration of sulphurio
add. In consequence of the discovery of errors
in Kolb's teble (the one usually resorted to), Q.
Lurge and M. Isler have made a fresh determi*
nation with great care {mi* ' Zdu ang. Chem.,'
1890, 129—186; and 'C^Mm. Soc. Jonm.,' 1891,
vol. Ix, p. 150).

8p. gt.it Fercentace

Sp. p- >t
14: in v.™.

Percentsgs
of

1000

. . 0-09

1-600 .

. 68-61

1020

. . 8-08

1-620 .

. 70-88

1-040

. . 6-96

1-640 .

. 71-99

1060

. . 8-77

1-660 .

. 78-64

1-080

. . 11-60

1-680 .

. 75-42

1-100

. . 14-86

1-700 .

. 77-17

1120

. . 17-01

1-720 .

. 78-92

1140

. . 19-61

1-740 .

. 80«8

1-160

. . 22-19

1-760 .

. 82-44

1-180

. . 24-76

1-780 .

. 84-60

1-200

. . 27-82

1-800 .

. 86-90

1-220

. . 89-84

1-820 .

. 90-05

1-240

. . 82-28

1-824 .

. 90-80

1-260

. . 84-67

1-826 .

. 91-26

1-280

. . 86-87

1-828 .

. 91-70

1-800

. . 89-19

1-880 .

. 92-10

1-820

. . 41-60

1-882 .

. 92-52

1-340

. . 48-74

1-834 .

. 93-06

1-860

. . 46-88

1-836 .

. 93-80

1-880

. . 48-00

1-888 .

. 94-60

1-400

. . 60-11

1-840 .

. 95-60

1-420

. . 62-15

1-8406 .

. 96-96

1-440

. . 64K)7

1-8410 .

. 97-00

1-460

. . 66-97

1-8416 .

. 97-70

1-480

. . 67-88

1-8410 .

. 98-80

1-600

. , 69-70

1-8406 .

. 98-70

1-520

. . 61-69

1-8400 -.

. 99-20

1-640

. . 68-48

1-8395 .

. 99-46

1-560

. . 66-08

1-8390 .

. 99-70

1-680

. . 66-71

1-8386 .

. 99-95

Prop.

Commerdal su

Iphuric add (oil of vit<

riol) is a

colourless, oily

•looking, odourless, and

highly corrosive liquid, the general properties of
wUch are well known. Its sp. gr. at 60° should
never be greater than 1-848, or lees than 1'840.
The add purified by distillation contains about
2% of water. It is immediately coloured by
contact with organic matter. It attracts water
so rapidly from the atmosphere when freely ex-
posed to it, as to absorb 1-Srd of ite wdght m 24
houre, and 6 time* ite weight in a few months.
When a volumes are suddenly mixed with 2 of
water, the temperature of the mixture rises more,
than 180° F. Its freezing-point appears to be
about 60^bdow that of water (Miller and Odling
give that of the rectified add as — 30° F. ; Ap-
John and Abel and Bloxam, —29° F.). It boUs at
888° C. (640° F.) ; solidifies at 34° C.

It rapidly corrodes the skin and other organio
textures, usually blacking them at the same time.
It dissolves melted sulphur, converting it into

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1628

SULPHURIC ACID

anlphnr dioxide. All the ordinuy metals except

' gold and platinum are acted npon by the acid;
the metal being oxidiied by one portion of the
acid, which is thos converted into SO, and this
reacts with another part of the acid to form a
snlphate.

j^ir. Free from colour and odoor. Sp. gr.
1-864 at 0° C, and 1-884 at 84° C. (Bo*eoe).
" 100 gr. are saturated by 285 gr. of crystallised
carbonate of soda" (Ph. L.). "VHiat remains

' after the acid is distilled to diynesa does not
exceed l-400th part of iU weight. Dilated sal-

, phnric acid is not discoloured by salphnretted
hydrogen" (Ph. L. 1886). "Diluted with its
own volume of water, only a scanty muddiness
arises, and no orange fumes escape. Sp. gr.
1-840" (Ph. E.). "The rectified acid (aoxbvx
atTLPHUBioux pusrM — Ph. ES. and D.) is colour-
less; dilution causes no muddiness; solution of
snlphate of iron shows no reddening at the line
of contivct when poured over it. Sp. gr. 1*846 "
(Ph. E.; 1-846— Ph. D.; 1-848— B. P.; l-84a—
Ure). .

XTte*, (fo. The uses of sulphuric acid are so nu-
merous tiiai it would be impossible to mention all
of them, sulphuric acid bring to chemical what iron
is to mechanical industry. Sulphuric acid is
employed iu preparing a great many other acids
— among them, nitric, hydrochloric, sulphurous,
carbonic, tarianc, citric, phospliorio, stearic, oleic,
and palmitic. It is used in making superphos-
phates, sods, sulphate of ammonia, alum, sul-
phates of copper and iron, in paraffin and petro-
leum refining, silver refining, manufacture of
madder preparations, manuuctnre of glucose
from starch, to dissolve indigo, in ihe manufacture
of blacking, vegetable parchment^ and on account
of its hygroscopic properties for this purpose of
drying gases, &c. In the diluted state it is used
in medicine. When swallowed, it acts as a vio-
lent corrosive poison. The antidotes are chalk,
whiting, magnesia, carbonate of soda, or car-
bonate of potash, mixed with water or any bland
diluent, and taken freely, an emetic being also
administered.

Te*t*^ The addition of barium cMoride solu-
tion to a liquid contuning sulphuric acid or a
snlphate throws down a heavy whitia precipitate
of barium sulphate, insoluble in dilute hydro-

. chloric acid. Free sulphnrie acid may be detected
is a liquid c of vinegar by evaporating it on a
water-bath with a small quantity of sugar, when

' if present a black residue will be obtained.

' Bitim. The strength of sulphuric acid ia moat
correctly ascertained by its power of saturating
bases. In commerce it is usually determined

- from its sp. gr. The quantity of sulphuric acid
present in a compound may be determined by
weighing it under the form of sulphate. Bee

- ACISnCBTBT.

Conelmding Semarkt, According to most of

our standard works on chemistry, British oil

of vitriol, when purified and brought to its

' maximum strength by distillation, is a definite

chemical compound, having the formula HjSO^,

and designated normal sulphuric add by O&ng.

' Marignac, however, asserts that the distilled acid

' always containa an exceae of water, and that the

' true monohydrate can only be obtained by sub-

mitting fuming sulphuric aod (' NordfaanacB
8. «.') to oongelirtion. Aocotding to this i hfianist,
the true mondiydrate readily freexes isi oold
weather, and remains solid np to 61** F. Sererml
other definite hydrates of sulphuric acid axe now
generally recognised by chemists, of wliidi we
may notice bihydrated sulfuric acid ('glacia]
s. a.*), having a sp. gr. of 1-78, freexiiig sit mboat
40^ F. (4fr—Xilltr), and boiling at about 4SS° F.
{Ajgohns 401°to410°— OtUta;); and terhydisted
sulphuric add, having a sp. gr. of 1-682, and tiie
boiling-point 849* F. See also SviiFHintlO AciD,
NOBDHAUBEH (ie2dw).
Mphulc Add. Al'othoUaad. Am. Acxsox

gVLFBUBIOUK AIiCOHOUBiLinr, L. ; Ka.17 TM
BASIL, Fr. Prtp. (P. Cod.) To rectified spirit,
3 parts, add, very (pradnally, sulphuric acsd, 1
part. It is generally coloured by letting it stuid
over a Uttie oochineaL Refrigeiant, and, exter-
nally, escharotic. — JDosa, i fl. £. to water, 1 pint ;
as a cooling drink in fevers, &c.
Bnlpharie Add. Anh/dTOUs. SO^ 4rs. Bav-

PHVSIO arEYsaxD*, Dbt BTTLPHUBIC AOXD;
AOISnX lULPHTTBICUlC BIVB AQTTA, L. Prf. I.

By heating Nordhauaen add to about 100^ F.
in a glass retort connected with a weU-cooIed
lecdver.

2. By paadng a mixture of sulphur dioxide and
oxygwk overheated platinum-sponge or platunaed
asbestos.

8. {BarrMmU,) 8 purts of the stnmgcst oil
of vitriol vn gradually added to 8 parts of anhy-
drous phosphraio add, contained in a retort sur-
rounded by a freexing mixture ; when the com-
pound has assumed a brown colour the retort is
removed from the bath, and connected with a
receiver which ia set there in its place ; • gentle
heat is now applied to it, when white vapours piss
over into the recdver, and condense there under
the form of beautiful silky crystals. The product
equals in wdght that of the phosphoms oripna%
employed. " If a few drops of water be added, a
dangerous explodon ensues."

Prop. Transparent prisms, deliquesdngrapidly,
and fuming in the air ; put into water, it hisne
like a red-hot iron ; it melts at 14-8° C, and boils
at 46° C. ; it does not redden dry litmus paper :
sp. gr. 1-97 at 20° C. ^^

A second modification is said to be obtained
when the melted hinoxide is kept hdow 25°
C. ; it crystallises in silky needles which melt
at 60° C.

Sulphnrie Add, Aroma'tle. Bgn. Buxis og

TITBIOIi, AOIS H. O* T. ; AOISUK BUUHUmUlm

ABOKATtovx (B. p.. Ph. E. &, D.), L. ttvp. L
(Ph. E. ft p.) Oil of vitriol, Si fl. oa. ; rectified
spirit, li pints; mix, add of powdered dnnamon,
IJoz.; powdered ginger, 1 ox. ; digest for 6 days
(7 days— Ph. D.), and filter. Sp. gr. 0-974
(Ph.D.).

2. (Wholesale.) From compound tincture of
dnnamon, 1 gall. ; oil of vitriol, 1 lb. ; mix, and
in a week filter. — Doie, 10 to 80 drops, in the same
case as the dilute add.

8. (B. P.) Sulphuric acid, 8 parts; iMtifled
spirit, 40 parts ; dnnamon, in powder, 8 parts ;
ginger, in powder, li parts ; mix the acid gradu-
ally with the spirit, add the powders, macerate
for seven days, and filter. — D<u«, 6 to SO minims.

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SULPHURIC ANHYDBIDE— SULPHUBOUS ACID

16a»

Snlphnric Acid, Silote'. Syn. Spibit o>
VITBIOL; AdsuxstrLPHUBicrrif SILVTinf (B.P.,
Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Frep. 1. (Ph. L.) Take
of snlphaiic acid, 15 fl. dr., and dilate it g^adoally
with distilled water, q. s. to make the whole
exactly meaaure a pint. Sp. gr. 1-103. 1 fl. oz.
of this acid ii exactly saturated by 216 gr. of
crystalliaed carhooate of soda.

2. (Ph. £.) Sulpborie acid, 1 fl. oz. ; water,
IS fl. 01. Sp. gr. 1-090.

3. (Ph. D.) Pore sulphoric acid, 1 fl. oz. ; dis-
tilled water, 18 oz. Sp. gr. 1084.

4. (B. P.) Sulphuric acid, 3 parts; distilled
water, q.s. to measure 36{ parts; mix by adding
the acid gradually to the water. — Dote, 4 to 20
minims.

Pr^^ Ifc. Antiseptic, tonic, and refrigerant.
— Dott, 10 to 30 drops, largely dilated with water,
several times daily ; in low typhoid fevers, passive
hsamorrbages, profuse perspiration, in various
skin diseases to relieve the itching, in dyspepsia,
&c. It is also used externally.

Snlphnrie Acid. Bordhansen. Syn. Vvmsa

SULFSUBIO AOID; ACIDTJX gUIf HTIllIOUX VU-

ILksa, It. Prep. By distilling calcined ferrous
sulphate (' green vitriol '} in earthen retorts. The
retorts, which are shown at A. in the accompanying
engr., after the ' green vitriol ' has been put iuto
them, are placed in a galley-furnace, as shown
below, the necks passing through the wall
of the furnace, and being properly secured
to the necks of the receivers (b b). Into
each of the flasks 2\ lbs. of green vitriol
are put; on the first application of heat
only sulphurous acid and weak hydrated
salphuric acid come over, and are usually
allowed to escape, the receivers not being
securely luted until white vapours of an-
hydrous sulphuric acid are seen. Into each
of the receiving flasks 30 grms. of water
are poured, and the distillation continued
for 24 to 36 hours. The retort flasks are
then again filled with raw material, and
the operation repeated four times before
the oil of vitriol is deemed strong enoogh.
The residue in the retorts is red (per)oxide
of iron, still retaining some sulphuric acid.
The prodnct is a brown oily liquid, which
fames in the air, is intensely corrosive, and
has a sp. gr. about 1-9. When heated to
about 100° F. the anhydrous acid is given
off, and ordinary oil of vitriol is left. Ac-
cording to Marignac crystals of normal sol-
phone acid (HjliOJ are formed in this acid
when it is submitted to a low temperature,
Nordhaosen acid is so called from the place
of its manufacture in Saxony. It may be
regarded as a mixture or compound of H^04
and SO]. In England it is now made by dis-
solving sulphuric anhydride in about twice its
waght of oil of vitriol. It is chiefly used for
dissolving indigo ; also in making alizarine, and
i* a convenient source of sulphuric anhydride.

SULPHUSIC ABHTSBISS. See Svlfhubio
Acid, Anhtdbovb.

SITLFETJBIC riHES. See Ethbb.

BUL'FHUBOnS ACID. H^,. This substance
is only known in aqueous solution. It is formed
by dissolving the corresponding anhydride in

water. It forms two series of salts, termed-
solphites, q. v.

Solphorons Acid, Anhydnms. SO^ Sgn. Sitl-

PHimOUB AKBTDBIDB; AOISnX BULPHUBOSirX

(B. p.), L. This compound is freelv evolved in
the gaseous form when sulphur is burnt in air.
or oxygen, and when the metals are digested in
hot sulphuric add ; and, mixed with carbonic acid,
when charcoal, chips of wood, cork, and sawdust
are treated in the same way.

Prep. 1. By tieating together solphnr and
strong sulphuric acid.

2. By the action of sulphoric add, 4 fl. oz., on
chippings of copper, 300 gr., at a gentle heat.
Pure.

3. {Bertiier.) By heating, in a glass retort,
a mixture of black o:(ide of manganese, 100 parts,.
and solphnr, 12 or 14 parts. Pure. The gas
evolved should be collected over mercory, or by
downward displacement.

4. {Sedviood.) Pounded charcoal, \ oz. ; oil of
vitriol, 4 fl. oz. ; mix in a retort, apply the beat of
a spirit lamp, and conduct the evolved gases by
means of a bent tube into a bottle containing
water. The sulphurous add is absorbed, whilst
the carbonic acid gas passes off.

Prop., <f«. Heavy, colourless gas, smelling of
burning brimstone. Water absorbs 43'5 times
its volume of this gas. Pure liquid salphoroos

acid can only be obtained by passing the pure dry
gas through a glass tube sorrounded by a powerful
freezing mixture. Its sp. gr. is 1-46 at 20° C. ;
boiling-point, 14° F. j it oanses intense cold by it*
evaporation. Solphnrous add forms salts ci^ed
sulphites. Its disposition to absorb oxygen and
pass into snlphoric add renders it a powerful
reducing uent.

TTte*. To bleach silks, woollens, straw, sponge^
isinglass, baskets, &C., and to remove vegetable
stains and ironmonlds from linen. For these pur-

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SITMACH— flUMMEB DBINKS

po«ef it U prepared from rnvdnit or any other
refoae carbonaceoni matter, and the articles to be
bleached murt be moistened with water.

Ditrtilled water, saturated with snlidiaKmB an-
hydride, is used as a^deozidiaer, disinfectant, and
antiseptic. Dilated with from 1 to 8 parts of
water it is employed is a lotion for wonndt, cuts,
nlcers, bedsores, scalds, and bums ; with from 1
to 6 parts of water it is used as a gargle, also aa
a lotion in parasitic skin diseases ; from ) to 1 dr.,
in a wine-glassf nl of water, 8 times a day, relievea
constant sickness.

Several preparations containing solphnroos add
have recently been introduced to the pnblic as
agents in sanitation under the name of SporotUm
(germ-killer). To understand the nature and
merits of these preparations it is desirable to ex-
plain the true and individual meanings of ' deodo-
riser,' 'antiseptic,' and 'disinfecttmt' — words
which are too often improperly employed aa if
they had the same signifliBation, and as if, in &ct,
the; were convertible terms.

▲ deodoriser is a substance which will absorb
M destroy bad smells j an antiseptic is an agent
which will prevent or retard pntref action; and a
disinfectant is an agent which will render harm-
less the virus of smallpox, scarlet fever, measles,
diphtheria, influenza, plenro-pnedmonia, cattle
plague, glanders, distemper in dogs, and other
infectious or contagious diseases.

Now, medical authorities and sanitarians are of
opinion that the most potent disinfectant with
iniich we are acquainted is sulphurous acid, a gas
which has been used for ages as a fumigator.
Snhthnrous acid has not, however, been so gene-
rally employed for disinfecting purposes as one
might from these circumstances have expected, on
account of the difficulties and inconveniences
which formerly attended its generation.

To remove these drawbacks, and to render sul-
phurous acid, both as a gas and.in solntion, easily
and cheaply available for the above-named and
many other applications, sporokton has been in-
rented. Sevenl varieties are made ; they are as
follows :

JAguid No. 1. This preparation consists of a
colourless solution of a non-volatile antiseptic,
usually a salt of sine, impregnated with 80 times
its buUt of sulphurous acid gas ; in other words,
1 pint of the liquid contains 10 galls, of gas.
Liquid sporokton is, in fact, a combination of one
of the most powerful antiseptics with the dis-
infectant; the former ingredient will efFectually
prevent tiie putrefaction of any solid or liquid
•nimal or vq;etable matter with which it may
come in contact, while the sulphurous add wiu
rapidly pass off in the gaseous state into the sur-
ronnding air, and act as an energetic destroyer of
noxious atmospheric impurities.

Liquid sporokton absorbs ammonia and sul-
phuretted hydrogen, destroys bad smells, and pre-
vents the spread of infectious diseases; it is, con-
sequently, a valuable agent for the deodorisation
and disinfection of wards of hospitals, sick rooms,
dairies, larders, ship, stables, cowhouses, kennels,
pineries, slaughter-houses, urinals, water-closets,
privies, cesspools, sewers, drains, and other similar
DoOdings and places.

After it has parted with the whole of its sul-

phurous acid gas, liquid sporokton remaini u
an odourless, non-volatile antiseptic and absorber
of ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen.

Liquid sporokton evolves its snlphnnHis addbj
rimple exposure to air, without the ud of heat, to
that no ruk of fire attends its nse, as is the csn
when rooms, buildings, holds of ships, &&, ue
fumigated with this gas by the old plan; it will
not stain or in any other w^ injnie undyed
woollen, linen, or cotton goods. It is amseqnentl;
well adapted for the disinfection of onderdothiig,
sheets, blankets, bed-furniture, &c.

Liquid sporokton may be employed for the
instantaneous preparation of a bath or btioa of
sulphurous acid, to be used, under medical diree*
tion, in the treatment of itch, ringworm, chrome
eczema, lepra, psoriasis, impetigo, pityriasis, &c,
in man, as well as mange, sci9>, and other lUi
affections in the lower animals.

Liquid spondcton is clean, it requires no sMll
in nsmg it, and its action is perfectly oontzoIlsUe.

Zdquid Wo. 2. This preparation is spsciiQ}
made for the disinfection and purification of old
beer barrols, wine casks, and the like. It is similtr
in compodtion to, and may be used for the nme
purpose as. No. 1 ; except, however, tliat ss No.S;
unl^e No. 1, is liable, foom its eontaining inn
instead of zinc, to stain linen, wood, ic, it
sbonld not be employed for disinfecting dothisg
or sprinkling over floors, decks of ships, and tlie
like.

SoUd. This is a powder, osoally a Diztare of
caldnm sulphite and ferric chlorids, wUdi. by
simple exposure to air, will slowly aiMlstesi£lj,<)r,
when sprinkled with water, n^>idly give oot 25%
of its weight of sulphnroos add, and leave no no-
pleasmt smell behind it.

Sulphurous acid gas, unlike non-vdatile dii-
infectants, quickly mingles with the air, andieeb
out, as it were, the noxious atmospheric impnritia
it is capable of destroying.

Solid sporokton, in addition to evolving nil'
phurons add, contains an excess of ferric cUoride
which, together with this gas, renders it a moit
useful and effldent antiseptic

Snlphnrou Anhydride. See Buamnovt Acid
(Anhydrous).

SU^KACH. This ^-stnff is chiefly used s> s
substitate for galls. With a mordant of aeetat«
of iron it gives grey or Uack ; with tin or aeet«t<
of ainmina, yellow ; and with sulphate of bdc, t
yellowish brown ; alone it gives a greenish-fsvn
colour.

SUX'BVL. iSra. Mvbx-boot, jATUunt.
SuKSVL-BOOS ; ScKBUi. BASix (B. p.). A iib-
stance introdnced to British m^cine by Dr A
B. QranviUe, in 1860. It occurs in drcalir
pieces, varying from 1 to 8 or 4 inches in ^
meter ; has a musk-like odour, and a sweet btl-
samic taste. It acts as a powerful stimnlsot,
especially of the nervous system. In India snd
Persia it has long been used as a medicine, s
perfume, and as incense. — Dote, 16 gr, to 1 dr.,
dther masticated, or made into an infudon, elec-
tuary, or tincture ; in cholera, hysteria, nenralgiii
epilepsy, low fevers, and various other spasmodic
and nervous disorders.

BXniKXB DBOTKS. See LxKOVAsn, Shxs-

BET, &C

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8XJPEB — STTPPOSITOBT

16SS.

OTTSB-. See NomROLATimx.

SUP^XS. The evening meal; the lait meal
of the day. Sapper ii generally an nnneoeaaary
meal, and when either heavy, or taken at a
period not long before that of retiring, to reit,
proves nearly always ii^orioiis, prereiri^g sonnd
and refreshing sleep, and oceasioning unpleasant
dreams, nightmare, bilionaness, and all the worst
■ymptoms of imperfect digestion. The last meal
of the day shonid be taken at least three honrs
before bedtime. Even when it consists of some
' trifle,' as a sandwich or bisenit, an interval of
at least an hour should elapse before retiring to
rest. In tiiis way restlesaneas and unpleasant
dreams will become tare.

SOPFOBTrOST. agn. BviVMTtaaxtm, L.
A conical shaped preparation used to insert in
the rectum for the purpose of affecting the lower
intestine, or, by absorption, the system generally.
Suppositories are rounded, usually elongated
masses, having the active meiicine combined
with some substance wMch will retain the proper
shape, as stearin, gelatin, or cacao butter. The
last substance is, perhaps, the best vehicle for
remedies prescribed in this form. It is, how-
ever, rather too soft to be used without admix-
ture. According to Dorvanlt, the addition of one
eighth part by weight of wax imparts the proper
hardness.

All difficulty of removing suppositories from
the mould may be obviated by baring the moulds
ice-cold and immersed in soapy water.

The mode of proportioning the doses of active
ingredients has been noticed in the article
EnKA.

Suppositories of Assaftstlda. fiv». StrFPoai-
JoaiA. AMixanam (Ph. U. 8.). Prep, nocture
at assaf <etida, 1 oz. ; oil of theobroma, 880 gr.
Let the tincture evaporate by exposure to the air
until of the consistence of a thick syrup, and
proceed as for suppositories of carbolic acid.

Suppository, Astringent. Sgn. BvrrosiTO-
Bnnt AUTBoraiva (Bnut). Pnp, Powdered
oak-bark, 2 dr.; tormentil, 8 dr.; honey, q. s.
For 8 suppositories.

Suppositories of Carbolio Aeld with So^p. Bfn.
Stptositobia aoisi oaxbouoi avu saponb (B.
P.). Pnp. Oarbolie add, 18 gr.; curd soap, in
powder, 180 gr. ; starch, q. s. ; mU the carbolic
add with the aoap, and add starch, q. s, to make
of a suitable connstency ; diride into twelve equal
parts, and make each suppodtoiy into a conical
or other convenient form.

Suppository, Xmollient. Sy». SuTPonro-
Bltnc ncoixiKra. Prep. Butter of cacao and
spermaceti in equal parts, melted together.

Suppositories of Slyeerin. S^ Svfpobi-
lOsu SLTOXBixi. Gdatin, | os. ; glycerin, 2^
OS. ; water, q. s. Soak the gdatin in water 1 or
8 minutes, pour off the water, leave the gelatin
to rest till quite soft, and dissolve in the glycerin,
until tile product wdghs 1580 gr. The {voduet
BOM be moulded into 80^ 00, or 120 gr. supped-

Suppository of Iodide of Fotasdum. Sgn.
SvPFonTOBimc potabbh iosisi (Mr Ohff-
fori). Prep. Iodide of potasdum, 1 gr. to 4
gr. ; extract of henbane, 6 gr. ; extract of hem-
lock, 6 gr. In enlarged prostate.

Snppodtories of lodoftorm. 8jin. Sutfosi-
TOBIA lOSOlOBKl. Iodoform, 86 parts; oil of
theobroma, 144 parts. Melt, mix, and diride into
16 gr. snppodtories.

Snppositoiy, Irritant. Sg*, SupFOSiTOBirrK
DtBRAKB (Bxdkari). Prtp. Butter of cacao, 8
dr. ; aloes, 4 gr. ; tartarised antimony, 1 gr. To
restore the hamorrhoidal flux.

Suppodtoiy of Lead (Compound). Ara. Sup-
FoeiTOBiuii FLVXBi coKPOsiTxrx (B. P.). Pref.
Acetate of lead, in powder, 86 parts ; opium, in
powder, 18 parts ; oil of theobroma, 182 parts ;
melt the oil of tiienbroma with a gentle heat,
then add the other ingredients, previously rubbed
together in a mortar, and, having mixed them
thoroughly, pour the mixture while it is fluid into
suitable moulds of the capadty of 16 gr. The
above mskes 12 snppodtories.

Suppodtory of Xsoreury. 8vn. Sttppobito-
Bimi ETBBAxeXBI (B. P.), L. Prep. Ointment
of mercury, 60 gr. ; oil of theobroma, 120 gr. ;
mdt together, stir till well mixed, and immedi-
ately pour into moulds of the capadty of 16 gr.
The above makes 12 suppodtories.

Suppodtory of XorpUne. 8gn. Sucpmito-
BiUH TtaaXBlXM (B. P.), L. Prep. Hydro-
chlorate of motphine, 6 gr. ; oil of theobroma, 174
gr.; mdt the oil dl theobroma with a gentle
heat, then add the hydrochlorate of morphine,
and mix all the ingredients thoroughly ; pour the
mixture, while it is fluid, into suitable moulds of
the capadty of 16 gr., or the fluid mixture may
be allowed to cod, and then be divided into IS
equal parts, each of which should be made into a
conicu form.

Suppodtories of Korphlne with Soap. Sg».

BTPKMITOBU VOBPHTirX CUK BAPOITB (B. P.).

Prep. Hydrochlorate of morphine, 6 gr.; gly-
cerin of siarch, 60 gr, ; curd soap, in powder, 100
gr.; starch, q. s. Mix the hy^btichlorate with
the glycerin A starch and soap, and add starch,
q. s. to form a paste of suitable consistence.
Divide into 12 equal parts, each of which is to be
made into a conical or other convenient form of
suppodtory.
Suppodtory for Piles. S^ft. Stppobitobiitx

KSKOBBHOtDAU, 8. USATTnTIf, L. JVm. 1,

Powdered opium, 2 gr. ; finely powdered gsJls, 10
gr. ; spermaceti cerste, 1 dr.

2. (suit.) Powdered oiuum, 8 gr. ; soap, 10
gr. ; mix.

8. (Siehttri.) Extracts Of opium and stramo-
nium, of each, 1 gr. ; cacao butter, 2 dr. Used
when the piles are very painful.

Suppodtory, Par'gative. Sgn. Svppobito-
BTinc OATHABTiCTrK, L. Prep. 1. Soap, 1 dr. ;
daterium, 1 to 2 gr. ; mix. As a strong purge.

2. (irianamt.) Soap, 2 dr. ; common sdt, 1
dr. ; honey, q. s. ; mix. As a mild cathartic.

Suppodtory of Quinine. 8y». Suppobito-
Bnnc Qunra (Boudi»), L. Prep. Sulphate of
quinine, 16 gr. ; butter of cacao, li dr. ; mix.

Suppodto^, Basol'vent. Syn. Svppobito-
Bnnc BBBOLVBim, L. Prep. {Stafford.) Io-
dide of potasdum, 8 to 4 gr.; extracts of hen-
bane and hemlock, of each, 6 gr. In enlarge-
ment or induration of the prostate gland.

Svraodtny of Bbatasy. SgH. Sttppobito-
Bimf BBATAXUi (P. Cod.), L. Prep. Butter of

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1696

SUBVETING

cscao, 1 dr. ; extiMt of rhataay, 16 gr., tor 1 top-
posHory.

Snppoiitory of Butonla. 8^*. SvRoamnnnr
BAXTOiriNi. Santonin, 2 or 6 gr.; oil of theo-
Inroina to make 15 gr. Vfry wefol to d«atroy
thread-worms.

SnppMltoiy, Sad'atire. See oioM.
Bappoiitory of Tannic Add. iSm. Svpfobi-
TOBhtk LOiDi lAnriox (B. P.). Prtp. Tannic
acid, 36 gr. ; benzoated lard, M gr. ; white wax,
10 gr.; oil of theobroraa, 90 gr.j melt the wax
and oil with a gentle heat, then add the tannic
acid and benioated lard, previoualy rubbed to-
gether, and mix thoronghly. Poor the mixtnie
while it !■ fluid into snitoble mooUa of tlM capa-
city of 16 gr. nie above makos twelve tuppoai-
tories.

Snppoaltorloi of Tannic Add wltli Soap. Sjra.
SirpposiTOBii Acisi TAirsiai cux bapohi (B. P.).
JPrap. 'Tannic acid, S6 gr. ; glycerin of ftarch,
60 gr.; curd nap, in powder, 100 gr.; itarch,
q. 8. Mix the tannic acid with the glycerin of
ytarch and loap, and add itarch, q. i. to form a
paste of initable coniiitence; divide into 12 equal
parte, each of which i« to be made into a conical
or other convenient form of anppoaitorf.

Snppodtoriei, Vaginal. Sgn. Sutfoshoua
TAOIHAXB {Chiadrut). Frep. Liquid chloride
of line, 6 minims ; sulphate of morphia, \ gr. ;
mix with 2 dr. of the following paste: — Thick
mucilage of tragacanth, 6 parte; white sngar, 3
parte; starch, 9 parte. Mr. Druitt prescribes in
leuoorrhoea — Tanmn, 10 gr., with mndlage of
tragacanth, q. s.

Snppodtory, Ter'mifoge. 8y%. Sdvfobro-
uim ASTBxaBsrusmt, S. yxBxmrami, L.
Pnp. (StBtditmr.) Aloes, 4 dr. ; common salt,
8 dr.; flour, 2 dr.; honey, q. s. to make a stiff
mass; divide into proper shaped pieces, weighing
about 16 gr. each. One to be used after each
motion.

SXrSTXrnrO. The act of measuring land for
various purposes. It is not proposed in this
article to deal with surveying in all ite details,
but merely to indicate the means whereby maps
and plans may be constructed with si^cient
accuracy for ordinary purposes.

Where very accurate measuiemente are required
the chun or measuring tape and the theodolite
must be employed ; to the traveller or explorer
such methods are useless, as involving great con-
sumption of time and labour, the carriage of
heavy instmmente, and, above all, skilled assist-
ance. The methodis in use for military purposes,
reconnaisance, tc, can be made bypraetice to yield
very excellent resiilte. The instrnmente required
are few and simple, easily carried and easily
mastered, and the prindples on which military
surveys sre conducted are of such general utility
that it is a matter of regret that they are not
more widely known.

SeaUt. All maps and plans are dtswn to
scale ; that is to say, there is a fixed and definite
relation between the distances as measured on the
ground and as measured on paper. The scale of
a map may be expressed in two ways. (1) By
means of a fraction ("the representative frac-
tion") which expresses the relation between the
plan and tiie ground it tepresente, e.g. on the

scale of 1 : 1000, every inch on the map '■nxild
represent 1000 inehas on the ground, or ozae xae^re
would represent a kilometre. (8) The oUier ^ruy a
by a eoapartson of units, e.g. the scale of one
inch to the mile means tlat every indi an. the
map repieasnto one mile of ground. The feimnB
method of expressing the sode is by far tlie moat
oonvement, as no qseatioa need ever isriise mm to
the distanees on a f orngn map if we are igsocant
of the measnrea of the country. It ia eamy to
convert the one system into the other in axiy given
case; t.g. there an 68,360 inches in the aAatatr
mile; tlM scale of one indi to the mile xnsy,
therefore, be wpressed by the fimctioxi tt^t^
i. a. one inch on the map represente 63,360 uehea
on the gronnd. If we Jiave a fbreigrn map on the
scale of TvinT *b '''^d not oonoem ouiaelm
with the meaanrea of the country, for we know
that one inch cr other unit of length on the m^
represente 10^000 inches or other nnite ob the
gronnd.

In decWng on the scale on which a iii^> ia to
be constraeted we most oonader the anxnint at
detail reqmred, and the sixe of the paper which
it will ultimately cover. Twenty miles of ooontty
on the scale of six inches to the mile wonld jpve
a map 10 feet Icng, which wonld be quite va-
manageable, though for some pnrpoees it mig^t
be necessary in order to get in all the iWtaili
required tone shown I 10 yards on the scale would
be represented by ■it indi, whereas on the acalc
of 1 inch to the mile 10 yards wonld beexpreaeed
^7 Tfr ^^'■> * length too small to be appre-
ciated or measured by ordinary inatrumenta. For
military purposes the 6-inch scale is used for maps
of poaitions, Ssc, where detail is of great conse-
qnenoe; and a 2 or 1 inch scale for large am% long
stretehes of roads or rivers, &c

Tomakea SedU. Suppose a scale of 15 inches
to the mile to show yards is required, a line 6
inches long would rvpresent | of a nula (686
yards),'; a round number is more conveaient, say
600 yards; then by proportion —

1760 : 600 :: le : 6ii

Yud> ia a Tirdi in Indus npre- Leagfli af

fflila. lails. iSBtiiig ana mile.

Draw a line 6*11 inches long on paper 1^ means
of a scale of inches, and divide thu into six equal
parte of 100 yards each.

This may be done most easily by geometry as
follows:

Let ..1 £ be the line as measured 6-11 inchai kng.
Draw another line .^ Cat any angle with A B, SM
by means of a scale divide it or any part of it into
six equal parts. If ^ C, for example, be exactly
6 in<d>es long, and the inches be marked off upon
it, this is all that is required ; in this cu« join
S C, and through each of the diviaiona on ^ C
indiealang inches, draw a line parallel with S C,

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1627

wnd catting the line A B tttb, e, d, ; and/, the
line ^ S will be divided into liz eqnal part*. As
^ S repreaented 600 jarda, each of tiieae divi-
siona will repreaent 100 yards. By a rimilar
proeeas (he diTision A b may be subdivided into
10 equal parti, each of which will represent 10
^ards. TUs scale having been oonstmcted, we are
in a position to translate any distance on oor map
into yards.

Jtieuuremeat of DUUne*. The first reqnire-
ment in surveying is the accnrate measurement
of distances; this is generally done with a mea-
snring tape or 'chain.' ' Onnter's chain' is 28
yards long, so that 10 chains =>! furlong, 80
cliains=:l mile; the chain is divided into 100
links, each 7-92 inches long. Two persons are
required in order to nie a chain, the 'leader' and
the ' follower.' The leader has 10 iron arrows
^vhen the measuring begins ; he walks on from the
starting-point till the chain is taut, the follower
holding the other end, and sticks an arrow into
the gronnd at his end of the chun ; the chain is
dragged on until the 'follower ' reaches this arrow,
when he holds the end of the chain close to it,
waits till the 'leader' pulls it tight, and then
removes the arrow ; this operation is proceeded
with till all 10 arrows have been picked up by the
'follower,' who returns them to the 'leader,'
and the operation begins again.

^ For military sketching and other like purposes
distances are measured by pacing, i. t. by walking
over the gronnd and counting the number of
paces taken ; if the length of the pace is known,
the distance can be calculated. It is cot difficult
to pace yards with a little practice, and this should
be learned by measuring 100 or 200 yards on level
gronnd, and pacing it n«quently until the art is
acquired. On rough ground the lengtii of the
pace is less than on smooth, and it is wdl for the
iurvOTor to learn how far the length of his pace
is albcted by irregularities of aurface. If the
regulation pace of SO inches be used the number
of yards u found by deducting ^ from the
number of paces, «. g. 86 paces — 30 yards. Facing
cannot be relied upon on slopea of more than 16 ,
and it must be remembered that the borixontal
distance between any two points on uneven gronnd
is less than the distance paced between them up
and down the alopea ; two aides of any triangle are
greater than the third, and the diatance between
two points with a hill between is represented by
the length of a tunnel through this hiU, and not
by the distance traversed in going up the hill and
down the other side. Thia is a common source of
error when the gronnd is uneven.

Pacing may be done on horaeback, the length
of pace of a well-broken average horae at the
walk bdng 88 inches. Young horses pace 89 or
40 inches.

For rapid work the measurement of distance
by the eye is of great importance. This can be
acquired by practice.

The simplest method of keeping count of the
paces ia to cloae one of the fingers of the left hand
for every hundred paces walked. The count
should begin again at every halt or change of
direction.

TriangtOatio: If two sides of a triangle and
the angle between them are known, the third side

and the remaining angles can alwaya be found by
calculation. Suppose that two points, A and B,
are acceaaible, and the length of the line ^ J3 is
accurately known, also the distance from A to O,

the distance from B to Ccan be calculated by
trigonometrical f ormulffi.

Or if the line A B it known, and the point O
can be aeen from both A and B, we may I^
meana of instruments observe the angle SAO.
This tells us that the point C lies somewhere on
the line A C. U now we observe from B the
angle A B O, na know that C muat lie aome-
where on the line B C; it also lies on the line
A C; C must, therefore, be situate at the point
where these two lines interaect. The length of
A B being known, and the two anglea CAB
and ABO being also known, the length of the two
aidea A O and B 0 can be calculated, and the
position of C determined. Other trianglea may be
built on the line A B, with other pointa for their
verticea, and thua, by accurate observation of the
length of one line, A B, and of a number of
angles, the relative position of a number of points
with regard to A and B may be determined. Thia
proceaa is called triangulation, and the line A B
IS called the iow. It is clear that any error in
the measurement of the base will affect the whole
work. In actual survey the length of this line
is alwaya determined with the greatest exactitude,
and ita poaition is ao aelected as to afford the
greatest possible advantages with regard to
neighbourmg points of importance. Surveying
is thus aeen to depend upon the accurate measure-
ment of distance and angular direction. The
instruments by which this is effected for the
kind of survey under consideration are few and
simple.

Fta. 1.— Plana Table.

7'itpUma table consiats of a board on which s
aheet of drawing-paper is atretched, attached to
a tripod atand by a acrew in such a way that it
may be revolved to any position. The table being
placed in position and fixed, a ruler with sights

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attached, t.g. a (lit at the eye end and a hair or
wire at the other, ii laid npon the paper and
pivoted against a needle driven into the paper
at a point corresponding to the oburver*! po-
sition.

The eye, the sight, and some distant object
being all placed in a line, it is obvioos that the
Unctitm of this object with regard to the ob-
server can be marked on the paper. The method
of use is briefly as follows : — A base line, A B,
is selected and measnred, and set off on the paper
to the required scale ; the table is placed at A and
levelled ; by means of the sighted ruler the direc-

--. /-

' ^^-^ y ^^^

tion of points D.'-Kt -^i <it &c.> is found aad
marked by fine lines on the paper. Tbe table is
now taken to B, the needle dnveo into the ear-
responding point on the board, and fjie mler
directed on the varioos points as before, begio-
ning with the line A S, care being taken to tms
the board to tiiat the point A on tbe paper it
toward* (he actnal point on the gioancL Tlw
p<^ti in which the new set of directiao lines in-
tersect those |K«vioasly made indicate iHne posi-
tion of the distant object at wUeh the mler was
aimed.

2^ Cowipeut. The compass c«rd ia divided

G

m — --■;

I ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ I ■ .. ^

^

\

^

"k

■

^°^

s

-X-

D

c

Fio. >.— Mode of niBg Plana Tkble,

into 860 iegreet ; and it will be obvious that if,
instead of nsing the sighted ruler as above, the
compass bearings of all the other points were
accurately taken at A and S, the same result
would be obtained as with the ruler, if the angles
observed were set out on the paper. In practice,
however, this plan is not adopted, though a com-
pass is usually let into one comer of the plane
table, in order that the bearings of the sketch
may be laid down.

The relation of the direction given by the
compass needle to the true meridian is veiy £re-
qnently misunderstood. The compass shows maf-
netie north, which may differ considerably from
the true or tidereal north.
_ The angular difference between the two meri-
dians is known as the magnetic 'variation' or
' declination.'

If the bearing of the true north as found by
compass is 866° 16', the variation would be
4° 46' east (see fig. 8). This variation is of
serious conseqaence, and varies considerably in
different places in the world and in the same place
from year to year ; for example, in the year 1576
the declination in London was 11° ea$ti in 1660
it was reduced to zero ; in the year 1814 it reached
its maximum of 24° 20' «7W<, since which time
the needle has been slowly returning northwards.
The pole-star affords the simplest means of de-
termining the true meridian, and thence the
magnetic variation.

"The heavens apparently revolve around an
invisible point (the pole) only 1°27' distant from

the pole-star, and which can [easily be found
by drawing an imaginary line throngh tlie
'pointers ' of the constellation of <he Groit Bear
{%ot the line shown in the figure). Twice ia
evety twenty-four bonra the pole-star in jvnir-
ing round Uie pole comes into the same vertical
plane with, and either above or below it. Thia
occurs when the star K of the Great Bear (seoood
from the end of the line) is in the same verticsl
plane with the pole-star (fig. 4). If the bearing

k<-

Ttia. S.

0

roLc araa
I'iO. 4.

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ot the iter be obseired with the piimutic com-
pass when this ocean, the difference between
t>Ixe reading of the oompus and the tme north
<B60P) will give the variation. If the obaerva-
l^ion be token when the two
otara (pole-star and Z Vnta Ma-
Joris) are in the tame hori-
sontal plane, the quantity 1° 27'
-most be added if the Qreat Bear
be on the east, and subtracted
if on the west of the pole^ter.
To find tka true north wUK-
otff initnuiuntt, support a pole
as shown in the figure by means
of a forked stick with its end
pointing approximately to the
north.

About half an hour M1>r«
noon mark the extremity of the
shadow (a), then with centre
»t a point found by plumb-line
-vertically under the end of the
pole, and with radius equal to
the length of the shadow ob-
served at a, describe an arc.
When the sliadow after getting
shorter and shorter agun
lengthens till it touches the
arc, mark the spot (b); draw
the arc a i ; the point o, where
a line from the centre of the

The iVifourffe Compatt (fig. 6, I). One of
the most useful instruments for surveying con-
sists of a magnetic needle balanced on a pivot,
and carrying a card divided into 86(y, showing

McaioiAs

Fie. 5.

drcle bisecting the arc cuts the circle, is trtu I half -degrees. It is mounted in a metal box with
morth qfthe centre. I a glazed opening, through which the card can be

rio.S.

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SUBYETINO

obaerved by means of a primn, and alio a aght
vane V. When the card it iteady, and the eye,
the object, and the wire of the nght rane are all
in a Une, the figure leen on the card u r«ad oif
and noted. The gradoation of the card com-
mences at sonth (fig. 6, n), so that the degree
showing the bearing of the object shall appear
under we eye.

The nse of the prismatic compan is ytay simple.
The observer standing at any point on his map
may determine with considerable accnracy the
angular bearing of any object visible
from this point ; or, marching along
a winding road, he may determine
its direction, and by laying down
Us paces to scale on his sketch at
the angle formed a correct repre-
sentation of the general direction of
the road will be obtained.

T%a Protraetor (fig. 7) is in its
best form a thin rectangular slab
of ivoiy about 6x1} inches, with
bevelled edges.

The degrees of the semicircle from 0° to 180°,
t. e. from north to south by east, are marked on
the outer edge of the protractor; the centre is
marked on the lower edge by a vertical line or
arrow. The sketch is prepared with parallel
lines about one third of an inch apart, to repre-
sent magnetic north and south, and with relation
to these the bearings are protracted. The pro-
tractor is lud on the sketch with its oentm at'
the point where the bearing is to be drawn, and
its edges set north and south or parallel to these
lines. If the bearing is «nd«r 180°, the gradu-
ated edge of the protractor is laid to the right ;
if over 180°, to the left, the north margin of the
sketch being uppermost.

Tyaveriing with the Compan. The operation
of observing the direction and measuring the
length of a number of lines is called 'travers-
ing.' The observations may be ather laid down
at once on the sketch (plotted), or recorded in a
field book and plotted afterwards. This book is
a large pocket-book, with a colunm about three
quarters of an inch wide ruled down the centre
of each page lengthwise; in it are booked the
forward angles or direction of the traverse
lines and the forward distances thns :

The chain colunm represents a Udb haviiig r
breadth, so that a line tefteaeaHag, say, m fs^
or ditch crossing the road traversed, shoold m^
the chain column on one side, and leare it at •
point exactly opposite on the other.

Winding roads should be traversed with aa ftm
observations as possible, in order to H^^ntrritii
error (fig. 9).

It u also very deniable whenerer poHible as
only to take the forward bearings, e.g. tram A t>
b, bnt also on arriving at i to torn iooimI aaJ

J^sf^t't-rt--^:^;

^^^m««l™^^

3 j«k .1 ^cl lAilM M^liM«<>*l i,>l 11*1

hf L

r T

1 f"

::e:t-- •It

:::T:.::ii.:^T^:

J ■ ' '-.^ -

186

148

Fis. 8.

?I8. 7.

take the bearing of A. The two ofaaerratkKU
should agree perfectly, and the sum of the angle

fia. 9.

should be VSHf. In practice it is osnal to jndg«
the distance of objects right and left of th«
traverse line, and mark them at the proper
point in the side column of the field book.
These measurements perpendicular to tMt ire-
verie line are called oJfteU, and in regnlar sur-
veying would be carefully measured by a tape or
chain. In military surveying offsets as a rale
are not taken to points more distant than 100
yards from the traverse line.

Porvery accurate surveying, circular probacton
fitted with folding arms and verniers are used ; at
the end of each arm is a point with which, when
the instrument is set, a minute hole is pinnctnrcd
in the paper (see fig. 10).

The Pocket Sextant. The following descriptim
of the instmment and mode of using it is taken
from Colonel W. H. Richards' 'Text-book of
Military Topography.'

The instrument is shown in fig. 11 ; it is nsed
tor measuring the angle which the distance be-
tween two visible objects subtends. When required
tor use the cover is taken off and screwed on
underneath the sextant as represented. Tlie parts
of the instrument are — L, the index mirror; B,
the horizon glass, the upper half only of which is
silvered ; V, the index arm which moves with the
index mirror, end shows its position by a vernier
on the graduated arc A ; C, the milled head,
means of which the index mirror is moved;
the a<^'usting ke^ ; E, the eye-hole through which
the observation is taken. Some instmments are
provided with a dark glass, which can be slid into

d, ly
1; K.

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16S1

tilie place of E, for observktioiu of
-the BTm ; others have a small tele-
scope which fits in the same place.
I>, s magnifyinK glass for exa-
mining the Termer; it should al-
-vra,ja be placed directly over the
latter, so that it maybe viewed per-
pendicnlarly to the plane of the
inatroment ; L, M, squares to which
'Uie key is applied when altering
tlie adjustments.

To metuure Jlu angle httvetH
two o^eeU, hxAi the sextant in
the left hand. Look throngh E
and the opening O at the left-band

Fia. U.

object. Tom E until the right-hand object re-
flected from the index mirror ^>pears on the ail-
▼ered part of the horizon glass ooincidiog with
the left-hand object, aa shown in fig. 12. The
an^e may then be raid.

There is a certain amount of knack in bringing
the two images into contact in the Siextant ; the
beginner should practise at first with two objects
which are near each other.

Ad)9itmtmt qf tie Foehtt Baxkmt. The
' indn etror,' as it is called, of the sextant is
the resalt of ineorreot a^nstment of tiie hori-
zon glass, so that the point of the gradnation
from which the arc angles are measured is not
sero.

If this error be considerable it may be removed
by acyustment, thus :

Set the index exactly at 0° on the arc. Select
a well-defined point, sock as a chimney-top, at

Tie. 10.— SlUot's Cireolst Fntnetor.

some distance. First observe whether the direct
and reflected images are on the same level ; if not,
apply the key K to the square L (fig. 11), and
turn it until they are so. The effect df this cor-
rection is to set the horizon glass truly perpendi-
cular to the plane of the instrument.

Next, if the reflected image overlaps that seen
directly, or does not exactly cover it, apply the key
to the square M (fig. 11), and torn it slowly until
they coincide. The effect of this correction is to
set the horizon glass parallel to the index mirror.
It is generally uifer to note and apply the index
error in correction of observations than to alter
the ai^uBtments.

Thoary of the Bextamt. It will be noticed that
the actual angle between the graduations O and
120 on the arc of the sexant is only e/OP. The
reason for doubling the gradnation may be thus
demonstrated :

Let F and X be the distant objects between
which the angle F E X is measured ; H, the horizon
glass of the sextant ; E, the moveable iudex mirror
which was in the position e e, parallel to K, when
the index was at O ; E X was then also perpen-
dicular to « «. Let E B be perpendicular to E.
By a well-known principle of optics, the angle of
incidence, P E R, is equal to the angle of reflection,
XE B.

From the riglit angles X E O, R E V, take the
commoaa^leX E Y.leavingX E B=y EO. But
PEX>s8XEB»yE0. Hence the tay of light
htaag reflected successively from two mirrors, the
total angular deviation of the ray is double the
an^e «3 indination of the mirrors. Therefore
V E O, though only 16°, is read 80° on tiie arc
(fig. 18). For the sake of simplicity the obser-
vePs eye is supposed to be at £ in the figure.

The sextant may be used in any position from
which the required objects are visible, and is not
affected by local attraction like the compass. Its
dtaadvaotages are — It is not of general use like
the compass, bat can only be employed for observ-

s

Fia. U.— OI«)Mts eoineiainc in the Sextant br Sefleethm.

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log trUngnlktion, determining

heights and diituioei, and ob-

aerring for latitude ; it esnnot

be conveniently nwd for ti*-

▼ening, or the more ordinary

operations of surveying t any

difTerence of level between the

points observed is liable to canse

•error.

Tke RepreimUaiion (ff SOU.

Two distinct methods of re-
presenting hills are in use at the

present time, ' hichure shading '

and 'contouring.'

In hiclimre tkading the degree

■of slope is represented by snort

strokes call«l bftcfaores, the

thickness and number of which

are reg^nlated by a 'scale of

•hade.' For military purposes,

and all others in which accurate

indication of the slope is essen*

tial, the system of eontourittg is

now adopted.

A contour is the line of inter-
section of a hill by a borixontal

plane. Snpposing,a cone repre-
senting a hill, 20 inches in

bdght, to be built up of 20 cir-
cular pieces of wood, each 1

inch thick, piled one on the top

of the other, the upper or lower

«dge of each piece would represent a contour, and
if these outlines were projected on paper they
would appear as a series of concentric drcles ;
and knowing the scale, it would be possible to re-

-construct the cone from these circles. By this
plan all the errors and necessary defects of shading
are avoided, and it is possible from a properly
contoured map to reproduce a scale model of the
country by cutting out a model of each contour
in wood or other material of definito thickness, and
fastening them in their proper position one on the
top of the other.

A little consideration will show that all contour
lines should be continuous, and should enclose a
space so that where they appear to run together
there must be a vertical diit in which, instead of
sloping, the contours are vertically over one another,
and, seen from above, as they are supposed to be
in a map, they cover one another and appear as
one line. The first contour, •. ». the lowest, is
generally taken at sea level or some other estab-
lished datum line. The intervals between the
contours may vary somewhat with the nature of
the country. It will be obvious that ia a flat
country, unless the vertical interval be small, few
or no contours may appear over very large areas.
Much will depend on the scale of the map also ;
10 or 20 foot contours may be necessary for some
purposes, while 60 or 100 feet of interval may
suffice in others. There are two ways in which a
slope may be described :

(1) The plan adopted on railways, in which the
gradient is expressed as a fraction, t.g. f^,
signifying that there is a rise or fall of one foot
in every 2i92 feet

(2) The angle of the slope may be expressed in
degree* of elevation or depression aboye or below

Fia.lS.

the horizontal plane. This method is the one
most generally in use.

On a slope of 1°, a diiference of level of one
foot will occur in 67'3 feet, which may be expressed
as 1 in 67'S, 67*29 bdng the natural cotangent of
the angle 1°.

On a slope of 2° the diilerenee of level will
occur in half the distance, and so on. For rough
work the round number 60 is taken instead of
67*3, and we get the simple relations of angle to
difference of level as follows :

A slope of 1° is equivalent to 1 in flO
n 2° „ „ 1 „ 90
„ 4° „ „ 1 „ 16

n 6 „ „ 1 „ 12

As distances are usually measured by yards, it
is well to remember that the horixontal equiva-
lent for out foot tierHeal o» a tlope of om iegrte
it 19*1 gardt nearhf.

The scale of slopes adopted in this ooontiy as
a standard is constructed on the condition of
Itorittontal equivalenti for SO fatt vertieal inter-
vale on tke teals of 6 ineiat to tie mile.

Thus for 1° the horinntal equivalent (or 20
feet is 19-1 X 20 ~ 882 yards ; and it is usual to set
out on every map a scale of slopes showin); the
horixontal equivalent for 20 feet at all angles from
1° up to 20°. The eye soon become* accustomed
to the value of the scale, and learns to recognise
the degree of slope in any part of the map at
once.

In sketohing hill conntrr an instrument known
as a elinometer is used. Briefly this connsta of
a circle divided with degrees and half -degrees, so
arranged with a prism and sight vane, as in the
prismatic compass, that the d^prees may be read

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STTEVBTINa

i^

'when tbe gradmiied card ii in tlie vertical posi-
tion. The card ii so weighted that when the eye
«nd sight vane are perfectly horizontal the read*

ing ia 0°, and by holding it in soch a position that
it is parallel with the ground the degree of elope
can be read oft with considerable accoracy.

SECTION

-^

1 —

^

■ ^

"""'[

™^ 1 1

h g ■: t

'. a

\ t

! i

> A

Vis. 14.

The above figures win serve to illnstrate ihe
procedure in sketching a simple spur of a hill.

The scale is supposed to be 12 inches to a mile,
and the normal scale of horizontal equivalents is
used ; but, inasmuch as this is constructed for the
scale of 6 inches to the mile, the vertical interval
between the contours will be in inverse ratio to
the scale, i. e. the larger the scale the smaller the
vertical intervaL As the scale is doubled in this
case the vertical interval will be halved, and
in this case will be 10 feet instead of 20 feet.

Standing at A, the slope is observed with the
cUnometer to be 8° in the direction of B. At
this inclination the next contour, 10 feet below
A, will occur 95 yards down the slope. The ob-
server paces this distance to b, and marks it on
his sketch to scale ; at b the slope is 10°, and the
bomontal equivalent for 10 feet is 19 yards,
which is paced and set out on the sketch as be-
fore. The slope is observed to be the same at
i and « ; the proper distances are paced and con-
tours marked. At < the slope decreases to 8° ;
the horizontal equivalent is 68 yards, which
Toil. n.

bring! the observer to/, the slope remaiidng
constant as far as the stream, the position of
which is supposed to be marked already on the
sketch, llie remaining contonrs may be put in
without pacing. The bill is surveyed ma similar
manner from A in other directions, A C, A D, the
contonrs marked as before, and drawn on the
sketch so as to pass round the hill. Small ir-
regularities may be put in by eye. In this way
an accurate map of a hill may be made — no^
of course, so accurate as one compiled from the
data obtained by cureful levelling, but accurate
enongh for all oimnary purposes.

The clinometer requires some practice in order
to obtain good results, and the conformation of
the gronnd may be such as to require considerable
judgment in determining mhen to b^n. The
reader who desires further uiformation is referred
to 'A Text-book of Military Topography,' by
Colonel W. H. Richards, printed under the super-
intendence of Her Hiyesty's Stationery Office,
from which the above descriptions are very largely
drawn, and which contains a mass of information

103

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1634

SUEVETING

on the whole suhject of the very greatest practical
Talne.

DXTBBiaNlIIOH OV HKIOHTS Airs DiSTiJIOBS.

The following problems fTom Colonel Bichards'
work above referred to will be f oond nsef ol under
many oircurngtanoea :

I. 2V> tract a Bight Angle or a Perpendicular

to a given Line.
A method soitable to an^ aitoation, and not
requiring the aid of a se-
1 1 oond person, is the follow-

ing : — A perpendicnlar to
the line A B is required
at A. Stick a peg in the
gronnd at any point C
«Q 10 or 12 feet from A, slip

a noose of a cord over
the peg, measure the dis-
, tance A C on the cord, find
< the point li in A B such
Fio. 15. that C d => A C, and the

point « in the line d C pro-
duced, i A «, is a right angle by Euclid, iii, 81.

II. TofimA the Sreadth of a Siver or the Dietauoe

of an Inaeeeetible Point.

(1) By Oeometrj/. The distance of x from

A being required,
place a mark at A,
and another at a
perpendicnlar to
A a; ; in the line
A a produced place
a picket B, and
another at a con-
venient point e
perpendicular to
B A. Standing at
e, direct an as-
Fia 1(. sistant in placing

picket d in the
line 0 X, he at the same time placing it in the
alignment A a. The triangles jr A d, d B e, are
sii^Iar. Measure o B, B d, i A ; then —

d'B : Be :; dA. : As.
The length of the lines constructed should he more
or less proportional to the distance of the otgect,
otherwise errors occur.

(2) Second Method. Place a mark at B in pro-

longation of X k, another at a convenient point o ;
make c d equal to c B, and c e equal to A e; place
d and e in the prolongation of B « and A o re-
spectively. Find / where m e and d o wonld
intersect when produced. The triangles x A. e,
/ 8 0, are similar and equal; and (/equal to A »
may be measured.

With the Pocket Sextant. Set the index at W,

C -

and find some distant object h, perpendicnlar to
A jr. Set the index at 46°, and move along this line
towards h until A and x coincide by reflection.
Then A 'B^Ax.

in. To Jtnd the Length of
a Line AeeeteibU onUf
at the Btetrentitist, a*

xsiflg.is).

Place a mark at a con"
venient point A ; another
at a in the prolongation
of and equal to A jr; and
a third at b in the pro-
longation of and equad. to
Ax.

The triangle a A ( is
equal and siiular to * A jr,
and the distance a b may
be measored.

\

Fio. 1».

IV. To find the Length of an Object Aeeeetible
at the Bate on Level Oronnd.
Bji Oeotnetry. At any convenient spot plant a
pole vertically, and a picket in line with the
object at A j observe and mark the points b e, in
which the lines A B, A C, intersect the pole.
Then, the triangles A i e, A B C, being sinular,

Fib. 17.

Fio. ao.

measure Ae,cb, A C — and A e ; 8 o K- A C ;
BC.

With the Pocket Sextant. Make a mark on

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SUBYETING

1685

the w»ll « at the hright of the eye.
Set the index at one of the angles
^yen in the table of tangents below,
Find a place where m and B coincide
by reflection in the sextant. Measore
tne distance from this place to the
foot of the wall under «; multiply
or divide this distance by the flgnre
eiTen for the angle. To this add the
length of the eye above the ground.
The angle 46° will give the distance
equal to the length.

T<aU qfya(%ral TmtfftnU.
MnW^ler.

2 .'

8 .

4 .

6 .

6 .

8 .
10 .
12 .
15 .
18 .
20 .
26 .
80 .

Aogh).

BiTisor.

46"

1 . . . .

68"'26'

2 . .

71°84'

8 . ,

76068'

4 . .

■ ,

78°41'

6 . .

80°82'

6 . .

8a»68'

8 . .

84°ir

10 . .

86°14'

12 . .

86°11'

16 . .

86°40'

18 . .

87°8'

20 . .

87042'

86 . .

88°6'

80 . .

Aule.

26°84'
18°26'

lliy

9°28'

7°8'

6°43'

4°46'

V40'

8°11'

2°62'

218'

1°64'

V. Ibjhut tht Saight of an Object, luaeemible

at tie Sate, <m Xetel Onmnd.
. Sj) OUuometar. With the clinometer the tan-
gent tables may be employed as above explained,
the observer advancing towards or retiring from
the olg'ect until its top appears to coincide with
the required degree.

Bs Oaometry. Similarly to the method shown
under Problem I V j bat the olgect being inaccess.
ibk, the distance A C must be found by Pro-
Uem II. The triangle A i 0 will osually be so
much smaller than Sie similar triangle ABC,
that the slightest error in the vertiMlity of the

Sole or in the measurements of A e, e i, will pro*
nee a large error in C B.

VL To find the Dittanee hetteeen Tuo Inaeeeitiile
Objeett, and the Diffkreiue of Leeel between
thim.
Let C andD be the two objects; measnreabase

A B of convenient length midway between them.

Observe with the theodolite at A the angles B A C,

BAD, also the vertical angles of C and D.

Fig. si.

At B observe the angles A B C, A B D. To find
the sides A C, A D, we have in the triangles ABC,
A B D, two known angles and the side A B,
To And C D (the distance between the inaccessible
points) there are now two known sides, A C, A D,
and the included angle CAD.

Zb find the Sefght*. In the right-angled tri.
angles A C C and A D D' the mdes A C, A D, and
the vertical angles are given ; to And the perpen-
diculars C C and D V, the diiference between
them is the diiference of height required.

VII. To find with the Priimatio Oompau the
Plaee on the Ground with rfferenee to One In'
aooeeerile Point.

Take the bearing of the inaccessible point A,
set it off the reverse way from A, giving the line
A B, in some part of which is the observer's place.
Take the beanng of any point E, and set it off at
8nypdntDinAB;measureDE. AtEobserveA;

Fio. U.

again set off this bearing, resulting in the line S F
(itoannotbeexpectedtopassthroughA). Throu^
A draw A x puullel to B F,
through E draw E x parallel to
A B, throngh x draw X * pa*
rallel to £ D; X and x are the
points corresponding to the ob*
server's place.

The reader should consult
'Mathematical Drawing Instru-
ments,' by W. F. Stanley, 6,
Great Turnstile, Holbom, Lon>
don, W.C., for a description of
many useful instruments not
noticed in this article. The cuts
of the plane table and pro*
tractor are taken from thia
work.

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1688

SUSPENDED AKQCATIOK-STKBOLS

StJSPEirSEI) AHIKATIOH. See Asphyxia.

BWALliOW. Three OT four Bpeciei of .StnoMio
(Linn.) pass under thU name. It was once held
in great repate in medicine. Even the excrement
yna induded among the limplea of the Ph. L.,
1618. The swallow is an insectivorons bird, hot,
like the sparrow and rook, is much persecuted for
its good services. It has been calculated that, di-
recuy and indirectly, a ungle swallow is the humble
means of lessening the race of one kind of insect
alone to the extent of 660,970,489,000,000,000 of
its race in one year.

. SWSEPUrG. Before oommendng to sweeps the
floor should be strewn with a good amount of
damp tea-leaves, saved for the purpose; these
collect the dust and thereby save the furniture,
which as far as practicable should be covered up
during the process. Tea-leaves may also be advan-
tageously used upon druggets and short-piled
carpets. Light sweeping and soft brooms are
desirable if these latter are to be operated upon.
Many a carpet is prematurely worn out by over-
violent sweeping.

In aweepmg thick-piled carpets, such as Ax-
minater and Turkey carpets, the servant shonld
alwayi be instructed to brush Um way of the pile ;
by following this advice the carpets may be kept
clean for years ; bat if Ute broom is used in a
contrary direction, all the dust will be forced into
the carpet, and soon spoil it.

SWXST BALLS. Prep. Take of Florentine
orris root, 3 oz. ; cassia, 1 oz. j doves, rhodium
wood, and lavender flowers, of each, i oz.; am-
bergris and musk, of each, 6 gr. ; oil of verbena,
10 or 12 drops ; beat them to a paste, form this
into balls with mucilage of gum tragacanth made
with rose water ; pierce them, whilst soft, with a
needle, and, when they are quite dry and hard,
polish them. Worn in the pocket as a perfnme.
Some persons varnish them, but that keeps in
the smell.

SWEET BAT. j^n. Lattsbl; Ljlubitb kobilib
(Linn.), L. The fruit (laubi baoos ; laubub —
Ph. L.), as well as the leaves (lausi volia), is
reputed aromatic, stimulant, and narcotic. They
were formerly very popular in coughs, colic,
hysteria, suppressions, &c. ; and, externally, in
sprains, bruises, Ac.

BWEET'BBEAl). The thymus gland of the
ealf. When boiled, it is light and digestible;
but when highly dressed and seasoned it is
improper both for dyspeptics and invalids
(JVrCTfa).

SWKST ?LAS. Sgn. AooBVB OAiAinrs, L.
A plant of the Natural order OBONTiAcms. The
rhizome ('root*) is an aromatic stimulant, and is
regarded by some as a valuable medicine in agues,
md as a useful adjunct to other stimulants and
bitter tonics. It is sometimes employed by the
rectifiers of gin. The volatile oil obtained from
it by distillation is employed for scenting snuff,
and in the preparation of aromatic vinegar,
- SWEETMEATS. Under this head are properly
indnded confections, candies, and preserves in
sugar; but, as generally employed, the word
embraces all the sweet compounds of the confec-
tioner.

Sweetmeats, as well as cakes, blancmange, and
JelUes, are not nnirequently coloured wi<£ dele-

terious substances, the consequences of which are
always pemidoos, and in many instaaoes have
proved fatal. Qamboge, • drastic eatiiartic;
chrome yellow, red-lead, orpimsnt, emerald gireen,
and various other pigments containing lead,
arsenic, copper, or other p<nsoBs, have been thus
employed. The whole <d these may be readily
detected by the tests and characteristics appended
to their respective names.

The colours and stuns which may be aafelj
employed to increase the beaaty of these artades
are noticed under Staisb and Lnjtmrx.

BWJMcTS. Home-made wines ; British wine*.

SWDTE-POX. See Pox.

STSEBHAJf'S LEN'inVS. Frep. Hike of
rhubarb (recently grated or powdered), S dr.;
tamarinds, 8 oz. ; senna, i oz.; coriander seeds
(bruised), 2 dr. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; macerate
for S hours in a covered vessel, and strain. An
excellent stomachic and laxative. — Zioae, i to I
wineglassfuL

STLTIC ACID. Syn. BzLYlO AOn>. The
portion of common resin or colophony which is
the least soluble in cold and somewhat dilnte
alcohoL

8TICB0LS, in eHemutry, are representations
of one atom of each of the dementary bodies by
the capital initial letter, with or without the
addition of a small letter, at their Latin names :
as C, for carbou ; Fe (/smm), iron ; O, ft^ya.
Am.

Symbols, AlchemicaL — The following list of
alchemical and botanical symbols and sbbcevia-
tions is a reprint at that contained in the ' Lexieon
of Terms tued in Medidne and the Allied Sci-
ences,' now bdng published by the New ^den-
ham Society, under the editorship of Henry

, H.B., and Leonard W

. Sedgvrick, M.D

Aoetnm

*

Acetnm destillatnm

»i»al

Acidnm

• +

Air . . .

h

Aerugo

e

.Ether

• r»

Alembic

■xx

Alnmen

• o

Amalgama .

Ammonium

W-

Aqua . . . .

V

Aqua fortis .

w

Aqua plavialis .

^p

Aqua regia .

^R

Arena.

,'.

Aigentum • . •

»

Arsenicum * •

o-o

Aurantium • •

Orn,Tit.

Anripigmentam .

o=o

Anrum.

©

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8TUBOLS

16>7

Bain. aicDB

Bain. maruB

Bain. vapoiiB

Baiyte

Bumiith

Borax.

Caloaria

Calcariansta

Camplion

Cancer

Capnt mortnum

Cartw.

Carbonionm

OaichiDi benedictos

Card. Kaiianna

C«ra .

CSnia .

Cinis daTellatnni

Cimubar

Carancerri

CristalU

Cmcibalnm

CapmAi

DictOIare .

Fevnua

ilotile

Fixom

Ilorei.

Gammi

Horit .

Hydrargjrtun

Hydr. cUoridom

Eydr. corrodTiun

Ignis .

KUi .

Lqds.

Lithargymm

Hagnmia

Magnet

Menstruiun

Natmm

mtmm

Olenm

Ozidatom

Osidnlatani

Per deliqniam

B .:•.

BM

BV

y

Vva
69

^

B-

0.(
XII6

u •
?

iire

<?

Fict.

T
FI-

A

V

(D

o

Xdal:
Xdul-
Pd-

Plnmbam .

IVecipitare .

Preparare .

Polvig

Begnlos

Beeina

Betotta

Sacobarum .

Sal .

Sal ammonUc

Sal kali .

Sal medins .

Sapo .

S^tns

Spiritas rectificatiasimua

Spiritns lactiilcatiu

Spiritaa vini

Stannnm

Stilnam

Stratnm super stratam

SabUmare .

Snccinnm .

Salpbnr

Tutaraa

Teira.

Tenafoliata

nnctnia

TTrina .

Ustare

Yitriolnm .

■Vitrnm

Volatile

Zlncnm

69.
A

//

&

-i, •"•

VV
It

i<>
8, 8, 8.

.£i>

Y

•E
El

CO

X
A

6

C^bels and Abbrerlations, Botanloai.

0 Jtonoearp. A plant wbicb pTOdncei
seed only once daring its life. Tbe
symbol representing the snn.
^ (X) ^nnuaL A monocarp wbich dial in
-^ ' the same year that it germinated,
e.g.KMttord.
■B. ® BienniaL A monocarp which prodnoes
leaves onb/ the first yeai,and perfecta
its seed the next, e. g. 3£mllti».
p PermmiaL A plant which produces
seed for an indefinite nunber of
years, e.g..4{ip2«.
V SUtoearp, A perennial, the stems of
which die down to the gronnd ereiy
year, e. g. SJMarb, Mint. The sym-
bol representingr Jopiter, which has
a period of rerolation roond the ion
of twelye years.

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1688

STMPATHBTIC DfTK— STBUP

•>i Vamlocarf. A perenniml, tha ttemi of
which are permtent throoghout the
whole of ita life. e. g. Apple. The
■ymbol repreeenting Satan, the
period of reroliitioit of whieh looiid
the ion ia thirty yean.
TT Sarb, A pUmt, Uie (tenia of which re-
main ion or mcciilent, e. g. Mini or
Itkmbari.
g O Skrub. A phuit in whieh the atema
' are woody, and which nanally divide

near the gronnd into numerooa
btsnchee and twiga, e. g. Lilae,
Q Undar-ikmb. Aamallahmb; one that
doea not grow more than three feet
in height, e. g. Oooitbarrg.
^ C Tne. A plant which growa to twenty
* feet or more in bdght, having a

woody atem forming a diatinet tnmk,
e. g. Oak.
^ A climbing plant which followa the ann,

e. g. Sop.
r\ A climbing plant which movea agunat

the aun, e. g. Searltt nuMMr.
> Flowera having atamenaonly (nniaetnal,
ataminiferona, or male), e. g. male
flowera of Bow. The aymbol repre-
aenting Mara, the period of revola*
tion of which ia two yean.
p Flowera having piatUa only (oniaexnal,
piatillate, or female), e. g. female
flowera of Sot. The lymDoI repre-
aenting Venna.
X Flowen having both atamena and piatila
^ (biaexual or hermaphrodite), e. g.

JM<*re«p.
J Abortive ataminiferona flowen (nea-
ter),
p Abortive piatillate flowen (nenter), e. g.
the floreta of the ny in Dougr.
« _ p Monoecioua planta, producing male and
^ female flowen npon the aame indi-

, vidnal, e. g. Son.
* , p Dioaciona planta, prodndng male and
' female flowera, bat apon aeparate

in^ndoala, e. g. Willow.
>f « p Polygamooa planta, which prodnoe her-
* ^ * maphrodite and nniamtnal flowen
npon the aame or different indivi-
daala, e. g. AtriplaM.
OQ Indeflnite in number ; applied to ata-
mena and other parta of flowera.
r\ ^ Cotyledona accnmbent, radicle lateral.

Q II „ incumbent, „ doraaL

„ condaplieate, ,, „

twice folded, „
thrice folded, „

o>

OH II
Oil II U

yTrimeioaa, applied to flowen when the
whorla of the flower are mnltipleB of
three, aa in moat endogena.

yPentamerona, applied to flowen when
the whorla of the flower are moltiplea
of five, as in exogens generally,
fiab., Babington.
Berk., Berkeley.
Br., Brown.

Oal, calyx.

Caol., eanlia, stem.

CL, claasis, claaa.

Cor., oorolla.

Cdv., Cavier.

DC., or De Cand., De Candolle.

Endl., Endlicher.

Fam., family.

Fr., frnetna, frnit.

Oen.f genns.

Hook., Hooker.

Jaaa., Juaaieo.

L, or Linn., liantaaa.

LindL, Lindley.

Nat. Ord., Natural order.

O. or Ord., ordo, order.

Per., perianthua, perianth.

Bad., radix, root.

iUch., Kchard.

Sp. or Spec., apeciea.

Snbk,, aabkingdom.

Suboid., aabo^er.

Var., varietas, variety.

V. s. c, vidi aiecam coltam, a dry cnltavated plant

v. s. s., vidi docam spontaneam, a dried speeunen

■een.
v. T. c, vidi vivam coltam, a living enltiTated

plant seen.
y. V. a., vidi vivam spontaneam, a living wild

plant seen.
Willd., Willdenow.
Wift., Withering.

SYMPATHETIC IVZ. See Tick.

SYVAPTASX. <%«. Eiirxanr. The name
g^ven by Bobiqoet to the Bxvunr, a idtiD-
geniaed or albnmimrfd priadple exiating in both
the bitter and aweet almond. It poesesaes the
remarkable property of converting amygdalin, in
the presence of water, into hydrMyanie acad and
the essential oil of bitter almands; 100 gr. of
amygdalin yield, under the inflaence of symqitase
and water, 47 gr. of raw oil, and B-9 gr. of
anhydrona hydro^nnic acid (ZMig).

STV'COFX. See FAranva.

STSUronr. a glnoonde obtained from the bark
of Sj/rii^a vulfiarU (lilac) and X^wtfrnm vn^an,
occurring in white crystalline needles, readily
soluble in hot water and in alcohol, but inaolaUe
in ether. It doea not appear to be pcuaonoua,
and has been recommended aa a febrifuge in
malaria; bat little ia known at preaent aa to it*
propertaea, doae, Sco.

STXITP. i^n. Sntrp, SiBOP ; Stxufob, L.
A saturated, or nearly aaturated, solution of sosar
in water, either simple, flavoured, or medUeated.

In the preparation of syrups caie should be
taken to employ the best refined sugar, firee from
lime and ultramarine, and either distilled water
or Altered rain-water; by which they will be
rendered much less liable to spontaneous deoom-
poutien, and will be perfectly transparent, with-
out the trouble of clarification. When inferior
sugar is employed, clarification is always neces-
sary. This is best done by dissolving the sngar
in tite water, or other aqueous menstrunm, in the
cold, and then beating up a little of tlie cold
tjmjf with some white of egg, and an ounce or
tnro of oold water, until the xuxture froths well;

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8TBUP

1680

this most be added to the Byrap in the boiler, and
the whole 'whiiked up' to a good froth; heat
Bhonld now be applied, and the acum which forms
removed f lom time to time with a clean ' akimmer.'
As aoon as the syrup b^ins to slightly simmer it
xntist be removed fnqn tiie flre, and allowed to
stand nntil it has cooled a little, when it ahoold
be again skimmed, if necessary, and then passed
throogh clean flanneL When vegetable infusions
or solutions enter iqto the composition of symps,
they should be rendered perfectly transparent oy
filtration or clarification before being added to
the sugar.

H. Magnes-IiBhens ('Oerm. Pharm. Chem.,'
4th Series, xv, 140; 'Year-book Phar.,' 1872)
deacribes below a process for the clarifloition of
■ympa, the originator of which was M. Demarest,
a pharmacien. The process is as follows : — White
unsized paper is beateu op into a pulp with a
portion of the syrup, and then mixed with the
bulk. The proportion of paper should be one
gram to every litre of syrup; and the latter
ahoold be maintained at a tempetatore of 85° to
40° C.

A Alter of moleskin capable of holding about
one third of the volume of the syrup, and having
the form of an inverted sugar-loaf, is supported
over a suitable reoratacle ; the syrup with the
pulp is poured rapi£y into it, so as to fill it as
qaiokly as posnble ; and the filter is kept full so
long as any of the syrup remains. When the
greater part has run through, and but little
remains in the filter, and consequently the ' felting'
of the paper pulp is complete, the syrup whidi
has already run tiirongh is again poured into the
filter. The liqnid which now passes ia perfectiy
hright, and may be collected. In pouring the
•ymp into the filter, the stream should be dirccted
into the middle, and not upon the sides, so as to
avoid disarranging the felt, which would interfere
with the success of the operation.

The author very strongly recommends this
method for the clarification of all kinds of syrups ;
its advantages being that it results in a perfectly
limpid liquid, and that it involves neither trouble
nor loss of time or materiaL He states that in
4 or S hours, with a filter of 8 litres in capacity,
24 Utreii of syrup may be clarified.

The small quantity of syrup retained in the
filter and pulp may be recovered by pouring on
a sufficient quantity of warm w«te^ pressing
strongly, evaporating the liqnid to a syrupy con-
aistonce, beating up with a Uttie paper piUp, and
passing it again throngh a small filter.

The proper quantity of sugar for syrups will,
in general, be found to be 2 lbs. (avoir.) to every
imperial pint of water or thin aqueous fluid. These
proportions, allowing for the water that is lost by
evaporation during the process, are those best
.calculated to produce a syrup of the proper con-
^tenoe, and possessing good ' keeping qualities.'
They closely correqxmd to those recommended by
Ouibonrt for the production of a perfect syrup,
which, he says, consists of 30 parts of sugar to
16 parts of water.

In the preparation of syrups it is of great
importance to employ as litUe heat as possible,
as a solution of sugar, even when kept at the
temperature of boiD^ water, undergoes slow

decomposition. The pUn which we adopt is to
pour the water (cold) over the sugar, and to
allow the two to Ue together for a few hours in
a covered vessel, occasionally stirring, and then
to apply a gentle heat (preferably that of steam
or water bath) to finish the solution. Some
persons (falsely) deem a syrup ill prepared unless
it has been sllowed to boil well; but if this
method be adopted, the ebullition should be only
of the gentlest kind (' simmering '), and should
be checked after the lapse of 1 or 2 minutes.

Mr Orynski recommends the preparation of
all symps without the application of heat, u
follows :

Introduce 80 or 32 oz. of sugar (according to
the temperature) into a percolator, in which hat
been previously introduced a piece of lint or
sponge, well adjusted, and gradually pour on. 16
oz. of liquid, so as to make the percolate (synm)
pass drop by drop. If the first liquid is tnrbi^
pour it back into the percolator till the syrup
passes clear.

The advantages claimed for this process are—'
First, the syrups are clear, and there is no neoea*
uty for purifying them.

Secondly, they possess their medicinal pro*
perties unaltered; since many drugs may be
Injured by heat, more especially aromatics, and
those containing readily volatile substaocesi
and —

Thirdly, the symps will neither crystallise nor
ferment ; and may be prepared in large qnantityt
provided the vessels or botties are dean before
filling them with symp.

When it is necessary to thicken a syrap hg
boiling, a few fragments of glass should be intnv
dneed, in order to lower the boiling-point.

To make highly transparent syrups, the sugar
should be in a smgle lump, and, by preference^
taken from the bottom or broad end M the loaf,
as, when taken from the smaller end, or if it b«
powdered or bruised, the syrup will be more or
less cloudy.

A fl. 01. of SAxnuTBD BTBUF weighs S77i gr. t
a gaU. weighs 18^ lbs. (avoir.) ; its sp. gr. is 1-380,
or 36° of Banm^'s aerometer; its boiling-point is
221° F., and its density at the temperature of
212° is 1-260 to 1-261, or ftOP Baum& The syrups
prepared with the juices of fruits, or which con-
tain much extractive matter,, as those of sana«
parilla, poppies, &c., mark about 2° or 8° more on
Banmi's scale than the other symps.

In most pharmaceutical works directions axis
given to completely saturate the water with sugar.
Our own experience, which is extensive, leads na
to disapprove of such a practice, since we find
that, under all ordinary drcumstences, a symp
with a yen slight excess of water keeps better
than pne folly satorated. In the latter cas« a
portion ctf sugar generally crystallises oot cm staiuU
ing, and thus, by abstracting sugar from the re-
mainder of the symp, so weakens it that it rapidly
f ermente and spoils. This change proceeds with a
rapidity proportionate to the temperature. Satu-
rated symp kept in a vessel that is frequentijr
uncorked or exposed to the air soon loses sufficient
water, by evaporation from its surfoce, to caoaethe
formation of minute crystals of sugar, which, fall-
ing to the bottom of the vessel, continue to increase

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IMO

8TBUP

in (iM at the ezpenie of the ragarintlMaQliitioii.
We ]i»Te Men s single 6'^pUL itone bottle, in
whieh orap 1>m been kept for aoine time, the
iniide of which, when broken, hu been foond to
be entilely eeeed with rager'-ouidy, amoimtingin
weight to 16 or 18 Ibf . (ta the other hand, (jrapa
eontaining too mach water alio mindly ferment,
•ad become acewent; bnt of the two thii ii the
leeeererU, and may be more eaaily prevented. The
vn^ortion* of ragar and water given above wQl
form an excellent lynip, provided care be taken
that an undue quanti^ be not loet by evapora-
tion.

The decimal part of the number denoting the
•p. ST. of a lyrnp, multiplied by 88, gives the
Bomber of pound* of lugar it wmtains per gaU.
very nearly (Dr»).

In boiling s^pi, if they appear likdy to boil
over, a little oil, or rubbing the edges of the pan
with soap, will prevent it.

filyrup* may be decoloured by agitation with, or
filtration throogh, recenUy bomt animal chareoaL
Kedicated symps slioold not, however, be treated
in this way.

The preservation of 9mps,as well as of all
other saccharine solutions, is best promoted by
keeping them in a moderately cool, but not a veiy
cold, idaoe. " Let symps be kept in vessels well
chieed, and in a situation where the tenperature
never rises above 65° ¥." (Fh. L.V They are
better kept in smaller rather than in large bottles,
»a tiie longer a bottle lasts the more fr^nently it
wiU be opened, and, consequently, tiie more it will
be eipoeed to the air. By bottlbtf syrups whilst
billing hot, and immediately corking down and

SQg the botUes over with bladder perfectiy air-
h^ they may be preserved, even at a summer
hett, for years, without fermenting or losing their
Innsparency.

The 'candying,' or esystallisation, of syrup,
unless it be over-satmated with sugar, may be pro-
vented by the addition of a little acetic or citric
add (2 or 8 dr. per gall.).

"But fermentation of symps may be eSectoally
prevented by the addition of a little sulphite of
potassium or of caldum. H. Chereaa recommends
the addition of some (about 8% to i%) sugar of
milk with the same intention. FermeatUng symps
may be immediately restored by ezpomig the
vessel containing them to the temperature of
boiling water.

Oyrap of Ae'etate of Kor'phia. %>. Srxtrvua
■Kovesax aoiiaiu, L. iVm. (Ph. D.) Solu-
.tion of acetate of morphia, 1 fl. oi. ; simple syrup,
15 fl. ox. ; mix. £a(ji fl. os. contains i gr. of
MWtate.— J>0M, i to 8 teaspoonftils.
' lynp of Al'mond. 8f. Bakuy btxvp, Ob-
■eiax; Stsvpub axtsdaiiB, L.j Sibop d'ox-
«1AT, Fr. rnp. 1. Sweet almonds, 1 lb.{ bitter
«Imonds, 1 m.; blanch, beat them to a smooth
pastes and make an emulsion with barley-water,
1 vmrt; strain, to each pint add of sugar, 8 lbs.,
and a table-spoonful or two of orange-flower
.water; put the miztnre into small bottles, and
■ttreserve it in a cool place. Some persons add a
little bran^.

' 2. (Fh. Bor.) Sweet almonds, 8 ox.; bitter
Almonds, 2 oz. ; blanch them after oold macera-
tioB, then beat them in a marble mortar, witii a

lO

wooden pestle, to a paste, adding gndnstlly ot
water, 16 fl. oi. ; orange-flower water, 8 fl. oc ;
after straining through flannel diasdre 8 lbs. ot
sugar in each pint of the emoIsiOB. An agiweable
pectoral and demulcent.

4rmp of Aniseed, ^im. Bnvrm axkbt, I^
Prtp. Infuse ) oi. of bruised aniseed in 4 «>■. of
hot water, strain, and add 2 dr. of sngar.

Symp, Astisaotbvtie. Spt. Bxxvfub .
BOOBBUTioirs, L. (P. Ood.). ftf. Scarry-i
watereresses, horseradish, all fresh, of eac
OS. J buekbean, 1 ot. j bitter orange peel. 8 oa. ;
cinnamon, \ ox.; white wine, *0 os. (by weiglit) ;
macerate 2 days, and distil off 10 oLCij wei^t) ;
then add to the distillate, sugar, 8B os.; strmin
the residue left in the retrat, decant and msike
into a symp with another 26 os. of sugar; ciniity
with white of egg, and wlksm ooU add to it the
f Mmer symp.— £m«, 4 dr.

Syrap of Balsam of Pern. Sg*. 8x«uruB
BAXBAJCi PsBtmAVi (Ph. G.), L. trtf. Ttalsam
of Peru, 1 01.; boiling water, 11 ox.; digest
with frequent agitation till cold, and form 10 os.
of the filtered liquid into a syrup with 18 os. of
sugar.

Symp of Bark. 8g». Stswui oiaaao>« (P.
Cod.), L. Prtp. Calisaya bark, 1 os.; perco-
late with 10 OL of proof spirits {"99(1), and then
with water, so as to yield 10 ox. of liquid ; distil
off spirit, filter, and add 10 ox. of sugar ; rednee-
by a gentle heat, so as to obtain IB} oa. (by-
weight) of product.

Bymp of Bark, Tinona. Bjfn. 8(biim)B cor-
CBOirx TIHOBUS (P. Cod.), L. Prtp. Soft
extract of bark, 1 ox. ; white wine^ 2 ]unts 8 ox. ;
dissolve, filter, add S\ lbs. of white sugar, and
dissolve by a water-bath.

8ynp of TtTlii*'™"* 8gn. STsmrra vmlll-
■DOmm (P. Cod.), L. Tineturo of belladonna
(P. Cod.), t ox. (by weight); symp, 10 ox. (by
weight).

^np, Boyle's. See Stxvp, SnmnTio.

^mp of Bromide sf Ina. 8g». SxsiTFva
n&u BBOKlsi (B. P. C), L.' Prtp. Iron wirs^
free from oxide, \ ox. ; bromine^ 688 gr. ; refined
sugar, 14 ox. ; distilled water, q. s. Dissolve the
sugar in 6 ox. of distilled water bv the heat of a
water-bath ; put the iron wire witJi 4 ox. of dia*
tilled water into a glass flask, havfaig a capacity
of at least 1 ^t,imd surround it with oold water;
then add the bromine in successive quantities;
shake occasionally until the froth beoomea white
and the reaction is complete ; filter the solution
into the warm symp, and add, if neoessaiy, dis.
tilled water suincient to produce 1 junt. Bscb
fl. dr. contains about 4i gr. of bromide of iron.
—Vott, i to 1 fl. dr.

Bymp of Bnok'thom. Syu. Snupva bhambi

(B. P., Ph. L. & E.), S. BHAKXI OATKABnOI, L.

Prtp, 1. (Fh. L.) Juice of buckthorn, defe-
cat«l by S days' repose, 8 quarts ; ginger and all-
spice, of each (bruised), 6 dr. ; macerate the spice
in 1 pint of the iuioe, at a gentle heat, »r 4
hours, and filter ; boil the remiinder of the joiee
to li pints, mix the liquors, disitolve thertin of
white sugar, 6 lbs., and add to the (nearlyoold)
symp 6 fl. ox. of rectified s^rit. In the Fh. B.
the spirit is omitted.
8. (Wholesale.) a. Take of boekthom joios.

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STBUP

1641

8 galll. ; tmiiaed pimento and ginger (lifted from
the diut), of each, i lb. ; nmnter for 15 minntee,
stTBio, and add of logar, 44 Iba.

ft. Take of buckthorn jniee, S galb. ; heil to
8 gaUa.; add of bruised pimento and ginger
gmfb (tree from dnst), of each, { lb.; }tcSl to
1 galL, stnin, add molaaaea, 72 Ibe., and ibish
the hdling.

Obt. Symp of haekthom is a hriak hnt on-
pleaaant cathartic. It if now chiefly need in
TeterinaiT practice. ^Dom, ^ il. oi. to 1 fl. qz.
Shonld the colonr be dnU, the addition of a few-
grains of citric or tartaric acid will brighten it.
Sjrap «r Btttyl-eUonL 8gn. Bncvwa vottl-
0HIiORAI.(B.P.C.),L. iV«p. Hydrate of batyl-
chloral, 820 gr. ; lyrap, sniBdent to piodnce 1
pint; disidye the hydrate of bntyl-chloral in
the lyrup, previoasly made hot — JboM, 1 to 4
fl. dr.

Symp of Oabbage-tree Bark. 8jfn. STBvrva
QjmrwaoYX (Dr Wright), L. Pnp. Decoction
of cabbage-tree bark made into a symp with
twice its weight of sogar. Vermifng^ — JDoit, 1
to 4 table-spoonfnb.

Syrap of Cahinea. Bgn. Stbttpitb oAHitrox
{Stmbeirtm), L. Prep. Alcoholic extract of
eahinca, 64 gr. ; syrup, 16 m. ; diisolre the ex-
tract in a little water, and add the solotion to the
boiling symp. — Don, 1 oz. daily.

Byrap of CapUlalre'. Sj/n. Stbvt oviutDiH-
HAiB; STBUPirg ADiAwn, Stbvpits oapii;.
Losmc VissBn, L.; CinLnam, Sibop s>
OAnXLAiBB, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Canadian
maidenhair (AdiaiUim pedatum, Linn.}, 4 oz. ;
boiling water, H pints; infnse, strain, add of
white sogar, 6 lb*., and poor the boiling clarified
symp over 2 oz. more of mudenhair; rs-infase for
2 hours, and again strain.

Obt. Demulcent. Clarified syrup flavonred
with orange-flower water or cnraooa u now com-
monlj sold for CAPnxAisn. It Is usually ' put
np' in small bottles of a peculiar shape, known
in the trade as ' capillaires.' It is now chiefly
used to sweeten and flavour grog. See Cafil-

IiUBI.

9ynp of Car'rageen. l^. Stbvp ot Ici-
■tiXB KOBB. Prep. Boil horehound, 1 oz. ; liver-
wort, 6 dr., in water, 4 pints, for 16 minutes j
express and strain; then add carrageen (pre-
▼ioosly softened with cold water), 6clr. ; again
boil for 16 minutes, strain through flannel, and
add sogar, 1 lb., to each pint. An agreeable
demnleent in congbs.

Synp of Casean Sagntda. Sj/n. STBTTPva
0A80ASA BASBASA (B. P. C), L. Take of liquid
extract of caseara sagrada, 4 fl. oz.; liquid extract
of liquorice, 3 fl. oz. ; carminative tincture, 8 fl.
dr. ; symp, sufficient to produce 1 ^t. Mix. —
Doss, 1 to 4 11. dr.

Symp of Castor, Compooad. Bfn. SxmrvB
OABTOBit ooMTOBixra (Xe&roa), L. IVsp.
Valerian water, 6 oz. ; cherry laurel water, 8| oz. ;
castor (dissolved in a sufficient quanti^ of spirit),
8 dr. ; white sugar, 16 oz. In spasmodic asthma.
• Symp of Cateehn. Sgn. Btbvfub oatbcrt;
(P. Cod.), L. Prep. Extract eatechn, H oz.;
syrnp, 61b«.j dissolve the extract in double its
weight of water, and add to the symp.

I^fnp of Chamomile. 8gn. Byxmvt AVtm-

KIDIB (P. Cod.^, L. Prep. Chamomile flowers,
dried, 1 lb.; boiling water, 10 lbs.; macerate,
strain with expression, and form the infusion into
a syrap with twice its weight of sngpar.

Syrap of Chloral Hydrate. %•. SxBOPirs
OHLOBAUB HTDBATIB (B. Ph.), L. Pr«p. Hy-
drate of chloral, 80 gr.; distilled water, 1| fl.
dr. ; syrup, to measure 1 fl. oz. — Vote, i fl. ^. ta
8fl. dr.

Synp of Chloride of Una, 8y». SYuvm
OULOaaa OALCn (Dr Beii), L. Prep. Liquid
chloride of lime, 1 dr.; mncUsge, 8 dr.; syrap of
orange peel, 10 dr.

Symp of Cinehonine. Sj/n. Stbttfttb onroHO*
siSM (P. Cod.), L. Prep. Sulphate of dn-
choniue, 20 gr.; syrap, 16 oz. (by weight).

Symp a atrate of QdMae. iS^. Sybvpub
OAmnrji onsATU (Smtmrn), L. Prep, Citrate
of caffdne, 1 scrapie; syrup, 1 oz.

Symp of Citrate of Iron and Ammonia. Sjfm,.
Stbttpub fbbbi bt JumoviM citbatib (Beral),
L. Prep. Ammonio-dtrate of iron, i OS.; syrap,
9i OZ. (by weight) ; cinnamon water, i oz.

Syrap of Citrate of Iron and Qniiilne. ^n.
SrSLWVa tbbbi xt Qunrrs citbatib, L. A syrap
is prepared by Mr Bullock nnder this name, but
its composition has not been made known. An-
other form is citrate of iron and qninine, 1 oz. ;
syrup of orange peel, 1 pint (SeaiUg).

Syrap of Cifrle Acid. Sjin. Stbitfub Aoroi
OITBIOI (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.") Take of
dtric add (in powder) and distilled water, of
each, 21 oz. ; dinolve, add the solution, together
with tincture of lemon peel, S fl. dr., to nmple
syrap, 8 pints, and mix with agitation. An
agreeable reMgerant. Used for sweetening
barley-water, &c., and for flavouring water to be
used as a beverage in fevers and other inflamma-
toiy diseases.

Syrap of Cloves. Sgn. Stbttpitb oabtophtlu
(Ph. E.), L. Prep. Clove July flowers, 1 troy
oz. ; boiling water, 4 oz. ; macerate for 12 hours,
strain, and add sugar, 7 oz. ; make a syrap. Used
for its colour and ilavonr.

Syrap of CoehlneaL Sgn. Strvvvb coooi-
KBIXJB, S. COCCI (Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.)
Take of cochineal (braised), 80 gr. ; boiling dis-
tilled water, 1 pint; boil for 16 minutes in a
closed vessel, strain, and add of sugar, 8 lbs., or.
twice that ot the strained liquor; lastly, when
the syrup has cooled, add of rectified spirit, 2i
fl. oz., or i fl. dr. to each fl. oz. of syrap. Used
as a colouring syrap, and often sold for btbvf

07 OLOTB praxs.

Syrap of CocUsea], Alkaline. Sjf*. Stbupvs
COCCI AiSAUinrB, L. Prtp, Cochineal, in
powder, 2 scraples; carbonate of potash, in
powder, 4 scruples; triturate, and add boiling
distilled water, 16 oz. ; strain, and add 4 oz. of
sugar-candy. A popular domestic remedy for
whooping-cough.^Do<«. From a teaspoonful to
a tablespoonf ul, according to the age of the child,

8 or 4 times a day.

Syrap of Codcise. Sjfn. Sybupttb ooDBura
(B. P. C), L. Take <a coddne, in powder, 20
gr.; proof spirit, li fl. oz.; distilled water, 1^
fl. oz.; dissolve, and add syrap, suffident to pro*
duoe 1 pint.— Dow, i to 2 fl. dr.

Syrap of Cod-Ur«r OIL Slj/n. BTJtvrua olbi

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1048

8TEUP

UOSBMVJB {Ihielot), L. Pfwp. Mix S parti of
powdered gum with 4 puti of simple symp;
■dd 8 porta of cod-liver oil, tritnrate till per-
fectly mixed, gradually adding 18 partf of water ;
lastly, dinolve in the emulaion 24 oz. of mgar by
means of a gentle beat. In the same manner may
Ix prepared syrnps from the oil of skate, castor
oil, &c.

Symp of Coffee. 8^ Stbvfvs OAmm, h,
iVop. Concentrated infusion of fresh-roasted
cofiee, 4 oz. ; refined sugar, 8 os. ; dissolved in a
closed vessel by a gentle heat.

Bymp of Colehienm. Sf*- Sxumri oolohici
(Ph. E. 1817), L. Prq>. Fresh colehienm, 1
oz.; vinegar, 16 oz. ; macerate for 2 days, and
strain with gentle expression; add to the clear
Uqnor 26 oz. of sugar, and boil.

Synp of Colts'foot. Sgn. BrsurvB ttbsiu-
eiHIB, L. JVep. (P. Cod.) Flowers of colts-
foot, 1 lb, (or dried flowers, 2 oz.); boiling water,
8 lbs.; macerate for 12 hours; strain, press,
filter, and add of white sugar, 4 lbs. A popular
remedy in coughs, colds, &c — J>ou, 1 to 2 table-
spoonfuls, ad Mitum.

Symp of Copaiba. ^Sy*. Stbutvb oopuBJt
(Pmcm), L. Prq>. Triturate 2 oz. of copaiba
with I oz. of powdered gum and li oz. of water ;
add 32 drops of essence of pej^iermint, and 12 oz.
of simple syrnp.

Symp of Corsiean Kois. Syn. STBrpim
Hii,icivTE000BTi (P. Cod.}, L. Macerate 1 lb.
of cleansed Corsiean moss in H lbs. of boiling
water; in six hours strain. Macerate the residue
in sufficient boiling water, so as to obtain, in-
cluding the product of the first maceration, 2}
lbs., in which dissolve 5 lbs. of sagar.

.STnp of Cream. Pnp. Finely powdered lump
sugar mixed with an equal weight of fresh cream.
It will keep for a long time if put into bottles,
and closely corked and sealed over. It is com-
monly placed in 2-oz. wide-mouthed phials, and
taken on long voyages, a fresh phial being opened
at every meal.

Bymp of Dittany. Sgn. Stbxttub diotaxiti,
L. From dittany of Crete as btbuf ov etbbof.

Symp of Dnleamara. iSly». Stbitx o> biitbb-
8WBIT ; Stbufub sui^axabs, L. As stbvf ov

COBSICAS X08B.

Bymp, Easton'i. See StbuS o> thb Phob-
PHATBB OP Ibon, Qxnsim, and Stbtohkhtb.

^mp of Smetina. Syn. Sybupt7B BXxmrjB
(P. Cod.), L. iVsp. Coloured emetine, 12 gr. ;
syrup, 17i oz. (by weight) ; mix.

Symp, Impyrenmaf ic. Treacle.

^mp of bgotine. Syn. Stbutttb XBOomix
(Sonjean), L. Prep. Ergotine (watery extract
of ergot), 2 dr. ; orange-flower water, 1 oz. ; dis-
lolve, and add the solution to 16 oz. (by weight)
of boiling syrup. — Dott, 2 to 4 spoonfuls in the
day.

^rmp ofE'tber. Ih/n. Stbvpvb xthbbib, S.

M. BUIiPSUBIOI, L. ; 81BOP D'iTHBB, Fr. iVep.
(P. Cod.) Sulphuric ether, 1 part ; white (simple)
symp, 16 parts; place them in a glass vessel
having a tap at the bottom, shake them frequently
for 5 or 6 days, and then draw off the clear syrup
into small bottles.— Z>oM, i to 3 fl. dr.

Symp of EncalyptM. SfH. Stbupub BtroA-
lYPTl eioBtJil, L. Prep. 1. 100 gr. of the

chopped leaves are infused for 6 hours im 1 litT«
of bmling water, the liquid expressed, and sf to-
allowing it to deposit, it is made into a symp by
the addition of 190 grms. of sugar for lOO grmm.
of the clear liquid.

2. (DorvauU.) Distilled water of eucalyptxu,
60 psirU ; sugar, 96 part* ; dissolve.

^mp, InstoB's. See Stbct of Phospsaxx op
Ibon with QuntxBB avd Sibyohbla.

Symp of FanneL Sgn. SxBUPra nxFncvLi
(Ph. O!), L. Prn>. Infuse bruised fennel seed.
2 6a., in 12 oz. of boiling water for 8 boon; atxaln
off 10 oz., and dissolve it in 18 oz. sugar.

Symp of Foxglove. Sjytt. Stbupcb nisiTAzas
(P. Cod.). L. Prep. Tincture of foxglove (P.
Cod.), 4 <»• (by weight) ; ^yrup, 20 en. (by
weight).

Bymp of Fnaiitoty. Sy. Sybvpvb pubcastb
(P. Cod.), L. Prep. Clarified juice of fumitory,
1 lb. ; white sugar, 2 lbs.; boil to a symp.

Symp of Oarlle. 8yu. Stbupvs aujz (Ph.
n. S.), L. iVsp. Ghfflic, 6 01. (tioy); distilled
vinegar, 16 oz. (o. m.) ; macerate for 4 days; ex-
press, and form a symp with the clear liquor and
sugar, 2 troy lbs.

I^rnip of Oarlie, Compoimd. £^a. SYXcrm

ALLU OOXPOSITITB, L.; Db. WILL'b BYBTTP. Pf^.

Garlic (cut small), ^ oz. ; bruised aniseed, i o. ;
elecampane root, 8 dr.; liquorice root, 8 dr.;
brandy, 24 oz. ; digest for 2 or S days, strain, and
form a syrup with 11 lbs. of sugar.

Symp of Oin'ger. 8y%. Stbuftb xnroiBKBiB
(B. P., Ph. L., E., ft D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. U)
Bruised ginger, 2) oz.; boiling water, 1 pint;
macerate for 4 boars, strain, and add of white
sugar, 21 lbs., or q. s. ; and rectified spirit, as
directed for symp of oochineaL The Ph. E. omits
the spirit.

2. (Ph. D.) Tincture of ginger, 1 fl. as.;
simple syrup, 7 fl. oz. ; mix. Stimulant and
carminative. Chiefly used as an a4invant, in
mixtures.

3. (B. P.) Strong tincture of ^nger, 1 part;
syrup, 26 parts; mix. — Dote, 1 to 4 dr.

S^p of Onaiaenm Wood. Syn. Sxbupfs
GVAIAOI uavi (P. Cod.), L. Prep. Boil rasped
guuacnm wood, 3 oz., twice, and for an hoar each
time, in 30 oz. of water ; strain through a thick
cloth ; mix the two liquids, and concentrate until
they ore reduced to 6 oz. (by weight) ; let cool,
filter throngli paper, and add 10 oz. of sugar.

Symp of Qnanaa. 8yn. Stbitpub PAULuniB,
S. evABABX, L. Prep. Extract of gnaiana, 31
dr. ; symp, 32 oz.

Symp of Gum. 8y. Sybttpttb aoacu, L. ;
SiBOP DB OOICXB, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Dis-
solve pale and picked gum-arabic in an equal
weight of water, by a gentle heat, add the solu-
tion to 4 times its weight of simple symp, simmsr
for 2 or 8 minutes, remove the scum, and oooL A
pleasant demulcent. Theadditionof lor 2fl.az.
of orange-flower water to each pint greatly im-
proves it.

Symp of Qiun Ammoalaenm. £^11. SrBirpirs
ovxxi AXXOiriAOi (Wnrt. Ph.), L. Prep. Dis-
solve 2 oz. of gum ammoniacum in 8 oz. of white
wine, by the heat of a water-bath, and add sugar,
16 oz.

Symp of Oun TnVMaatli. Sf- SzBiTprB

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STBUP

164a

eiTXin TBASAOUTTKB (Jfonntoii), L. Prep.
Oam tragacanth, 1 oi. ; water, 82 os. ; macerate
tor 48 boon, pren throngh a linen clotb, and mix
the mocilage with 8 Iba. of lyrap, heated to 176°
F., and strain throogh ooane cloth.

Symp of fiedga-mwrtaid. 8gn. Stbuvub
BBT8IHI, L. Prep. From the expressed juice
of hedge-mustard (clarified), 1 lb. ; sngar, 2 lbs. ;
make into a symp.

Ifynip of Hedge-mutard, Compoiind. Sg*-

StBUTUB ■BTBIKI OOKPOaiTUB, L. ; SlBOI sx

TiXtkR, SiBOP SI avMSTaa (P, Cod.), Fr. Prep.
Pearl barley, raisins, liquorice root, qf each, t at. ;
«at and dried leaves of borage and chicory, of each,
1 oz. J fresh hedge-mnstaid, 15 oz. ; dried elecam-
pane root, 1 OS. ; maidenhair, i os. ; dried lavender
and rosematy tops, of each, i oz. ; green aniseeds,
^ oz. ; sugar, 20 oz..; honey, 6 oz. Boil the pearl
barUj in the water nntil it barsts,add'the raisins
and the sliced liqnorice, the borage and the
chicory, and after jast boiling strain and press.
Then ponr the strained liquid on to the other sub-
stances properly braised and cut, and let the
mixture digest for 24 hours over a water-bath ;
then ^stil, drawing over Si oz, liquid (by weight) ;
on the other hand, press and strain the liquor that
remains in the retort, clarify with white of egg,
add the sugar and hon^, and make into a syrup
that, when boiling, shaU have a sp. gr. of 1-29 ;
when nearly cold add the 2} os. of distilled liquid,
and strain. — Dote, | to 2 oz.

Synip of Hanbane. Sgn. Sybupot htob-
OTAio (P. Cod.). From the tincture (P. Cod.).as
symp of belladonna.

Syrnp, Hive. Componnd syrup of squills.

SympofHorehonnd. Sgn. 8trt7PV8 XABBiTBn,
L. ; SiBOP SB PBA88IO, Fr. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.)
Dried horehonnd, 1 oz. ; horehound water, 2 lbs. ;
digest in a water-bath for 8 hours, strain, and
add of white sugar, 4 lbs.

2. White horehound (fresh), 1 lb. j boiling
water, 1 gall. ; infuse for 2 hours, press out the
liquor, filter, and add of sugar, q. s.

Ob*. A popular remedy in coughs and diseases
of the lungs. — Dote. A table-spoonful, ad Uhi-
turn. " It IS sold for any syrup of herbs that is de-
manded, and which is not in the shop" (Orajr).

Symp of the Hydrobromatea of Iron and Qtoi-
iilae. i£y». SYBTTPca pbbbi bt QtTnrnrx ht-

SBOBBOIUTUX (B. p. C.), STBUPUB TXBBI BBO-

msi one qvihihA, L. Prep. Tkke of add
hydrobromate of quinine, 160 gr, ; diluted hydro-
bromic add, 1 fi. oz. ; distilled water, 1 fl. os.
Mix the diluted hydrobromic add with the dis-
tilled water, and in the mixture dissolve the add
hydrobromate of quinine. Then add syrup of
Momide of iron, snffident to produce 1 jnni.
Each fluid drachm eontains 1 gr. of add hydro-
bromate of qainiiM, and abont 4 gr. o^ bromide
of iron. — Dote, i to 1 fl. dr.

Syrup of tlM BydrotMromate* of Iroa, Qoiaiiie,
aad Stryehaine. ^fn. Sxbupub fbbbi qvi-
ynxm bt mxiossuiM htsbobboiutttx (B. P.
C), Stbvpttb fbbbi BBomsi era QTnjmril bt
■TBYCEirnr.1, L. Prep. Take of strychnine, in
powder, 21 gr. j acid hydrobromate of quinine^
160 gr.; diluted hydrobromic add, 1 fl. o*.; dis-
tilled water, 1 fl. oz. Mix the diluted hydro-
bromic add with tile distilled water, and in the

mixture dissolve the strychnine and add hydro-
bromate of quinine, by the aid of a gentle heat.
Then add syrup of bromide of iron, sufficient to
produce 1 pint. Each flnid drachm oontiuns
■ix gr. of strychnine, 1 gr. of add hydrobromate
of quinine, and about 4 gr. of bromide of iron. — .
Dote, i to 1 fl. dr.
Syrup of Hydroehlorata of Apomorphine. Sgn,

SXBVPITB APOXOBPHIBX HTSBOOHLOBATIB, L,

Prep, Take of hydrochlorate of apomorphine, 6
gr. ; dilute hydrochloric acid, 2 fi. dr. ; rectified
spirit, 7 fl- dr. ; distilled water, 7 fl. dr. ; syrup, 18
fl. oz. Mix the rectifled spirit and distilled water,
dissolve the hydrochlorate of apomorphine in the
mixture by agitation ; add the hydrochloric acid,
and mix with the syrup. — Dote, | to 1 fl. dr.
Syrup of Hydrochlo"rate of Xw'pUB*. ^fn,

SyBUP op mTBIATB-OP KOBPBIBB ; STBUPTTS

xoKPHLB KVBU.TIB (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.)
Solution of muriate of morphia, 1 fl. oz. ; simple
syrup, 17 fi. oz. ; mix. Bach fi. oz. contiUns i gr,
of the muriate. — Dote, ^ to 2 teaspoonfnls.

Syrup of Hydrocyanic Add. £|^». SxBTTFva
AOisi HTDBOOTAinoi, It. The Paris Codex order*
a syrup in which 200 parts (by weight) oontain

1 part (by weight) of officinal medidnal hydro-
cyanic add, containing 10% of anhydrous add.

Symp of the Hypophosphites. ^n, St&itpvs
HTPOPHOBPHinouB, L. iVep. Hypophosphito
of lime, potash, and soda, 1 ps^ each ; dissolved
with beat in ^mp, 100 parts.— 2>om, 1 dr.

Syi«p of Hypophoaphitea, Compound. i%r».
9taxnm SYtotBotrBiruM. cohfobitub (B. P.
C), L. Take of quinine ^alkaloid), 20 gr.;
strychnine, 1 gr.; hypophosphorous add, 80%,

2 fl. dr. ; strong solution of hypophosphite of
iron, 8 fi. oz.; dissolve, and add hypophosphite of
caldum, 80 gr. ; hypophosphite of manganese, 40

fr. ; hyx>ophosphite of potassium, 40 gr. ; dissolve,
Iter, and add nrup, sufficient to produce 1 pint.
Mix. Each fi. dr. contains yi, gr. of strychnine
and i gr. of quinine. — Dote, ) to 2 fl. dr.
Syrup of Hypophosphite of Iron. Sfu.

STBUpUB FBBBI HTPOPHOBFHITIB, L. Pnp.

Strong solution of hypophosphite of iron, 4 oz. ;
syrup, 16 oz. — Dote, ^ to 2 dr.

Syrup of Hyssop. Syn. STBTTPm htbbopi
(P. Cod.), L. Prep. As symp of coltsfoot.

SynpoflcdasdXoss. Syn. SYBVPUBUOHBns,
L. Iceland moss deprived of its bitterness,
1 OS. ; symp, 82 oz. Make a concentrated decoc-
tion of the moss, strain, and add the syrnp, and
boU to a proper consistence.

Symp of Indian Sarsaparilla. %>. STBVPrs
HXKiDBBia (B. P., Ph. D.), h. Prep. 1. (Ph.
D.) . Indian sarsaparilla (Mtmidetmiu Indieut,
Brown), bruised, 4 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint ;
infuse for 4 hours, and to the strained and defe-
cated infusion add twice its weight of sugar.
Tonic, diuretic, &c. — Dote, 2 to 4 fi. dr. ; in ne-
phritic complaints^ and in some others, instead of
sarsaparilla.

2. (B. P.) Hemidesmns, braised, 1 part; re<
fined sugar, 7 parts; boiUng distilled water, 5
parts ; infuse 4 hours, strain, add the sugar, and
.dissolve. The product should weigh 10^ oz., and
measure 8. Sp. gpr. 1*886. — Dote, 1 to 4 dr.

Symp of I'odlde of Iron. iSya. STBTrprrs fbbbi
lODiDi (B. P., Ph. L., B., & D.), L. Prep. 1.

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STRUF

(Fb. L.) Mix iodine, 1 ox., and iron wire, 8 dr.,
with distilled water, 8 fl. ox.; and heat the eola-
tion until it auames a greeniih oolonr; then
■train it, evaporate it to about 4 ft, ox., and add to
it of white aogar, 10 oz. ; lastly, when the eymp
bat cooled, add as much water as may be neces-
sary, that it may measure exactly 16 fl. ox., and
keep it in a weU-stoppered blick glass bottle.
The formula of the Ph. E. ft D. are nearly simi-
lar, a fl. dr. of each containing about 6 gr. of
flie pnie d^ iodide. This syrup is tonic and re-
■olveot, and hiematinic. — Dote, 16 or 80 drops to
1 fl. dr. ; in ansmia, debility, scrofula, &c.

2. (B. P.) Iron wire, 1 part; iodine, 2 parts;
refined sugar, 28 parts; distilled water, 13 parts.
Make a syrup with the sugar and 10 parts of the
water, and keep it hot. Put into a strong soda-
water bottle, covered with a doth, the iron wire,
the iodine and 3 parts of the water ; shake them
together until the froth of the mixture becomes
white ; add now 2 ox. of the syrup, and boil for
ten minutes ; filter whilst still hot into the syrup.
The product should be made up by water to weigh
48 parts, or to measure Slf parts. Sp. gr. 1886.
—ioM, 20 to 60 minims.

Bynip of Iodide of Iroa, Componnd. Ss».

SXBTJPVa VIBBI lODIDI OOMPOglTrB (SieOTtn, h.

fnp. This may be made by adding 1 ox. of the
symp to 9 ox. of compound syrup of saiaaparilla,
both by weight.

Symp of Iodide of Iron and Quinine. Sgn.
Stbvtub isbbi XI nxmna iodisi ( Bonehardat),
L. Pnp. Digest 1 dr. of iodine with i dr.
of iron filings and 4 dr. of water, with a gentle
heat and frequent agitation, till the solution is
ooloorleM. Filter it rapidly into a vessel contain-
ing 28 oz. of simple symp. Dissolve also 12 gr. of
ndphate of quinine in 2 dr. of water addnlated
wiui sulphuric acid, and add to the former.

Synp of ledlde of Mawganeae. Sgn. Stbvpttb
KAKOASBSn lODIsi (M. Mamton), L. Pure
hydrated carbonate of manganese, 1 dr.; oon-
oantrated hydriodic acid, q. s. to dissolve it. Mix
this solution with 161 ox. of sudorific syrup. —
Z>0M. • From 2 to 6 tablespoonfols daily.

Syrap of Iodide of fotastlnin Sj/n. Stbtfvb
70IABBII looisi (P. Cod.), li. Prep. Iodide of
potassium, J ox. ; water, i ox. ; symp, 9i ox. (by
weight). .

fi^mp of Iodine, i^. Stbupvb iodihii
V^<9)> !<• Prep. Compound tincture of iodine,
4 At.} mint water, 4 ox. ; syrup, 16 ox.

Byrnp of lodo-hydiargyiata of Potasilsm. <8r».

STBWUB lODO-HTDBABeTBATIS POTABBII {PtuAe),

L. Prep. lodo-hydrargrrate of potassium, 16
gr J tincture of saffron, 2t dr.; symp, 16 ox.

Symp of Ipecacnan'ha. Syn. Sybttfub ip>-
exovixsM, L. Prep. (Ph. B.) Ipecacuanha
fin coarse powder), 4 ox, ; rectified spirit, 16
fl. oz. ; digert for 24 hours at a gentle heat, and
•train ; add of proof spirit, 14 fl. ox., and again
digest and strain, and repeat the process with
water, 14 fl. ox.; distil off the spirit from the
mixed liqoors, evaporate to 12 fl. ox., and filter;
next add to the reridnum rectified spirit, 6 fl. ox.,
and simple symp, 7 pints, and mix well. — l}ate.
As an emetic for infants, ^ teaspoenful; for
•dolts, 1 to li fl. oz. ; as an expectorant, 1 to 8
teaspoonfnls.

Symp of Ipeaacwaiilia (Aeetle). Sf. Si

IFBCAOTTAICHJI AOBTIOITB (B. P. C), L. P*tp.

Take of vinegar of ipecacuanha, 1 pint; refined
sugar, 2i lbs. Dissolve by the aid of a gentle
heat. Sp. gr. about I'SS.— 2>om, i to S fl. dr.

Qyrap «f Iron and' Iodide «f Potaniwa. Sf*.
Stbupvb nooi BT voTABSu losisi, L. ^np.
Dissolve 1 ox. of iodide of potassium in 6 os. of
hot water ; add 12^ ox. (fl.) of symp at iodide of
iron, and sulBcient simple syrup to make up 1^
pints.

Symp of Jalap. Sifn. Stbowb rALAxrm
(P. Cod.), L. Jalap, 10 dr.; coriander, i dr.;
fennel seed, i dr.; water, 12 ox. ; heat to SU° F.
for twenty minutes, let it stand 24 homa; atnin,
and make a symp with 24 oz. of sugar.

SympofKanaea. agn. SYSvrva KXUXKaa,
Stbvpvb ABTiKOiriATUB, L. Prep. Kemci
mineral, 26 gr. ; syrap of squills, li oa. ; aymp
of marsh-nujiow, li ox. lOx.

Symp ef lactate of Inb. Ar». SxKvm
VBBBll.AoiATi8(Caf>),L. iV«p. Lactate «f JTCD,
1 dr. ; boiling ^stilled water, 6 ox.; pare aagar,
12 ox.— Dose, 2 to 4 dr.

Symp of Laoto-phoaphate of Ubm. 4"-

STBTTFVB OALOIS LACTO-FHOBFRAna {P. Vm-

eant, ' Pharm. Joum.'), L. Prep. Bnnit bones,
166 gr. ; hydrochloric add, 310 gr. ; liqind am-
monia, 200 gr. ; ooneenbated lactic acid, distftiwi
water, of each, q.s.; sugar, 18) ox.; leave together
for some time the bone ash and the acid nntfl
eSiervescence ceases, then add distilled water, fiOO
gr. ; precipitate with the ammonia, fiUar,and well
wash the predpitate with distilled water, nntU the
washings cease to give a predpitate witli nitrats
of silver. Leave to drain for 12 houra, after
gently heat in a porcelain capsule, and add cnfli-
cient lactic add to dissolve the precipitate ; add
suffident distilled water to make the pradnet
weigh 9i oz.; fliter, and add the sngar; make
dissolve with a gentle heat.

Syrap of Laetaeailvai. 4r«. Stbttfitb i.ac.
TVCAsn (U. S.), L. iVq>. Lactncariam, 1
tn^ ox. ; syrap, 14 os. (o. m.) ; proof spirit^ q. s. ;
rab the lactucarium with the proof spirit to a
syrupy consistence, transfer to a percolator and
percolate with proof spirit until 8 oz. (o. m.) at
tincture have been obtained. Evaporate this
portion in a water-bath at 160° F. to 8 on. (o. m.).
Mix it with the syrup made hot, and stnun im-
mediately.

Symp of le'num. Sj/n. Sibufub zxttaan
(B. P.), Stbuffb Lmovrm (Ph. L. A E.),
Sybupub oitbi inrDiaa, L. Prep. 1. (F%. la.)
Lemon juice (strained or defecated), 1 pint;
white sugar, 2i lbs. ; dindve by a gentle bent,
and set it aside ; in 24 hours remove the aciim,
decant the clear portion, and add of rectified
spirit, 2i fl. oz. The Edinburgh CoU^ omits
the spirit. A pleasant refrigerant syrap in ferers,
&c.—I>o*e, 1 to 4 fl. dr., in any diluent. With
water it forms an excellent extempotmneons
lemonade.

2. (B. P.) Fresh lemon ped, 2 paita ; lemon
jniee, steained, 20 parts ; refined sugar, 8(3 psuts.
Heat the lemon juice to the boiling-point, nnd
having pnt it into a covered vessel with the lemon
peel, let iliem stand nn^ tYmj are cold, then
fliter and dissolve the sugar in the filtered liquid

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19416

with • gentle heat. The prodnet ahonld weigh
56 puts and measure 41 parts. — Do$«, 1 to
2 dr.

8. An excellmt symp for making lemonade is
prepared in the foUowing manner, according to a
German paper : — Fresh lemon peel is steeped for
84 hoBzs in an eqnal quantity, by weight, of al-
cohol, after which the latter is dimwn off by dis-
tillation. This spirit of lemon is used as required
by ad^ng 80 parts to a symp made from 600
parts of sugar and 260 parts of water ; this syrup
IS mixed with a solution of 16 parts of dtricaeid
in 30 parts of orange-flower water. Such a lemon
syrup is said to be far superior, both in flavour
«id dmalnlity, to that made either from the
freshly expressed juice or from citric acid and oil
of lemons,

9yTup of Lettuce. Sjfn. STBtTFTB lAorrcA
<P. Cod.), L. iVvp. Dissolve 2 oz. of exti-act of
lettuce in 8 times its weight of cold water, filter,
.and add 6 lbs. 2 oz. of nmp, which, when boiling,
ibas a speciflc gravity of 1-26.

Syrap of Lime. Sgn. SYBtrruB caloib (IVimw-
■*»cm), L. Prep. Slake 2) dr. of quicklime
with 3 01. of water, and add it to 88 fl. os. of
simple syrup; boil 10 minutes and Alter. This
is usually dunted with 4 parts of syrup. Given
in diarrhoea.

Symp of Liquorice. £^». Stsufub sltoyb-
BHIZB,L. tfap. Liquorice root, 4 oz.; boiling
water, 16 os, ; digest, strain, and make a syrup
with sugar.

Syrap of Lobelia. Syu. STBUPtrs lobiixs
<Kr Proctor), L. iVep. Yinegar of lobelia, 6
OS. } sogar, 12 oi. Dissolve in a gentle heat.

SyrapofllalKteof Kanganese. Sfu. Stbupttb
VAHeAmBII KAIVATIB {3£. Sanno»), h. Prep.
Halate of manganese, 1 oz.; simple symp, 16
-oz. ; spirit of lemon peel, 2 dr. — Dote, i dr. to
Idr.

Syrup of Kaana. ^m. SntUPUB iuxvm (Ph.
•G.), L. iV«p. Dissolve 8 oz. of manna in
12 01. of water, strain, and fllter ; then add 16 oz.
■of sugar, and make it into a syrup.

Syrap of Haiah-mallov. %». Stbttwb A£-
THJUB (Ph. L. & B.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Harsh-mallow root, fresh and sliced, 1^ oz. ; dis-
-tilled water (cold), 1 pnt ; macerate for 12 hours,
press out the liqnor, strain it through linen, and
add to the strained liquor twice its weight of
white sngar (about 3 lbs.) ; dissolve by a gentle
"heat, and, wheb cold, add of rectified spirit, 8^
fl. oz., or q. s. See Stbup ow Coohiitbu,.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of fresh marsh-mallow
root, bruised, 8 oz. ; water, 4 pints; boil down to
.one half, and express the liqnor when it is cold ;
set it adde for 24 hours, that the feces may sub-
side, then decant off the clear liquid, and, having
added to it of sngar, 2^ lbs., boil the whole to a
proper consistence. The formal* of the Ph. E.
ds similar.

06*. This is a popular demulcent and pec-
toral.— Xlote, 1 to 4 fl. dr. ; in oonghs, &c., ather
alone or added to mixtures.

Syrap of Xercury. Syn. Stsxtfub htsiulb-
•eni, Ik Prep. " There are several forms for
mercurial symps, but th^ all appear liable to
serious objection. Plenk: — Quicksilver, 1 dr.;
jrawdeied gum-arabic, 3 dr. ; syrup, 2 os. ; tritu-

rate, and gradually odd 1 oz. of water. Larry:
— Sudoriflc syrup, 1 pint ; bichloride of mercury,
6 gr. ; muriate of ammonia, 6 gr. ; extract of
opium, 5 gr.; Hofman'g anodyne liquor, | dr.^
Dote, ^ oz. to 1 oz. Creron's syrup consists of
mercurial ether (4 gr. of sublimate to 2 dr. of
ether), 2 dr.; symp, 8 oz." (SeiuUg).

Syrap of inik. Sj/n. Strvptb ulotib, L.
Reduce skimmed milk by gentle evaporation to
one half, and add twice its weight of sngar.

Syrap of Xonosnlphide of Sodium. 8g%. St-
BT7PU8 BODII KONOBVIiPBIDI (P. Cod.), L. Prep.
Crystallised monosulphide of sodium, 44 gr. ; dis-
tilled water, 1 oz. ; symp, 94 oz. (by weight).

Syrap of Xugwort. iSyii. Stbupub abtbhiblb,

L. As BTBtTP OF WOBM WOOD.

Syrap of Xugwort, Compound. Sprit. Stbctub

ABTBKIBLB COKPOBIXtTB (P. Cod.), L, Pfep.

Take of freah tops of mngwort, pennyroyal, cat-
mint, and aavine, of each, 2 oz. ; fresh roots of
elecampane, lovage, and fennel, of each, 88 gr.;
fresh tops of wild maijoram, hyssop, fevernw,
rue, and basil, of each, 1 oz. ; aniseed, I at. ; cin'
namon, i os., all properly divided ; rectified spirit,
2^ OS. (by weight) ; water, 80 oz. ; symp of
honey, 12) oz. (by weight). Put the plants in
a vessel over a water-bath, pour on the water
mixed with the spirit, let it stand 24 hours, and
then distil over 3^ oz. (by weight). On the other
hand, press the residue of the distillation, clarify
with white of egg, and add sugar, 26 oz. ; then
make into a syrup, which, when boiling, has the
sp. gr. 1-26. Take the weight and evaporate until
it has lost weight equal to that of the distilled
liquid, then add the syrup of honey, and, lastly,
when nearly cold, the distilled liquid, and strain.
—Dote, 2 to 12 dr.

Syrap of XnlOberrias. Sgu. Stbttpttb xobi
(B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Juice
of mulberries, strained, 1 pint; sugar, 21 Ibe.;
dissolve by a gentle heat, and set the solution by
for 24 hours ; then remove the scum, decant the
clear liquid, and add of rectified spirit, 2i fl. oz.
Used as a colouring and flavouring when alkalies
and earths are not present. Syrap of red pop-
pies {rkaadot), slightly acidulated with tartaric
or dilute sulphuric acid, is very generally sold
for it.

2. (B. P.) Mulberry juice, 20 parts ; refined
sngar, 36 parts ; rectified spirit, 2^ parts ; heat
the jmoe to the boiling-point, and, when it has
cooled, fllter it ; dissolve the sugar in the flltered
liquid by a gentie heat, and add the spirit. The
product should weigh 64 parts. Sp. gr. 1*88. —
Dote, 1 to 2 dr.

^rrap of KTi"rlat« of Xorphia. See SxBinp ov
Htdboohlobiti ov MoBPHnrB.

Syrap of Opium. Sgn. STBtrpus era (P, Cod.),
L. Prep. Extract of opinm, 87i gr., dissolve in
6 dr. of cold water, and mix with sufficient symp
to make up 6t lbs. (1 in 600).

Syrap of Orange nowers. SgH. Stbttpttb
AUBABTii plobib (B. P.), L. iV«p. Oiangc-
flower water, 8 parts ; refined sugar, 48 parts ;
distilled water, 16 parts, or a sufficiency ; heat the
sngar and water together, strain, and when nearly
cold add the orange-flower water. When flnished
should weigh 72 parts and measure 64 parts.
Sp. gr. 1-83.— I>o««, 1 to 2 dr.

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1646

STRUP

Syrvp of Omge Jniee. iSJy*. Stbupub ■
sroco AxniiiiTioBUii (Ph. E., 1744), L. Prtp.
Orange juice, 1 lb. i logar, 2 Ibe. Diiaolve by
beat.

Syrup of Or'aage Peel. S>»- Stevpui av-
KAHTK (B. P., Ph. L., E., ft D.), 8. OITW AF.
BAKTII, S. B OOBTICUUa ATrBAHTIOBTrM, L. Pnp.

1. (Ph. L.) Dried orange peel, 8i os.; boiling
distilled water, 1 pint ; macerate for 12 honra is
a covered vestel, preia ont the liquor, simmer it
(or 10 minutes, and then complete the proceia as
directed for btbvp ots oooEnnAL. In the Fh. E.
& D., and Ph. L. 1836, no spirit is ordered.

2. (B. P.) Tincture of orange peel, 1 part;
syrup, Tparts ; mix. — Dote, 1 to 2 dr.

8. (Wholesale.) a. From fresh orange peel,
18 oz. (or dried, f lb.); sugar, IS Ibf.; water,
q. «.

b. From tincture of orange peel, 1 fl. oi. ; simple
syrup, 19 fl. oz. ; mix. Aja agreeable flaTouring
•jid stomachic. — Bote, 1 to 4 fl. dr.

Symp, Fectoial. ^n. Sykitfub fiotobaus
(Fh. L., 1746), L. iV«p. Black maidenhair, 6
oz. ; liquorice root, 4 oz. ; boiling water, 4 pints ;
macerate for some hours, strain, add to the in-
fnrion twice it* weight of sugar, and make a
•ymp.

Symp of Pepdne. Sf». Stbvpvs rgnxsM
(Corvitart), L. Prep. 6 parts of pepsine in 20
parts of cold water, and added to 70 parts of
acidulated syrup of cherries.

Symp of Persulphuret of Iron. Sgn. STBVPVa
iSBBi piBBUXjPBrBBTi (Bouchcirdat), L. Prep.
Beduce 10 oz. of symp by eraporation to 9 oz.,
ami add 2 oz. hydrated persulphuret of iron in a
gelatinous state ; mix, and keep in a close bottle.
— Dote. A teaspoonf ol two or three times a day
in aerofnlous and cutaneous affections. As an
antidote for poisoning by the salts of lead, mer-
cury, and copper. Qire a teaspoonful frequently.

Symp of Phosphate of Iron. Sgn. Stbtttub
VBBBI FHOBPEATIB (B. P.), L. Prep. Granu-
lated sulphate of iron. 224 gr.; phosphate of
soda, 200 gr. ; bicarbonate of sodium, 66 gr. ; con-
centrated phosphoric acid, li oz. ; refined sugar,
8 oz. ; distilled water, 8 oz. Dissolve the sulphate
of iron in 4 oz. of the water, and the phosphate
and bicarbonate of soda in the remainder ; mix the
two solutions, and, after careful stirring, transfer
the precipitate to a calico filter, and wadi it with
distilled water till the filtrate ceases to be affected
with chloride of barium. Then press the pre-
cipitate strongly between folds of bibulous paper,
and add to it the phosphoric acid. As soon as
the precipitate has dissolved, filter the solution,
add the sugar, and dissolve without heat. The
product should measure exactly 12 fl. oz. 1 fl. dr.
contains 1 gr. of phosphate of ir<m.

In the preparation of this symp as much ex-
pedition as possible should be used in washing and
pressing the precipitate of phosphate of iron
formed. It is best washed by decantation. The
water employed should be just previously boiled
to expel oxygen ; the protosolphate of iron should
be entirely free from persulphate, and clear crys-
tals of phosphate of soda should be chosen. Mr
W. H. Jones (' Fharm. Joum,' 3rd series, vol. v,
p. 641) gives a process for the preparation of this
symp, which consists in dissolving metallic iron

in phosphoric acid and water, and then ■ddtng
the solution to syrup.
Symp of Phosphate of Iiob, Componad. ^r».

PABBIBH'B CHnOOAL WOOD, STBUP or TKX C»II-
FOmra* PHOBPHATBB; SXBUPVB VBBBI PHOSFBATI8

OOKPOBITVB, S. PHOBPHATIOVB (Mr X. PorrUk, I
U.S.),L. Prep. 1. Dis«>lve sulphate of iron, la |
dr., in boiling water, 2 oz. ; and phosphate of \
soda, 12 dr., in boiling water, 4 oz. Mix, and
wash the precipitated phosphate of iroo. Siasolv?
phosphate of lime, 12 dr., in 4 oz. of bailing water,
with enough hydrochloric acid to make a desr f
solution j predpitata witii liquid ammonia, and
wash precipitate. Add to the fresh precipitates
glacial phosphoric acid, 20 dr., dissolTed in 4 dr.
of water ; when clear, add carbonate of aoda, 2
scmples, and carbonste of potassa, 1 dr., and tbai
■uflleient hydrochloric acid to dissolve the pre-
ciintate. Now add water to make the aolntioii
measure 22 oz. (old measure), and add powdered
cochineal, 2 dr. ; mixed sugar, 82 troy oz. ; apply
heat, and, when the syrup is formed, stiain it uid
add orango-flower water, 1 oz. — Do—. A tea-
spoonf uL In addition to phosphate of iron and
phosphate of lime this symp contains smaller
quantities of the alkaline phoq>hates. Dr Howie
points ont that Parrish is incorrect in stating that
this vyrup contains 1 gr. of phosphate of iron and
8i gr. phosphate of lime in the fl. dr., if this
statement be compared with his formula, which
by calculation will be found to give '716 gr. of
pnoq>hate of iron and 2 gr. of phosphate of lime
for tiie fl. dr, even if none of the former were
wasted in the process. Mr Howie deprecates the
use of hydrochloric acid sometimes had reoonrae
to in preparing the syrup, and he adds that the
purest sugar only should be used, and that made
from beebroot should be carefully avoided. See
a valuable paper by Mr Howie on this subject,
' Phann. Joum.,' 8rd series, vol. vi, p. 804.

2. (B. P. C.) Iron wire (free from rust), 37^
gr. ; concentrated phosphoric acid (sp. gr. 1-5), I
fl. oz. ; distilled water, 5 fl. dr. Put these into a
glass flask, so that the liquid completely covers
the iron wire, plug the neck with oott<Hi wool,
and heat gently till dissolved. Add this solutioi
to the following when the latter has cooled.- —
Precipitated carbonate of calcium, 120 gr. ; con-
centrated phosphoric acid, 4 fl. dr. ; distilled water,
2 fl. oz. ; mix and add bicarbonate of potassium,
9 gr. ; phosphate of sodium, 9 gr. ; filter and set
aside. Then take of cochineal, 80 gr. ; water, 74
oz. Boil 16 minutes and filter to 7 oz. ; add 14 ox.
sugar, heat till dissolved, and strain. When cold
add the former filtrate set aside, and a sufficient
quantity of water to make the whole measure 1
pint. — Dote, 1 to 2 dr.

Qymp of Phosphate of Iron and Kaagansa*.
8]/n, Sybupttb pibbi phobphaub bt xait-
SAHBBU, L. iVq>. Dissolve 6 dr. of glacial
phosphoric add in a small quantity of wata, add
72 gr. of phosphate at iron, and 48 gr. of phos-
phate of manganese; apply heat to dissolve, then
add sugar, 10 oz., and water up to measure of 12
01. — J>of«, 1 to 4 dr.

Symp of the FhoBphato* of Iron, Ooinine, and
Stryclmino. Sj/it. Stbupub pbbbi, Quncmx,

BT BTBTOBinirjE PHOBPEATUX (B. P. C), L.

(Easton's syrap.) iVep. Take of stiTchninei in

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8TRUP

1647

powder, 6 gr. ; ooncentnted phMphoric acid, ip.
gt. !•&, 75 minims ; distilled water, 226 minims ;
aissolve, and add phoopliate of qninine, 120 gr.
Dissolve br the aid of a gentle heat, and add
s^rap of phosphate of iron, sufficient to produce
1 pint; mix thoronghly. Each fluid draohm
contains 1 gr. of phosphate of iron, ) gr. of
j^oaphate of qninine, aoid -j^ gr, of stiychidne. —
2>M«.'|tolfl.dr.

Syrap of Fhoaphate of Mangamna. St»-
SYRvrna KAsaAmni PEoaPHAXia (Jf. Ea»-
■oa), L. Prep. Fhoaphate of manganesn, |
dr. J spirit of toln, 8 oz. 8 dr.; igrnip of bark, 6
oz. ; spirit of lemon peel. 1^ dr. ; powder of tra-
gaoanth, 10 gr. Mix qoicUy and preserve in a
well-atoppwed batUe.

Syrap of Fhoaphate of Qninine. Sgn. Stbv-
PVB QVnriHiB SH08PHATI8, L. iVap. Phos-
phate of qninine, 96 gr.; water, 18^ S. dr.;
■yrnpy phosphoric acid (sp. gr. I'SOO), 2| fl. dr. ;
symp, 10 fl. dr. Hix the acid with the water,
add the qninine^ and flltar into the symp.

Bynp of Fhoaphate of Zinc. 8yn. BYVVtva
Ziiroi PH08PHAIIB, L. Prtf. Phosphate of
sine, 192 gr. ; water, 11 fl. dr.; syrnpy phos-
phoric acid (sp. gr. I'SOO), 5 fl. dr. ; symp, 10 fl.
OS. Bob the j^Mphate with the water, add the
acid, and filter into the symp.

Syrap of Fomegianata-root Bark. i^n.
Stbttpttb ooBUOig lusiois SBAVATi {OwHourt),
L. iV«p. Obtain from 1 lb. of powdered
bark of pomegranate root 4 lbs. of inf oaion by
percolation. Boil this with 28( oz. of syrnp till
redoced to 2 lbs.

8yrap of Fop'pie*. 4n>. Stbitp or whiti

POFFIBB; SXBirpUS PAPATKBIS (B. P., Ph. L.

and K), S. r. BOioanBi, L. Prep, 1. (B. P.)
Poppy capsules, coarsely powdered, free from
seeds, 86 parts; rectified spirit, 16 parts; refined
sugar, 64 parts ; boiling distilled water, a suiB-
ciency; macerate the poppy capsules in 80 parts of
the water, Infose for 24 hours, then pack in a
percolator, and, adding more of the water, allow
the liquor slowly to pass until 820 parte have
been collected or the poppies are ezhaoated;
evaporate the liquor by a water-hath until it is
reduced to 60 parte; when quite cold add the
spirit; let the mixture stand for 12 hours and
filter. Distil ofF the spirit, evaporate the re-
maining liquor to 40 parts, and then add the
sugar. The product should weigh 104 parts, and
measure 78} parts. Sp. gr. 1-82. — Dot, 1 dr. ;
10 to 20 minims for children, increasing cau-
tiously.

2. (Fh, L.) PopOT heads, dried, tonised, and
witbont the seed, 3 lbs. ; boiling water, 6 galls. ;
boil down to 2 galls., press out the liquor, evapo>
rate the expressed liquid to 2 quarte, strain it
whilst hot, and set it aside for 12 hours; next
decant the clear portion from the faces, boil this
dawn to 1 qoart, and dissolve in it sugar, 6 lbs. ;
lastly, when cold, add of rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz.
" Each fl. oz. is equivalent to 1 gr. of dry ex-
tract." In the Ph. £. and Ph. D. 1826 no spirit
is ordered.

8. (Wholesale.) Extract of poppies, 1^ lbs.;
Ix^ing water, H galls. ; dissolve, clarify, or filter,
so tliat it may be perfectly tranquurent when cold;
then add of white sugar, 44 lbs., and dissolve.

Obt. Syrup of poppies is anodyne and sopo>
rifle. — Dote. For an infant, 1 to i teaspoonf ul ;
for an adult, 2 to 4 fi. dr. According to M. Che-
reau, ite tendency to fermentation is prevented
by the addition ol 32 parts of sugar of milk to
every 1000 parte of the symp.

Syrap of Pyrophosphate of Iron. Sgn. Sy.

BVPV8 nBBI PTBOFB08FHATI8 (Parriek), L.

Prep, I^rophosphate of iron in scales, 16 gr.;
symp, 1 fl. oz.
Byrap of Fyrophocphate of Inm aad Ammoala,

Sy. SZBVFnS FBBBI FTBOPHOSBBATIB XI AII>

XOHLB (P. Cod.), L. Prep. Pyrophosphate
of iron with citrate of ammonia, 1 or, ; water, 8
dr. ; symp^ 12 oz.

Syrap of Quinine with Coffee. iSyn. Stbvfub
VcmtM ovx oonsl, L. Prep. Prepare 1^
pints of clear infusion from 4 oz. of roasted
coffee ; dissolve it in 6 lbs. of refined sugar, and
add to the symp 1} dr. of sulphate of quinine
dissolved in a little water, with the addition of a
few drops of sulphuric acid.

Syrap of Raspberry. 8fn. Stbufub aobti
ijtrBi ID«A (P. Cod.), L. Ptep. Baspberry
vinegar, 10 oz. (by weight) ; sugar, 17* oz. ; boil
them together.

Symp of Had Pop'piea. iSy». Stbttfvb bh(B.
AsoB (Ph. L. and E.), S. fafatbbib bhcbasob,
L. Pirep. 1, (Ph. L.) Petals of the red
P0PPy» 1 W>'; toiling water, 1 pint; mix in a
water-bath, remove the vessel, macerate for 12
hours, press out the liquor, and, after defecation
or filtwing, complete the process as directed for

STSVF OF OOCHDtBAL.

8. (Wholesale.) Prom dried red poppy petals,
8 lbs. ; boiluig water, q. a. ; white sugar, 44 lbs. ;
as the last.

Ob*, Syrap of red poppies is chiefly employed
for ite fine red colour. A little acid brightens it.
The colonr is favored by cMitact with iron, copper,
and all the common metals.

Syrap of Bad Boaas. j^/n. Sxbufitb bobs
(B. P.), SxBVFTra bo&x oallios (Ph. E. and
D.), li. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Dried petals of the
red rose, 2 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; pure sugar,
20 oz. ; as the last.

2. (Ph. D.) Dried petals of the Gallio rose, 2
oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; boil in a glass or
porcelain vessel until the colour is extracted,
strain with expression, and, after defecation, add
to the clear decanted liquor twice ite weight of
white sugar. Astringent and stomachic ; chiefly
used as an acynnct in mixtures, Ac.

3. (B. P.) Dried rose petals, 1 part; refined
sugar, 16 parte ; boiling distilled water, 10 parte ;
infnae the petals in l£e water 2 hours, squeeze
through cuico, heat the liquor to the boiling-
ix^t, and filter ; add the sugar and dissolve with
heat. The product should weigh 28 parts, and
measure 17i parte. Sp. gr. 1-8S6. — Dote, 1 to
2 dr.

Syrap of Bhatany. I^n. Stbufpb kbaxxbuk
(P. Cod.), L. As syrnp of catechu.

Syrap of Bhn'barb. Sgn. Stbvfub bbbi ^
(B. P.), li. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Rhubarb, in coarse %■'
powder, 8 parte; coriander fruit, in powder, 8 ^
parte ; refined sugar, 24 parte ; rectified spirit 8 ,
parte; distilled water, 24 parte. Mix the rnubs^b
and coriander, pack them in a percolator, pass the ''

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1648

SYBUP

spirit and water, previonily mixed, dowly tlirongh
tnem, eTap<mte the liquid that haa paaaed antil
it ia reduced to 13 parts, and in this, after it has
been filtered, diasoWe the sogar with a gentle
heat. — DoMt, 1 to 4 dr.

8. (P. Cod.) Braised rhubarb, 3 oi.; cold
water, 16 fl. os. ; macerate for 12 honrt, filter,
and add of white sugar, 82 oi.

8. (Phi U. S.) Take of leetified spirit, 8 fl.
OS. ; water, 24 fl. ox. ; rhubarb (ooanely pow-
dered), 2 oz. j (mixed with) sand, an equal bnllc,
jor q. 8. ; make a tincture b; percolation, evapo-
rate this, over a water-bath, to 18 fl. ox., and dis-
BoWe it in 8 lbs. of white sugar. An ezcdlent
formula.

4. (Wholesale.) Bhabarb (bruised). If lbs.;
cold water, q. s.; sugar, 20 lbs.; as No. 1.
fitomachio and purgatave. — Dott. For an inflsnt,
-i to 1 teaspoonful ; for an adult, i to f fl. ox., or
snore.

Symp of Shubaib (Spicad). Sgn. Stbvfub
«HBI ABOXATIOUB, h. Prep. (Ph. V. S.) Bhn-
barb, 2i oz. ; cloves and cinnamon, of each, i ox. ;
nutmeg, ) oz. (all bruised) ; proof spirit, 32 fl. Ol. ;
macerate for 14 days (or percolate), stndn, gently
evaporate to 16 fl. ox., filter whilst hot, and mix
the liquid with simple syrup (gently wanned),
4} pints. A cordial lazativa.— i)oM, i to 1
teaspoonful; in infantile constipation, diarrhoea,

Symp of Shubarb and Sanaa. Sgn. Stbttpvb
-BHBi ST mma (Ph. E., 1746), L. Prep.
Rhubarb, 1 oc.; senna, 2 os. ; fennel seed, 2 dr. ;
.cinnamon, 2 dr. ; boiling waiter, 2^ jnnts ; mace-
rate for 12 hours, strain, and boil with 8 lbs. of
.sugar to a syrup.

Symp of 'Bo"ses. ftyn. Stbupub noem (Ph.
It.), Stbttfub Boax OKiTnou.B (Ph. E.), L.
Prtp. 1. (Ph. L.) Dried petals of damask roses
■ {Beta eiU^olia), 7 oz.; boiling water, 8 pints ;
macerate for 12 hours, filter, evaporate in a water-
bath to 1 quart, and add of white sugar, 6 Iba. ;
:and, when cold, rectified spirit, 6| fl. oz.

2. (Wholesale.) Prom rose leaves. 1 lb. ; sugar,
19 lbs. ; water, q. s. ; as the last. GenUy lua-
tive. — J)ote, i to 1 fl. ox. It is usual to add a
few drops of dilute sulphuric acid, to brighten
Ttbe eidoar. Alkalies turn it green.

8ynp of Sue. l^/n. Stbitfvb bttcx, L.
Prep. Take of oil of me, 12 to 15 drops ; rec-
tified spirit, i fl. ox.; dissolve, and add it to
■simple syrup, 1 pint. — Do$e, i to 1 teaspoonful ;
.in the flatulent oolio of children. An infusion of
i oz. of the herb is sometimes substituted for the
-solution of the essential oil.

Synp of Bmftton. Sfn. Sybvpvb oboci (Ph.
1,., B., & D.), h. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Hay saf-
fron, 6 dr. (10 dr.— Ph. E.; i oz.— Ph. D.);
boiling water, 1 pint; macerate in a covered
vessel for 12 hoars, then stnun the liquor, and
ladd of white sugar, 3 lbs., or q. s., and rectified
spirit, m fl. oz., or q. a., in the manner directed
under btbhp op oooHnmAlu The Ph. E. & D.
omit the spirit.

2. (Wholesale.) Hay saifron, 6 oz. ; boiling
water, 6 quarts^ white sugar, 24 lbs. ; as the
last. Used for its colour and flavour; the first is
very beautiful.

.Symp of Saliein. %«. Stbffvb bauoivi, L.

Prep. Saliein, 1 dr. ; boiling water, 1 oc ;
sugar, S oz.

Syiup of Saatonate of Soda. Sjfn. Sxtturvt
BOSM aurrOHATU, L. This fonnola ia
mended because of the adaptability of its i
tration to children, the syrup being- of vciy
pleasant taste. It is made as followa : — Pow&tiei
aanbmate of soda, 6 grms.; simple ■ymii, 900
grms. ; syrup of orange flower, 100 grxna. Sua-
pend iba santonate in 260 grms. of the Bympk and
heat it over a spirit lamp until dissolved; add
the remainder of the i^rup, then the ayrap of
orange flower, and mix carrfuUy. A tableapooo-
ful or 20 grma. of this syrup will contain lO centi-
grams of santonate, or the equivalent of 6 oesitt-
grams of santonin. For adults the doae might be
double, or a syrup made contumng 20 oeniagtmms
to tlie taUespooidiil.

Symp of Saraaparilla. 8f». STBCPtrs sammm
(Ph. L. ft £.), Stbvvvb babsapabuxa, L. JVsp.
1. (Fh. L.) Take of sanaparilla (sUced), S* Iba. :
boil it in water, S galls., down to one Imlf ; poor
off the liquor, and strain it whilst hot ; again boil
the saraaparilla in another gaU. of water down to
one half, and strun ; evaporats the mixed liquors
to 1 qnar(t ud in these diasolve of white sngar,
8 oz. ; lastly, when the symp has cooled, add to
it of rectifled spirit, 2 fl. oz.

2. (Ph. E. k Ph. L. 1886.) Saiaaptuilla
(sliced), 16 oz. ; boiling water, 1 gall. ; macerate
for 84 hours, boil to 8 quarts, strain, add t4
sngar, 15 oz., and boil to a symp.

8. (Wholesale.) Take of extract of saraa-
parUh^ 8 lbs. ; boiling water, 3 quarts ; ^saohne,
strain, and add of white sugar, 12 lbs. Alterative
and tonic — Dote, 8 to 4 dr. See SABBAPAXnxA.

Synp of Sarsapaiilla, Compomid. %■. Srsir.
ptrn BAxut ooKPOBiTVB, L. ; Sotop Ds cinBnrm,
Pr. Prep. (Ph. U. 8.) SarsapariHa (bruised},
8 lbs.; guaiacum wood, rasped. 8 oz. ; 'hmaffk
roses, senna, and liquorice root, braised, of each,
2 oz.; diluted alcohol (proof spirit), 10 wine
pints (1 gall, imperial); macerate for 14 day^
express, filter through paper, and evaporate in a
water-bath to 4 wine pints (8i jnnts imperial) ;
then add of white sugar, 8 lbs. ; and, when cold,
further add of oils at sassafras and aniseed, of
each, 6 drops, and oil of partridge-berry (Chml-
theria praeimieiu), 8 drops, previously triturated
with a little of the symp.

Obe. This is an excellent preparation, but the
rose leaves might be well omitted. — Vote, J fl.oi.
three or four times a day, as an alterative, tonic,
and restorative. The symp of the P. Cod. is msde
with water instead of spirit, and is inferior u a
remedy to the preceding.

Synp of SarsapariHa, lodnretted. 5ya.
STBUPrs Bixztt lODURiTl (Sieord), L. Prep.
Symp of saraaparilla, 81 parts ; iodide of potas-
sium, 1 part.

Syrup of Senega. Sya. STBtmrB gmax
(U. S.), L. Prep. Senega in moderately fine
powder, 4 troy ox.; sngar, 15 troy oz.; proof
spirit, 2 pints (o. m.). Introduce the senega into
a percolator, and pour on the proof spirit; when
finished, evaporate the percolate by a water-bath
at 160° F. to 8 oz. (o. m.) ; filter, add the ragar,
diasolve by a gentle heat, and strain whilst hot

Symp of Sea'na. S^n. Stbtjpttb atsniM (B. P,

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STBUP

1649

Pli. L. ft E.), L. Prtp. 1. (Ph. L.) Take of
MDiiB, Z\ OX. ; fennel seed (brniied), 10 dr. ; boil-
ing water, 1 pint ; macerate for 6 boon with a
gentle heat; then strongly press ont the liquid
throogh linen, and dissolve in it of manna, 3 ox. ;
next add this solntion to treacle, 3 lbs., previously
evaporated over a water-bath until a little of it,
oil being Cooled, almost concretes, and stir them
well together.

' 2. (Ph. K.) Senna, 4 ox. ; boiling water, 24
fl. ox. ; infuse, strain, add of treacle, 48 ox., and
evaporate to a proper consistence. Aperient. —
Don, 1 to 4 dr.

8. (B. P.) Senna (broken small), 8 ox. ; oil of
coriander, 1^ minims; reflued sugar, 12 ox.; dis-
tilled water, 60 ox., or a sufficiency; rectified
spirit, 11 oz. ; digest the senna in three quarters
of the wster 24 hours at a temperature of 120^,
press, and strain ; digest the marc in the lemunder
of the water 6 hours, press, and strain ; evaporate
the mixed liquors to 6 oz. ; when cold add the
rectified spirit containing the oil of coriander;
filter, and wash the filter with water to make up
to 8 oz. ; add the sugar and dissolve with gentle
heat. The product should weigh 21 ox., and
measure 16 oz. Sp. gr. 1-810. — I>om, 1 to
2 dr.

Sytnp of Senna with Xanna. ^h. Stbupvs
SKSSM cnc uuxvk (Ph. O.), L. Prep. Infuse
10 oz. of senna leaves and 1 oz. of bruised fennel
aecds for some hours in 205 pints of hot water ;
strain, and dissolve in the strained liquor 16 oz.
of manna. Pour off 61 oz. ^by weight) of liquid
from the sediment, and dissolve it in 3 lbs. 2 oz.
of sugar.

Syrup, Simple. Si/n. Stbcpus (B. P., Ph. L.),
S. 8iMPLBx(Ph.E.4D.),L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
-White sugar, 3 llis. ; distilled water, 1 pint; dis-
-solve hy a gentle heat.

2. (Ph. £. & Ph. L. 1836.) Pure sugar, 10
lbs. ; boiling water, 3 pints.

3. (Ph. D.) Refined sugar (in powder —
crushed), 5 lbs. ; distilled water, 1 quart.

4. (B. P,) Beflnod sugar, 6 lbs.; distilled
water, 2 pints ; dissolve the sugar in the water
with the aid of heat, and when cool add water to
make the product weigh 7i lbs. Sp. gr. 1'33.

5. (Wholesale.) Finest double refined sugar,
44 lbs. ; distilled water, 2} galls. ; make a syrup.

Ob*. This preparation should be as white and
transparent as water. Used as rapillaire, &c.,and
to give cohesiveneasand consistencu to pulverulent
su^tances in the preparation of electuaries, pills,
Ac

Symp of Snail*. Sgn. Sybvpub uicacibub
(P. Cod.), L.. Prep. Yine snails, deprived of
their shells and of the black portions, and cut up,
2 ox. ; wash in cold water, and thou boil with 10
ox. of water to 7 oz. ; then add 10 oz. of sugar.

Syiap of Soapwort. Sgn. Stbupub bifo-
NABIJB, L. From the root, the same as btbdf of
cowsrooT.

Symp of Squills. Sj/n. Stbuftts soixui
(B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prtp. 1. (Ph. B.)
Vinegar of squills, 3 pints; white sugar (in
powder), 7 lbs. ; dissolve by a gentle heat.

2. (Ph. D.) Vinegar of squills, 8 fl. oz. ; refined
sugar (in powder), 1 lb.; dissolve.

3. (B. P.) Vinegar of squills, 20 parts; refined
VOL. ir.

sngar, 40 parts ; dissolve with the aid of heat. —
DoM, 1 to 1 dr.

4. (Wholesale.) Take of vinegar of squills
(perfectly transparent), 14 lbs.; double refined
sngar, 28 lbs. ; dissolve in a stoneware vessel, in
the cold, or at most by a very gentle heat.

Obi. This syrup, like the last, should be as
clear as water, and nearly colourless. — Dote, 1 to
2 fl. dr., as an expectorant; in chronic coughs and
asthma. In large doses it proves emetic.

Symp of SqniUs, Componnd. Syn. Hitb

BTBUF ; StBTTPUB BOILLJE COMFOBITijS, L. Prep.

(Ph. U. 8.) Squills and senega, of each (bruised),
5 oz. ; water, 1 gall. ; boil to a quart ; add of sngar,
41 ihs. ; evaporate to 3 pints, or a proper con-
sistence, and dissolve in it, whilst hot, of potassio-
tartrate of antimony (in powder), 1 dr.

Obt. This syrup is a popular expectorant in
the United States, where it is known a* hive
symp. — Do*». A* an expectorant, 20 to 30
drops for adults; for children, 5 to 10 drops;
in croup, 10 drops to 1 fl. dr., repeated until it
vomits.

Symp of Stramonium. Bgn. Stbupub stba-
KOirai, L. From the tincture, as btbup of bbixa-

SONITA.

Symp of Strychnia, i^^ Stbttpvb btbtohkix
(P. Cod.), L. The Pans Codex orders a syrup
containing 1 gr. of sulphate of strychnia in 1000
gr. of syrup.

Symp of Snbchloride of Iron. Syn. Stbupub
fbbbi 8uscHTX>Bn>i, L. ; Stbuf op fbbboub
chlobidb. Iron wire, 300 gr. ; hydrochloric
acid, 2 oz. ; citric acid, 10 gr. ; water, 10 dr. ;
syrup, a suflBciency. Dissolve the iron in the hy-
drochloric acid with a gentle heat, add the citric
acid, and filter into 10 oz. of the syrup; wasii
the filter with the remaining water ; make up to
1 pint with syrup.

Symp, Sudorific. Sgn. Stbupub budobifioub
(Foy), L. Prep. Sarsaparilla, 6 oz. ; giulacnm
raspings, 6 oz. ; water, 3 pints. Macerate for
24 hours, evaporate to 11 pints, striiin, and make
into a symp with 2i lbs. of sugar.

Symp of Sulphate of Iron. Syit. Stbupub
FEBBi bulphatis ( WiUii), L. Prep. Sulphate of
iron, 1 dr. ; water, 2 dr. ; syrup, 16 oz.

Symp of Sulphate of Quhiine. Sgn. Stbupub
QUiviNJi BULPHATis (P. Cod.), L. Prep. Dis-
solve 90 gr. of sulphate of quinine in 4 dr. of
water with 1 dr. of dilute sulphuric acid, and mix
the solution with 13 oz. of white symp.

Symp of Sulphnret of Potassium. Sj/n. St-
bupub POTASBII BUIPHUBBTI (P. Cod.), L. Prep.
Liver of sulphur, 8 gr. ; water, 16 gr. ; symp,
1 oz.

Symp of Superphosphate of Iron. Sj/n. St-
bupub FBBBI BUPEBPHOBPHATIB {ifr OreeMti),
L. Prep. Superphosphate of iron, 2 scruples;
simple syrup, 1 fl. oz.

Symp, Symphytlc. S^n. Stbvpub btmphtti,
L. ; BoTiB'fl STBUP (Ph. E. 1745). Prep. Fresh
comfrey root, 1 lb. ; plantain leaves, 1 lb. ; bruise,
express the jnice, boil to half, and make a syrup
with an equal weight of sugar.

Symp of Tannin, ^n. Stbupub tansivi
(Fay), L. Prep. Tannin, 2 oz. ; water, 16 oz.;
sugar, 82 oz.

Symp of Tar. Sg». Stbupub piois (P. Cod.),

104

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1660

STEUP

L. IVwp. Tu water, 5i os.| uagt, 10 ox.

IMaw^Te by v«ter-b«th, and flltor through paper.
9ftwf of Tar. ^. Sxbvpov pioib uqvids.

Pinp. Waihed wood-tar, 6 part* ; boiling water,

60 parti ; itir for 15 minntea ; let aside S6 honn,

■tining ftrom time to time ; decai^ filter, and add

60 parts nigtr.
STmpofTartarie Add. %s. STBWVa Aon>i

TAXXiuoi (P. Cod.), L. Prtp. Tartaric acid, 1

oz. ; water, 2 oc ; aogar, 6 lbs. 1 ot. Dissolve in

the cold.
Symp of Tartrate of ¥angaa»ae. /9jrs. St-

VTtva XAsaunuii tabtsatis, L. Hade with

tartrate of manganeee, as sjrmp ot malate of

manganese.
Symp of Tola'. Sgu. BiLiAiao stbvp;

SxBUPVB ToLiTTiLjnra (B. P., Ph. L., E., ft D.), L.

iVq>. 1. (Ph. L.) Balsam of Tola, 10 dr. (1 oz.—
Ph. D.); boiling distilled water, 1 pint; boil in

* oovered vessel for 4 an honr, f reqnently stirring,
then cool, strain, and dissolTC in the liquor sugar,

Silbs.

a. (1%. E.) Simple syrap (warm), 8 lbs.;
tinctore of Tolo, 1 os. ; mix by degrees, and agi-
tate them briskly together in a eloMd vessel.

8. (B. P.) Balsam of Tola, 1^ parU ; sagar,
38 parts; water, 20 parts; boil the balsam half
an hoar, adding water when reqaired ; when cold
make np to 16 parts, filterj add the sugar, and
^saolve. The product weighs 48 parts, and
measures 86 puts. Sp. gr. 1'88. — Dote, 1 to
2 dr.

4. (Wholesale.) To warm water, 28 lbs., add
tincture of Tola gisdnally, until it will bear no
more without becoming opaque ; then cork down
the bottle and oocasioni^y ag^itate until cold;
when quite cold filter it through paper, and, add
of the finest double-refined sugar, H lbs. ; lastly,
promote the solution, in a closed vessel, by a
gentle heat in a water-hatb.

Obt. This symp should be clear and colour-
less as water; but, as met with in the shops, it is
nsnallj milky. It is strange that the London
College should have omitted from their formula
the usual addition of rectified spirit, Jtlthongh
this syrap, perhaps more than any other, would
be benefited by it.

Syrup of Tola is pectoral and balsamic
^rap of Taleilan. £y«. Sxbitpvs talb-
BIAKX (P. Cod.), L. iVwp. Infuse 1 lb. of
braised valerian in 4 lbs. of boiling water for six
hours; strain and press; then pour upon the
marc 8 lbs. more of boiling water, or q. s., so as
to obtain 4^ lbs. of infusion, including the product
of the first infusion ; filter, and add 1 lb. of vale-
rian water, and then dissolve in it, by the aid of
-» water-hatb, 10 lbs. of sugar.

Synp of Taailla. Sfu. STXupra tintlub.
^Prep, Vanilla, 2 oz. ; white sngar, 18 oz. ; water,
9 oz. Beat the vanilla with a few drops of spirit,
then with part of the sugar, and water q. s. to
form a soft paste ; add the rest of the sugar and
.water, and digest for 18 or 20 hours in a glass
Teasel pfaMed in a water-bath. Strain and clarify
with white of egg if required.

Synp, Telao's Vegetable. According to Dr
Paris and Sir B. Brodie, this celebrated nostrum
is prepared as follows : — Young and fresh burdock
root, sliced, 2 ox. ; dandelion root, 1 oz. ; fresh

spearmint, senna, coriander seed, and broiaed
liquorice root, of each. If dr. ; water, 1^ pinta ;
boil down gently to a pint, sixain, add of Inaip
sugar, 1 lb.; boil to a syrup, and, lastly, add • •mall
quantity of corrosive sublimate, previonaly dis-
solved in a littie spirit. Used as an altecatiTe and
parifier of the blood.

Syrap of Vin'egar. iSvn. STBXmrs aobti. L.
Pr»p. (Ph. E.) Take of vinegar (French in pre-
ference), 11 fl. oz. ; whits sugar, 14 oz. ; aztd vamke
a syrup — Dote, 1 dr. to 1 fl. oz. ; ■• an expec*
torant in coughs and colds, or, diffaaed tfannigfa
any mild diluent, as a drink in fevers. A more
agreeable preparation ia that of the P. God^ made
by dissolving 80 parts of sugar in 16 parts of rasp-
berry vinegar.

S^p of Vl'olets. <S^ STBirvrs yioulkcm,
STBirpirs Tiout (Ph. L. k E.), L. J'rap. 1.
(Ph. L.) ICacerate violet flowers, 9 os., in boiling
water, 1 pint, lot twelve hours ; then preaa, atnun,
and set aside the liquid, that Uie faces may sub-
side ; afterwards complete the process with sngar,
3 lbs., and rectified spirit, 2| fi. ox. (or aa mndi
of each as may be necessary), in the way which
has I>een orderod concerning syrnp of cochineal.

8. Violet flowers, 100 parte ; alcohol, SO parts ;
digest eight bonra, press, and make up to lOOroL,
with water ; filter. To 1 part of the filtered pro-
duct add 9 parts of strong nmple symp (C
Sembeole).

3. (Ph. E.) Fresh violeto, 1 lb. ; boUiAg water,
2i pints i infuse for 24 hours in a covered vessel
of glass or earthenware, strain off the liquor (witli
gentle pressure), filter, and dissolve in the Uqnid
white sugar, 7i lbs.

4. (Wholesale.) From double-refined white
sugar, 66 lbs.; 'anthokyan ' (the expressed juice
of violets, defecated, gentiy heated in earthen-
ware to 192° F., then skimmed, cooled, and fil-
tered ; a littie spirit is next added, and the next
day the compound is again filtocd), 11 lbs.;
water, 22 lbs,, or q.s.; dissolve in earthenwaie.

Utet. Syrup of violets is gentiy laxative. —
Dose. For an infant, a teaspoonf ul.

Obt. Qenuine syrup of violets has a lively |
violet-blue colour, is reddened by acids, turned ,
green by alkalies, and both smells and tastes of ^
the flowers. It is freqnentiy used as a teat. A
spurious sort is met with in the shops, which is
coloured with litmus, and slightly scented with
orris root. The purest sngar, perf ectiy tne from
either acid or alkaline contamination, ^lonld alone
be used in the manufacture of this syrnp. The
Ph. £. orders the infusion to be strained withoot
pressure ; and the P. Cod., and some other Ph.,
direct the flowers to be first washed in cold
water.

Syrup of Wild Cherry Bark. 8fn. SnTrrrs
FSIKI viBOiNiAlfX (U. S.), L. Prsp. 1. Moisten
5 troy oz. of coarsely powdered bark of wild
cherry and water; let it stand 24 hours, then
put it into a percolator, adding water till 16 cz.
(o. m.) of liquid are obtained. To this add 2^
troy lbs. of sugar in a bottle, and agitate until
it ia dissolved.

2. (B. P. C.) Take of wild cherry hark, in Ko.
20 powder, 3 oz. ; refined sugar, in coarse powder,
15 oz. ; glycerine, li fl. oz.; distilled water, a
sufficient quantity. Moisten tiie powder with dis-

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TABASHEEB— TABELL^

1651

tilled water, and macerate for 24 honra in a closed
vessel, then pack it in a percolator, and gradnaJly
pour distilled water upon it until 9 fl. oe. of per-
colate are obtained. Dissolve the sugar in the
liquid by agitation, without heat, add the gljce-
rine, strain, and, if necessary, poor sufficient dis-
tilled water over the strainer to produce one pint
of ayrup.—Dota, i to 2 fl. dr.

Syrap, Wilka*!. See Sibpp o» Gabuo^ Cok-
rovw.

Synip of Worm'wood. i^. Snvrva ab-
snrtaii, L. ; Sibop s'jiBBiBTHa, Fr. Prep. (P.
Cod.) Tops of wormwood (dried), 1 part ; boil-
ing water, 8 parts; infuse for 12 hours, strain
with expression, and dissolve in the liqoor twice
its weight of sng^. Bitter, tonic, and stomachic.
— Dote, 1 to 3 fl. dr.

Syrnps for Aerated Waters. 1. Z«mon Syrt^.
a. Dissolve 1 on. of citric acid in 4 oz. of
water, and add to 9 pints of simple symp ; also
add 4 fl. oz. of mucilage of acacia, and half a
fluid ounce of tincture of lemon.

h. Qrate off the yellow rind of lemons, and beat
it up with a sufficient quantity of granulated
sugar. Express the lemon juiee ; add to each pint
of juice 1 pint of water and 3^ lbs. of granulated
angar, included that mbbed up by the rind. Warm
antil the sugar is dissolved, and strain.

c. Dissolve 6 dr. of tartaric acid and 1 oz. of
gum-arabic in pieces in 1 gall, of simple symp,
then flavour with \\ fl. dr. of best oil of lemon.
Or flavonr with the saturated tincture of the peel
in Cologne spirits.

2. (^ange Si/rup. a. To be prepared from the
fruit in the same manner as i. Lemon Sj'rup.

b. Dissolve 6 dr. of citric acid in 1 gall, of
simple syrup, and add 2 fl. dr. of fresh oil of
orange in 2 oz. of alcohol, or, instead of the
alcohol solution of the oil, use the saturated tinc-
tnre, obtained by macerating the fresh peel for
ten days in sufficient Cologne spirits to cover.
The lemon and orange syrups made from the
fruit, after being strained, may be diluted with
an equal bulk of simple B>'rup. One dozen of
the fruit is sufficient to mi^e 1 gall, of finished
symp.

3. Vanilla Sifrnp. See Stxup.

4. Syrup of Coffee. See Sybup.

6. Stratchirry and Satplerrj/ Sympt. Mash
the fresh fruit, express the juice, and to each
quart add 3| lbs. of granulated sugar. The
juice, heated to 180° F. and strained or filtered
previous to dissolving the sugar, will keep for an
indefinite time. See also Si&awsibsy Essinos,

PiCTITIOUB.

6. Pine-apple Symp. Expressed juice of pine-
apple, 1 pint; sugar, 2 lbs. Boil gently, and
when cold, filter,

7. Nectar Symp. Mix 3 parts of vanilla syrup
with 1 part each of pine-apple and lemon syrup.

8. Sherbet Syrup. Mix equal parts of orange,
pine-apple, and vanilla symp.

9. Orape Symp. Mix i pint of brandy, i oz.
of tincture of lemon, and sufficient tincture of
red Sanders, with 1 gall, of syrup.

10. Cream Symp. Condensed milk, 1 pint;
water, 1 pint; sogar. It lbs. Heat to boiling,
and strain.

11. Orgeat Syrup. Cream syrup and vanilla

symp, of each, 1 pint; oil of bitter almonds, a
minims.

12. Oinger Symp. Symp, 7^ fl. oz.j essence
of gmger (1 part of ginger to 4 parts of spirit),
i oz.

13. Syrup of OhooolaU. Oioecdate, 8 pz.;
symp, sufficient J water, i pint; white of one egg.
Orate the chocolate, and rab it in a mortar with
the egg. When thoroughly nuxed, add the water
gradually, and triturate till a nniform mixture is
obtained. Finally, add symp to 4 pints, and
strain.

Bynps, Hiaeral Water. ThofoUowing American
forms are taken from Bemiogton's ' Practice of
Pharmacy.'

VaniUa. Fluid extract of vaniUa, 2 oz. c symp,
to make 82 oz.

&inger. Tincture of ginger, 4' oz. ; symp, to
make 128 oi.

Lemon. Solotionof citric acid (1 in 10), Soz.;
spirit of lemon, 1} oz. ; symiT, 8 pints; tincture
of cnrcnma, enough to colour.

Orange, Oil of orange, 10 minims ; citric acid,
120 gr. ; symp, 64 oz.

Strawberry. Strawberry juice, 82 oz. ; sugar,
128 oz. ; water, 82 oz.'

Saepberry. Same as strawberry, using rasp-
berry juice.

Pine-apple. Same as stiawbeny, using jnnc-
apple joice.

Nectar. Vanilla symp, 40 parts; pine-apple
syrup, 8 parts ; strawberry symp, 16 parts.

Cioeotate. Best chocolate, 8 oz. ; sugar, 64
oz. ; water, 32 oz.

Coffee. Coffee, 8 oz. ; boiling water, 8 pints ;
sugar, 112 oz. Make an infusion, filter, and add
the sugar.

TABABHXEK. A deposit chiefly composed of
silica, found in the joints of the bamboo. When
dry it is opaqne> but possesses the property of
becoming transpaient when placed in water. Its
deposition in the nodes and joints of the bamboo
appears to be dne to a diseased condition of these
parts. Tabasbeer is mnch and unduly prized by
the natives of India as a tonic and consututional
restorative, and is chewed mixed with betel. It
has the least refractive power on light of any body
known.

TABELLX. Syn. Tjlsut8. Small discs
variously medicated, and weighing from 2 to 10
gr. Any simple substance may be used as the
basis, such as sngar and gnm, or black currant
paste; but cocoa or chocolate is generally preferred.
All the drugs mnst be intimately incorporated, so
as to form a stiff paste ; this is rolled into an even
sheet, and cut by means of a punch into tablets of
the required weight. The following method of
preparing tablets is described by H. Wyatts — The
cacao and other ingredients, including the medi>
cine to be administered, are mbbed together in a
mortar, massed, in the same way as a piU-mass,
with the liquid excipient, and cut into pills on a
pill machine. Each pill is then taken, dusted
with a powder of equal parts powdered sugar and
arrowroot to prevent sticking, and placed in a
tube of brass or wood standing vertically on a tile,
an accurately fitting piston of wood giving a round

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TABES DOBSALIS— TAFFETAS

form to the loxeiige on bdng forced down the tobe
on the top of the pill.

The tablets, Mr Wyatt uyi, may be tnmed out
•qnally irell without the mould, by simply placing
the mass on the cntter of the pill machine after
piping, and pressing down the upper cntter upon
it, oblong or square tablets resulting, according
to the amount of mass used.

For most medicines this process answers admir-
ably, yet there are some which could be admin-
istersd in lozenge form were it not for their
nauseous taste, wluch requires an amount of
cacao and sugar to disguise scarcely compatible
with the dimensions of an ordinary lozenge. In
inch cases Mr Wyatt recommends glycyrrhizin,
the glnooside from liqnorice root, and saccharin
as substitutes for the sugar. He finds, for example,
that 6 gr. of antipyrin are rendered nearly un-
noticeable by | gr. of glycyrrhizin, and that the
intense bitterness of strophanthus is covered by
the addition of | gr. of saccharin to eTery 6 minims
of tincture in Uie tablet.

Tablets sweetened with saccharin may be used
fkvely in diabetes and other diseases in which the
administration of ordinary sugar lozenges would
be attended with injurious results.

Another variation is in the nse of a warm mortar
so as to melt the cacao, in which state the powders
can be more easily incorporated. Other cases in
which medicines may be administered in the
form of tabell» may be suggested by the follow-
ing formula :

TahelUt AoieU Artaniori. Trituration of arse-
nions acid (1 in 100), 48 gr. ; cacao, 70 gr. ; sac-
cliarin, 1 gr. ; ttagacanth powder, 24 gr. ; rectified
-spirit, SO minims ; essence of vanilla (1 in 10), 24
minima ; distilled water, 30 minims. • Place the
cacao in a warm mortar, when liquefied add the
powders, previously well rubbed together,and after
the mass has set powder it with the help of the
spirit and essence of vanilla, massing with the dis-
tilled water and cutting into 48 tablets. Each
contains -^-^ gr. arsenions acid, equal to 1 minim
'Of liquor arsenicalis.

Ta6tlUt Aeoiuti. llncture of aconite, 60
minims ; cacao, 170 gr. ; tragacanth powder, 20
gr. ; saccharin, ) gr. j distilled water, 40 minims.
Add the tincture to the cacao, melted, stir until
the spirit is evaporated. Add the powders, mass
with water, and cut into 24 tablets. Each con-
ttuns 2\ minims tincture of aconite.

Taballa Antipyrin. Antipyrin, 120 gr. ; cacao,
120 gr. ; tragacanth powder, 24 gr. ; glycyr-
rhizin, 8 gr. ; rectified spirit, a snfficiency ;
. distilled water, 40 minims. Make as tabells
acidi arseniosi, massing with the water in
which the glycyrrhizin has been dissolved, and
cnt into 24 tablets. Each cont^ns 5 gr. anti-
pyrin.

TaheUa BeUadonntt. Tincture of belladonna,
120 minims ; cacao, 170 gr. ; tragacanth powder,
20 gr. ; saccharin, i gr. ; distilled water, a suffi-
ciency. Make as tabellae aconiti, and divide into
24 tablets. Each contuns 5 minims of tinct.
belladonne.

Tabella Caffeinte. Caffeine, 24 gr. j cacao, 160
gr. : tragacanth powder, 24 gr. ; saccharin, 2 gr. ;
essence of vanilU (1 in 10), 12 minims ; distilled
water, 50 minims. Make as tabellis acidi araeuosi.

and divide into 24 tablets. Each ooataiiu 1 gr.

caffeine.

Tabella Cerii at Sitmutki. Cerium oxalate, 48
gr. ; ammonio-citrate of bismnth, 48 gr. ; ememo,
120 gr. ; tragacanth powder, 24 gr.; saccbarin, 1
gr.; cherry laurel water, 96 minims; distilled
water, a snfficiency. Make as tabellsB acidi araeniaai,
and cnt into 24 tablets. Each contain* 2 gr.
cerium oxalate, 2 gr. bismnth ammonio-citrate.

Taballa OaUemii, Fluid extract of gelsemiam,
60 minims ; cacao, 170 gr. ; tragacanth powder,
24 gr.; saccharin, 2 gr. ; distilled water, a suffi-
ciency. Make as taMUst aconiti, and cut into 24
tablets. Each contuns 2} minims extract of
gelseminm.

TabaVte SamemeUdi*. Flnid extract of faama-
melis, 120 minims; cacao, 170 gr. ; tragacantli
powder, 24 gr. ; saccharin, 2 gr. Make as tabella
aconiti, and cnt into 24 tableto. Each contwna 6
minims ext. hamamelidis.

Taballea Nitro-glgearini. Solution of nitro-
glycerin (1 gr. in 100 minims), 24 minims; enewo,
100 gr. ; tragacanth powder, 18 gr. ; saccharin. ^
gr. ; distilled water, a sufficiency. Make as tabellse
aconiti, and cut into 24 tablets. Each containa
■ri, gr. nitro-glycerin.

Taballa SUrapiamthi. Tincture of stropbantbna
(1 in 20), 120 minims; cacao, 90 gr. ; saccharin,
4 to 8 gr. ; tragacanth powder, 24 gr. ; essence of
vsnilla (1 in 10), 24 minims; distilled water, a
sufficiency. Make as tabella aconiti, and cnt into
48 tablets. Each contains Zi minims of tinct.
strophanthi.

TABK8 O0SBALI8. A disease of the posterior
column of the spinal cord, resulting in inco-
ordination of the movements of the legs, some-
times spreading to the upper limbe, so that the
patient in walking throws Out the legs with a
jerk, and brings them down violently upon the
heels. Such patients are popularly called
' Stampers.'

TACAXAHACA.. The resinous substance
known by this name is believed to be obtained
from the I'agara ootandra (of Linnnos), a larg^
tree growing in the island of Cnra^oa and in
Venezuela. The juice, which exudes from the
tree spontaneously, becomes bard upon exposure.
The commercial article varies greatly in size,
sometimes occurring in irregular-shaped piece*
of one or two inches in diameter, whilst at others
it is met with no larger than a mustard seed.
The pieces are usually of a reddish-brown or light
yellow colour. They have a resinous agreeable
odour, with a balsamic, bitter, slightly acrid
taste. Tacamahaca dissolves partially in alcohol,
and entirely so in ether and fixed oils. It is
composed of resin and a little volatile oil. There
are several varieties of this substance. At one
time tacamahaca enjoyed a high repntatioo ss
an internal remedy for urinary and scorbutic af-
fections. It is now only occasionally employed
in medicine as an ingredient in ointments and
plaster. Sometimes it enters into the compo-
sition of incense. In properties it is very similar
to the turpentines.

TAF^TAS. Plasters on silk are occasionally
so called. For Taffetas AKaucinr, see CorsT
Plastbb; for Tatfstas tbbicakb, se Vmi-
CAirea.

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TAIC— TAJiLOW

1668

- TALC. S^H. FoLiATiD TALO; Cbbvo. a
tniDBparent, foliated, silioeoas maf^esian mineral,
flexible, but not elutic, found in Scotland, the
Tyrol, and elsewhere. It is need aa a cosmetic,
to import a rilky whiteness to the skin; also in
the composition of rouge vtg^al, and to give a
flesh-like polish to alabaster flgnres, and in the
extraction of grease from cloth, &c A second
and harder sx>ecies of this mineral (Fkikoh

OHAUC, 80AP8IOBB, 8TIATITI; OBITA OAUiIOA)

is employed as a crayon by carpenters, glaziers,
and tailors, and forms the boot-powder of the
hootmakera. Writing executed with it on glass,
even after being apparently removed by friction,
becomes again visible when breathed upon.

TALliOW. The name given to the fat sepa-
rated from the membranes which enclose it in
the snet or solid fat of ruminatiug animals, e.g.
ODw, sheep, &c. Prom this it is "rendered by
heating it in an open copper ; the heat bursts the
membranes and liberates the fat as oil. The fat
is separated from the waste matters by straining
and pressing ; what is left is called the ' greaves.' "
Tallow is commonly purified by the following
methods : —1. Melting it along with water, pass-
ing the mixed fluids through a sieve, and letting
the whole cool slowly, when a cake of cleansed
fat is obtained. 2. Keep the tallow melted for
some time, along with about 2% of oil of vitriol,
largely diluted with water, employing constant
agitation, and allowing the whole to cool slowly ;
then to remelt the cake with a large quantity of
hot water, and to wash it well. 3. Blow steam
for some time through the melted fat. By either
this or the preceding process a white, hard tallow
may be obtained. Some persons add a little
nitre to the melted &t, and afterwards a little
dilute nitric or sulphuric acid, or a solution of
Insnlphate of potash. Others boil the fat along
with water and a little dilute nitric or chromic
acid, or a mixture of bichromate of potash and
siUphuric acid, and afterwards wash it tho-
rooghly with water. These methods answer well
for the tallow or mixed fats of which ordinary
candles are made.

. Tallow converted into stearic acid by saponi-
fication is readily hardened and bleached if
moderately pure. A mixture composed of 1 part
of oxalic acid and 2000 parts of water is sniB-
cient to bleach 1000 parts of stearic acid. The
mode of operating is as folfows : — Throw the
stearic acid, cut into small pieces, into a vessel
of cold water, and turn on steam ; as soon as it
lus melted and assumed a turbid appearance, add
the solution of oxalic acid, and boil the mixture.
After boiling for } hour, long threads appear in
the liquid; the liquid itself, which previously
was of a greyish colour, becomes black, and the
threads unite together. The boiling must now
be discontinued, and the contents of the vessel,
having been allowed to setUe for three or four
lionrs, must be drawn off into the coolers.

As commercial stearic acid frequently contains
ondecomposed tallow, as well as various foreign
matters, this process is occasionally unsuccessful.
To ohviate the inconveniences connected with the
nse of an impure material, the candle may be run
at two operations, as follows: — "The stearic
idd, treated as above, is exposed for a month to

the sun, by which means the foreign matter* ard
oxidised, and the bleached stearic add acquires a
dirty yellow colour ; the oxidised blocks are then
melted in water containing a littie sulphuric acid,
at about 150° F. ; an addition of abont 10% of
good white wax (or spermaceti) is next made, -
and the whole boiled for half an hour; the white '
of an egg, previously beaten up in a qnart of
water, is then added to each 1 cwt. of stearic
acid, the tamperatnre of the mass having been
reduced to 100°, or at most 120° F., after which
the mixture is again well stirred and boilad,
when the liquid soon becomes clear, which is seen
by the dark colour it assumes.

" This mixture of stearic acid and wax orsper- -
maceti is very suitable for forming the exterior
coating of the candle ; it is transparent, and of
perfect whiteness, and, as it is devoid of oxalic
acid, it does not injure the moulds; whilst at the
same time, as it is less fnsible than pure stearie
add, candles made with it do not run. The first
coating may be run hot without crystallising ; the
interior of the candle, being protected from with-
out against too sudden a cooling, may also be mn .
somewhat hot ; by this means the cimdle acquires
a whiteness and a transparency which cannot ha
realised by other processes " (' Le Monitdur In-
dostriel').

The sulphuric acid saponification of inferior
tallow and other solid or semi-solid fatty bodiea'
is now carried out on a very large scale for pro-
ducing the cheaper varieties of ' stearine candles.'
For ^is purpose the tallow or fat is mixed with
5% or 6% of concentrated sulphuric acid, and
exposed to a steam heat of 850° to 860° F. After
cooling, the black mass thus obtained crystallises -
to a tolerably solid fat, which is well washed once-
or twice with water, or high-pressure stesm, and
is then submitted to distillation by the aid of
steam heated to abont 660°. F. The product of
the distillation is beautiftilly white, and may be
at once used for making candles. It is better,
however, to first submit it to the processes of cold
and hot pressing, whereby a much more solid fat
is obtained.

Russian tallow has long been considered the
best, but the imports from America and New
Zealand bid fur to displace it.

Chemically, tallow consists of stearin, pal-
mitin, and olein, the stearin predominating, but
varying according to the spedes of the animal, its
age, and food.

Oood tallow should be white or nearly yellowish
in eolonr ; it should be practically free from water
and mineral matters; its melting-point should
not vary outside 115°— 121' F.

An oil corresponding to the oil of lard, and
called tallow oil, is obtained from tallow by pres-
sure ; it is very useful in the mannfactnre of the
finer kinds of soap.

According to Pohl, palm oil, or, as it is often ■
called, palm tallow, is most easily purified by
simpls exposure to a high temperature, provided '
it has been first well defecated. When quickly
heated to about 465° F., and kept at that tem-
perature for from 6 to 16 minutes, it is com-
pletely decolourised. The product has a slight
empyreumatic odour, but this disappears by age«
exposure^ or saponification, and the natural violet

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TAUAB INDIEN— TAKES

odour of the oil retanu. Cart-inn pans should
he employed in the procen, and shonld be only
2-8Tda fflled, and well oovered daring the opera-
tion.

By the diatillation of snlphnmted palm oil in
doaed veisels, at a heat ranging from 570° to
eOCf F., from 68% to 76% of a mixture of pal-
"mitio and palm-oleic acid panes over, of which
'26% to 30% is coloarlesB, hard, and crystalline,
and the rest darker and softer (Pohl). The rest-
dnom in ti>e still is a fine hard pitch. See
CunDL», Vm!s, GuroBBur, Oiu (Fixed), Stsabio
AOD, &c.

TAKAS nrSIEir. Dr H. Eager states this
preparation is prepared as followB: — Tamarind
palp, 450 parts j sngar, 40 parts; sugar of milk,
60 puts; glycerine, 50 parts; senna powder, 60
parts; anise powder, 10 parts; oil-sngar of
lemon, 3 parts ; tartaric acid, S parts. Mix well
to forai a plastic mass, divide into oblong tablets
H inches by -f^ inch, and sprinkle with the fol-
lowing powders : — Cream of tartar,'5 parts ; sugar,
85 parts; engar of milk, 86 parts; tragacantb,
8 parts; tartaric acid, 2 puts; red saunders
powdsr, 26 parts. Dry the tablets and wrap in
tin-fdl.

TAMA'SA. A mixed spice used in Italian
cookery, consisting of cinnamon, cloves, and cori-
snders, of each 2 parts; aniseed and fennel seed,
of eusk 1 part.

XAX'ASnn). £y>i. TAVABnnovB (B. P., Ph.
L'., E., & D.), L. nie pulp or preserved fruit or
pod of the Tamariiidiu indiea, or tamarind tree.

Tamarind palp is refrigerant and gently laxa-
tive. Mixed with water, it forms a grateful
addulous drink in fevers. — Dote, i oz. and np-
w«ids.

_PompotUion of tie Tamarind (Vanqnelin).

. Citric acid. . . 9*40 per cent.
Tartaric add . . 1-66 „
Malic acid ; . .0*46 „
Bitartrato of potash . 3-26 „
Sugar . , 12-60 „

Besides gum, vegetable JeUy, parenchyma, and
water.

VAVK8. The difFerenee between water-tanks
and cisterns is not very obvious. Perhaps the
definition the most nearly representing the general
idea respeotiug them would be, that whilst both
waro receptacles for water, in tanks water would
be stored for a longer period than in cisterns,
wliioh, supplying the constantly recurring needs
of a house or a building of any kind, would be
more frequently filled and emptied ; although in
many instances there might be no such distinction
between them, and they might be regarded as
iyBOnymoos. In whatever sense the terms may
be nndetttood, the remarks that follow as to their
eonftrnction and management have a common
application.

The materials for tanks and cisterns for the
reception of water consist of stone, cement, brick,
slate, iron, sine, and lead. Of tJieae materials,
the best, although the dearest, is slate. The slate
cistern, however, is occasionally liable to leakage,
a defect mostly arising from the employment of
mortar instead of cement for joining the slabs.
Wxought-iron cisterns and tanks, as well as the

pipes in conneotioB widi them, are in very general
use. The tendency of both to corrosion by the
action of the water is considerably redaced by
coating the insides with Portland cement or a
vitreous glase.

Mr Bum advocates the employment of a com-
pound of tar, which, he says, most effectually
protecia them. Zinc, although cheap, and litUe
acted upon by water, is seldom employed for
cisterns. Dr Osborne says he has seen several
cases of zinc poisoning caused by drinking water
that had passed through zinc pipes, or had stood
in zinc pails. Equal if not greater risk is in>
curred when drinking-water is kept in lead cisterns,
or is made to run tluough lead pipes. In setting
up dstems or tanks made of stone or oemen^
common mortar must not be used, as Ume is takca
up and the water is rendered hard in eonseqnenoe.

In seasons of drought it is by no means an nn-
usual occurrence for many rural districts to la<dc
a sufficiency of water, the limited supply of which
entails considerable suffering, sometimes termi-
nating fatally upon farm stock, with frequent
loss to the owners. Few persons, perhaps, can
form a correct idea of the immense quantity of
water that in the shape of i-ain falls even in the
least humid portions of our islands. If tins rain,
which is now allowed to run waste, were properly
collected and stored, it would form a valnabla
resource in times and at places where there was a
dearth or scarcity of this necessary element.

Mr Bayley Denton, writing on this subject,
says: — " TUce an ordinary middle-class house in a
village with stabling and outbuildings, the space
of ground covered by the roofe will frequently
reach 10 poles, while the space covered by a farm
labourer's cottage and outbuildings will be 2(
poles.

" Assuming that the roof is slate, and the water
dripping from it is properly caught by eave-
troughing, and conducted by down-pipes and Im-
pervious drain-pipes into a water-tight tank suffi-
ciently capacious to prevent overflow under any
circumstances, and that by this method 20 iuchea
of water fro?) rain and dew are collected in the
course of the year, the private houses will have
the command of 28,280 galls., and the cottage
7070 galls, in a year. ... A tank 16 feet long
and 10 feet wide will hold 1000 galls, in every
foot of depth, and {rherc the water is not wanted
for drinking, it need not be covered, except with
a common boarded floating roof of half-inch
boards fastened together. This floating roof
keeps the water clean, and prevents evapora-
tion."

Leakage of pipes of any kind into a cistern or
tank should be particularly g^uarded againat.
Another important precaution claiming adoptaon
is to see that the overflow-pipe is not directly con-
nected with the sewer, for if it be the sewer gases
will rise through it, and, being prevented escaping
from the cisteni because of its covering, will be-
come absorbed by the water. To obviate this tiM»
overflow-pipe is curved, so as to form a syphoa
trap ; but this device conduces to a sense of false
security, since It mostly fuls owing to the evapo-
ration of the water in it, or to the gases forcing
their way through it. The overflow-pipe, there-
fore^ shoald never have direct commanication with

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TANNATE— TANNIC ACID

16SB

tiie Mwer, bnt alioald always end above gronnd,
' and diicharge over a trapped grating into H. For
■imilar reaiona the same tanks or ciatems shoold
never snpply the water osed for cnlinary or
drinking purposes, and alao the water-closets.

To the water in the tanks attached to these
laitter some dianfectaut substance shoald from
time to time be added, more particularly during
Aot weatiier.

Unless a cistern be efficiently protected, par-
ticularly if it be placed in an exposed ntoation,
various disgusting and filthy substances, such as
the ordure of bii^ eats, n^, dead insects, tc.,
will be liable to fidl into it and foul its con-
tents. This must not only be guarded against by
the proper means, but even where the contamina-
tioB may not be suspected, or likely to occur, the
taatera should be frequently examined and periodi-
cally eleansed ; part of the proper carrying out
• of which should consist in always running off the
water remaining in it, and renewing it with fresh.

The London and General Water Purifying
■Cmnpany have adopted an excellent idea in oon-
ilieetioB with tanks and cisterns; they fit them
with filters, so that the water drawn from the
pipes shall have been submitted to filtration pre-
^ons to delivery.

TAWATE. A salt of tannic add.

TAVVDt'S BASK. The best U oak bark;
4>ut the bark of the chestnut, willow, larch, and
■other trees which abound in tannin, are also nsed
for preparing leather.

TAVnCACID. CnHA-COjH. 8yn. Tuf.
TAinmr, OaiiSO-tassic AOiDf s TAmmrvK, Aci-
sra TAmticmc (B. P., Ph. L., D., ft U. S.), L.
A peculiar vegetable principle, remarkable for its
asb'ingency and its power of converting the skins
of animals into leather.

iVwf). From galls, in moderately fine powder,
.240 grms.; by percdation, in a closed vessel,
with sulphuric ettier, 1800 c.c, that has been pre-
'vioasly agitated with water, 160 c.e. After some
time the percolated liquid will be found divided
into two distinct portions, the lower and heavier
one being a wateiy solution of tannic acid, snd
the upper one an ethereal solution of gallic acid
and colouring matter. Fresh ether must be passed
through the powder as long as the lower sixatnm
■of liqidd continues to increase. The two fluids
:are now placed in a separate funnel and carefully
Mparated, and after the heavier one has been well
washed with ether, it is gently evaporated to
dryness, in vaetu>, or over sulphuric acid. The
ether may be recovered unaltered from the ethe-
real solntion by cautious distillation in a retort
'Connected with a Liebig*s condenser supplied with
iiee-cold water.— i¥orf. About 40% .

Prop., /te. Pure tannic acid is perfectly white,
>bnt as ordinarily met with it has a slight yellowish
'Colour, owing to the action of the ur ; it -is un-
ciystallisable, and usually occurs as shining scales ;
it possesses a powerful astringent taste, without
bitterness; is freely solnble in water, less so in
-alcohol, and only very slightly in anhydrous ether ;
it reddens vegetable blues; when boiled with
acids it assimilates water and splits into gallic
acid and grape-sugar; when heated in the dry
.state it snffsrs decomposition, metagallic and pyro-
.grille acids being formed; it unites with the

bases, forming salts called tannates, which are
characterised by striking a bluish black with ferric
chloride (fok), and forming a white precipitate
with gelaun. .

E. Schmidt (■ Chem. News,' from ' BnlL de la
Soc. Chem. de Paris') gives the following com-
parative method of determining tanning materials,
stating, preliminarily, " that the question to ha
solved is, knowing that a certain weight of puna
tannin is required to obtain a oertun result, hoir
moch of another <''««iniiig body, e.ff. the eztaaet
of a wood, is required to produce the same result t"

He proposes a modification of Fibram's method
with sugar of lead, the modification being as
folloira:

A. Prtparatio* of tie ZW Ziputr. Rfl^
grms. neutnd acetate of lead are dissolved in 4m
grms. of alcohol of 98% , and distilled water ia
added to make up 1 litre.

On the other hand, 1 grm. of tannin is dis-
solved in 40 grms. of alcohol of the same strength,
and the solntion is made up with water to the
bulk of 100 c.c. This being done, 10 c.c of the
tannin solution are mixed with 20 cc of water,
and heated to 60°. The lead liquor ia then mn
into the hot solution from a burette, graduated
to tenths of a c.e., so long as a ]nedpitate is
formed. At this temperature, and with these
alcoholised liquids, the precipitate forms and
settles rapidly. Iodide of potassium may be used
as an indicator to show excess of lead, proceeding
in the same manner as is done with ferrocyanide
in titrating phosphates with nitrate of uranium.
If we suppose that to predi^tate 10 cc. of the
tannin solution 28° of the lead liquor have been
required, then 2-8 cc. of the latter^O-lO grm. of
tannin.

B. Preparation of tke Sample to le teited.
Suppose that chestnut bark is to be examined.
It is coarsely powdered, and 10 grms. are mixed
with an equal volume of washed sand, and ex-
hausted with water at 60° or 60° 0. The filtered
liquid is evaporated to diyness in a water-bath is
a tared porcelain capsule. After eva^wration
the capsule is wdghe^ which shows the yidd of
the bark in aqneons extract. This is taken up in
40 grms. of alcohol at 92°, and water is added to
make up 100° c.c. The liquid is filtered if needfuL
In this manner the resinous, albumindd, pecti^
and gummy matters are got rid of,

0. Titration. The liquid thus prepared is
dirided into two paria. The first, one third of
the entire volume, serves for direct determinatioa
of the acetate of lead. Snppoee that a grm. of
the dry extract of hark has required for 10 c.c
of the tannin liqnor, in three successive experi-
ments, 16°, 17°, and 16° of the burette, which cor-
responds to 57% of tannin. This figure 67 rept«t>
sents not only tannin, but every &3ut snbetiuica
capable of precipitating acetate of lead.

The tannin is then absorbed with bone-hladr,
previously washed with hydrochloric add, and
dried at 100° C. in the following ' manner : — We
act with bone-black upon the tannin liquor, and
on a solution of pure tannin, prepared at a standard
somewhat lower than that indicated for the ex-
tract by the first direct titration. In the present
case tms solution of tannhi shonld be prepared
at 66%.

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TANNIN— TANTALIC ACIO

From one and the aane gUui tube, about 1
cm. in diameter, we cut off two lengths of 20
em. each, and we draw out each at one of
its ends. The two tubes are fixed perpendicu-
larly with the poiuta downwards, and plugged
with a little culled cotton. Into each is pat
10 grms. of the bone>black, pouring into one
of them the second part of the tannin liquor under
examination, and into the other the same volume
of the pure solution of pure tannin at 55% .

Twenty c.c. of the tannin liquor (which will
be found to have retuued its original brown
colour in spite of the bone-black) are now heated to
60° C, and the standard lead liquor is added from
the burette as before. Two successive trials show
Iff'-S" for 10 C.C. in place of the 16^ found for
10' ce. on direct titration. Un the other hand,
20 c.c. of the solution of pure tannin require 14°,
or 7° for 10 c.c. Thns we see that in the chestnut
extract there is a certain quantity of matter which
acts upon the standard lead solntiou like tannin,
correaponding to 1° of the lead liquor, t. «. to 857
thoasandths of a centigram of tannin ; 28°, there-
fore, correspond to 10 centigrams. The figure 57,
obtained by direct titration, is, therefore, too high
by*-57%,and the extract contains 57 — 8'57=
53-43% of tannin.

The best method of determining tannin is a
modification of LOwenthal's method by von
Schroeder (' Zeits. Anal. Chem..' xxv, 121).

A solution of ferrous acetate is prepared from
iron alum in the following proportions : — Iron am-
mpiriacum alum, 48'2 grms. ; crystallised sodium
acetate, 25 grins. ; acetic acid, containing 50% by-
drate,40 cc, dissolved in one litre. 10 c.c. of th is
solution are added to 50 o.c. of the tannin solution
to be determined, which is prepared, according to
Schroeder, of 6 grms. per litre. The mixture is
examined at the end of fifteen minutes, to see if
the iron is in excess, which should always be the
case, made up to 100 c.c, and filtered j 20 cc. of
the filtrate, equal to 10 cc. of the original solution,
are then titrated with standard potassium per-
manganate after addition of 20 cc in digestive
lolation. The difference between the amount of
iron added and that fonnd on titration gives the
amount precipitated by tannin (' Chem. News,'
1887).

Uiat, <f-e. The value of inbatances containing
tannin in the preparation of leather is well known.
In its pure form it is used as an astringent in
medicine ; internally, in diarrhoen, hiemorrhages,
as a tonic in dyspepsia, &c. ; externally, made into
a gargle, ii\jection, or ointment. — Dote, 1 to 10
gr., in the form of pills or solution. See Oallio
Acid, Ac.

TAX'Hnr. See Tahhio Aoio.

TAN'SIHO. When the skin of an animal, care-
fully deprived of h^r, fat, and other impurities,
is immersed in a dilute solution of tannic add, the
gelatin gradually combines with that snbstaaoe as
it penetrates inwards, forming a perfectly in-
soluble compound, which resists pntref aetion com-
pletely ; this is tanned leather. In practice lime
water is used for cleanung and preparing the skin,
water acidulated with oil of vitriol for ' raisinr '
or opening the pores, and an infusion of oak bark,
sumach, galls, wattle bark, or other astringent
matter, as the source of tannic acid. The pro-

cess itself is necessarily a slow one, aa dilate soln-
tions only can be safely used. Skina intended for
the curriers, to be dressed for ' uppers,' commonly
require about 8 weeks; and 'thick hides' from
12 to 18 months.

or late years varioua ingenious contrivances
have been adopted, with more or less success, ta>
hasten the process of tanning skins and hides.
Among these may be mentioned the employment
of stronger tan solntions; the application of a
gentle heat; puncturing the skins to afford more
ready access for the liquid to their interior parts ;
and maceration in the tan liquor under pteaanre,
dther at once or after the vessel containing tfaem
has been exhausted of air by means of an air-
pump. On the merit of these several methoda it
has been remarked that " the saturated infusions
of astringent barks contain much less extractive
matter, in proportion to thdr tannin, than the
weak infusions ; and when the skina are quickly
tanned in the former, common experience showa
that it produces leather which is less durable than
leather slowly formed" (Sir H. Davg). "One
hundred lbs. of skin, quickly tanned in a strong
infusion of bark, produce 137 lbs. of leather j
while 100 lbs. slowly tanned in a weak infusion
produce only 117i lbs." " Leather thus higbl;^
(and hastily) charged with tannin is, moreover,
so spongy aa to allow moisture to pass readily-
through its pores, to the great discomfort sn<k
danger of persons wearing shoes made of it"

(Pre).

According to Mr G. Lee, much of the original
gelatin of the skin is wasted in the preliminary-
processes to which they are subjected, more espe-
cially the 'liming' and 'bating.' He says that
100 lbs. of. perfectly dry hide, cleaned from ex-
traneous matter, should, on chemical principles,
afford at least 180 lbs. of leather.

Kid for gloves undergoes a ' tanning' operation,
the chiiif chemical features of which are the re-
moval of excess of lime, and opening the pores by
steeping in a sour bran-bath, impregnation with
alnminium chloride, and kneading with alum flour
and the yolks of eggs.

HoBOCCO I.BATHXB is prepared from goat or
sheep skius, which, after the aetion of lime water
and a bath of sour bran or flour, are sligbly tanned
in a bath of snmach. They are subsequently
dyed, grained, polished, &c Bod morocco, which
is dyed before tanning, is steeped flrst in alum
or chloride of tin, and afterwards in an infusion
of cochineal. Black morocco is dyed with acetate
of iron, which combines with the tannic acid.
The aniline dyes are now much used.

BcesiA IBATHEK is generally tanned with a
decoction of willow bark, after which it is dyed
and curried with the empyreumatic oil of the birch
tree. It is the lust substance which imparts to
this leather its peculiar odour and power of
resisting mould and damp. Seo Lsaxbbb,
Taithio Aoid, Tawihs, &c.

lAKTAIIC ACIS. Sgn. Tantaijo abbt-
DBIDB, CoLUXBio AOID. Rose believed this anb-
stance to be a dioxide, to which he gave the
formula TaO^ ; but the subsequent researdiea of
Marignac, and the crrstalline form of potassic
tantalic fluoride, 2KF.TaF(, seem to show that it
is to be regarded rather aa Ta^.

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TANTALUM— TAB

M67

TAVTALTTK. Ta = 182. Sg». CoLUXBirv.
A rare metal diacovered by Hatchett, in 1801, in
a mineral from MaasachnsettB, and by Ekeberg in
1808 in tantalite, a mineral found in Sweden; it
exists in most of its ores in combination with
oxygen. The yttrotuntalite of Sweden is an ore
which consists of tantalic acid combined with
ferrous and manganons oxides.

TAPSWOSK. See Wobks.

TAPEWORM CintB(£^A. Vienna). Coarsely
powdered pomegranate-root bark, 125 grms.,
boiled for half an hour in 800 grms. water. To
this add solution of ammonia, G grms. ; boil again
for a quarter of an hour. Add kousso flowers,
26 grms. Again boil for a few minutes, and when
cold add citric acid, 1 grm. ; and alcohol, 30 grms.
Press, filter, and set aside. The product should
weigh about 600 grms. Klinger says this
remedy is merely a concentrated essence of pome-
granate-root bark, and contuns neither ammonia
nor citric a<nd.

Tapeworm Cure (Jaeoby, Berlin). A box con-
tuning 20 grms. of kousso powder and directions
for use (Soger).

Tapewonn Cue (ifur). (a) A miztnre con-
taining S decigrms. of sulphate of qninine, with
a few drops of bjdrocliloric arid to dissolve it in
200 grms. of water. To be taken in the course
of three days, (i) A box with 12 grms. kousso
powder. A teaspoonful to be taken each morning
in black coffee (SehSdUr).

Tapeworm Core (Bichard Mokrmatnt, Franken-
berg. Saxony). This Hohrmann travels about in
the fashion of the old charlatans to sell his medi-
cines. These consist of two varieties, the first
being 10 grms. of extract of male fern, the second
a mixture of 8 grms. each of raspberry juice ami
castor oil. These remedies have been used for
tapeworm for almost 100 years. The doctor's
directions for use are to mix 80 grms. of the ex-
tract with the castor oil and raspberry compound,
and 80 drops of the mixture to be taken every
quarter of an hour until purging occurs.

Tapeworm Cure (Mori, Berlin). A decoction
of about 110 grms. of pomegranate-root hark,
yielding 400 grms. of liquid, and mixed with 1
grm. of extract of male fern. The directions
order that on one day 1 or 2 table-spoonfuls of
castor oil should be taken, a heniug salad in the
evening, and the following morning, after coffee,
a third of the contents of the Iwttle, another
third half an hour later, and the remainder in yet
another half -hour (Sofftr).

Tapewonn Cure for Children and Adult* {S.
Karig, Berlin). Burnt oxide of copper, 1 grm. ;
cassia powder, 1) grms. ; sugar of milk, 10 grms.
Divide in 24 powders (SelkSdUr).

Tapeworm Fills, Laffon's, are compounded of
the ethereal extract of the root of Arpidium
lonekitis, Arp. hetvetienm, and Ajp. fiUx-nuu,
together with the alcoholic extract of the flowers
of Aeiillea mtUllina and motchata, and the
pjwder of the flowers of Aniea ttoroMom
(WitUUin).

Tapeworm Pilla, Pesehler's. Ethereal extract
and powder of the rhizome of male fern, of each,
grm. 1-6 ; make 20 pills. Take 10 at night and 10
in the morning.

TAPIO'CA. 8g». Tipiooa (Ph. B. & D.), L.

The fecula of the root of Janipha nuiiUhot {Ja-
tropka maniiot, Linn.), which has been well
washed in water, and dried on hot plates, by
which it assumes the appearance of warty-looking
granules.

Micnxeopie tppewiiuce of ttpioca.

Pure tapioca is insipid, inodorous, only slightly
soluble in cold water, but entirely soluble in boil*
ing water, forming a translucent and highly nutri-
tious jelly. ] ts granules are muUer-shsped, about
VT^ns °^ "^ '"<=^ >" diameter, and display very
marked hilums. It is used in a similar manner
to sago and arrowroot. See Cassava.

TAPS, WOOSSn (to prevent their cracking).
The taps are placed in mother-paraffin, heated to
from 110° to ]20"; by this means the water is
eliminated from the wood, and the latter become*
thoroughly impregnated with paraffin- The taps
are heated in this bath until all the aqueous
vapour has been expelled, and are left in it, after-
the removal of the vessel from the fire, op to the
very moment the paraffin begins to solidify.
Wooden taps thus prepared are very durable, do
not become soaked with liquids, keep very tight,
and are not liable to become mouldy. The excess
of paraffin is wiped off with care, and the taps are
then rubbed clean with a piece of flannel {Kopp,
'Chemical News').

TAB. 8y». Piz uqvida (B. P., Ph. L., E.,
& D.), L. A brown-black viscid liquid produced
together with gaseous and watery products in the
dry distillation of organic bodies and bituminous,
minerals. It is a mixture of various substances,
acid, alkaline, and neutral, and its composition
varies according (a) to the nature of the original
substances placed under distillation, and (i) to the
temperature at which the distilUtion is carried on.

Tar obtained from vegetable substances has an
acid reaction, but coal tar and the tar of animal
substances is alkaline.

The principal groups of compounds contained
in tars are liquid and solid hydrocarbons, alcohols,,
ethers, acids, and bases, together with resins and.
empyreumatic products of indeterminate com-
position. On subjecting tar to repeated distilla-
tion the more volatile and liquid hydrocarbons,
together with the alcohols and ethers, pass over
first, while the less volatile oils consist chiefly of

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1658

TARAXACUM— TAB COLOURS

acid and basic compounds, and the last portions
which distil over contain the solid hydrocarbons.
The residue left after about half the tar has dis-
tilled over — called pitch, and likewise asphalte
when obtained from coal tar — also contains solid
hydrocarbons, together with resinous componnds.
The volatile constituents of tar can be separated
by iVactional distillation into portions of constant
boiling-point. The oily portions are also treated
with dilute acids to remove their basic con-
sfitnents, and with alkalies to remove their acid
constitaents ( V(tM).

Tar, Barbadoes. Syn. Pix liqtttda Bakba.-
DBirBia, PETBOLsra Babbadbnbb, Pbtbolbuk
(Ph. L. & £.), L. " Black liquid bitumen, exud-
ing spontaneously from the earth" (Ph. L.). Its
medicinal properties are stimulant, dinretie, sndo-
rific, and vermifuge. — JDote, 10 to 80 drops; in
asthma, chronic coughs, tapeworm, Ac. Externally,
in chilblains, chronic and rheumatic pains, &c.
See Pbtrouevk.

Tar, Coal. The black liquid obtained in tbe
destructive distillation of coal, peat, lignite, or
bituminous shale. The more volatile portions are
called %JU oil or coal naphtha, and consist munly
of benzene and its homolognes, together with a
number of bases of the formula CgHju-gN. When
obtained from caanel and Boghead coal it is
-chiefly composed of alcoholic hydrides, homologous
with marsh-gas, together with olefines and homo-
lognes of benzene. The less volatile portion, or
dmd oil, of tar contains phenol, creosote, aniline,
picoline, ehinoline, and other bases ; also naphtha-
lene, anthracene, and other solid hydrocarbons.

The preparation of this tar from coal, shale,
peat, &c., has attained great importance of late
years for obtaining illnminating and lubricating
oils; it is also a source of aniUne colonra, picric
«dd, lampblack, &e.

Tar, Wood (Stockholm tar). Chiefly prepared
from the wood of Finnt tylvettrii and by dry dis-
tillation.

The chief liquid constituent) are methyl acetate,
acetone, hydrocarbons (tolnene, xylol, cnmene),
methol, eupione, creasote, and a number of in-
-definite oxidised substances. The solid portions
-consist for the most part of resinous matters
which resemble eolophony, paraflin, naphthalene,
anthracene, chrysene, retene, &c.

It possesses powerful antiseptic properties, due
■to the creasote which it contains ; hence it is much
■used in the preservation of wood and in ship-
building.

TAKAZ'ACVK. See Dahsuiov.

TAK COLO0BS. 8yn. Coai,-tab coLOTmg,
AmUHB 0OIOTTB8, &c. Coal tar, the source of
the aniline colours, consists of the oily fluid ob-
tained in the destructive distillation of coal, daring
the manufacture of ordinary illuminating gas, and
oolleoted in a tank from the hydraulic mt&n and
condensers.

The composition of coal tar is highly complex,
the most important constituents being, however,
a series of homologous hydrocarbons obtained by
distilling coal tar, and known as ' cosl naphtha.'
Naphtha, by rectiflcation between 180° and 250°
P. (82° and 121° C), yields a light yellow oily
liquid, of sp. gr. 0-88, the benzol of commerce.

By the action of a mixture of nitric and sul-

phuric acids on benzol, nitio-benxol, a heavy oily
liquid with an odour of oil of bitter almonds, ii
obtained. In commerce this snbsta.nce is made in
large cast-iron pots, fitted with tight covers, and
provided with stirrers worked by steam power.
By means of pipes the reagents arc admitted and
the nitrous fumes are carried off, while the nitio.
benzol and the spent reagents are drawn off from
the bottom. The entire charge of bensol is first
placed into the vessels, and the mixed acids are,
as the reaction is very energetic, cautionsly mn
in, the whole being well stirred throughout.
When finished, the contents are drawn oS, and the
nitro-benzol collected, washed with water, and, if
necessary, neutralised with a M^otioa «C sods.
SeeBsRCOL.

Nitzo-benzol is converted into eauline in s
similar apparatus, but it should be provided with
means of admitting a current of superfieated
steam, and condensing the aniline as it distils over.
Into the vessel iron Irarings are plaoed, and acetic
acid and nitro-benzol eantiously run in as the
reduction is violent, stirring well all the time.
A current of superheated steam is passed tbrongh,
and the aniline collected as it distils over as a
pale, sherry-coloured, oily liquid, boiling at 181°
C, and of Sp. gr. 1-086. See Ajrn,nn.

HAtrn, iHDisniB, Violinb, PHsxAinKB, the
first-discovered coal-tar or aniline eoloar, was
obtained by Perkin during some experiments
directed towards the artificial formation of qui-
nine, and was also first pmctically manufactured
by him in 1866. Commercially, maave is made
as follows :

Aniline and sulphnrie acid in proper proportions
are dissolved in water in a vat by aid of heat, and
when cold a solution of bichromate of potassium
added, and the whole allowed to stand a day or
two, when a black precipitate is obtuned, which,
after collecting on shallow filters, is washed and
well dried. This black resinous substance is
dig^ted with dilute methylated spirit in a suit-
able apparatus, to dissolve out the maav«, and the
miyor portion of the spirit distilled off. Themanre
is precipitated from the aqueous solution left
behind by hydrate of sodium, and after washing
is either drained to a paste or dried.

The amount of mauve thus obtained is hut
small in comparison with the raw material, coal
tar, as 100 lbs. of Coal yield 10 lbs. 12 oz. of cotl
tar ; 8i oz. of mineral naphtha, 2| oz. of benzol,
4^ oz. of nitro-benzol, 2 J oz. of aniline, and i oz.
of mauve. Mauve is usually sent into the market
in paste or solution, the expense of the crystilt
being heavy, and offering no corresponding ad<
vantages.

Other salts than the bichromate of potassium
bave been employed to convert aniline into manni
SB chloride of copper, permanganate of potas-
sium, Ac; but experience has shown none to
possess the same advantages as the bichromate of
potassium.

Mautkikb, the organic base of mauve or aniline
purple, is a black crystalline powder, of the for-
mula CfjS^^, yielding a dull violet soIuti(»i.
The moment, however, mauveine is brought in
contact with an add, it turns a mafpufioent
purple colour. The salts of mauveine form besa-
tiful crystals possessing a splendid green metaUic

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TAB COLOUBS

1869

lustre, nlable very readily in alcohol, and Ian so
in water. The commercial lalt, or manTe, ia the
acetate, or •ometimea the hydrochkmte.

MASBHTI.. $fn. AXILIin BKD, BOBIIHI,

FvOBsnix, AzALim, Solfxkdio, TYBixira.
Varioni procouea have beai propoMd and pa-
tented for the prepctration of thu commercially
important coal-tar colour. Amongst these pro-

1. Oerber-Keller's. By this the aniline is
treated with mercuric nitnte.

2. Jjanth and Depooilly used nitric acid.

3. Medlodc, Nicholson, and Hestrs Girard and
De Lure, in 1860, separately patented the use of
arsenic acid. This process, beiug the one now
almost exclusively employed, is thus described in
Crace Calvert's work, ' I^eing and Calico Print-
ing,' edited by Messrs Stenhonse and Orove : —
"The manu&ctnre of magenta, as it is now con-
ducted in the large oolonr works, is a oompara-
tively simple process, the appaxatns employed
consisting of a large east-iron pot set in a fur-
nace, provided with means of caief ally regnlating
the heat. It is famished with a stirrer, which
4san be worked fay hand or by mechanical means,
the gearing for the stirrer being fixed to the lid,
80 that by means of a crane the lid may be re-
moved, together with the stirrer and gearing.
There is slso a bent tnbe passing through the VA
for tiie exit of the vicars, which can be easily
connected or disconnected with a worm at plea-
sure. lAstly, there are large openings at the bot-
tom of the pot, closed tr^ suitable stoppers, so
that the oharge can be removed with facility as
soon as the reaction is complete. Into this appa-
ratus, whieh is capable of holding about 600
gMa^ a charge of 8740 lbs. of » concentrated
•olation of arsenic acid, containing 78% of the
anbydroos acid, is introdnced, together with 1600
lbs. of commercial aniline. The aniline selected
for this purpose should contain about 26% of the
tolnidine.

"After the- materiids have been thwoaghly
mixed by the stirrer the Are is lighted, and the
temperature gradnally raised to aboat 860^ F.
In a short tame water begins to distil, then ani-
line make* its appearance along with the water,
•nd, lastly, aniline ahme comes over, which is
nearly pure, containing, as it does, bat a very
small percentage -of tolnidine. The operation
usually lasts about eight or ten hoars, daring
which time about 170 gallons of liquid pass over.
And are condoised in the worm attached to the
apparatus] of this about 160 lbs. are aniline.
^e temperature should not exceed 880° F. at any
period during the operation. When this is com-
plete, steam is blown in through a tube, in order
to sweep out the last traces (^ the free aniline,
and boiling water is gradually introdnoed in
quantity sWmcient to convert the contents into a
homogeneous liquid. When this ocean the liquid
is run oat of the openings'at the bottom into cis-
terns provided with agitators; here moreboiliog
water is added, in the pnc^wrtion of 800 galls, to
every 000 lbs. of crude magenta, and also 6 lbs.
of hydrochloric add. The mass is then boiled
for tour or five hours by means of steam inpes,
the agitators being kept in constant motion. The
flolntion of hydrocUmride^ anenite^ and aneniate

of rosanQine thus obtuned is Altered through
woollen cloth, and 720 lbs. of common salt added
to the liqmd (whieh is kept boiling) for each 600
lbs. of crude magenta. By this means the whole
of the rosaniline is converted into hydrochloride,
which, being nearly insoluble in the strong eola-
tion of arseniate and nrsenite of sodium produced
in the doable decomposition, separates and rises
to the surface; a further quantity is deposited
from the saline solution on allowing it to eool
and stand for some time. In order to purify the
crude rosaniline hydrochloride it is washed with
a small quantity of water, redissolved in boiling
water slightly acidulated with hydrochloric add,
filtered, and allowed to crystallise."

If in the treatment of aniline with arsenic acid
the latter be considerably beyond the proportion
of aniline employed, tiouit and vlvh dyes may
be formed. The production of such has been
patented by Qirard and De Laire.

4. Laurent and CasthAaz have obtuned ani-
line red direct from benzol, without the prelimi-
nary isolation of aniline. Nitto-benzol is treated
with twice its weight of iron finely divided, and
half its weight of concentrated hydrochloric acid.
The colouring matter obtuned by this process is
said to be inferior in beauty to that procured
from aniline.

6. Messrs Benard Brothers include in their
patent the ebnllition of aniline with stannous,
stannic, mereurons, and mercuric sulphates, with
ferric and uranic nitrates and nitrate of silver,
and with stannic and mercuric bromides.

6. Messrs Dale and Curo's patent (dated 1860)
consists in the treatment of aniline or hydro-
chlorate of aniline with nitrate of lead.

7. Mr Smith claims the ebnllition of aniline
with perchloride of antimony, or the action of
antimonic acid, peroxide of bismuth, stannic,
ferric, mercuric, and cupric oxides, upon hydro-
chlorate or sulphate of aniline, at the tempera-
ture of 180°,

Coupler's process for the mannfaetare of
magenta without the use of arsenic acid is aa
follows : — He beats together pure aniline, nitro-
tolnene, hydrochloric acid, and a small quantity
of finely divided metallic iron, to a temperature
of about 400'* F. for several hours. The pasty
mixture soon solidifies to a friable mass resem-
bling crnde aniline red— ordinary commercial
aniline.

The above processes are for the preparation of
crude aniline red only. The crude colours con-
tain some undeoomposad aniline, mostly in Hbo
form of salts. They are also contaminated with
tarry matters, some insoluble in water and dilute
acids; others soluble in bisulphide of carbon,
naphtha, or in canstic or carbonated alkalies. If,
therefore, the crude red be boiled with an excess
of alkali the undecomposed aniline is expelled,
the acid which exists in the product being fixed.
On treating the residue with acidulated boiling
water the red is dissolved, while certain tarry
matters' remain insoluble. If now the bo9!ng
solution be filtered, and then saturated with an
alkali, the colouring matter is precipitated in a
tolerable state of purity. By redissolving the
predpitated red in an acid, not employed in
excess, a solution is obtuned which mquently

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1660

TAB COLOUBS

crysteUiaes, or from which a pare red may be
thrown down by a new addition of chloride of
■odiom or other alkaline salt.

Or Hofmann and Mr Nicholson have demon-
strated that pnre aniline, from whatever sonrce
obtained, is incapable of furnishing a red dye,
bnt that it does so when mixed with its bomologue
toluidine — toluidlne by itself being equally in-
capable of yielding it. From this it will be evi-
dent that an aniline rich in toluidine is an essen-
tial condition for obtaining aniline red.

Magenta consists of brilliant large cnrstals,
having a beautiful golden-green metallic lustre,
and soluble in water to an intense purplish-red
solution. It is a salt of a colonrless base, rosani-
line, which is prepared from magenta hy boiling
with hydrate of potassium, and allowing the solu-
tion to cool, when it crystellises out in colourless
crystals, baring the formula C^H,gN,.HjO. All
the salts of rosaniline have a splendid purple-red
colour, and that usually met with as magenta is
the hydrochloratc, although the nitrate, oxalate,
and acetate are also to be obtained.

Sugar, previously dyed with magenta, is some-
times used as an adulterant of crystallised magenta.
IF present, the larger crystals of dyed sugar may
be readily detected hy their colour being paler at
the edges, when the suspected sample is spread
out on a sheet of white paper in the sunshine.
One of the best methods of testing magenta is to
make a comparative dyeing experiment with the
sample under examination, and with one of
known purity, using white woollen yam.

From magenta or hydrochloratc of rosaniline a
large number of colouring matters are produced,
the most important of which will be briefly
described below.

Aniunb Black. " Dissolve 20 parts of potss-
siom chlorate, 40 parts of sulphate of copper, 16
parts of chloride of ammonium, and 40 ports of
aniline hydrochloride, in 600 parts of water,
warming the liquid to about 60°, and then re-
moving it from the water-bath. In about 3
minutes the solution froths up and gives off
vapours which strongly attack the breathing
organs. If the mass does not become quite black
after the lapse of a few hours it is again heated
to 60°, and then exposed in an open place for a
day or two, and afterwards carefully washed out
till no salts are found in the filtrate. For use in
printing, the black paste is mixed with a some-
what large quantity of albumen, and the goods
after printing are strongly steamed. The paste
can be pressed into monldb, and used as a sub-
stitnte for Indun ink" (A. MUller). "Mix
equal weights of aniline (containing toluidine),
hydrochloric acid, and potassium chlorate, with a
minute quantity of cnpric chloride and a sufficient
quantity of water, and leave the mixture to
evaporata spontaneously, when a black powder
will be obtuned" {Rheituek).

AviLiSE Blvb, or Blbv sk Ltoitb. This dye
is prepared b^ heating a mixture of magenta,
acetate of sodium, and aniline in iron pots, pro-
vided with stirrers, &c., in an oil-bath, to 37(r F.
(190° C), and the exeeas of aniline distilled over.
When a good blue has been obtained the heat is
removed, and the thick treacly fluid pnriSed.
This is effected for the commoner varieties by

treating the cmde product with hydrochlorie acid,'
to dissolve all the excess of aniline, and the
various red and pnrple impurities ; but for the
better qualities by mixing the cmde prodnct with
methylated spirit and pouring the whole into
water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and tben
thoroughly washing the colouring matter that is
precipitated, with water and drying.

This blue, like magenta, is a salt of a eoloar-
less base, which has been named Triphenyl-roaani-
line, C^„(C,H^,N,. Aniline blue, or Lyons
blue, is sent into the market either as a coarse
powder of a coppery lustre, or in alcoholic aola-
tion : as it is insoloble in water, which neceau-
tates it being added to the dye-hath in tolation in
spirit, a great drawback.

Mr Nicholson, by treating Lyons Une in the
same manner as indigo is converted into solpin-
digotic acid, has succeeded in rendering it soluble ;
dissolving in alkalies to form colonrless salts, and
decomposed by acids into its original Une eolonr.
By a modification of this method ' Njoholbojt'b
BLVB ' is prepared, a fine soluble bine d^e.

Another colouring matter, called Pans blue, or
bleu de Paris, was obtained by heating stannic
chloride with aniline for SO hours at a tempera-
ture of 356° F. (180° C). It is a fine pnre blue,
soluble in water, and crystallising in large bine
needles with a coppery lustre.

Another method punned in the manufacture
of this eolonr on a large scale is carried out by
allowing a mixture of a salt of rosaniline^ witb
an excess of aniline, to digest at a temperature of
150' to 160° C. for a considerable time. If k
mixture of 2 kilogrammes of dry hydrocblorate-
of rosaniline, and 4 kilogrammes of aniline be em-
ployed, the operation is completed in 4 hours.
The cmde blue is purified by treating it succes-
sively with boiling water, acidulated with hydro-
chloric acid, and with pure water, until it is of
the purest blue eolonr. ' Nicholson's blue ' is ob-
tained by digesting triphenyl-rosaniline mouoanl-
phonic acid (made by dissolving triphenyl-rosani-
line hydrochloride in strong sulphuric acid, and
heating the solution for Ave or six hours ; on the
additionof water, tbeacid is obtained as a dark bloe
precipitate, and dried at 100° C), with a quantity
of soda lye not quite sufl&cieut for satnntion.
filtering the solution and evaporating. It is dried
at 100° C. Wool dipped into a hot aqueous solu-
tion of Nicholson's blue, espedally if borax or
water-glass be added, extracts it in a colourless
state, and holds it so fast that it cannot he washed
out with water, but on dipping the wool thus pre-
pared into an acid the salt is decomposed, and the
colouring matter is set free.

AiriLiKB Blub fob Pbihtiiio. Blnmer-Zweefel
gives the following process : — " Mix 100 parts of
starch with 1000 parts of water, and add to it
while warm 40 parts of potassium chlarate, 3 to 4
parts of ferrous sulphate, and 10 parts of sal-am-
moniac The well-mixed paste, when quite cold,
is mixed with 70 parts of aniline hydrodiloride, or
an equivalent quantity of tartrate, and immediately
used. The printed goods are oxidised, then passed
through warm or &intly alkaline water, whereby
the blue eolonr is developed."

ViouR iKVBBiAJk If the action of the aniline
and magenta in the process of mana;bctaring

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1661

kniline Une lie «toppe<l before it is flniibed. and
the reinlting product treated with dilate acid, a
'Ooloaring matter called violet imperial is obtained.
It is now, however, replaced by the Hofmann
violets.

Mr Nicholson obtains another violet from aniline
red, by heatings it in a soitable apparatus to a tem-
peratore between 800° and 216° C. The resulting
mass is exhausted with acetic scid, and the deep
violet solution diluted with enongh alcohol to give
the dye a convenient strength. Aniline violet,
althoogh it resists the action of light to a very
considerable extent, has been shown by Chevrenl
to be inferior in this particular to either madder,
cochineal, or indigo.

HoncAKH VI0LIT8. Primula, red violet 5 B.
-extra. On a large scale these violets are produced
in deep cast-iron pots, surrounded by a steam
jacket, and provided with a lid, having a perfora-
tion for distilling over the excess of reagents.

These vessels are charged with a solution of
magenta in methylated or wood spirit, and iodide
of ethyl or methyl, in proportions according to
the shiade required, and the whole heated by
steam for five or six hours, when the excess of
alcohol and iodide of ethyl is distilled over. The
resulting product is dissolved in water, filtered,
precipitated with common salt, and well washed.

Like moat of the other colours, Hofmann violets
are salts of colourless bases. That of a red shade
has a formula Cg,Hu(C^i}N| ; of a tme violet
shade, CmH,7(CiH,),N'3 ; and of a blue shade
of violet, C)(,H,e(C]H5),N, ; but there are other
methyl derivatives. They are all moderately fast
on wool and silk, although less so on cotton, and
as they can be produced in nearly every shade of
violet, are in great use, having replaced most of
the other violets.

The following processes have also been proposed
for the production of aniline violet :

1. Oxidation of an aniline salt by means
of a solution of permanganate of potassinm
{Williamt).

2. Oxidation of an aniline salt by means of a
solution of ferricyanide of potassium (Smith).

3. Oxidation of a cold and dilute solution of
bydrochlorate of aniline by means of a dilute
aolution of chloride of lime (Bolley, Beale, and
Kirlcman»).

4. Oxidation of. a salt of aniline by means
of peroxide of lead under .the influence of an acid
(JVic»).

6. Oxidation of a salt of aniline in an aqueous
solution of peroxide of manganese {Kay).

6. Oxidation of a salt of aniline by free chlorine
«r free faypochlorous acid {Smith).

Dahlia. This is prepared from manve and
iodide of ethyl, in a manner analogous to that of
the Hofmann violets, and is a purple-red violet.
It is a good ooloor, but the expense preclndes its
{general nse.

Bbitaxnia. VlorsT. This is obtained in the
same manner as the Hofmann violets, by acting
.on an alcoholic solution of magenta, with a thick,
viscid, oily fluid of the formula CigH,jBr,, obtained
by cautionsly treating oil of turpentine with
bromine. It is a beantifnl violet, capable of being
manufactured of every shade, from purple to blue,
4knd most extensively used.

Aldbhtsb OBXnr. Prepared by dissolving one
part of rosaniline in three parts of sulphuric acid,
diluted with one part of water, adding by degrees
one and a half pint of aldehyde, and beating the
whole on a water-bath until a drop put in water
turns a fine blue. It is then poured into a large
quantity of hot water containing three parts of
hyposulphite of sodium, boiled and filtered. The
filtrate contains the green, which can either be
kept in solution or be precipitated by means of
tannic add or acetate of sodium. Like the other
colours, this green is a salt of a colourless base
containing sulphur, the formula of which is
not known, and is principally used for dyeing
silk, being very brilliant in both day and artificial
light.

loDiDB Obbbit. Produced daring the manufac-
ture of the Hofmann oolonrs, and is now used for
dyeing cotton and silk, its colour being bluer and
more useful than that of aldehyde green. Iodide
green, not being precipitated by carbonate of
Bodiam, is usually sold in alcoholic solution.

PEBKnr Obeeh. This is also a magenta deriva-
tive, and a salt of a powerful colourless bnse. It
resembles the iodide green, but is precipitated by
alkaline carbonates and picric acid. This colour
is used chiefly for calico printing, and is quite as
fast as the Hofmann colours.

Ahiudb Obeev. When treated with chlorate
of potassium, to which a quantity of hydrochloric
acid has been added, aniline assumes a rich indigo-
blno colour. The same result occurs if the ani-
line be treated with a solution of chlorous acid.
Similar blues have been obtained by Grace Calvert,
Lowe, and Clift. Most of these blues possess the
property, when subjected to the action of acids,
of acquiring a green tint, called Embbaldiitb.
Calvert obtained this colour directly upon cloth
by printing with a mixture of an aniline salt and
chlorate ot potassium, and allowing it to dry.
In about 12 hours the green colour is developed.
This colour may be converted into blue by being
passed through a hot dilute alkaline solution, or
through a bath of boiling soap.

Akilikb Yelx-ow. Amongst the secondary
products obtained during the preparation of
aniline r«d, there occurs a well-defined base of
a splendid yellow colour, to which the name
chrgMam'Sne has been given. It is prepared by
submitting the residue from which the rosanilino
has been extracted to a current of steam for
some time, when a quantity of the chrysaniline
passes into solution. By aidding nitric acid to
the solution the chrysaniline is thrown down in
the form of a difficultly soluble nitrate. The
intimate relation between chrysaniline, rosaniline^
and leocaniline has been shown by Hofmann.
ChTysaniline, C^H,-N,.
Bosaniline, CjgH„N,.
Leucaniline, (^H„N|.

Sa»aiiiki. SATKANiirB T., PiKK. This dy«.
stuff is of a bright red- rose colour. tSeai uys it
may be prepared commercially by treatment of
heavy aniline oils successively with nitrons and
arsenic acids; or two parts of the aniline may be
heated with one of arsenic acid, and one of an
alkaline nitrate for a short time, to 200° or
212° F. The product is extracted with boiling
wator, neutralised with an alkali, filtered, and

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1662

TARPAULIN— TARTAR

the colonr thrown down hy common wK. Ac-
cording to a more recent and improved pioceu,
■af ranine ii now made by ozidiaioK a mixture of
monamines and diamine*. Th« aniline oil ii con-
verted into amido-azobenzeneand amido-azo-ortho-
tolueoe, as in Menu's proceM, and thii mixture it
then heated with zinc and hydrochloric acid.
The prodoct of the reaction is then diluted with
water, one molecular weight of toluidine hydro-
chloride is added, and the whole oxidised with
potassinm bichromate.

It comes into the market as a brown-red
powder.

Besides the above products obtained from ani-
line, a series of colours have been obtained from
phenol, or carbolic acid, another substance ob-
tained from coal tar.

PioBicAcn). TsnriTBO-PHnroi.. C,Bt{'SOX,
OH. This is obtained by treating in a suitable
apparatus, with proper precantions, carbolic acid
with nitric acid. It is a pale yellow crystalline
acid, melting at 122*5° C, forming dark orange
explosive salts, and dyeing silk a fine yellow.

IsopvRPirBATB or Porissicu. Gbbkatb
Bbown. Obbnatb Soivblb. By treating picric
acid with cyanide of potassium a veiy explosive salt
is obtained, used to dye wool a dark maroon colour.

Avbiks, or RosoLic Acid. C„H„Os. This is
obtained by heating a mixture of sulphuric, oxalic,
and carbolic acids, and purifying the products.
It is a beautiful reddish, resinous substance, with
a pale green lustre, and yielding an orange-
coloured solution, changed by alkalies to a splendid
crimson. _ Owing to the di6Sculty in using it,
however, it is not very extensively employed.

PEonurB, or CoBAiLiNB. This dye is formed
when rosolic acid and ammonia are heated to
between 248° and 284° F. (120° to 140° C). It
is a fine crimson dye, formmg shades similsT to
safranine on silk, but, owing to the bad effects of
acids, not much used.

AzuLlNB. Prepared by heating coralline and
aniline together. A coppery-coloured resinous
substance, soluble in alcohol, and with difficulty
ip water, and dyeing silk a blue colonr. The ani-
line blues, however, have superseded it to a great
extent.

There are other substances obtained from coal
tar that have been employed to form dyes, but of
which we shall only refer to one — naphthalin. By
treating this in exactly the same manner as ben-
zol is converted into aniline, a solid crystalline
white base, termed naphthylamine, is produced.
From this substance a large series of dyes is ob-
tained ; the following may be given as nn example.

DlNTTBONAFETHOL, or MiLlTCHESTEB YeLLOW.

Alpha-naphthol treated at 212° F. (100° C.) with
a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids yields a
nitro-componnd, which is precipitated by water;
or sulphuric acid alone is used, and the alpha-
naphthol converted into the monosulphnric acid
and then nitrated; then the snlpho-gronp is
removed, and substituted by NOj. Diuitronaphthol
forms yellow needles of tho formula CioHs(N02)>,
OH, melting at 138° C, insoluble in water. It is
a strong acid, forming yellow or orange salts. The
salt employed in commerce is the beautiful yellow
crystalline calcium salt which dyes silk and wool
a magnificent golden-yellow colour.

PbixttxJSB. The trade name of tlie aodisa
■alt of the monoanlphnric acid of a complex base
discovered by A. Q. Green in 18S7 {vUi» ' J. Sot.
Chem. Ind.,' 1888, 179).

iVap. By heating paratolnidine with snlphcr
in the proportion of from 4 to 6 stoons of tbe
latter to 2 molecules of the former. This psoceai
yields 8 bases, from one of which primnliiie 'a
obtained.

Prep. A bright yellow powder, extxenselj
soluble in water; dyes nnmordanted cotton s
primrose-yellow; cajAble of being dimnti*^
within tbe fibre, and of combining with varkm
amines and phenols.

Vte*. It is largely employed in cotton dyein|:
on account of the great range of fast aha^des that
may be obtuncd with it. Commercial prepan-
tions of it are put up under the askmes 'poly-
chromine,' ' thiochromogen,' ' sulphinr,* * anreo-
line,' 'chameleon yellow,' ' camoline,' Ac Qaitt
recently {vide 'J. Soc. Arts,' Jan. 23rd, 1891)
Messrs Qreen, Bevan, and Cross have appii^
primuline in a new method invented fay them,
which is likely to work a radical chan^^e in the
colouring of the photographs of the fnture.

The diaso-oompound of dehydrothiotoloidine
and its condensed derivatives which form the
dyes of the primuline group can be used for
photographic purposes, as the sensitaveness (A
the compounds is increased by comlunation with
the complex colloids which constitute aalmal or
vegetable textile fabrics. The senntiTesariace is
prepared (at present) by colouring a cotton or
silk fabric wiUi primuline {1% to t% ), and then
diazotising. Such a surface will give a complete
positive picture after 40 — 180 seconds exposure ;
that is to say, in the bright lights the diazo-com-
pound is completely, in the half lights only par-
tially, decomposed, so that a reproduction of the-
original is obtained in the form of diazoprimnline.
The picture can he developed with any of the
various amines or phenols which form a dye
with tho diszo-compound.

TABPAUIilir. £y». Tabfawuito. Canvas
covered with tar or any composition which will
render it waterproof.

TAS'SAS. Sg*. Tebbas. A volcanic pro-
duct resembling pnzznolano, that imparts to mortar
the property of hardening under water. Several
other argillo-ferrnginoos minerals possess tbe
same power, and are used under this term.

TAB'TAB. Sgn. Ahool, Obool; Tabtabdc,
TabtABUS, L. Impure bitartrate of potash.
Crude tartar is the concrete deposit formed upon
the sides of the casks and vats during the fer-
mentation of grape juice. That obtained from
white wine is white argol ; that from red wine,
red argol. After purification it forms cream of
tartar.

Tartar, Ammo"niated. Ctat'K(THB.,)Ot. Sf.

AuUOyiO-TABTBATE OP P0TAB8A, SOLUBLI TAB-
TAB (AXHOiriATBD) ; TABTABUB AXMOKlKIVi,
TABTABUM BOLUniliB AlIMOVIATUK, L. Prep.

Neutralise a solution of cream of tartar with am-
monia in slight excess, then evaporate and crystal-
lise. Very soluble in water. A favourite laxa-
tive on the Continent.

Tartar, Bo"razated. Syn. SOLtmiiB cbeak of

TASTAB, BOBO-T.tBTBATB OP POTABSA AVD gODA ;

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TARTAKIC ACID

166»

TaBTABVX BOBAXiTVlf, (TbIMOX TISTABI 80LU-
XIUB, POTiiaaiB BT BODS TABIBAB BOBAXAIA, L.

JVop. from banz, 2 lbs. ; cTeam of tartar, 5 lbs.
(both in powder) ; dissolved ia water, evaporated,
and crystalUsed. See Poxabsiuk Bobo-tabibaib.
Tartar, ChJalyVeatad. Potassio-tartrate of iron.
Tartar, Crsaa of. C^HiEOf. Bitartrate of
potash. JVsp. Prom crude tartar (argol, q. v.),
dissolved in hot water and treated with a little
j^peday and animal charcoal, to remove the
oolonring matter derived from the wine ; the fil-
tered solution is set aside to crystallise.

JVop. Irregolar gronps of small transparent
or translnoent prisms ; soluble in boiling water,
less soluble in cold water; 1 part of the latter
takes np about ^^ ; heat decomposes it into potas-
sium carbonate, carbon, and inflammable gases,
and evolves an odour of burnt sugar.

Tartar Emefic. 2C4H,K(SbO)0, + H,0. Po-
tassio-tartrate of antimony, potaasio-antimonious
tartrate, trvp. By boiling antimony trioxide,
S oz., in a solatioa of cream of tartar, 6 os., in
water, 2 pints.

Frop. Transparent rhombic octahedral crys-
tals ; soluble in 15 parts of cold and 3 parts of
boiling water without decomposition. The solu-
tion and the salt have an extremely acid, metallic,
and disagreeable taste. The crystals lose their
water of crystallisation at the temperature of
boiling water, bat regain it on re-solution and re-
crystallisation.

Tartar, Oil of. Deliquesced carbonate of
potash.

Tartar, Sednoed. 8§%. Cbbxob iabtaxi
BBSUOTtrs, L. An article is sold under the name
of ' British cream of tartsr,' which contains \ its
weight or more of bisalphate of potash.

Tartsr, Salt of. Carbonate of potash.

Tartar, Sol'abla. Neutral iartiate of potash.

Tartar, Spirit of. Cfifi^. Pyrotartanc add.
Four modiflcatioDs of this acid exist, viz. methyl-
succinic acid, gintaric acid, ethylmalonic acid,
diethylmalonic acid. Neither is of much im-
portance except chemically.

TASTAK'IC ACID. H,C4.HA- Sgn. Aon>

OS ■UlRTAJL, EbSBBTIAL BALI OF T.f; ACIDUIC

TABrABiccM (B. P., Ph. L., £., & D.), Sai. bbsin-
TIALS TABTABif, L. Frep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.)
Take of cream of tartar, 4 lbs. ; boiling water, 2
galls, i dissolve by boiling ; add, 'gradually, of
prepared chalk, 12 oz. 7 dr. (made into a milk with
water), and, when the effervescence ceases, add
another like portion of prepared chalk dissolved
in hydrochloric acid, 261 fl. oz., or q. s., diluted
with water, 4 pints ; ctdlect the precipitate (' tar-
trate of lime'), and, after well washing it with
water, boil it for 16 minutes in dilute sulphuric
acid, 7 innis and 17 fl- oz.; next filter, evaporate
the filtrate (to the density of 1-38), and set it
aside to crystallise; redissolve the crystals in
water, concentrate the solntion by evaporation,
and recrystallise a second and a third time. The
]<:dinborgh formula is nearly nmilar. In the Ph.
Xi. & D. tartaric acid is placed in the Materia
Medica.

2. (Oailji.) The solntion of argol or tartar is
first neutralised with carbonate of potash, and
to every 300 galls, of the clear liquid, at 6° Twad-
dell, 34 galls, of milk of lime (1 lb. of lime per

gall.) are added ; carbonic acid gas is then forced
in, with agitation ; decomposition ensues, with the
formation of ' bicarbonate of potash ' and ' tartrate
of lime ; ' the last is converted into tartaric acid
in the usual manner, and the former is evaporated
in iron pans, and roasted in a reverberatory
furnace for its potash.

Prop. Tartaric acid former inodorona, scaroelr
transparent, monodinio prisms, more or less modi*
fied, which are permanent in the air ; it possesses
a purely sour taste, dissolves in about 2 parts of
water at 17*5° C, and in about its own weight of
boiling water: it is slightly soluble in alcohol;
the aqueous solution exhibits right-handed polari-
sation, and suffers gradual decomposition by age.
Heated to 136° C. it fuse* and becomes an
amorphous deliquescent mass of metatartatie
acid, which is isomeric with it ; at 146° it becomes
tartralic acid; at 180° it yields tartrelic add and
tartaric anhydride, which is isomeric with it. All
these are reconverted into tartaric add by solntion
in water. On further heating it undergoes de-
stmetive distillation, yielding acetic, pyroraoemic,
pyrotartarlc, pyrotritartarie, and formic acids;
also dipepotetracetone, which has a peculiar odour
like burnt sngar, acetone aldehyde, carbonic
oxide, and carbon dioxide.

Teit$. 1. Tartaric add is known to be snch
by its solntion giving white predpitatea with
solutions of caustic lime, baryta, and strontia,
which dissolve in excess of the acid. 2. A soln-
tion of potash causes a white granular precipitate
of cream of tartar, soluble by agitation in excesa
of the precipitant. 3. Nitrate of silver and ace-
tate of lead give white precipitates, which, when
heated, fume, and yield the pure metal. 4. If to
a solution of tartaric acid, or a tartrate, solntion
of a ferric or aluminium salt be added, and sub-
sequently ammonia or potash, no predpitate is-
formed. 6. At about 670° F. all the tartrates are
blackened, and yield a peculiar and characteristic
odour.

UttM, i[e. Tartaric add is chiefly employed
in calico printing, and in medicine as a snbslitute-
for citric acid and lemon juice in the preparation
of cooling drinks and saline draughts. For the
latter purpose bicarbonate of soda is the alkaline
salt commonly employed. — Domi, 10 to 80 gr.

ConelMding Stmart*. On the large so^e the
decomposition of the tartar ia nsn^ly effected
in a copper boiler, and that of the tartrate of
lime in a leaden dstem. This part of the process
is often performed by mere digestion for a few
days without the application of heat. Leaden or-
stoneware vessels are used as orytalUsers. Qood
cream of tartar requires 26% of chalk and 28-6%
of dry chloride of caldum for its perfect decom-
podtion. Dry tartrate of lime requires 76% of
oil of vitriol to liberate the whole of its tartaric
add. A very slight excess of sulphuric acid may
be safdy and advantageously employed. Some
manufacturers bleach the coloured solution of the
first crystals by treating it with animal charcoal ;
but for this purpose the latter substance should
be first purified by digesting it in hydrochloric
acid, and afterwards by lixiviating it with water,
and exposing it to a dull red heat in a covered
vessel. The general management of this manu-
facture resembles that of dtric acid. To obtain.

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1664

TABTBATE— TAXIDEBMT

a larga prodnct care most be taken that the whole
of the tartrate of lime be thoroughly deoompoaed,
a matter not alwaja effected by claraey manipn-
lators, who do not adapt their quantitiea or prac-
tice to the circumitancea before them.

TAB'TBATX. A aalt of tartaric acid.

TABTS. Tbeae may be regarded aa miniature
piea, conaisting of fruit, either f reab or preaerred,
baked or apread on puff-paate.

To make an apple tart take about 2 Iba. of
applea, peel them, cnt each into 4 piecea, and
remove the corea ; then let each of the qnartera
he subdivided into 2 or 3 pieces, according to the
uie of the apple. Having d^one this, put half the
piecea into a pie-diah, preaa them evenly down,
and aprinkle over them 2 ox. of brown augar ; then
'add the remaining applea, and af terwardg another
2 OS. of sngar, ao that the applea ahall form a kind
of dome, tiie centre of which ia about 2 inehea
above the aides; now add a wine-glasaful of water,
«nd cover the top over with short paste. Let bake
in a moderately heated oven from half to three
quarters of an hour.

The quantity of augar moat depend upon the
quality, and the degree of aweetneaa, or the re-
verae, of the applea uaed. If they are of the
sweet kind or very ripe, uae leas augar, bat a
double quantity of water ; in the latter case a
little of the juice of lemon will improve the flavour.
Chopped lemon peel, or cinnamon, or clovea, may
also be added to the tart witli advantage.

On making green rhubarb or greengage tarta
it will be neceaaary to use a little more augar, and
to proceed aa for apple tart, taking care, however,
to omit the lemon juice and peel, cinnamon, or
cloves. Tarts of ripe carranta, Taapberriea,cherriea,
.damsons, and mulberries, may be made in the
same manner aa rhubarb tart. Fiak rhubarb doea
not require peeling.

TAU'BIH. C,U,NSOr Obtained when pnri-
-fled bile ia boiled for aome hours with an excess of
hydrochloric acid. By filtration, evaporation, and
.diaaolving the dry residuum in about 6 parte of
boiling alcohol, nearly pure tanrin crystallises ont
as the solution cools. It forma with crystalline
needles, which are soluble in water, and sparingly
soluble in alcohol. It is remarkable for contain-
ing fully 25% of sulphur.

TAVBOCHOLALlC ACID. See Cholbic Acib.

TAW1K0. In the preparation of the tawbd
XBATHSK nsed for gloves, housings, Ac, the skins
■are first aoaked, scraped, and hung in a warm room
until they begin to exhale an ammoniacal odour,
and the wool readily comes off; they are then de-
haired, and soaked in water with some quicklime
for several weeks, the water being changed two or
three times during that period; they are then again
beamed, amoothed, and trimmed,after which they
are rinsed, and resoaked in a vat of bran and
water, where they are kept in a atate of gentle
fermentation for some weeks (in this state they
are called ' pelts') ; the skins are next well worked
about in a warm solution of alum and aalt, again
fermented in bran and water for a abort time, and
are then stretched on hooks and dried in a stove-
room ; they are, lastly, again soaked in water and
trodden or worked in a pail or tub containing
aome yelka of egga beaten to a froth with water,
after which they are stretched and dried in a loft.

and are amoothed with a warm cmoothiiig'-iroii.
Sometimea the process ia shortened by soaking tbe
skins in the following mixtureafterthe first steep
with bran : — Common salt, 3i lbs. ; alnm, 8 lbs.;
boiling water, q. s. ; dissolve, add of wheaten
flour, 81 lbs.; yelks of 9 dozen eggs; make a
paste. For use, a portion is to be lu^ly dilated
with water.

Chakoib or BHAHKT LEATHKB is generally pre-
pared from either sheep- or doe-skins, whicb, after
dressing, liming, Ac., are well oiled on the g;Tnln
side, then rolled into balls, and thrown into the
trough of the fnlling-mill, where they are beaten
for 2, 3, or 4 honrs. They are next aired, and
again oiled and fulled, and this is repeated a third
tune, or oftener, as circamstancea may direct.
The oiled akins are then exposed to a fermenting
process, or heating in a close chamber, and are
afterwards freed from redundant oil by bting
scoured in a weak alkaline lye. They are, lastly,
rinsed in clean water, wrung at the peg, dried,
and ' Hniabed ' at the stretcher-iron.

Tawbd lbathbb differs from TAirysD lbathbr
in yielding sixe or glue under the influence of heat
and moisture, in nearly the same way as the raw
skins.

TAXISEBKT, PraetiML The following re-
view on the excellent work on this subject is from
the ' Bazaar :' — ' Practical Taxidermy : a mannal
of instmction to the amateur in collecting, pre-
serving, and setting up Natural History Spea-
mens of all kinds. By Montagu Browne.

" The author of this little book begina at tfa«
beginning, and, before detailing the process of
skinning, preserving, and mounting any given
Vertebrate, he starta with a chapter on ' Trapping
and Decoying Birds and Animals.' In this chapter
deacriptions are given of various forms of springs,
snare, ' flgare-4 trap,' clap-net, glade-net, bow-net,
and box trap; and aome wrinkles are imparted
which may be useful to wildfowl shootow, to say
nothing of gamekeepers, whoao livelihood depends
on their sncoeaa in destroying what they are pleaaed
to regard as ' vermin.' Chapter 3 is devoted to
' Xecessary Tools,' of which not only descriptions,
but figures are given, and those who have no
knowledge of taxidermy will probably be surprised
to learn how few tools are really neceaaary for the
purpose.

"On tbe subject of preservative soaps and
powders Mr Browne has a good deal to say, and
gfives no less than seventeen Afferent receipts.
Many of these, however, are only noticed to be
condiemned, for the anthor has been a great ex-
perimentalist, and has tested the efficiency or
otherwise of all the preparations be names, with
a view of ascertaining the brat, and at the aama
time that which is moat harmless to the operator.
For the preservation of birds he pins his faith to
the fourth formula (p. 46), which ia a preservative
soap for the inside of the skin, composed of 1^
lbs. whiting or chalk, 1 lb. of soft soap, and 2 oz. of
chloride of lime, finely pounded. These ingredients
are boiled together in a pint of water, and the
mixture, when properly applied, is said to be so
efficacioua as to completely aupersede araenical
paste or aoap. Presuming that it is used only for
such specimens aa are to be immediately cased up
in air-tight cases, nothing further is needed ; but

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TAXINE— TEA

1666

as regards luch apecimeng as ore left exposed or
UDcased, ' a wash of benzoline, liberally applied
from time to time — say twice a year — to the oat-
side,' is recommended.

y We have long since proved the efficacy of this
floid, not only in repelling the attacks of moths,
and the larvae of destructive beetles such as Der-
meatet lardaritu, bnt in killing them in skins that
have been already attacked by them. We can
therefore endorse Mr Browne's remarks, and may
supplement them by a ' wrinkle ' which he has
probably discovered by this time, althongh he
does not refer to it It is this. If the amateur
in search of benzoline applies to the nearest
chemist for it, he will be served with the ' recti-
fied ' fluid, and will be asked three shillings or
three shillings and sixpence for an ordinary medi-
cine bottle-fall. If he proceeds, however, to an
oil and colour shop, and asks for it as supplied for
boming in the sponge lamps, he may get a pint
for abont a tithe of the cost.

" The best way to apply it is to pour some out
in a saucer, saturate a pinch of cotton wool with
it, and dab it on all over the for or feathers. The
great advantage about it is that, while killing or
repelling insects, it does not in the least injure
the specimen to which it is applied. We have
seen a mounted specimen of a bird almost satu-
rated with it, so that the feathers looked quite
draggled ; but as soon as the moisture had eva-
porated, the feathers all resumed their former
shape and glossy appearance. Care should be
taken not to use it by candle-light, as the vapour
is inflammable.

" Amongst the seventeen receipts for ' preser-
vatives ' of different kinds, we do not see a very
simple powder which we have used with success
for very small bird-skins, which were almost too
delicate to stand the application of a brash and
paste, or soap. It is composed of burnt alum
and eagar of lead, and mixed in the proportion of
two thirds of the former to one third of the latter.
The alum dries, the sugar of lead preserves, and
if the specimen while being skinned be dusted
with this mixture, it will absorb all moisture as it
arises, for which purpose plaster of Paris is aaually
employed. A very little goes a long way, and it
is desirable not to apply too much, lest the astrin-
gent nature of the alum should cause the skin to
become brittle and crack.

" Possibly Mr Browne has not referred to this
mixture on account of the poisonous nature of
the sugar of lead. He justly remarks that too
much care cannot be exercised in the employment
of poisonoos preservatives, and we faUy agree
with him.

"On the subject of his instructions for skin-
ning birds we have not much criticism to offer,
except perhaps as regards his mode of flUing ont
the skin aftor the preservative has been applied,
and before the skin is sewn np. We have found
by experience that, after the artificial neck of
tow or cotton wool has been inserted, and the
wing-bones tied inside, the skin is much better
filled by degrees with little bits of cotton wool
inserted piecemeal, instead of with an artificial
body ' as nearly as possible shaped to the original
body of the bird.' The advantage of the former
plan is that it is much more quickly executed,

VOL. U.

and a nice soft skin is the result, instead of a
comparatively hard one. By introducing the wool
piecemeal, too, scarcely any portion of the skin
is left without support on the inside, as is often
the case when a ' made body' is inserted. This
is material; for if there be any want of inside
support at a given point, pressure upon that point
from the outside will cause the skin to crack.
These remarks, however, must be tuken to apply
only to such specimens as are intended to be pre-
served as skins, and are not to be set up.

" Few amateurs, probably, give much time to
mounting their specimens, for they can get them
so well done by professional taxidermists, at
prices varying to suit all purses. The art of
skinning wild animals and birds, however, and
curing or dressing animal hides, should be ac-
quired by every sportsman and naturalist who
intends to travel and collect and bring home
trophies. To such a one we may specially recom-
mend the chapters which are devoted to this
portion of the subject. In this, as in other re-
spects, Mr Browne's book is a ' practical ' manual
of taxidermy."

TAZnrS. A poisonoos alkaloid inresent in the
leaves and seeds of the yew {Taau* laeeata).

TEA. /^n. Thxa, L. The dried leaves of
the Chinese tea plants {Tkea Boiaa and Thta
viridit).

It was formerly supposed that BIAOK TBAB
conld only be obtained from T. Bohea, and OBBBK
TBAB from T. viridit, but Fortune and others
have proved that both sorts may be made from
either species, and that the differences in colonr
and flavour depend chiefly on the age of the
leaves and the treatment they undergo in the
drying process. Another species, named Th»a
Attamiea, furnishes Abbaic tba.

Mulder gives the following as the composition

of tea :

Bliick Greta
Tea. Tea.
Essential oil . . . . 0-60 079
Chlorophyll . . . .1-84 2-22

Wax 0-00 0'28

Besin 8-64 2-22

Gum 7"28 8-56

Tannin . . . . . 12-88 17-80

Theine 0-46 0-43

Extractive matter . . . 21-86 22-80
Colouring substances . . 1919 28-60
Albumen .... 2-80 300

Fibre 28-33 17-80

Ash (mineral substances) . 6-24 6-66
Dr Walter Blyth, commenting upon the above,
■ays the amount of theine is certainly nnder-
stated.

Pur. The chief adulteration of tea which n
extennvely practised at the present day is mixing
it with a certain portion of exhausted tea-leaves,
which have been redried and curled. The col-
lection and preparation of these occupy several
hundred persons, chiefly women and children, in
and about London. The leaves which have been
found in the possession of the manufacturers of
imitation tea are those of the sloe tree, ash tree,
elder bush, and whitethorn. According to Mr
Warrington, a most extensive system of adulte-
rating tea is practised in China. Many samples
^ 105

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1666

TEA

fcectly imported from tli«t country, examined
by him, did not contain a Mngle grain of tea,
being made np entirely of other leaves. The
ordinary greeu teas he found, for the most part,
spnriouB, being manufactured out of the cheaper
black teas. These are 'faced up' or 'painted'
with various colouring substances, powdered por-
celain, clay, &c., which are readily perceived under
the microscope, and even admit of being separated
and chemically examined.

It is a general practice among the grocers in
this country to impart what they call a ' bloom '
to their green teas by ' rouncing ' them up with a
little calcined magnesia, or finely powdered talc
or French chalk. The quantity that adheres to
the tea is very trifling, hut it greatly improves its
appearance. Black teas are ' faced,' in a similar
manner, with finely powdered plumbago or black-
lead. .

Pure China tea is not turned black by being
put into water impregnated with sulphuretted
hydrogen gas, nor does it tinge a solution of am-
monia blue. The infusion is amber-coloured, and
is not reddened by the addition of an acid. The
ashes left from the combustion of genuine tea
are white, and do not exceed 5% to 5i% . If
they exceed this they may be chemically exa-
mined with the usual tests for alumina, chromatc
o£ lead, copper, cyanide of potassium, gypanm,
lime, magnesia. &c. Many of these substances
may be detected by simply agitating the tea with
a little cold water, when they will be detached
from its surface, and render the water turbid, or,
by their gravity, sink to the bottom.

Mr A. H. AUen (' Chemical News,' xxix, 123,
167, 189, 221 ; and xxx, 2) arranges the adulte-
ration of tea under four heads, giving at the same
time directions for their detection :

1. Mineral Addition* for increating Weight
or Bulk, (a) Magnetic matter. Detected by
drawing a magnet under a weighted portion of
the tea spread upon paper, whereby the magnetic
matter is separated from the tea and may be
weighed.

(J) Siliceous matter. The ash must be esti-
mated by igniting a weighed portion of the tea.
The aeh of genuine tea varies from 6-24% to
60% . The ash is then boiled with water, the
insoluble part again treated with hydrochloric
acid, and the silica collected and weighed. Genu-
ine tea does not contun, on an average, more
than 0-30% of ash insoluble in acid j adulterated
teas sometimes contain as much as 10% .

2. Organic AduUerationt for increating
Weight or Bulk, (o) Exhausted tw-leaves.
Best detected by estimating the tannin, gum,
soluble ash, insoluble matter, &c.

a. Tannin. 5 gr. of lead acetate are dissolved
In 1 litre of water, and the solution filtered after
standing; 5 mgrms. of pure potassium ferricy-
anide are dissolved in 5 c.c. of water, and an
equal bulk of strong ammonia solution is added.
The lead solution is standardised by diluting 10
c.c. to 100 c.c. with boiling water, and adding to
it from a burette a solution of 0-1 pure tannin in
100 c.c. of water, until a few drops, when al-
lowed to fall through a filter on to a drop of the
ferricyanide solution, spotted on a slab, produce
a pink colour. A solntion of the tea is made by

repeatedly boiling about 2 gnns. of the finely
powdered sample with 80 c.c. of water until it u
completely exhausted. The solution m filtered
and made up to 250 c.c, and used aa already de-

flPPI n6Q.

The amount of tannin in genuine black tea
averages about 10% . A small quantity of tan-
nin, about 2%, remains in the exhaasted leaves.
The percentage of exhausted leavea, E, in a
sample may be estimated, when the percentage of
tannin, T, is known, by the equation —
_ (10 — T) 100

j8. Insoluble matter is best estimated by bod-
ing th« pounded sample repeatedly with wato,
and drying the residue at 120° C. nntil the
weight is constant. The insoluble matter m
black tea varies from 4fi-7% to 58-65& . -"^^13
previously infused leaves it varies between 72>
and 75% . . .

y. Gum. The aqueous decoction is evaporalea
nearly to dryness, the residue treated with me-
thylated spirit, filtered, washed with spiri^
rinsed off the filter with hot water, the hquul
evaporated at a steam heat, weighed, igmted,
and weighed again. The loss representa goxa.

i. Soluble ash. The aqueous solution <jf t™
ash is evaporated, gently ignited, and J«>K'»*f-
Genuine tea contains not less than 3% of so uWe
ash, while in exhausted leaves thU item falls as
low as 0-52% . If S represent the percentage ot
soluble ash, the percentage of exhausted leaves, fe,
may be approximately found, in the absence ot
foreisrn leaves, bv the equation —
E = {6-28)20.
(4) Foreign leaves. The presence of leaves
other than those of the tea plant may be de-
tected with some accuracy by estimating we
insoluble matter, tannin, gum, and ash ; but the
microscope must decide this question.

8. AdulteranU for imparting a FietUlOU
Strength, (a) Extraneous tannin matters, sucb
as catechu, Ac. are detected by an nnnsnJJy
high percentage of tannin, as indicated by tnc
lead i^ocess. Tea adulterated with catohn
gives an infusion which quickly becomes muddy
on cooling. 1 grm. of the sample and 1 gnn. ol
pure tea are each infused in 100 c.c. of water,
and the solutions poured off from the leaves are
precipitated while boiling, with a slight excess of
neutral lead acetate, filtered, and tested as fol-
lows :— About 20 c.c. of the pure tea inf asion,
when gently heated with a few drops of siljcr
nitrate, give a slight cloudiness only ; while tcs
containing catechu gives a copious brownish p"-
cipitote, and the liquid acquires a distinct yellow
tinge. One drop of ferric chloride gives a ligM
green colour if catechu is present, and a greyM-
green precipitate on standing; the solntion frOT
pure tea gives a reddish colour with ferric chlonde.
due to acetate, and no precipitate on standing-
These tests are applicable only when catechu i»
present in tolerably large quantities.

(6) Lie tea, when thrown into hot water, faW
to powder, because the gum or starch used to keep
it in a compact form is dissolved. The li()ma
may be acidified with sulphuric acid, decolonrueil
with permanganate, and tested for starch. The
ash of lie tea is often as high as 80% or 40% .

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TEA

1667

(e) Caper tea ia made into little glouy masses
by the aid of gam or starch ; it is naaally much
adalterated. The insoluble matter ia usually
much less than in genuine tea; the gum amounts
to 15^ or 20%. The soluble ash often falls
below 2% .

(i) Soluble iron salts are added to give an
appearance of strength by the formation of tan-
nate of iron. They are detected by shaking the
powdered leaves with cold dilute acetic acid, fil-
tering, and testing for iron in the filtrate.

(a) Alkaline carbonates are sometimes added

to tea. The soluble ash gives the yellow sodium
flame if sodium salts have been added i the alka-
linity may also be determined in the soluble ash.
The average amount of potash (K,0) in tea is
about 1-62% .

4. Facinff and Colouring MatariaU. These
may be detected under the microscope, or the
leaves may be washed with worm water, the colour-
ing matter collected and examined. Indigo is
be«t detected by the microscope; Prussian blue
by boiling with canstic alkali, filtering and test-
ing for ferrocyanide by ferric chloride. The re-

LesTca and italka of beat tea bronght tmm Chios (18<1) by priratc hand. Natural siis.

Generally in -commereial tea the learea are much larger and tbicker, and often are* est transrenely into two or three
paiti. Some stalks and remains of flowers are found in ul tea, even the beat.

WIUOW

W/LIOW

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1668

tKA

■idne, insoluble in alliaH, ii fased with alkaline
carbonate, evaporated to drynen with hydrochloric
acid ; the residae tested for silica, and the filtrate
tested for lime and magnesia.

Hoistnre varies from 6% to 8% .

Amonff domestic sobstitntes for tett are the
leaves of speedwell, wild germander, black cnrrant
syringa or mock orange, purple-spiked wilknr-

CyMBLLIA

INCONSPICUUS.

Lavn med in the idulteration of tea— the iloe, willow, osV, beech, elder, and hawthorn, hare been natore-priolcd
and then lithographed. The drawings of the CHorantkiu iHcoiupicvui and the CametlU tatcmpta^ which are aaid to be
need bj the Cbineie, are copied from Hauall. The leaTes of the elm, poplar, and plane are laid to be aometinea oatd in
England. FaliiAcatioD with an; kind of leaf is, howerer, now decidedly nncommon in this eoimtry.

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TEA

1669

herb, winter-green, aweet-briu-, cherry tree, sloe,
&c, aX\ at which are need for tea, either singly or
mixed. The addition of a lingle bod of the black
enrrant to the infoiion of ordinary black tea im-
pwrti to it a flavoor cloeely reeembling that of
green tea.

The bTownish-enloored powder vended under
the name of ' la vano beno ' is a mixture of 8 parti
of tea-dust with 5 parti of powdered catechu or
terra japonica. A few grains of this substance
thrown into the teapot are described in the adver-
tisementa as being capable of more than donbUng
the strength of the bereiage.

Sa», III*. Of this oomponnd Dr Haasall says :
" It U so called because it is a spurious article,
and not tea at aU. It consists of dost of tea-
leaves, sometimea of foreign leaves and sand,
made up by means of starch or gam into little
masses, which are afterwards painted and coloured,
sp as to resemble either black or green gunpowder.
The skill exhibited in the fabrication of this spu-
rious article is very great, and we have met with
at least a dozen varieties of it, differing from
each other in the size and colouring of the little
masses."

The onoe notorious ' P^KAauAT pust,' sold in
packeU, was simply new meadow hay that had
been wetted with a strong infusion of catechu,
then dried, chopped small, and strongly com-
pressed. See Thsiits and Catfeiitb.

Tea. " The tea is not a meal ; when it is pro-
perly used it should not be a meal ; but it has a
special purpose to fulfil, which I will now explain.
Tea— and under the generic term tea I include
<'<J*»e.— tea is usually taken three hours after
dinner. This is the moment which corresponds
with the completion of digestion, when, the food
having been conveyed away from the stomach,
nothing remains behind but the excess of the acid
juices employed in digestion; these acid juices
create an nneasy sensation at the stomach, and a
call is made for something to relieve the uneasi-
ness ; tea fulfils that object." " On the same
principle, after the business of the dining-room,
the antacid and refreshing beverage, either in the
shape of tea or coffee, is prepared in the drawing-
room. In taking uther, the nearer they approach
to the simple inf asion the better ; little milk or
cream, and less sugar, should be the principle.
But, seeing the purpose of tea, how unreasonable
to make it the excuse for a meal, to conjoin with
it toast, mnffins, bread and butter, and id genu*
omiu .'" « Three meals a day may be taken as the
standard of habit and custom, tea and eofEee
having a specific place and purpose as a beve-
rage, but none as a meal " {Srat. Wilton). Bee
Mbau, &e.

Although tea is undoubtedly prejudicial to
children and to adult* of nervons and irritable
temperament, there can be no question that, if its
use be not abused, it possesses valuable physiolo-
gical properties. On the nervous system it acts
as a pleasant stimulant and restorative, its mode-
rate nse not being followed by depression. Dr
Farkes says these effects are in some measure doe
to the warmth of the infusion. According to the
same authority its use is followed by very little
quickening of the pulse, whilst there it an increase
in the amount of perspiration, aai a slightly

diminished action on the bowels. Cases, however,
are not uncommon in which this latter effect is
reversed.

Dr Edward Smith says that tea increases the
excretion of pulmonary carbonic acid. The con-
tention that the elimination of nrea is lessened
does seem to have been not satisfactorily estab-
lished. If so, the diminution is very trifling. Sir
Ranald Martin says tea is most useful against ex-
cessive fatigue, especially in hot climates. The
traveller in the Australian bush speaks highly of
its renovating effects at the end of a long day
passed in the saddle.

A cup of strong green tea without milk or
sugar is a popular and frequently hy no means
inefficient remedy for a severe nervous headache.
According to Liebig, tea and coffee resemble soup
in their effect on the system. Lehmann's experi-
ments seem to show that they lessen the waste of
tissue in the human body. Tea taken too con-
tinuously, or in excess, produces indigestion,
flatulence, and constipation, besides rendering its
votaries antemic and depressed in spirits.

It is a fallacy to suppose that soft water makes
the best tea. It certainly yields a darker infusion
than that made from moderately hard water, but
this is owing to the soft water taking np a large
quantity of bitter, physiologically inert, extractive
matter from the tea, the delicate flavour of which
becomes thereby greatly impaired. This is why
connoisseurs object to an iiuosion of too dark a
colour. Moderately hard boiling water, on the
contrary, fails to dissolve this objectionable in-
gredient, and hence produces a beverage in which
the characteristic taste of the pleasant aromatic
principle of the tea is not masked by the bitter
substance. ' London water, which, when boiled,
has a hardness of about 6 degrees (equal to 6 gr.
of Ume salts to the galL), makes excellent tea —
better, in fact, than a water of half the hardness,
the latter yielding a slightly bitter infusion. In
the use of moderately hard water, it is essential
that it should be allowed to remain on the tea
snfSdently long. The Chinese never employ
either very soft or immoderately hard water, bnt
a water qf medium hardneet.

" Experimentally it is fonnd that infusions of
tea and coffee are strong enough when the former
contains 0'6% of extractive matter, and the latter
3% , so that a moderate-sized cup (6 oz.) should
contain about 18 gr. of the extract of tea, or 66
gpr. of coffee. These proportions will be obtained
when 263 gr. of tea (about 2i teaspoonfnls) or 2
oz. of freshly roasted coffee are infused in a pint
of boiling water ; and the amounts of the several
constituents dissolved are about as follows :

"Cooitttuents.

Tea.
pi.

173

Nitrogenous matters .

Fatty matter ... —

Qum, sugar, and extractive 81*7

Mineral matters . . 9*1

68-8

1780

Total extracted .
So that tea yields, to a pint of fresh water, about
22% of its weight, and coffee about 20% . Leb-
mann found that only 16t% of tea was dissolved
by water, whereas Sir Humphry Davy estimated
it at 33i% . No doubt the quality of the water.

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1670

TEETH— TEETHINa

as well as that of the tea, affects the results, for
cold distilled water will extract from 40% to 44%
of black tea, and nearly 60% of green ; but for all
this, about 22% is a good average with boiling
water" (Lttheij/, 'Lectures on Food,' Long-
mans).

Dr Edward Smith has shown in the following
table that, when the usual custom of measuring
tea into the teapot by the spoonful is followed,
very varying weights of tea are employed. Thus
he found tlwt the weight of a spoonful of tea was
for—

Blaok Teat.
Oolong . . 89 grains.

Congon (inferior) , 62 „
Flowery Pekoe . . 62 „
Sonchongr . , . 70 „
Congou (fine) . . 87 „

Hyson.
Twankay
Fine Imperial
Scented Caper
Fine Gunpowder

Oret» Tea*.

66 gnUns.

70 „

90 „
103 „
123 „

The attempt to make good tea will prove a
failure unless the water ranployed is boiling. Pre-
viously to making the infusion, the teapot should
always be warmed by means of boiling water.
The kettle should be filled from the tap, and not
the boiler. It should also be borne in mind that
neither good tea nor coffee can be obtained if
they are made with water that has been in the
kettle for many hours. The tea is ready to be
drunk after the boiling water has stood on it for
five minutes.

Tea, Algerian. Sgn. Th£ Asabk. The flowers
of Paroftychia argentea. Lam., and F. Hhea.DC.,
Nat. Ord. Illiob bracks. Used as a medicinal
tea in Algeria, and sold in Paris.

Tea, Beef. Sgn. Iktustth caskis bitbuilS,

JVBOVLirX CUU OABNS S0TI8, L. This is
merely a very concentrated soup formed of lean
beef. According to the common plan, lean beef,
1 lb., is gently simmered in wator, 1 quart, for
about half an honr, when apices, salt, &c., are
added, and in a few minutes the whole is strained
for use. The following are other formulte :

1. (Dr A. T. Thornton.) Take good rump
steak, i lb. ; cut it into thin slices, spread these
over a hollow dish, sprinkle a little salt on them,
add a pint of boiling water, and place the dish
(covered) near the fire for half an hour; then re-
move the whole to a saucepan, and boil it gently
for 16 minutes ; lastly, strain through a hair sieve.

2. {Frofettor Liebig.) Beef, free from fat, 1
lb., is to be minced very small, mixed with an equal
weight of cold water, and, after digestion and
agitotion in the cold for about half an hour, heated
slowly to boiling ; when it has boiled for a minute
or two, strain it through a cloth. It may be
coloured with roasted onion or burnt sugar, and
spiced and salted to taste.

Ohi. Similar preparations are ordered in some
foreign Fharmacoposias from calves' lights, cray-
fish, frogs, mutton, pullets, smuls, tortoise, veal,
Ac. In the Ph. L., 1746, a form was given for
viper broth (jrBOtTLUuviPBBiHDii). SeeEssBNOE
ov Bbbp, Extract op Mbai, Bbbb Tba. &c.

Taa, BroniM. VaeeMtm aretottaphglo*. limi.
Used at Broussa, and sold at about Sd. pear lb.

TEETH (The). iS^. Dbhtbb, L. An object
very subservient to health, and which merits due
attention, is the preservation of the teeth; the
care of which, considering their importance in
preparing the food for digestion, is, in general,
far from being sufficiently appreciated. Those
who abhor a fetid breath, rotten teeth, and the
toothache, would do well to invariably clean their
teeth before retiring to rest. With smokers this
practice is almost obligatory. Washings <J>e month
frequently with cold water is not only serviceable
in keeping the teeth clean, but in streng:tbening
the gnms, the firm adhesion of which to the teeth
is of the greatest importance in preserving them
sound and secure. Some persons think it service-
able to add a few drops of spirit or essence of
camphor to the water thus employed, a plan we
certainly approve of. See Bbbath, Dxittitbicbs,
Pa0tb8,Powskb8, Tooth Cbmbhtb, Washks, &c.
Teeth, Stoppings fior. See Dbhtistbt.
TEETU'uia. Sgn. DBKTiTioir. Children are
sometimes bom with one or more teeth ; but, in
general, the teeth at birth consist of mere pnlpy
rudiments buried in the gum. Their development
is gradual. About the third or fourth month
they begin to assume shape and hardness. At
this period children become fretful, the salivs
flows copiously, the gnms grow turgid, and there
is a fondness for biting hard cold objects. In
nearly all cases there is more or less fever, fre
qnently a cough or diarrhcea, and a rash com-
monly appears, which is called by nurses the * red-
gum. These symptoms generally abate after a
fortnight or tbree weeks, and the child remains
undisturbed until the seventh or eight mODth.
Aboat this period the gnms again become red,
tender, and swollen, and often extremely sensi-
tive and painful. The upper part of the gum
gradually becomes attenuated and pale, and, just
before the tooth appears, even covered with a
blister. These changes are usually attended ly
an increased flow of saliva, or ' drivelling,' and a
lax state of the bowels, both of which are regarded
as favourable symptoms. Sometimes, however, tlie
diarrhoea is excessive, when it miw be eaationsly
restrained by a dose or two of rhubarb and
magnesia, with a little dill or peppermint water;
or, better, by the daily use of a little arrowroot,
to which a few drops of pure port wine may be
added. Sometimes the local irritation is con-
siderable, or there are spasms or convulsions, in
which case the practice is to lance the gnnii.
Sluggishness of the bowels may be removed by s
little castor oil. Excessive irritability, without
other marked symptoms, is best combated by s
drop or two of tincture of hops in sweeteoeJ
water. Throughout the whole period of dentition
the nse of warm dry clothing, freedom from
tight bandages, with thorough ventilation, good
nursing, exercise, fresh air without undue ex-
posure, abundance of crawling on the carpet, sad
frequent warm baths, will be found most adnii-
tageous. Indeed, the last, without other treat-
ment, are often sufficient to subdue the moit
distressing convulsions and the moat obstinste
diarrhoea, and in no case can they do ham. S«e
NuBsnra, Stbopeuldb, &c.

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TELEPHONE

1671

TELEFEOVE. Within the memory of the
preaent generation Sir Charles Wheatatone made
some ezperimenta on the transmiision of sound,
which were subseqnentljr repeated and enlarged
npon by I^fessor Henry in America. Connecting
together by means of a bar of wood the sonndlng
boards of two pianos placed in houses on opposite
sides of the street, Henry foand that when the
piano on one side of the street was played upon
the musical sounds it gave out were reproduced by
that on the other side. The next research in this
direction was that of Page, in 1887, who, setting
np vibrations in bars of iron by rapidly magne-
tising and demagnetising them, elicited from &em
musical notes corresponding with the velocity of
the vibration. Similar effects, but more marked
in character, were produced by De la Rive, in
1843, by means of a succession of electric currents
transmitted throngh a copper wire stretched
through a cylinder made of insulated copper
wire.

In 1861, Reiss, of Friedrichsdorf, perfected an
instrument which, by means of the vibrations of
a diaphragm alternately completing and breaking
the continuity of a galvanic circuit, reproduced
musical sounds in an iron bar at a distance.

Varley, in 1870, obtained similar results to
Reiss by the rapid charging and discharging of a
condenser.

In the first of these experiments — viz. Henry's
— the sound was mechanically conducted along the
bar of wood from the strings of one piano to
those of the other, which being thrown into
similar vibratory movements gave rise to similar
sounds.

In the other experiments, on the contrary, the
sounds were not due to the chemical conduction
at all, but to conrents of electricity. It has been
explained that Reiss's instrument was capable of
reproducing musical sounds at a distance from
their origin. Reiss's may, therefore, be regarded
as the original telephone. But, although able to
reproduce a musical note or sound originating at a
distance, this instrument failed altogether in the
case of a word or a sentence, for the simple reason
that the current of electricity which passes
throngh the wires is an intermittent one. Musical
sounds differ in tone, in intensity, and qtutlity.
The tone depends upon the number of vibrations
produced in the air per second ; when these are
less than sixteen no sound is produced. The
intensity is due to the extent or amplitude of the
vibrations ; and the quality, or timbre, to the form
of the undulations made by the vibrating particles
of the atmosphere. Now, of all these qualities or
varieties of sound, the irstonly, or the tone, can be
reproduced by a current of intermittent electricity,
so that Reiss's is a tone telephone, and as such is
only capable of redelivering a number of musical
notes. To Professor A. Qr^am Bell alone belongs
the merit of having invented an articulating or
tpeaking telephone, or an apparatus by means of
which not only tone, but intensity and iimbrt of
sound — in short, speech in its entirety — can be
electrically conveyed from one point to another,
no matter how distant. The practical result of
this is that a conversation can be carried on, the
distance by which the speakers may be separated
being of no import. To the particular species of

electricity by which this is accomplished Professor
Bell has given the name ' nndnlatory,' in contra-
distinction to ' intermittent ' or ' pulsatory.' The
annexed plate, which is half theactusl size of Bell's
articulating telephone, represents that instrument
in section.

m m is a permanent bar magnet, to the upper
end of which is attached a soft iron core, which
becomes magnetised by the permanent magnet.
Surrounding the iron core is a coil of very fine in-
sulated copper wire (i), the two ends of which are
carried to the terminals (i t), by means of which
one is connected with the line wire, and the other
with the earth, d ia a, disc of thin iron plate,
either tinned or japanned, about the size of a
crown piece ; and o is the cavity or month-piece.
Upon applying the lips to this and speaking into

it, the iron disc d vibrates towards the soft iron
core, the result being that a cnrrent of induced
electricity is set np in the coil b, which being in
connection by means of the telegraph wire with a
precisely similar arrangement at the other end of
the line, reproduces there the spoken words by
means of a corresponding disc. The magnet with
attachments is enclosed in a wooden case (a a,
a a, a a); n » are screws which secure the iron
disc i; s is a screw for adjusting the distance
between the pole of the magnet and the disc b.

The extreme simplicity of Professor Bell's tele-
phone was the outcome of several antecedent ex-
periments, worked out by forms of apparatus
gradually diminishing in complexity.

The German physicist Helmholtz had previously
shown that, by the agency of a current of inter-
mittent electricity passed through a tuning-fork,
he could produce simultaneous vibrations in a
number of other forks connected with the first by
a wire, and that by varying the loudness of these
vibrations by means of resonators, so as to com-
bine the musical notes in different proportions, the

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1672

TELEPHONE

resnlting sound was an imitation of certain vowel
aounda, or a copy of the timhre of sound.

Professor Bell's first telephone was an exten-
rion of Helmholti's device for producing vowel
or composite sounds. A number of steel wires of
different pitch were made into a harp, and con-
nected by a powerful permanent magnet, the
same arrangement being repeated at the other
end of the circuit. In the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet was an electro-magnet. When
a permanent magnet is vibrated in the neighbour-
hood of an electro-magnet, this latter will have a
current of electricity generated in it, the intensity
of which will vary with the velocity of the vibra-
tions in the permanent magnet, whilst it will be
mther positive or negative according to the direc-
tion of these same vibrations, so that a vowel
sound, if produced by causing a number of the
rods of the harp to vibrate at the same time, can
be transmitted by a cnrrent of electricity, and
will be reproduced by the harp at the other end
of the oonneeting wire. If a piano were sung
into whilst the pedal was down, not only would
the pitch of the voice be echoed back, but an
approach to the quality of the vowel would also
be obtained ; and theory teaches that if the piano
had a very much larger number of strings to the
octave, we should get not only an approximation
to, but an exact vcKial reproduction of the vowel.
If, therefore, in the harp there were a large
number of steel rods to the octave, and yon were
to speak in the neighbourhood of such a harp, the
rods would be thrown into vibration with dif-
ferent degrees of amplitude, producing currents
of electricity, and would throw into vibration the
rods at the other end with the same relative
amplitude, and the timbre of the voice would he
reproduced.

The effect when you vibrate more than one of
these rods simultaneously is to change the shape
of the electrical undulation, and a similar effect
is produced when a battery is included in the
circuit. In this case the battery current is
thrown into waves by the action of the perma-
nent magnets. Hence you will see that the
resultant effect on the current of a number of
musical tones is to produce a vibration which
corresponds in every degree to the moving velo-
city of the air. Suppose, for instance, you vibrote
two rods in the harp, you have two musical notes
produced ; but of course if you pay attention to a
particle of air, it is impossible that any particle
of air can vibrate in two directions at the same
time ; it follows the resultant form of vibration.
One curve would show the vibration of a particle
of air for one musical tone, the next one for
another, and the third the resulting motion of a
particle of air when both musical tones are sounded
simultaneously. You have by the harp apparatus
the resultant eSeat produced by a current of elec-
tricity, but the same resultant effect could be
produced in the air. There is an instrument
called the phonautograph. It consists of a cone
which, when spoken into, condenses the air from
the voice. At the small end of the cone there is
a stretched membrane which vibrates when a
sound is produced, and in the course of its vibra-
tion it controls the movement of a long style of
wood, about one foot in length. If a piece of

glass with a smoked surface is n^iidly diavn
before the style during its movement, a series of
curves will be drawn upon the glass. I mjtdf
uttered the vowels e, ag, »h, ah, oak. These
vowels were sung at the same pitch and the same
force, but each is characterised on the glass by s
shape of vibration of its own. In fact, when jon
come to examine the motion of a parldcle of air,
there can be no doubt that every sound is charac-
terised by a particular motion. It stmek me
that if, instead of using that complicated harp,
and vibiating a number of rods tuned to different
pitches, and thus creating on the line of wire s
resultant effect, we were at once to vibrate s
piece of iron, to give to that piece of iron not the
vibration of a musical tone, but to give it the
resultant vibration of a vowel sound, we could
have an undulatory current produced directly,
not indirectly, which would correspond to the
motion of the air in the production of a sound.

The difficulty, however, was how to vibrate a
piece of iron in the way required.

The following apparatus gave me the clue to
the solution of the problem in the attempt to
improve the phonautograph. I attempted to con-
struct one modelled as nearly as possible on the
mechanism of the human ear, but on going to a
friend in Boston, Dr Clwence J. Blake, an aarist,
he suggested the novel idea of using the hnman
ear itself as a phonautograph, and tbis apparatus
we constructed together. It is a human car.
The interior mechanism is exposed, and to a part
of it is attached a long style of hay. Upon
moistening the membrane and the little bones
with a mixture of glycerin and water, the mobility
of the psrta was restored, and on speaking into
the external artificial ear a vibration was observed,
and after many experiments we were enabled to
obtain tracings of the vibration on a sheet of
smoked glass drawn rapidly along. This apparatus
gave me the clue to the present form of the tele-
phone. What I wanted was an apparatus that
should be able to move a piece of iron in the way
that a particle of air is moved by the voice.
(From Professor Bell's lecture at the Society of
Arts, November 28th, 1877, published in 'the
Journal of the Society, vol. xxvi, p. 17.)

We need not follow Professor Bell through the
various stages by which he arrived at his most
successful solution of this problem further than
to state that the simplicity of construction ex-
hibited in the present form of instrument did not
characterise the earlier articulating telephone!.
Amongst the causes contributing to this simplicity
may be mentioned the abandonment of an animal
membrane attached to the iron plate, the dimi-
nution of the coil of insulated wire, and the sob-
stitutiou for the galvanic battery, which formerly
formed part of the circuit, of the permanent
magnet.

Professor Bell records the curious fact that
hardly any difference is observable in the resolts
by varying the size, thickness, and force of the
permanent magnet, and that beyond a remarkable
effect in the quality of the voice, distinct arUra-
lations might be obtained from iron plates of from
1 inch to 2 feet in diameter, and from Vt ^ i ''"^''
in thickness. With plates of uniform thickneii,
bat of valuing diameter, he obbUned th« following

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TELLUBIUU

TMoIt*. With a pUta of small diameter the ar-
ticalatlon wai perfectly dlitinct, bat the Bound
emitted wai as if a person were speaking throagh
the nose. By gradnally enlarging the diameter
of the plate this nasal effect as gradnally disap-
peared, nntil, when a oertain diameter was at-
tained, a Teiy good qnality of voice manifested
itMlf.

By eontinning to enlarge the diameter a coarse,
hollow, dmm-liice effect was prodaced, until when
the diameter became very large the sound- re-
sembled that one hears when the head is inside a
barrel, and was accompanied with a reverberating
sound. By reversing the above conditions — that
is, by keeping the diameter constant and varying
the thickness— it was fonnd that with a very thin
plate the drum-like sound was produced j by gra-
dnally increasing the thickness this effect passed
off ; then followed distinct articulation, until at
a certain increase of thickness the peculiar nasal
quality again developed itself.

In practice it has been found desirable, in
establishing speaking communication between
two distant places, to employ two telephones
instead of a single one, one being applied to
the mouth and tile other to the ear during a
conversation.

With one telephone it was no unusual occur-
rence for confusion to arise in consequence of
the two speakers talking or listening at the same
time.

So faithful is the transmission by the telephone
of every variety of sound, that Mr Preece states,
when in telephonic communication with Prof.
Bell through a quarter of a mile, he has heard him
"laugh, sneeze, cough, and, in fact, make any
sound the human voice can produce." It must
be borne in mind, however, that the transmitted
speech can only be distinctly heard in the imme-
diate vicinity of the receiving apparatus ; the
keenest hearing fails to detect it at the distance
of little more than a foot away. Hence, when a
message is expected, the recipient has to place
his ear to the mouth-piece of the instrument, and
vse it as an ear-trumpet.

A circumstance tending to impair the satis-
factory working of Bell's telephone is that the
tine wire to which the ends of the coil are attached
becomes inductively affected by the currents of
electricity passing through the parallel and con-
tignous telegraph wires, the eiSect, on a line
where there is an active transmission of tele-
graphic messages, being that the telephone
"emits sounds that are very like the pattering
of hail against a window, and which are so loud as
to overpower the effects of the human voice"
{Preeet),

This inconvenience can, however, it is stated,
be remedied.

If all the arrangements of the instrument were
perfect there should be no limits to the distance
throagh which speech could be conveyed by the
telephone. Prof. Bell says that in laboratory ex-
periments "no difficulty has been found in using
an apparatus of this construction through a cir-
cuit of 6000 miles ;" and that he had found it act
efficiently between New York and Boston, a dis-
tance of 258 miles, subject to the condition that the
neighboaring telegraph wire* were not in action.

Mr Freeoe has carried on conversations between
Oablin and Holyhead, a distance of 100 miles.

The telephone is now (1891) in regular use be-
tween London and Paris.

Two useful applications of the telephone are
recorded by Prof. Bell, the one its employment in
connection with the diving-bell, the other as a
means of communication between those above and
below ground in mines. It has been largely
adopted in extensive factories and in commerciid
houses, both in America and in this country, sup-
plementing, because of its much greater simplicity
and easy application, the electric telegraphs pre-
viously in use in such establishments.

Wo extract the following from the 'Jonmal
of the Society of Arts ' (vol. zxvi, p. 887) :

«ThB TblbPHOKB XVB TBI TOBEXDO.

"A novel application of the Bell telephone is
one which has been made in connection with tor-
pedoes by CaptMn C. A. H'Evoy, of 18, Adam
Street, Adelphi. The torpedoes to which the
telephone has been applied are those of the buoy-
ant contact class — that is, floating torpedoes—
which are used for the protection of rivers and
harbours. These torpedoes are held in position
beneath the surface of the water by mooring
lines and anchors, and it is necessary to ascertain
from time to time that these deadly agents are <n
active working order. They are, of coarse, con-
nected to the shore by electric wires, by which
they may be exploded. They are also arranged
so that they may be exploded electrically by con-
tact with passing vessels. For this latter purpose
they are fitted with what is known as a circuit
closer, which is placed in the middle of the charge
within the torpedo. The testing is ordinarily per-
formed by sending a current of electricity throagh
the torpedo and fosej but, in order that the fuse
may not be fired, and the torpedo consequently
exploded during the process of testing, an ex-
tremely weak current has to be used in connection
with a sensitive galvanometer. The consequence
is that the indications received are so very deli-
cate that they are not always to be relied on.
Now, what Captain M'Evoy does is to supplement
the electrical test by the test of sounds, and to this
end he encloses an ordinary Bell telephone in
each torpedo. The telephone is so placed that the
vibrating diaphragm is in a horizontal plane, and
upon it are laid a few shot or particles of metal, and
these are boxed in. Every motion of the torpedo
causes the shot to shift their position upon the
face of the diaphragm, and to cause a slight noise,
which is distinctly heard in the receiving telephone
on shore. Thus each torpedo, two or three miles
away in the restless waters of a channel, is con-
tinually telling the operator on shore of its own
condition in language sometimes excited, according
to the state of calmness or agitation of the water
at the time. Should the torpedoes be sunk they
would lie motionless on the bottom, and the silence
of the telephone would indicate the fact of their
inoperativeness. The telephones are connected
to the ordinary electric wires of the torpedoes, bnt
this does not prevent them from being tested in
the usual way from the battery on shore."

TXLLU'BIUK. Te=126. A rare greyish-white
elementary substance, found only in imall quan-

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1674

TEHPEBATURE

titiei, associated with gold, ^ver, lead, and bis-
mnth, in the gold mines of TranBylvanio, Cali-
fomia, Brazil, <ec. It has often been described as
a metal, bat is now commonly classed with the
non-metals and in the snlphur gronp.

Prep. 1. Telluriam may be obtained from the
bismuth ore (the tellnride of bismath) by strongly
heating the ore with an equal weight of carbonate
of potash, having first rubbed the mixture into a
paste with oil. A sodium tellnride is formed which
dissolves in water, forming a solution of a purplish-
red colour, from which the tellurium deposits on
exposure of the liquid to the atmosphere. The
teUurium after washing and drying is distilled in
a current of hydrogen {Berzelitu).

2. {Sehrdtter.) Graphic or black tellurium ore
is heated with dilute hydrochloric acid as long as
any carbonic acid is evolved, then with strong acid
until sulphuretted hydrogen ceases to come off.

The liquid is decanted from the reudue, which
is washed with hydrochloric add and hot water,
then boiled with aqua regia ontil the insoluble
matter is white. From the aqua regia solation
any gold that may be present is precipitated by
means of ferrous sulphate, and afterwards the
tellurium is thrown down in the clear filtrate by
passing in sulphur dioxide gas.

Prop, Tellurium bears a great resemblance to
bismuth in appearance, having a pinkish metallic
lustre, a bluish- white colour, and in being crystal-
line (rhombohedral) and brittle.

Its sp. gr.=6-24, and it fuses at 452° C. ; at a
high tempetttture it becomes converted into a
ydlow vapour. It bums in air, when strongly
heated, with a bine flame having a green rim, and
giving off white fumes of tellurium dioxide that
have a peculiar odour. When taken internally,
even in very minute qoantities, tellurium imparts
to the breath an offensively powerful odour of
garlic. Tellurium dissolves in oold faming sul-
phuric acid, to which it imparts a rich purple-red
colour ; it is insolnble in water and carbon bisul-
phide. If the acid solution be diluted with water
the telluriam precipitates unchanged.

Tellurotu acid, HiTeOg, is obtained by pouring
a solution of tellurium in nitric acid of 1'25 into
water, when the tellurous acid is precipitated aa a
bulky white hydrate. This hydrate is slightly
soluble in water, and reddens litmus. It forms
two classes of salts, called tellurites.

Tellurio Acid. HjTeO^. When tellurium or
tellurous acid is gently heated with nitre and
potassium carbonate a potassic tell urate is formed,
this being decomposed by barium chloride, whilst

the resulting barinm tellnrato is in its torn de-
composed, and the telluric acid separated by sul-
phuric acid.

ProptS^a. Hexagonal prismatic crystals, which,
when heated usually to redness, become con-
verted into telluric anhydride. It forms salts
with metals, termed tellurates.

Tellvbium Chiabidbs. The dichloride, TeCU,
is formed with the tetrachloride when chlorine
gas is passed over melted tellurium ; it is aeps-
rated from the tetrachloride by distillation aa a
greenish-yellow powder.

The tetraehloride, TeCIp is formed by the «»-
tinned action of chlorine on the dichloride. A
white crystalline substance.

Tellurelted Sydroge», or IHhgdric TelUride.
H,Te. Prep. 1. By heating tellurium with sine,
and decomposing the zinc tellnride with hydro-
diloric acid.

2. By heating tellurium in hydrogen gas.

Prop., 4*0. This compound presents a striking
analogy to seleniuretted and sulphuretted hydro-
gen. Like both of these it is gaseous, but re-
sembles the latter ia smell more than the former.
It bums with a blue flame, reddens litmns, and
when dissolved in water forms a colourless solu-
tion', which becomes brownish red by exposure to
the air, owing to the oxidation of hydrogen and
the deposition of tellurium. The salts of most of
the metals are decomposed when a current o£
telluretted hydrogen is passed through their solu-
tions, from which the metals are then thrown
down as tellnrides. These teUurides present a
close resemblance to the corresponding sulphide*.
The teUurides of the alkali metals, Uke the sul-
phides, are soluble in water.

Tett*. The most distinctive character of tel-
lurium compounds is the reddish-purple solution
of potassium tellnride they furnish when fused
with potassium carbonate and charcoal and treated
with water.

TEICFEKATITSE. In English pharmacy it is
customary to measure the degree of heat by
Fahrenheit's thermometer. When a boiling heat
is directed, 212° is meant. A gentle heat is that
which is denoted by any degree between 90° and
100° F.

Whenever specific gravity is mentioned, the
substance spoken of is supposed to be of the tem-
perature of 62° F. (Ph. L.).

In the B. P., Ph. E. and D., and in chemical
works in tMs country generally, the specific gravi-
ties of bodies are taken at, or referred to, the
temperature of 60° F. See Thbbkoxitbbs.

The following data may be of use to the pharmacist :

Degree of F.

2786

2016

1996

1873

1750

1000

980

941

778

644

640

630

Cast iron melts (Daniell).

Gold melts (Daniell).

Copper melto (Daniell).

Silver melts (Daniell).

Brass (containing 25% of zinc) melts (Daniell).

Iron, bright cherry red (Poillet).

Bed heat, visible in daylight (Daniell).

Zinc begins to burn (I^iell).

Zinc melts (Daniell).

Mercury boils (Daniell; 662 — Graham).

Sulphuric acid boils (Magrignac; 620 — Graham).

Whale oU b<^ (Graham).

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TENT— TEPHBITIS ONOPORDINIS

1675

DtgntolY.
617

600 .
618
442
880
866
816
808
867
266
239
838
821
220
218
816
214

813 (or 818-1
818 .
211 .
807 .
801 .
186

180 (about)
176 ,
178
161
160
146

141-8 .
182

183 .
116 .
116

118 .
HI .

98 .

95 .

95 .

88 .

77 .

64-4 .

69

66 .

44-6 .

82 .

80 (atMot)

—87-9 ',

Pare lead melts (Badberg).
Linseed oil boili.
. Bismath melta (Gmelin).
. Tin melto (Crichton).
. Anenioos acid volatilises.
Metallic arsenic sablimes.
, Oil of turpentine boils (Kaure).
Etberification ends.
Saturated sol. of sal-ammoniac boils (Taylor).

„ „ acetate of soda boils.

. Sulphur melts (Miller; 226— Fownes).
. Saturated sol. of nitre boils.

„ „ salt boils (Paris Codex).

„ „ alnm, carb. soda, and solph. zino boil.

„ „ chlorate and prussiate potash boiL

„ „ sulph. iron, snlpb. copper, nitrate of lead, boil.

„ „ acetate of lead, snlph. and bitartrate potash, boil.

6) . „ „ water begins to boil in glass.

. Water boils in metal, barometer at 30°.
. Alloy of 6 parts bismuth, 3 parts tin, 8 parts lead, melts.
. Sodium melts (Regnanlt).

. Alloy of 8 parts bismuth, 5 parts lead, 8 parts tin, melts (Kaue).
. Nitric acid 1-62 begins to boil.
. Starch forms a gelatinous compound with water.
. Rectified spirit boils, benzol distils.
. Alcohol (sp. gr. -796 to -800) bmls.
. Beeswax melts (Kane ; 142 — Lepage).
. Pyroxylic spirit boils (Scanlan).
. White of egg begins to coagulate.
. Chloroform and ammonia of -946 boil.
. Acetone (pyroacetic spirit) boils (Kane).
. Mutton suet and styracin melt.
. Bisulphuret of carbon boils (Qraham).
. Pure tallow melts (Lepage j 92 — Thomson).

Spermaceti and stearin of lard melt.
. Phosphorus melts (Miller).
. Temperature of the blood.
. Ether (-720) boils.

. Carbolic acid crystals become an oily liquid.
. Acetous fermentation ceases, water boiU >n eaetio.
. Vinous fermentation ends, acetous fermentation begins.
. Oil of anise liquefies.

Gay Lussac's Aleoolomitre graduated at.
. Syrups to be kept at (Ph. L.).
. Potassium melts (Bunsen).
. Water freezes.

. Olive oil becomes partially solid.
. Cold produced by snow, 8 parts, and salt, 1 part.
. Mercury freezes.

TEST. A piece of Unt, or compressed sponge,
osed to dilate openings, wounds, &c.

TEPHBITIS OVOFOBDDnS, Fabricius. (Te-
phritis, from rifpot, ash-grey, because so many
of these insects are of this colour ; and Onopor-
don, a tribe of plants of which the cotton thistle
is the English representative.) Thb Cblsbt
Flt. This small fly belongs to the order Dip-
TBiu. and its family Muteida, to the same family
as the common house-fly. This family of Jfiw-
eida comprises a very large number of species.
Professor Westwood says that in this country
700 or 800 species have already been recorded
('An Introduction to the Modem Classification
of Insects,' by J. W. Westwood, F.L.S.). Among
these are the meat-fly, or ' blow-fly,' several kinds
of Antiomjfia, particularly injurious to vege-
tables, the fly which deposits maggots in cheese.

the 0»cinU and Chlorops, which ravage wheat
and barley fields, and many other destructive and
ofliansive insects.

Though this celery fly is small, it is intensely
mischievous, frequently ruining crops of celery,
and also doing much harm to parsnips in fields
and gardens.

It may he urged that celery and parsnips
hardly come within the deflnition of root crops,
and that insects injurious to these should
not have been included in those monographs
which are intended to relate only to farm crops.
But celery is grown on an extensive scale by
market gardeners and market-garden farmers in
the home counties and near cities and large
towns, and being a profitable crop its cultivation
will probably Im extended. It is not by any
means unusual for market gardeners and market-

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1676

TKPHRITIS ONOPORDINIS

garden farmen to have a* mnch as 60 acres of
celery (see 'Beport upon the Market Garden
and Market-garden Farm Competition in connec-
tion with the Boyal Ag^icaltaral Society's Show
at Kilboro, in 1879,' by Charles Whitehead).
Parsnips also are grown extenrively by farmers,
as well as by market gardeners, for cattle feed-
ing.

In some seasons this celery fly is not very
tronblesome, while in others — as in 1883, for ex-
ample— it caases most serious injuries in many
parts of the United Kingdom. This variation in
the degree of attack is seen in the case of all in-
sects which affect the crops of the farm and
garden, and is dne to the influences of weather,
as well as to the supply of parasitic insects and
to other circumstances. Nature has provided for
a balance or natural equipoise in the animal as
in the vegetable kingdom ; but the exigencies of
civilisation and of artificial systems of cropping
and of cultivation have tended to interfere with
natural^ laws, whose action the finite mind of
man, with all its wisdom and all its intelligence,
has not been able to supplement. This is proved
by the fact that the number of the various in-
sects injurious to crogs hss greatly increased
during the last fifty years, in which the science
of agriculture has made marvellous progress in
every branch, and that new and most destructive
insects have appeared in swarms upon the scene.

It is greatly to be desired that accurate obser-
vations should be made and careful records kept
of the raids of insects upon crops, in order to
■how when and in what circumstances they may
be expected.

In 1879 there was some injury occasioned by
the TephritU oitopordinU both in England and
Scotland, but not nearly so mnch as was caused
in 1882 and 1888. It will be remembered that
1879 was a very wet year, whUe 1882 was fairly
dry, and 1883 was very dry, and in the latter
year more damage was caused to celery and pars-
nips than had ever been known before. This
corroborates the opinion of all economic entomo-
logists that this fly likes dry warm weather, and
cannot propagate freely and rapidly in wet sea-
sons.

Very serious harm was done by it in 1888 in
the large market gardens and market- garden
farms in Kent, Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Hert-
ford, Bedford, Lancashire, and elsewhere. One
market-ewrden farmer reported that he had ten
acres of parsnips almost entirely spoilt by its
action. Another, near Bedford, only obtained
about the third of a crop from nine acres planted
with this vegetable. A large market-garden
fanner in Essex planted forty acres with celery
plants, and he calculated that he lost at least
half of the crop from the persistence of the fly.
He remarked that the leaves of the plants looked
just as if they bad been scorched by fire. Many
reports of a similar nature came from celery and
parsnip producers in various parts of the king-
dom, looking back at the outbreaks of this in-
sect during the last ten years, it will be seen that
they have been far worse when the summer sea-
son has been dry.

It is only since 1866, or about 20 years, that
this insect has been known to occasion serioos

barm, at least upon anything like a large scale.
Curtis, who wrote about the celery fly in 1859,
does not speak of any amount of mischief attri-
buted to it. Kirby and Spence do not allude to
it. Busticos does not mention it in hia letters.
Like many other insects in Qreat Britain, and
indeed in all parts of the world, its power of
affecting crops has become intensified during the
last few years.

As there are no references to this insect by
either of the German economic entomologists,
Kaltenbach and Taschenberg, and as KoUar does
not mention it, we may conclude that it is not
known in Germany. Neither do French writers
Bi>eak of it, and it appears to be unknown in
America and Canada.

I4f« Hutory. The celery fiy is close upon the
eighth of an inch in length of body, and has a
wing expanse of not quite half an inch. It is of
a tawny brown colour, or honey -yellow, as Meigen
terms it ('Europaischen zweiflugeligen lnsekt«n,'
von J. W. Meigen), with the under part of the
body light coloured.

Its halteres, or poisers, are yellowish, and its
wings have lines of rusty-looking or brownish
spots running obliquely on their npper parts,
while the lower parts are hyaline. There are six
leg^, of a dark yellow hue. When at rest npon
the plants its wings are carried upright, after the
manner of some moths and butterflies, and of the
Semtrobida or lacewing flies. The female fly is
furnished with a long ovipositor, with which it
places its eggs in the outer cuticle of the npper
side of the leaves of celery and parsnip planta.

Many eggs are laid by each female. These are
hatched in about six days, and from them pro-
ceed pale greenish larvee, or maggots, which
quickly grow and attain a length of abont a
quarter of an inch. The maggot has a dark line
under the skin traversing the length of the body.
It has no legs, and its mouth is small, wiUi
pointed jaws well suited for mining in the paren-
chyma of the leaves, and feeding upon ita soft
juicy substance. Very soon the leaf contracts,
and its colour becomes bronzed. After a time it
shrivels up, and is utterly useless to the plant u
a me^um of respiration and of receiving food
from the air.

In the ease of a celery plant thns affected, the
underground leaves or stalks cannot grow and
fill out properly with their surfaces which are
above the ground in an unhealthy condition.
The blanching process is also interfered with, so
that the celery is green and smalL In some
cases of very bad attack the plant is killed out-
right. With respect to parsnips assailed by th«
fly, the iiijnry to the leaves is the same as in tb«
case of celery plants, and the roots are small,
forked, and badly shaped.

Larva or maggots have been found npon odeiy
and parsnip plants as late as November.

After about fourteen days the larva changes
into a pupa, which either remains in the leaf or
falls on to the ground beneath. From this,
which is of a yellow colour, oval, and mnch wrin-
kled, gradually becoming brown or dark yelloir,
the fly emerges in the early summer in a fev
days, and commences a new cycle of existence.
There are at least two generations in a leMon.

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TERBltJM— TfiST SOLUTIONS

1677

In fine dry Bommen there we more. The papa
of the hut generation, which is determineid by
conditions of weather and of food supply, pass
the winter in their pupal form in the ground, and
in the dilfrit of the leaves.

PrmtfUion. As many of the pupn are in the
ground, it Is most essential when the celery crop
has been taken from the trenches that the earth
should be well levelled and dug deeply, and care
shonld be taken to put the upper surface well
underneath.

A good dressing of lime, or of lime ashes,
might be applied with much advantage. Every
particle of leafage must be bnried deeply,
or the leaves shonld be collected carefully and
burnt. This should be done directly the celery is
dug up. It is very important to destroy the
leaveS) so that the pupsa which are left within
them may be prevented from changing into flies
in the spring. If the leaves are merely put in a
lump with other decaying vegetable matter, or
upon composts, or mizens not in active fermenta-
tion, it is wry probable that the pupas within
them may be carried out with manure for eelei;
or parsnip crops, or to land near wbere these are
grown. Celery and parsnip growers will not era-
dicate this pest mless they are most particular
in destroying the leaves of plants that have been
in the least degree affected. Weeds sbonld be
cleared away in the neighbourhood of celery and
parsnip plants, as the fly has been bred from
maggots from thistle leaves. Meigen says it is
occasionally found in the thistle^ and Curtis states
that he has seen the fly come from blisters in the
leaves of a weed known commonly as alexanders
{Smymmrn. obuatrum), formerly eaten like
celery.

Simedisi. Pinching the blistered leaves be-
tween the finger and thumb certainly kills the
maggots. It also injures the leaves consider-
ably, and if it is necessary to pinch a leaf in two
or ijiree different places it will do almost as
much harm to it as the maggots. Besides, if the
attack is extensive and general, it would be im-
possible to adopt this drwtic remedy. Nor could
it be carried out where the cultivation of eeleiy
and parsnips was on a large scale.

Soot scattered over the plants in the early
morning while the dew is yet upon the leaves, or
after a shower of rain when the leaves are wet, is
very likely to prevent the flies from laying eggs
npon them, and to keep the eggs from being
hatched. Finely powdered guano may also be
applied in this manner. Hue quicklime has also
tieen known to he of benefit.

£ven when the leaves are blistered, it has been
found that these applications are of use.

It is desirable to force rapid leaf growth where
there is a bad attack. Nitrate of soda sown
broadcast at the rate of 1 cwt. to 2 cwt. per acre,
with 8 cwt. of agricultural salt, will do this and
keep the plants moving. In dry seasons, which
are favourable for the fly, celery and parsnips,
loving moisture, are most benefited by dressings
of nitrate of soda and common salt> winch give off
moisture.

Natural Snemitt. There are at least two
parasitic flies which keep the celery fly in check.
One of these is a fly smaller than the celery fly.

called by Curtis Abftia i^it. It places its eggs
in the larva of the celery fly, and from these
larvsa quickly come, which feed upon the other
larvm and destroy them (■ Reports on Insects
Injurious to Crops,' by Chas. Whitehead, Esq.,
F.Z.8.).

TEBBIT7X. A rare metal found by Professor
Mosander, associated with erbium and yttrium in
ordinary yttria. See EsBiux and Yttbium .

TXSXBXHX. 8gn, Tbkbbsva, L. A com-
pound iNtdy consisUng of various isomers of tur-
pentine. It is made by the action of strong
sulphuric acid on turpentine, and distillation of
the product. Amongst other substances it con-
tains bomeol, camphene, cymene, and terpilene.
Its odour is refreshing, and very like that of pitch
pine sawdust. It is volatile, inflammable, and
insoluble in water ; sp. gr. about '864 ; soInMe in
alcohol, ether, and chloroform.

Utet. A common cheap form of terebene is used
■• a disinfectant. The pure colourless variety is
given for the relief of winter cough, and forms a
useful sedative and antiseptic inh^tion for
phthisis.*— 27oM, 6 or 0 drops on sugar every four
hoars, orplaeed in an inhaler with a pint of water
at 140° F. and the vaponr inhaled.

TXRPDT HTSRATE. An interestittg compound,
formed when oil of tnrpentine is allowed to stand
for a length of time over a small quantity of
water. It is obt^ned in larger quantity in the
presence of alo(Aol or of acids.

Terpens hydrate (CioH„.BH,0 -I- H,0) fWtns
large rhombic crystals, without colour or smell.
In dissolves in 82 parts of Water at 100° C, or 250
at 15° C, in 10 of alcohol, 100 of ether, 200 of
chloroform, also in carbon disulphide and Iwniole ;
it is very little taken up by turpentine. In the
capillary tube it melts between 116° and 117° C,
and giving off water forms terpin (C]aHu.8H,0),
which boils without decomposition at 85£r C.

Recommended as a good expectorant in eluronic
and sniiacute bronchitis ] idso given in nephritis.
In small doses it increases the secretion of the
bronchial mucous membrane, and, in larger dosea,
of the kidneys. It was primarily anticipated tiiat
it would prove particularly active against diph-
theria, but experience has not Ailfilled this ex-
pectation. In bronchial catarrh of emphysematio
and phthisical patients, where the secretion ia
small in quantity and tenacious, it has proved
efficadons. Quite recently it has been reoom-
mended by Dr Manasse in the hooping-cough of
children; he used it in doses of from 7 to 16 er.
three times a day, and observed a decrease in the
number and intensity of the attacks.

TXS'BA. [L.] Earth. Tiibka flpOiTTOi.,
eatechn; tibka voirsKBOflA, sulphate of baryta;
&e.

TEB&A-COTTA. Literally, baked day; a
term applied to stataee, ■rehiteetural ornaments,
&c., made of pure white clay, fine sand, and pow-
dered potsherds, slowly dried, and baited to a
strong hardness.

TEST. Syn. RBAOBirr. ^y sahetUice em-
ployed to determine the nanM or character of any
other substance, or to detect i<M presence in com-
pounds,

TEST 80ITTTI0V6. The test solutions here
(^ven are those of the Brilash Pliarmacopoda,

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TEST SOLUTIONS

which are ased for determining the strength of
Tarions Phannacopoeial preparations by volume-
trio analysis. In the Fharmacop<sia it is stated
the processes for volumetric estimations may be
performed either with British or with metrical
weights and measures, and the solutions are bo
arranged that they will be of the same strength,
and the same indications will be obtained in
using them, whichever system is employed, with-
out the necessity of altering any of the flgnres by
which the quantities of the substances tested, or
of the test solutions required in the process, are
expressed.

According to the British system, the quantities
of the substances to be tested are expressed in
grains by weight, whibt the quantities of the
test solutions employed in testing are expressed
in grain-measures, the grain-measure being the
volume of a grain of distilled water.

According to the metrical system, the quan-
tities of the substances to be tested are expressed
in grammes by weight, whilst the quantities of
the test solntaons employed in testing are ex-
pressed in cubic centimetres, the cubic centi-
metre being the volume of a gramme of distilled
water.

As the cubic centimetre bean the same relation
to the gramme that the grain-measure bears to
the grain, the one system may be substituted for
the other, with no difference in the results ex-
cepting Uiat, by the metrical system, all the
quantities will be expressed in relation to a weight
(the gramme) which is more than fifteen times as
great as the British grain.

In practice it will he found convenient, in snb-
■titating metrical for British weights and mea-
sures, to reduce the values of all numbers to one
tenth by moving the decimal points, and this has
been done in the tables appended to the descrip-
tions of the volumetric solutions. The quanti-
ties indicated in the Pharmacopoeia, which in
grains and grain-measures can be convenientiy
used, would be found inconvenientiy large if the
same numbers of grammes and cubic centimetres
were employed.

The following apparatus is required in the pre-
paration and use of these solutions.

For British weights and measorea :

1. A flask which, when filled to a mark on the
neck, contains exactiy 10,000 grains of distilled
water at 60° F. (16-5* C). The capacity of the
flask is therefore 10,000 grain-measurea.

2. A graduated cylindrical jar which, when
fiUed to O, holds 10,000 grains of distilled water,
and is divided into 100 equal parts.

8. A burette. A graduated glass tube which,
when filled to O, holds 1,000 grains of distilled

water, and is divided into 100 eqnal parts. Kadi
part, therefore, corresponds to 10 grain-ineaanres.
For metrical weights and measures :

1. A glass fiask which, when filled to a mark
on the neck, contains 1 litre, or 1,000 cable cen-
timetres.

2. A gradnated cylindrical jar whicb, when
filled to O, contains 1 litre (1,000 cubic centi-
metres), and is divided into 100 eqnal parts.

8. A burette. A graduated tube wbicb, when
nUed to O, holds 100 cubic centimetrea, and is
divided into 100 equal parts.

(One cubic centimetre is the volume of one
gramme of dUtilled water at 4° C. [89-2° F.] [it
is customary to make the measurements with
metrical apparatus at 60° F. ri5-6° C.) J. 1000
cubic centunetres equal 1 litre.)

Volumetric solutions, before being used, abonld
be shaken in order that they may be throughout
of uniform strength. They should also be pre-
served in stoppered bottles. All measarements
should he made at 60° F. (16-6° C).

VoLUXBTBio Solution op Biohbokatb ot
PoiABH (bichromate of potash, K,Cr/),=296).

Take of bichromate ot potash, lA-6 grr. ; dis-
tilled water, a sufficiency.

Put the bichromate of potash into the lO,000-
grain fiask, and, having half filled the flask with
water, allow the salt to dissolve ; then dilute the
solution with more water, until it has the exact
bulk of 10,000 gnun-measnres; 1000 grain-mea-
sures of this solution contain 14'7S gr. of the
bichromate (l-20th of EiCr,0« in grains), and,
when added to a solution of a ferrous salt, acida-
lated with hydrochloric acid, are capable of ran-
verting l&S gr. (l-20th of 6Fe in graina) from
the ferrous to the ferric state.

Grammes and cubic centimetres may be em-
ployed instead of grains and grun-measures, bnt
for convenience 1-lOth of the numbers should be
taken. Thus 14i'76 grammes of bichromate at
potash should be made to form 1000 cubic centi-
metres of solution. 100 cubic centimetres of this
solution contain 1*476 grammes of the bichro-
mate (l-200th of KfitJOj in grammes), and, when
added to a solution of a ferrous salt acidulated
with hydrochloric acid, are capable of convert-
ing l-eis grammes of iron (l-800th of 6Fe in
grammes) from the ferrous to the ferric state.

This solution is nsed for determining the pro-
portion of protoxide of iron in the following pre-
parations. It is known that the whole of the
ferrous salt has been converted into a ferric salt
when a minnte drop of the liquid, placed in con-
tact with a drop of very dilute solution of potas-
sium f erricyanide on a white plate, ceases to strike
with it a blue colour.

BriUih Vdghti and Meainm.

Metrical WBighta and Meaaons.

/ ^ ^ or f * ^

mains weight of Isnbstsnoe. = Oraln-measures of toL mI. Gnmi weight of labitanee. - C. C. of voL id.
. 100-0 - 226 or lOO - 22-5

Fern anenias . 100-0

carb. sacoh. . . 80-0

phorohaa . 800

tnlphas . 42-1

„ essiocata . 10-0

„ grannlata. 41-7

226

287-6

279

600

191

600

lOO
8-0
8-0
4-21
1-0
417

22-5

28-75

27-9

50-0

19-1

600

VOLTJKBTMO SonTTiON OP Htpobtophitb OP 1 5H,0=248). Take of hyposulphite of soda, in
Soi>A(hyposulphiteof sodium crystallised, NajSjOp | crystals, 280 gr,; distilled water, a sufficiency.

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TBST SOLUTIONS

16»9

Binolve the hTposalpUte of loda in 10,000
grain-meaiarea of water. Fill a burette with this
solution and drop it cantionely into 1000 ^rain-
meisaree of the volumetric solution of iodine
until the brown colour is just discharged. Note
the number of grain- measures (») required to pro-
duce this effect; then put 8000 grain-measures of
the same solution into a graduated jar, and aug-
ment this quantity by the addition of distilled

... -i 1 i 8000x1000

water nntu it amonnta to gnun-

n

measures. If, for example, n— 960, the 8000
grain-measures of solution should be diluted to the

^ ,^ .8000x1000 „^„,

bulk of ns;^ —8421 grain-measures. 1000

960

grain-measures of this solution contain 24*8 gr. of
the hyposulphite (^ of NajSgO^ 6H,0 in grains),
and therefore correspond to 12'7 gr. of iodine
(-^ of an atomic weight in grains).

Grammes and cubic centimetres may be em-
ployed instead of grains and grain-measures, but
for convenience -^ of the numbers should be taken.
100 c.c. of this solution contain 2*48 grms. of the
hyposulphite {^hs °^ Na,8,0,.6H,0 in grammes),
and therefore correspond to 1*27 gr. of iodine
(.Tins "^ atomic weight in grammes).

This solution is used for testing the following

substances. In each ease, except that of iodine,

a solution of iodide of potassium and hydrochloric

acid is added to the substance, and the amount

i of iodine so liberated is indicated by this solution.

British Weights and Heanires.

GniBS weight of lubatance.

Calx ehlorinata . 6'0

lodom .... 12-7

Liq. calc. chlorinatn . 80*0

„ chlori . . . 4S9-0

„ sodn cblorinatiB . 70*0

Httrical Weights end Heunres.

1 or / • ^

Onin-meaauKS of rol. sol. Orsma weight of aabatuee. • C. C. of toL soL

467
1000
460
760
600

0-60
1-27
800
48-90
7-00

46-7
100-0
46-0
76-0
60-0

VoLVHBTBio Solution ov Iosihb (iodine, '
I - 127). Tkke of iodine, 127 gr. ; iodide of
potaisiam, 180 gr.; distilled water, a snffl- |
ciency. :

Put the iodide of potassium and the iodine into
the 10,000-giain flask, fill the flask to about two
thirds its bulk with distilled water, gently agitate
until solution is complete, and then dUute the '
solution with more water, until it has the exact
volame of 10,000 grain-measures. 1000 grain-
measures of this solution contain -jig of an equiva-
lent in grains (12'7 gr.) of iodine, and therefore
correspond to 1*7 gr. of sulphuretted hydrogen,

Britlah Weights and Measures.

S'2 gr. of salphnrouB anhydride, and 4-96 gr. of
arsenions anhydride.

Grammes and cubic centimteres may be em-
ployed instead of grains and grain-measures, but
for convenience -^ of the numbers should be taken.
100 c.c. contain 1-27 grms. of iodine, and corre-
spond to 0-17 grm. of sulphuretted hydrogen,
0-82 grm. of sulphurous anhydride, and 0*495
grm. of arsenious anhydride. This solution is
for testing the following substances. It is
dropped from the burette into the liquid to be
tested, until free iodine begins to appear in the
solution.

Metrical Weights and Meatoies.

walna weight of lubatanee.

Acid, arseniosnm . . 4'0

„ sulphurosnm . 64-0

Liqnor arsenicalis . . 442-0

„ arsenici hydro- 1 AAa.n

chloricus ]■ *""

Sodii hyposulphas . . 24*8

. „r ^ — ^

: Srain-raeaanrea of Tol. iol. Oiams weight of lubitasce. = C. C. of vol. sol.

808 or 0-40 = 80-8
1000 „ 6-40 = 100-0

876 „ 44-20 = 87-6

44-20 = 87-6

876
1000

2-48

100-0

VOLUKBTIUO SOLimOir OP NiTBAXB 0> SiLVSB

(nitrate of silver, AgNO,= 170). Take of nitrate
of silver, 170 gr. ; distilled water, a sufficiency.

Pat the nitrate of silver into the 10,000-grain
flask, and having filled half the flask with water,
allow the salt to dissolve ; then dilute the solution
with more water until it has the exact bulk of
10,000 grain-measures.

The solution should be kept in an opaque

stoppered bottle. 1000 grain -measures of this
solution contain -^ of a molecular weight in grains
of nitrate of silver (or 1-70 gr.). Grammes and
cubic centimetres may be employed instead of
grains and grun-measures, but for convenience
1^ of the numbers should be taken. 100 c.c
contain -^ of a molecular weight in grammes of
nitrate of silver (or 1-7 grms.).

It is used in testing tiie foUowing substances :

Cirains wei^t of sabstsnee

=

firain-meaaiirea of vol.

;;;i.

Grams weight of attbitance. = C.C. of vol. sol.

Add. hydrocyan. dil.

. 270

•E

1000

or 270

100-0

Ammonii bromidnm.

6

_

608-6 to 614-6

0-6

- 60-85 to 51-46

Potaarii

. 10

e

888 „ 860

10

- 88-8 „ 86-0

„ oyaaidiuii

. 10

—

730

10

78-0

„ iodidum .

. 10

tm

602

1-0

60-2

Sodii bromidnm

. 10

s>

960

10

960

„ iodidum .

. 10

<•

660

1-0

660

VOLVIIBTBIO SoLVnov OB OxALio AciD (cryi- 1 pniifled oxalic acid in crystals, quite dry, but not
taUisedoxaIieMid,H,CJ04.2IItO-126). Take of effloresced, 680 gr. ; distilled water, • sofflciency.

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1080

TfiST SOLUTIONS

Pat the oxalic acid into tbe 10,000-f(rain flaik,
fill the fiask to abont two thirds of its bulk with
water, allow the acid to diasolve, and then dilate
the solntioD with more water until it baa the
exact volume of 10,000 grain-measare*. Fill a
burette with the ■olation, and add it gTadually to
a solution of 10-6 gr. of pure carbonate of sodium
(which may he obtained by heating the pure bicar-
bonate of sodium to redness in a platinum crucible
for 16 minutes), containing a few drops of solu-
tion of litmus, until the red colour produced ceases
to change to blue on boiling. Note the number
of grain- measures used (a), then put 9000 grain-
measures of the solution of oxalic acid into a
graduated jar, and increase this quantity by the
addition of distilled water until it amounts to

9000x200

grain-measures. 1000 grain-iueasuTCs

of this solution contain half a molecular weight in
g^ins (68 gr.) of oxalic acid, and are therefore
capable of neutralising 1 molecular weight is
grains of an alkali, such as potash. Sec. ; or half
the molecular weight in grains of such salts as
anhydrous carbonate of sodium, KajCO^ crys-
tallised carbonate of sodium, Nb,C0,.10H,O, kc
Grammes and cubic centimetres may be employed
instead of grains and grain-measures, bat for con-
venience -^ of the numbers should be taken. 100
c.c. contun i^ of a molecular weight in grammes
(6*8 grms.) of oxalic acid, and will neutralise -^
of a molecular weight ingrammeaof an alkali. The
following substances are tested with this eolation:

SriUsL Weig

Its a

adileanues.

Metrical Weights ind Hosarca.

Grains mif ht of mbstanee

Jniiimessnreaaf

ral. lol. Gruni

weight of ■ubituce. =

C.C.ofraLsal

Ammonii carb. .

. 52-8

=

1000

or

5-23

=

lOO-O

Borax .

. 1910

=

1000

1910

ux

lOO-O

Liq. ammon.

. 85-0

»

600

J,

8-60

B

60O

„ „ fort.

. 62-8

<a

1000

6-28

_

lOO-O

„ calms .

. 48760

SI

180

tf

487-5

s

18-0

„ „ sacchar.

. 460-2

=

264

46-02

B

S6-4

„ plombi subacet.

. 281-6

=

600

f.

28-46

^

50-0

„ potasssB

. 462-9

a>

482

f.

46 29

=

48-8

„ efferves.

. 4875-0

=

160

487-50

S

15-0

„ Bodte .

. 4580

=

470

46-80

_

470

„ eflerves.

. 4376-0

=

178

ft

487-60

S

17-8

Flnmbi acetas

. 88-0

=

200

8-80

=

20-0

PotassB caustica .

66-0

=

900

6-60

K

90-0

Potassii bicarb. .

600

s?

600

6-00

_

600

„ carb.

. 88-0

=

980

8-80

o

980

„ citras .

, 102-0

=

1000

,■

10-20

_

lOO-O

„ tartras .

. 122-0

Mr

990

12-2

m

99H>

„ adda

. 204-0

•

1000

,)

ao-40

Bl

10<W»

Soda caustica

. 40^)

=

900

,,

4-00

B

90^0

„ t^rtarata

. 141-0

=

990

„

1410

S>

99H)

Sodii bicatb.

. 84-0

BI

960

It

8-40

_

10(H>

„ carb. .

. 148-0

—

960

ft

14-80

=•

96-0

VoLTmiTBio SoLunoir of Soda (hydrate of
soda,NaHO=40).

Take of solution of soda, a soffleiency; dis-
tilled water, a sufficiency.

Fill a burette with the solution of soda, and
cantionsly drop this into 1000 grain -measures of
the Toluinetric solution of oxalic acid, until the
acid is exactly neutralised as indicated by litmus.

Note the number of grain- measures (a) of the
solution used, and having then introduced 9000
grain- measures of the solution of soda into a
graduated jar, augment this qnantity by the addi-
tion of water until it becomes —

9000x1000

WW o^ivw gnua-measnrea.

It, for example, « = 980, the 9000 grain-measures
should be augmented to —

9000 X 1000 ^m
Ziz" ■'. s9677 grain-measures.
980 "

One thonsand grain-measures of this solution con-
tain one molecular weight in grains (40 gr.) of
hydrate of soda, and will therefore neutralise one
molecular weight in grains of any monobasic acid.
Qrammes and cubic centimetres may be em-
ployed instead of grains and grain-measures ; but,
for oonvanience, -^ of the number should be

taken. 1000 cubic centimitics contain -^ of a
molecular weight in grammes (4 grms.) of hydrate
of soda, and will neutralise -j^ of a molecular
weight in grammes of an acid.

This solution is used for testing the fbllowing
substances (see next page).

iHSIOATOBS OF TH> TSKXHrATIOjr OF R>AC-
TIOHB I2r VOLUMITBIO OPBSATIOKB. The mott
important of these are as follows t

Utroiu.ax of stasoh, which gives an intensely
blue colour with iodine. It may be used with the

following snbstances :
Acidum arseniosum.

f, sulphurosum.
Calx cUorinata.
lodum.
Liquor arsenioalis.

hydio-

' Liqnor arsenici

chloricos.
Liqnor calcis chlorinate.
„ soda^ »
ff ohloii ft
Sodii hyposulphia.
SoLirnoN OF FBSBioTAiriDii OF PotAasnnc,
which gives an intensely blue precipitate witb
ferrous salts, but none with ferric. It is used with
the following substances :

Ferri arsenias.
„ carbonas sacchara-

tn.
n phoaphas.

Ferri sulphas.
„ „ exsiccata.
„ „ grannlats.

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TEST SOLUTIONS

1681

BritUb Weights ud Heanrts.

Uetrical Weigbttaod Ueainref.

Qnins
Acetum .

freight or iabttanei
. 445-4

■z

Qrain meuoKtof rol.
402

•oj- Gramt
or

weight of inbituice. =
44-54 =

c. Cor vol. K

40-2

Acid. acet.

. 1820

<B

1000

ti

18-20

^

100-0

„ „ dil. .

. 44O0

=

^13

ff

4400

B.

81-3

„ „ (floe.

. 60^0

=

990

n

6-00

>s

99-0

„ citric

. 700

=■

1000

It

7-00

_ ■

100-0

„ hydrochloric .

. 114-8

•

1000

It

11-48

__

100-0

>f >. dil.

. 345-0

—

1000

»

34-50

_a

100-0

„ nitric

. 900

B

1000

ti

900

_

100-0

» » dil.

. 861-3

=a

1000

II

86-18

„

100-0

„ nitro-hydrochlor

dU. 352-4

e>

883

II

36-20

^

88-3

„ 8a]ph. .

. 50-0

—

1000

It

6-00

.1.

100-0

. „ ., arom. .

. 195 0

—

600

It

19-60

=

500

„ .. dil. .

. 369-0

—

1000

It

36-90

^

100-0

„ tart.

. 25-0

—

830

**

2-60

-=

33-0

SoLTTTioif o» xiTMtrs, which gives a red colour
with acids, and a blue colour with alkalies. It
may be used with the following substances :

Acidnm hydrochloricum.

II If

dilatnm.

Acidum nitrienm.

» ,, dilotom,

„ nitro-hydrochlor.
dil.

„ solphorienm.

» » arom.

•f __ » dil.
Ammonii carhonas.
Borax.
Liquor ammonie.

,) „ fortior,

„ calcis.

„ „ saccliaratus.

SOLUTIOH OP TXLLOW CHB01U.TS OF POTAB-

BIUK, which gives a red colour with nitrate of
silver, but not until any soluble bromide or iodide
present is entirely decomposed. It may be used
with the following substances :
Ammonii bromidnm. i Potassii iodidnm.
Potassii „ I Sodii bromidnm.

TlKCTUBE OF PHEKOL PHTHALIIN, which gives

an intense red colour with potash or soda. It
may be used with the following substances :

Liquor potassse.

n » efferves-
cens.

,1 sodsB.

„ „ effervescens.
Fotassa eanstica.
Potassii bicarbonos.

„ carhonas.

„ citras.

„ tartras.

„ „ acida.

Soda caustica.
„ tartarata.
Sodii bicarbonas.
„ carhonas.

Acetum.
Acidum aceticnm.

i» J

tum.

diln-

Acidnm aceticnm

ciale.
Acidum citricum.
„ tartaricnm

gla-

Test solntions for qualitative work, &c., which
require special preparation (from the B. P.) : —

Acetate of Copper. Take of subacetate of
copper (powdered), i oz. ; acetic acid, 1 fl. oz. ;
aqua dest., a sufficiency. Dissolve the acid with
i a fl. oz. of the water ; digest the subacetate of
copper in the mixture at a temperature not exceed-
ing 212° F. (100° C.) with repeated stirring, and
continue the heat until a dry residue is obtained.
Digest this in 4 oz. of boiling distilled water, and
by the addition of more of the water make up the
solution to 6 fl. oz. Filter it.

Acetate of Potaetium or Sodium. Take of
acetata of potassium or sodium, i oz.; aqua dest.,
6 fl. oz. Dissolve and filter.

Solution of Albumen. Take of the white of one
TOl. II.

^Jg; aq. dest, 4 fl. oz. Mix by trituration in a
mortar, and filter through clean tow, first moist-
ened with distilled water.

This solution must be neatly prepared.
Ammo»io-»itrate of Silver.' Take of nitrate of
silver, in crystals, i oz. ; solution of ammonia,
t fl. oz., or a suflciency ; aq. dest., a sufficiency.
Dissolve the nitrate of silver in 8 fl. oz. of the
water, and to_ the solution cautiously add the
ammonia until the precipitate first proved is
nearly dissolved. Clear the solution by filtration,
and then add distilled water, so that the balk
may be 10 fl. oz.

Ammonio-eulphate of Copper. Take of lul.
phate of copper, in crystals, 4 oz.j solution of
ammonia, a sufficiency i aq. dest., a sufficiency.
Proceed as directed for ammonio-nitrate of silver.
Ammonio-tulphate of Magneeium. Take of sul-
phate of magnesium, 1 oz. ; chloride of am-
monium, i oz, ; solution of ammonium, -} fl. oz. ;
aq. dest., a sufficiency. Dissolve the sulphate of
magnesium and chloride of ammonium in 8 fl. oz.
of the water, and to the solution add the am-
monia and as much distilled water aa will make
up the bulk to 10 fl. oz. Filter it.

Boric Acid, Take of boric acid, 50 gr. ; recti-
fied spirit, 1 fl. oz. Dissolve and filter.

Bromine Water. Take of bromine, 10 minims;
aq. dest., 6 fl. oz. Place the bromine in a bottle
furnished with a well-fitting stopper, pour in the
water, and shake several times. Keep it excluded
from light.

Carbonate ofAmmoninm. — Take of ammoninm
carbonate, in small pieces, i oz. ; solution of am-
monia, I fl. oz. ; aq. dest., 10 fl. oz. Dissolve and
filter.

Chloride qf Ammonium. Take of ammoninm
chloride, 1 oz. ; aq. dest., 10 fl. oz. Dissolve and
filter.

Chloride of Barium. Take of barium chloride,
in crystals, 1 oi. j aq. dest, 10 fl. oz. IHssolve
and filter.

Ferrieyanide of Potaetium, or Ferroeyanide
of Potateium. Take of ferri- or ferro-cyanide of
potassium, i oz. ; aq. dest, 6 fl. oz. Dissolve and
filter.

Iodide of Potaetium. Take of potassium iodide,
1 oz. i aq. dest., 10 fl. oz. Dissolve and filter.

Solution of Itinglatt. Take of isinglass, in
shreds, 60 gr. ; warm cHstilled water, 5 fl. oz.
Mix and digest an boor in a water-bath with

106

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1682

TETANUS— TETKANYCHUS TELARIUS

repeated shakinj^^, and filter through clean totr
moutened with distilled water.

Solution of Litmtu. Take of litmus, in powder,
1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 10 fl. oz. ; aq. dest., 10 fl. oz.
Boil the litmus with 4 fl. oz. of the spirit for 1
hour, and pour away the clean fluid ; repeat the
operation with 8 oz. of the spirit, and a third
time with the remainder of the spirit. Digest the
residual litmus in distilled water, and filter.

Oxalate of Ammonmm. Take of ammonium
oxalate, ) oz. ; warm aq. dest., 1 pint. Dissolve
and filter.

Photphate of Sodium. Take of sodinm phos-
phatc, in crysbils, 1 oz. ; aq. dest., 10 fl. oz. Dis-
solve and filter.

Platinmm TelraeMoride. Take of platinum-
foil (thin), i oz. ; nitric acid, a sufSciency ; hydro-
chloric acid, a sufficiency; aq. dest., 7 fl. oz. Mix
1 fl. oz. of the nitric acid with 4 fl. oz. of the
hydrochloric acid and 2 fl. oz. of the water; pour
the mixture into a small flask containing the
platinnm, and digest with a little heat, adding
more of the acids mixed in the same proportion
should this be necessary, until the metal is dis-
solved. Trsusfer the solution to a porcelain dish,
vdd to it 1 fl. dr. of hydrochloric acid, and evapo-
rate on a water-bath until acid vaponrs cease to be
given off. Let the residue be dissolved in the
remaining 5 oz. of aq. dest. Filter, and (preserve
it in a stoppered bottle.

Fotat»io-mercurio Iodide (Neasler's reagent).
Take of potassium iodide, 135 gr. ; porchloride of
mercury, a sufflcieucy; caustic soda, 2 oz. ; aq.
dest., 1 pint. Dissolve the iodide of potassium
and 100 gr. of the perchloride of mercury in 16
fl. oz. of boiling aq. dest. To this fluid add more
aqueous solution of the perchloride of mercnry
nntU the precipitate produced no longer continues
to disappear on well stirring, and a slight per-
manent precipitate remains. Then add the caustic
soda. When the latter has dissolved, add a little
more of the aqueous solution of perchloride of
mercury; shake, allow to settle, and dilute the
whole with distilled water to the volume of 1
pint. The solotion shonld be kept in a stoppered
bottle.

Slannout Chloride, Take of granulated tin,
1 oz. ; hydrochloric acid, 8 fl. oz. ; aq. dest., a suf-
ficiency. Dilute the acid in a flask with 1 fl. oz.
of the water, and, having added the tin, apply
heat gently until gas ceases to be evolved. Add
as mnch of the water as will make up the bulk to
6 fl. oz., and transfer the solution, together with
the undissolved tin, to a bottle fitted with an
accurately grooved stopper.

Sulphate of Indigo. TiJce of indigo, dry and
in fine powder, 5 gr. ; sulphuric acid, 10 fl. oz.
Mix the indigo with 1 fl. dr. of the sulphuric
acid in a small test-tube, and heat on a water-
bath for an hour. Four the blue liquid into the
remainder of the acid, agitate the mixture, and,
when the undissolved indigo has subsided, decant
the clear liqmd into a stoppered bottlo.

Sulphate of Iron. TtJte of grannlated sul-
phate of iron,' 10 gr. ; boiling aq. dest., 1 fl. oz.
Dissolve and filter. The solution should be re-
cently prepared.

Sulphate of Lime. Take of sulphate of cal-
cium, i oz.; aq. dest., 1 pint. Put the ralphate

of calcinm' in a poreehun mortar for a few minutes
with 2 oz. of the water, introduce the mixture
thus obtained into a pint bottle containing the
rest of the water, shake wejl several times, and
allow the undissolved snlphate to subside. Filter.

Sulphuretted Bydrogen. Take of snlphide of
iron, 4 oz. ; water, 4 fl. oz. ; sulphuric acid, a suf-
ficiency. Place the snlphide of iron and the
water in a gas-bottle, closed with a cork per-
forated by two holes, through one of which passes
ur-tight a funnel tube of sufficient length to dip
into the water, and throngh the other a tube for
giving exit to the gas. Through the former
ponr from time to time a little of the acid, so u
to develop the sulphuretted hydrogen as it may be
required. Allow the gas to bubble into a small
bottle of distilled water very slowly until the
water is saturated with the gas. Ckrac the bottle
with a well-ground stopper.

Sulphj/drate of Ammonium. Take of solution
of ammonium, 5 fl. oz. Put 3 fl. oc. of the am-
monia into a bottle, and conduct into this a
stream of sulphuretted hydrogen as long as the
gas continues to be absorbed ; then add the re-
mainder of the ammonia, and transfer the solu-
tion to a green glass bottle furnished with a well-
ground stopper.

Tartaric Acid. Take of tartaric acid, in
crystals, 1 oz. ; aq. dest., 8 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit,
2 fl. oz. Dissolve the tartaric acid in the water,
add the rectified spirit, and preserve the solotion
in a stoppered bottle.

Tineture of Phenol Phthalein. Take of phenol
phUialein, 1 gr.; proof spirit, 600 gr. Dissolve.
The solution should be colourless.

Turmeric Tineture. Take of turmeric, bmised,
1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 6 fl. oz. Macerate for 7
days in a closed vessel, and filter.

Xellow Chromate of Potaitium. Take of red
chromate of potassium, 296 gr.; bicarbonate of
potassium, 200 gr. ; aq. dest., 10 fl. oz. Dissolve
the red chromate in the water, and exactly neu-
tralise the solution with the bicarbonate, evolu-
tion of all carbonic acid being ensured by ebulli-
tion. Filter.

TETABUS. Spasm with rigidity. When it
affects the nnder jaw it is called tbtbhtts, or
locked-jaw ; when the body is drawn backward
by the contraction of the muscles it is called
OFlBTEOTOiros ; when the body is bent forward,
XMPB0BIH0I0N08 ; and when the body is drawn
to one aide, pcBTrBOBTRoroiiog.

TETIUHTCEXrSTELASroS. Thx Rbd Span
(spinning mite). {At afflKtiny Sop Plantt.)
This is a species of the order Aeturina, or mites,
in which are included many familiar and un-
pleasant creatures, as ticks, cheese mites, itch
mites, among others. A familiar bnt disagree-
able acquaintance of country people — the harvest
hug, Tkramt/ehmi autumnalu—ii another species
of the genns of spinning mites.

Gardeners know the red tpider, as it is com-
monly called, which is fonnd ou the nnder leaves
of many plants both in the open air and in green-
houses and frames, and make lamentations over
the great mischief it causes. It is not a spider,
being essentially different in form, thongh it
spins a kind of web upon the under surfacei of
the leaves of the plants it infests, for its pro-

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TETRANTCHUS TELABIUS

16S3

tection, and it has a peculiar arrangement of stiff
Iiairs with roand terminations, for the purpose of
: spreading and fixing this web. Nor is it always
red. Its colour is also sometimes green, some-
times hrown or brick-red, varying, as some natural-
ists think, according to its food. Upon hop
leaves it has been found of many shades of colonr,
ranging from green, with tiny black specks on
the sides of the mite, all throngh the variations
between brown and bright red, upon the same leaf;
rather indicating that the differences in colonr
are hardly attributable to diet, but to degrees
of age. It is difficult to detect the presence of
red spider* even when they are bright red, and
almost impossible to see them when green or
brown without a glass, so that casnal observers
or persons in any degree short-sighted do not
discover them upon hop plants until considerable
injury has been done.

Indeed, for some time the work of these mites
npon hop plants was mistaken for the effect of
■drought and heat, particularly as the injury was
first noticed upon badly drained spots, where
drought would naturally show its results. This
supposed disorder was called Fireblast, because
the leaves tnm bronze-coloured at first, then they
become yellowish red, as if they had been bamt.
In Germany the hop planters term it Kupfer-
hrand. As red spider is only troublesome to hop
plants in hot, dry seasons, it is easy to understand
that its action may be mistaken for that of heat
and drought.

Many would think it impossible that this tiny
mite cenld work much barm npon the masses of
vegetation in hop plantations. In 1868, when
the summer was excessively hot and almost with-
out rain, the crop was utterly ruined by red
spiders, upon thousands of acres in England and
upon the Continent. In Tasmania it is frequently
very troublesome, so that the planters irrigate the
hop land to destroy it in the ground before it can
get to the plants. There was a sharp attack in
England also in certain localities in 1872. During
the late cycle of wet summers there was no sign
of red spider. In 1884 there were clear indica-
tions of an attack in parts of Kent, Worcester-
shire, and Herefordshire. The weather changed,
however, becoming damp and cool, and the mites
could not work.

In 1868, at the beginning of July, the lower
leaves of the hop plants became discoloured, ' fire-
blasted,' as the labourers said. This discolora-
tion rapidly spread upwards, extending even to
the lateral shoots. After a time the leaves fell off,
the plants being quite exhausted of sap, and it
was impossible for them in most cases to form
any hop cones. Where these were formed they
quickly shrivelled np and dropped off. Upon
close examination of the leaves they were found
to be desiccated. Their juices had been sneked
ont by myriads of mites, whose fine webs covered
their under surfaces with countless filaments.
Many plantations, which in June were green and
flourishing, looked at the end of July as if a
scorching fire bad passed over them.

Not only do the mites exhaust the juices of the
plants by means of the barbed suckers with which
their months are fitted, bnt they hinder their
respiration with their webs and excretiients.

Z^a BUtoty, The red spiders pass the winter
in the perfect state, either in the ground near
where they have fallen with the leaves they have
injured, or in other convenient places of shelter.
They have frequently been fonnd nnder stones,
Kaltenbach states. In the case of hop planta-
tions they also retire into the cracks of the poles,
and they have been found npon the hop binei
after they have been stacked for litter, as well as
upon the ends of bines left in the hills or stock*
dnring the winter. The females lay eggs wUcli
are rather large, spherical, and colourless, and are
glued to the silky webs nnder the leaves. These
are hatched in seven or eight days. The larva
has six legs, but after the pupa or njrmph stage
there are eight legs, the full complement.

Meant of Prevention. As English hop planters
cannot irrigate the hop land, as is done in Tas-
mania, the only means of prevention are to apply
hot lime or other caustic and pungent substances,
as soot or lime, round the hop stocks in the late
antnmn after an attack, taking care that this
should be put over the stocks and pieces of bine
left on them. After an attack it would be of
conrse desirable that the poles shonld be treated
with a solution of pMrafBn or petrolenm to kill
the mites in their cracks. Ftactically, however,
as hop planters would agree, this is ^most im-
possible.

In the case of poles that are fixtnres in the
ground to carry wires or strings, according to the
new methods of training hops, so much adopted
in Germany and extending in this country, it
wonld be well after an atteok of red spiders to
wash these poles with a strong solution of soft
soap and water, with quassia added, or with
paraffin or petrolenm solutions brushed well into
the crevices.

Poles shonld be well shaved before they are set
np, as their bark harbours these mites and many
insects injnrions to hop plants.

Semediee. Kaltenbach, the German entomo-
logist, says that wuhing with water containing
solutions of sulphur and tobacco may be advan-
tageonsly employed. This was tried in 1868 in
England without mnch benefit. Theonly effectual
remedy would appear to be washing the plants by
means of hand or horse engines, with a compo-
sition of water, soft soap, and quassia, in the
following proportions : — 100 galls, of water, 4 to
6 lbs. of soft soap, 4 to 6 lbs. of quassia (extract
after well boiling).

Water alone would be effectual, only it runs off
the web-covered leaves. The soap fixes it on
them, and the bitter of the quasua makes them
unpleasant to the tastes of the red spiders.

TETBA5TCHTT8 TELABI0S. Thb Bbd
Spidbb. (At aff'eciing Plum and Damton TVeet.)
The red spider is most destructive to plum and
damson trees, and this was most plainly shown in
the season of 1880. Though by many it is re-
garded quite as a new scourge to these fruit
trees, it has been observed previously upon them
as well as upon other kinds, and has in many eases
escaped detection on account of its very minnte
size. The changed colours of the leaves of plum
and damson trees from deep green to rusty brown,
which have sometimes been noted, have been often
set down to the influences of weather, to the east

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1684

TBTTEBS— THALLIUM

-wind and scoTching san ; while the red spiders,
mere specks, the causes of the evil, have been
overlooked or regarded as accessories after the
fact.

In the spring of the year 1886 the plam and
damson trees were AiIl of bloasoms. These set
well, and there was a prospect of a large crop ; but
a change cHme over the trees in some places. The
green colour of the trees became duller and daller
in hue, and many fell off, while the fruit became
stunted, and some of it dropped off. There was
no doubt at all as to the cause of this. Upon
examination of the under surfaces of the leaves
tiny, moving, reddish specks might he seen even
with the naked eyes congr^ated by the sides of
the midribs and the lateral ribs of the leaves.
With the aid of a pocket glass experienced persons
could see plainly that they were spinning mites —
red spiders — as their webs were apparent. Under
the microscope they were found, without any
shadow of doubt, to be of the species Tatrangehtu
telariut, as the globnlar terminations of their feet,
or claws, illustrated by Mr Andrew Murray
('Economic Entomology,' by Andrew Murray),
and other distinctions peculiar to this species,
were clearly seen. Deep in the hollows by the
sides of the midribs of the leaves were rows of
eggs, some distance apart from each other, very
large in proportion to the mites. These were
spherical, and some were of a white colour, whilst
others were of a semi-transparent golden hoe.

A somewhat unusual and noteworthy circam-
stance in connection with this attack of red
spiders was that the mites were full grown by the
25th of May, and had been evidently laying eggs
for gome time, and were perfectly vigorous and
very numerous, although the weather had been
very cold at times. Cold and moisture have been
held generally to be most unfavourable to red
spiders, and their mischief to hop plants has been
done in abnormally hot, dry summers — as in 1868,
for example.

There are two new features in connection with
red spiders.

First. Their early appearance, and their rapid
and injurious spread upon damson and plum trees.
Second. Their alarming increase and hurtful
action upon plants in normal spring weather.

These new features should cause much anxiety
to hop planters and fruit-growers, and to all culti-
vators who know how very rapidly these spinning
mites breed, and what mischief they occasion by
sacking the juices — the life-blood — from theleaves
of trees and plants, as well as by obstructing their
respiration.

Life Sitiorg. Tn Califomian fruit plantations
the red spider is very troublesome, causing just the
same injury to fruit trees and most other decidu-
ous trees as that described above. In other parts
of the United States and in Canada it is also a
recognised pest to fruit trees. It is also well
known as injurious in France and Germany, as
well as in Tasmania.

Prmenlion. The stems and larger branches of
damson and plum trees that h&ve been infested
with red spiders should be washed over with a
strong solution of soft soap and quassia. A mix-
ture of soft soap and paraffin is a valuable wash,
in the proportion of 15 lbs. of soft soap and 8

quarts of paraffin to 100 galls, of water, pmt on
with a whitewash bmsh or a large paint bmsh
and worked well into the stems and branclies. Or
a wash composed of 15 lbs. of soft so*p and 12
lbs. of the finest flowers of sulphnr to 100 galls-
of water may be applied with much advantage, aa-
red spiders do not like snlphnr (the very finest
flowers of sulphur must be used, and the liquid
should be well stirred when the snlphnr is added-
— C. W.). The petroleum soap described before
would also be a valuable application.

The leaves and cuttings from infested trees
should be burnt, and the stakes used as supports
for young trees should be treated with washes in
the same manner as the stems.

Semedie*. Syringing tlie trees with soft soap
and qnassia effectually drives away or kills the
mites themselves. The eggs, however, are not
affected. In the present season, 1886, it was
necessary to syringe again at the end of a fort-
night, in order to kill the broods that came from
the eggs that were upon the leaves at the first
syringing. .This washing was of much benefit, and
undoubtedly saved the crop upon a good many of
the trees, and helped the next crop, as the trees
would hardly bear after a bad attack in the pre-
ceding year.

Flowers of sulphur may be put into the soft
soap wash, either with or without the quassia, at
the rate of 8 lbs. of soft soap and 10 lbs. of sul-
phur to 100 galls, of water (' Reports on Insects
Injurious to Crops,' by Chas. Whitehead, £sq.,
P.Z.S.).

TET'TESS. The popular name of several cuta-
neous diseases, the treatment of which can only
he properly undertaken by the experienced medical
man.

THALLIB SULPHATE. The base thallin, first
prepared in 1885 by Skraup, has the systematic
name ' tetrahydroparachinanisol.' Tlie salt,
(C,oHuNO)tH^04, forms a yellowish-white crys-
talline powder, with a cumarin-like smell, and an
acid, saline, somewhat bitter taste. It dissolves
in 7 parts of cold or i a part of boiling water, also
in 100 parts of alcohol ; in chloroform it is very
slightly, and in ether practically not at all soluble
It melts at 100° C, and when strongly heated de-
compose i and forms a deep black svrollen mass,
which bums away without residue. It possesses
antipyretic, antiseptic, and antifermentative pro-
perties, and has been used internally in varions
febrile conditions, mostly in solution with water
or wine and syrup of orange peel. If used ia
small doses no unpleasant secondary symptoms
appear, but larger quantities should be prescribed
with caution. Externally its antiseptic properties
have been particularly requisitioned for the treat-
ment of gonorrhoea, in which, applied by means
of bougies, it has attained conspicuous success.

THAL'LIUK. Tl- 203-6. A heavy metal, be-
longing to the mercury, {silver, and lead group,
discovered by Crookes in the early part of 1861,
and displayeid by him as 'a new metallic de-
ment' at the opening of the International Ex-
hibition, on the 1st of May, 1862. Thallinm is
a widely diffused metal, being found in many
minerals, particularly in iron- and copper-pyrites
and native sulphur. It has recenUy been ob-
tained in comparatively large quantities from

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THALLOGENS— THEDJE

16S6

"the dust of the flaei leadingr to inlphnnc acid
■chambers. The Bpectrnm of thalliam coiuutt of
a siDgle moat characteriatic line of a beantifnl
green coloar. The spectrum produced when the
>metal is banit in the electric are is, however,
«nore complicated, and consists of several green,
blue, and other lines.

ThaUinm melts at 650° F., and at a less heat
mav be readily welded, a property that has
hitherto been regarded as pecnlLur to iron and
f latinnm. Its specific g^^ty varies from 11*8
to 11*9, according to the mode of preparation.
When freshly cnt it has a dull white colour, des-
titute of the brilliancy of polished silver. Ex-
posed to the air it tarnishes rapidly, a straw-
coloured oxide making its appearance on the
surface. The oxides Tl^, Tl,0„ are alkaline and
caustic to the taste, and much more soluble than
the oxides of silver and lead. The metal is re-
markable for its strongly marked diamagnetic
•characters, resembling bismuth in this respect.
The alloys of thallium are very remarkable.
-Copper, alloyed with only i% of thallium, be-
comes quite brittle J but the alloy with tin is
malleable. Crookea has prepared a great number
of the salts of this interesting metal ; all these
are poisonous, and may be readily detected by the
beautiful green colour which they impart to a
non-luminous flame. These need not further be
-described here, as they have not yet been applied
to any use in the arts. See Sdlphvbio Acid.

THALLOOEVS. Thallogena or tfaallogenous
plants are structurally the simplest of the aooty-
ledoDous or flowerless plants, consisting simply of
« collection of cellular tissue, called a thalUu.
They are entirely destitute of woody fibre. The
Alga, Charaeett, Fungi, and Lichens are thallo-
^enons plants.

TESBA'IHE. C,gHnNO,. 8gn. Thbbaia,
Pabaxobphia. a crystalline substance obtained
l>y Thibonrmfry from an infusion of opium .that
has had its morphia extracted by acting on it by
«n excess of lime.

TEEOHE. CgHigN^O,. Sgn. Theixa, L.
An alkaloid extracted from tea. It is identical
with caffeine, and may be obtained from tea in the
same manner as that substance is from coffee. The
best ' gunpowder tea ' contains fully 6% of tbeine,
«boat one half of which is lost in the present
careless mode of making infusion of tea for the
table.

Mr Lewis Thompson, M.B.C.S.I in a contribu-
tion to the ' Medical Times and Oazette ' for 1871,
-directs attention to the value of theine as a thera-
peutic agent, as well as gives an easy method for
its preparation. He writes as follows : — " I wish
to direct the attention of the medical profession to
a valuable agent which has hitherto escaped
notice, although its powers are most unquestion-
able, and its cost price very trivial. The article to
which I allude is theine, a substance existing in
tea and coffee, and, as I believe^ in many other
vegetable products.

" As a medicine, theine is powerfully tonic and
stimulant, and appears to possess the tonic virtues
-of the disnlphate of qnina united to the stimulat-
ing power of wine, but with this difference, that
the stimulus from theine is not followed by de-
j>ression, as in the case of wine and alcohol.

" Theine seems to act chiefly on the great sym-
pathetic or ganglionic system of nerves, and but
slightly on the brain. I have nsed it in doses of
from 1 to 5 grms. with very marked advantage
in the low stage of typhoid fevers, confluent small-
pox, and that form of mortiBcation of the toes
which is so singularly fatal to old people. But, in
addition to this, different medical friends of mine
have found it useful in hemicrania, neuralgia, and
what has been called relapiing fever ; and in the
case of an overdose of opium it appeared to relieve
the narcotic symptoms speedily,

" With regaird to the cost of this medicine, I
have discovered that in the ordinary process of
roasting coffee the whole of the theine is driven
off before the torrefaction of the cofiee is com-
pleted ; and thus theine may be cheaply collected
by making the axis of the coffee roaster tubular.
If, instead of a solid axis, we employ at one end
of the roasters a tube passing away to the distance
of about three feet, the theine is condensed in this
tube by the refrigerating power of the atmosphere,
and may afterwards be easily dissolved out by a
little water and purified in the manner about to be
indicated.

" As the result' of much experience, I have
obtained on an average 75 gr. <k theine from the
roasting of 1 lb. of raw coffee ; and when we
reflect than in Great Britain alone there are more
than 13,000 tons of coffee roasted annually, we see
that about 140 tons of theine are wasted and lost
every year by sheer ignorance. It may, perhaps,
be thought that the saving of the theine will
damage the flavour of the coffee, but from experi-
ence I know that it has no such effect ; and, iu
point of fact, it is an advantage to the flavour of
the coffee to make both the axes of the roaster
tubular, and to cause a gentle current of air to pass
through the apparatus during the roasting of the
coffee, so as to expel the empyreumatic products
that are formed. I will now relate the fact upon
which the purification of theine depends; and when
this is once clearly understood, the manufacture
of theine from either tea or coffee becomes an
extremely rimple matter. Theino is absolutely
insoluble in a concentrated solution of the car-
bonate of potash, and thus we may precipitate it
from its admixture with sugar, mucilage, nnd
vegetable extract. If, then, by means of the
suhacetate of lead we have removed from a vege-
table infosion the tannin, malic acid, &c., we have
only to evaporate the filtered solution to a small
bulk, and add to it its own weight of dry carbonate
of potash, and the whole of the theine becomes at
once insoluble J so that having collected this in-
soluble product, and boiled it in rectified spirits of
wine, we have a solution of pure theine, which,
after distilling off the spirit, f umi«hea ci^stals fit
for immediate use. In conclusion, 1 will merely
mention a distinctive test for theine, suBSciently
delicate to detect the one thousandth of a grain of
that substance. Dissolve the theine in a small
quantity of water, and pass through this a stream
of euchlorine, then allow the fluid to evaporate at
a steam heat; a blood-coloured substance will
remain, which, on the application of a few di-ops
of cold water, forms a beautiful scarlet solution
like red ink. It is, I apprehend, almost unneces-
sary for me to say that euchlorine gas is formed

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16S6

THENARD'S BLUE— THBIPS CEBEALIUM

br the Mtion of hydrochloric acid npon the chlomte
of potMh.

"I ought, perhaps, to add that theine collected
M a waate product of cofFee, and parifled by
myself, has cost me leas than threepence per oance
troy."

THKtASS'B BLUE. See ULTBAUuuira (Co-
halUc).

TKBOBBOKS OLEIIK. Sgn. CaOAO BUTTIB.
A concrete oil obtained by expression and heat
from the ground seeds of Tiaobroma cacao.
Occurs in calces of a yellowish colour, of a pleasant
cacao odour. Does not become rancid from ex-
posure to air. Contained in all the suppoaitories.

Ifot Official. The following form good bases
for suppositories : — Theobroma oil, when melted,
begins to solidify at 72° F. ; stearine of cocoa-nnt
oil at 75° F.; 4 parts of stearine and 2 parts of
mutton fat at 77° F. ; 4 parts of stearine and 1
part of spermaceti at 80 F. Stearine alone is,
perhaps, a better substance than cacao bntter for
i»i«tiiig aappositories. It begins to solidify at
98° F., hut there is stearine that solidifies at 180°
F.; thii will not answer for suppositories.

IHXOBXOIQHE. A peculiar principle, closely
XMembling caffeine or theine; found by Woskre-
aensky in the seed of the Theobroma eaeao, or the
nuts frmn which chocolate is prepared. Its form
is that of a light, white, crystalline powder, which
Is rather less soluble than oUIeine. It is obtained
like caffeine. See Cocoa.

IHSBI'ACA. A name given in ancient phar-
macy to Tarions compound medicines, chiefly elec-
tnanea or oonfections, employed as antidotes to
poisons or infection. The Thbbugjl Abdbo-
XAOHI, Ph. L. 1746, contained abore 60 ingre-
dients. Mithridate and Venice treacle are examples
of this dass. See Tbbioui.

TEEBKOmiESS. FAHXBHHSir'fl scale is
the one generally employed in England, while
that of Csuavs, or the Cbrtiobaob scale, is
principally used on the Continent. Bbiuxub'b
is another scale occasionally employed. Db
IiIBU'B thermometer was formerly used in Russia
and some other parts of the north of Europe. As
leferences to these scales are frequently met with
in hooks, it is useful to know their relative value
and the method of redncing the one to the other.
The boiling-point of water is indicated by 212° on
Fahrenheit's scale, 100° on the Centigrade scale,
80° on that of Reaumur, and 0° on that of De
lisle ; the freexing-point of water marks 32° Fah-
lenheit, and 0°, or xero, on the Centigrade and
Reaumur, and -150° on the scale of De Lisle. The
0° or xero of Fahrenheit is 82° below the f roezing-
point of water.

L To reduce Centigrade d^irees to those of
Fahrenheit multiply t£em by 9, divide the pro-
duct by 6, and to the quotient add 82 ; that is —

-5S!^+82=.Rihr.<'
5

2. To reduce Fahrenheit's degrees to Centi-
grade:

^'•°-»g'<S^Cent.°
8

8* To f«dace Beaomiir'B to Fahrenheit's :
»552^-H82=IW.r.°

4. To convert Fahroiheit's to Reaamor'a :-
Fahr.°-32x4

9

- = Reaumur"

Thermometers intended to register ciJtxesae-
degrees of heat are called vsBOMXTZKfl (which

*e«).

THIBAVT'S BAUAX. Fob woimsa. Digest
flowers of St John's-wort, one handfnl, in ^ fiat
of rectified spirit; then express the liquor, and
dissolve in it myrrh, aloes, and dragon's-blood, of
each, 1 dr., with Canada balsam, \ ox.

THIOCAKF. This is a colourless, sympy liquid,
for which the formula (C|,Hi,0)]SO, baa been
suggested. It is prepared by bringing snlpfaiiroos
acid gas in contact with camphor contained in a
vessel surrounded by ice. Analysis abowa that the
camphor absorbs more than three times its Tolnme
of the gas, probably forming a definite tboogh
weak chemical compound. When exposed to the
air it gives off free sulphur dioxide, and becomes
covered with a pellicle of camphor. By virtneof
this property, and because it is not appaienUy
liable to spontaneous change, thioeamf was intro-
duced first in England by Dr £. Reynolds, and a
few months latw recommended in Amerioa by
Parke, Davis, and Co. as an effident disinfectant.

It seems that the best method of using is to-
pour it on paper and suspend these in the apart-
ment to be disinfected, but it can also be nsed in
water (1 : 40) like other liquid disinfectants.

THO'SIUK. Th. <Sy». Thobiktjx. Avery
rare element, belonging to the g^np of earthy
metals. Metallic hue of thoria. It is obtainedl
by the action of potassium on the chloride of
thorium, and washing the resulting mass is
water.

THOBB-APPLE. See Datdba.

THBIPB CEBEALITTX, Haliday. Tax CoBX
Tbbipb. Although very small indeed, this litUs
creature does an infinity of harm to wheat, oat,
and barley plants in some seasons and in some
localities. It is that tiresome insect which gets
on the face and hands, and occasions mnch an-
noyance, and even irritation of the skin, by run-
ning over these in the months of Jnly and
August.

It belongs to the order Tkgiaimra, and to its
family Plif/topoda, at bladder-footed, so called,
from the shape of its feet.

Being so tiny, its action npon corn plants is fre-
quently unnoticed, and the results are attributed
to other than insect agencies; or they are fre-
quently called blight, or supposed to be due to an
abnormal stato of the plants.

Upon close examination of affected plants it
will he found that the thrips have taken up posi-
tions under the covering, or case, rar corolla of
the seed of com, within the slits of the seeds, and
are sucking the milky juices from them with theis
short stout beaks. They seem only to enter the
ears of com just previous to the blossoming period.
It has been supposed that they are attracted by
the pollen, but it is certain that their chief attrac-
tion is the sweet fluid of developing seeds. Tbdr
action upon the grains of com renders them light,
and shrivelled. This insect is known in America,.
Germany, and France as very destructive to corn
crops, and it has been unusually trooblesomft

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THRUSH— THTHOL

168?

to wheat plants in England during the ■ommer
of 1888.

Z{/b Sittory. The perfect insect U only about
a line— the twelfth of an inch — in length. It is
of a blackish or darkish brown colour, with long
wings having long thick cilia or fringes. The an-
tenme are also fHnged. The males are wingless.
It is believed by Taschenberg that they pass the
winter in decayed roots and in stnbble in the per-
fect states emerging thence in early spring, and
laying eggs an grasses and on com plants, and
prodacing many generations in the course of the
snmmer. The larvsg are of a bright orange-yellow
colour, and may be distinguished from the larvm
of ^ the Ceeidomj)ia iritiei by being of a rather
brighter colour, and not quite so large, and by
the end of the abdomen being dark colonred, as
well as by both the larva and pupm being fur-
nished with three pain of claw feet. '*

Prevention. After an attack of thrips upon
com the stnbble shonld be burnt or removed to
cattle yards, and undergo fermentation in mixens.
Onus mnst be bmshed close on the outsides of the
corn-fields and the rubbish burnt.

Semediet. There appears to be no remedial
measures against these numerous and almost
microscopic insects. Earwigs feed upon them,
but earwigs are not frequently found in white
straw crops ('Reports on Insects Injurions to
Crops,' by Chas. Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

THRUSH. Sj/n. Aphtha, L. A disease of
infant^, which, in its common form, is marked by
small white ulcers upon the tongue, palate, and
gums. In some cases it extends throngh the
whole course of the alimentary canal, and, assum-
ing a malignant form, proves fatal. The treat-
ment consists of a gentle emetic of ipecacuanha
wine, followed by an occasional dose of rhubarb
and magnesia, to keep the bowels clear, and to
arrest diarrhoea. The ulcerations may be touched
with a little honey or borax ; and if they assume
a dark colour, or there be much debility, astrin-
gents and tonics shonld be had recourse to. In
all cases the diet should be light, but supporting,
•s imperfect nutrition is a common cause of the
disease.

In Animalt. Topical applications of alnm or
hoiaz, glycerin, Condy's fluid; laxatives. The
food shonld be cooling and digestible.

TEYKOL. Syn. Thtmic aoid. CgHuO.
This sbbstance is the oxygenated constituent of
the essential oils of thyme (2%ym«t tnlgarit),
horse-mint (Monarda punctate^, and Carum
i^owan, a common nmbelliferons plant growing
in ladia. Thymol is isomeric with cymilie alcohol,
and homologous with phenyl.

Thymol may be procured from either of the
above sources hy treatment with caustic potash or
soda, as described below, or by submitting the
essential oils to a low tempentore for some
day*. When prepared by the first process thymol
ocenrs as an oily flmd, and when by ih« second as
a enrstaliine soud.

The following are the details of the preparatiMi
of the liqnid variefy of thymol as given by the
Paris Pharmaeeatical Sodety in their formula
tor new remedies published in 1877 1

"Treat essential oil of thyme with an equal
volmnft of an aqneous solution of potash or soda.

and shake several times to facilitate combination.
The thymol dissolves, forming a soluble componnd,
whilst the thymeue, a carbide of hydrogen that ac-
companies it in the essence, does not combine with
the alkali and separates. Filter the solution ob-
tained and trest with an acid — hydrochloric acid,
for example — which sets free the thymol. The
product should be purified by washing, dried, and
distilled. Thymol was obtained in fine tabular
crystals by Fliickiger and Uanbury, who exposed
oil of igowan to a temperature of 0° C, ; the oil
so treated yielded 85% of its weight of crystal-
lised thymol. Mr Oerrard says it is stated that
oil of thyme yields as much as 60% .

"As found in commerce^ thymol consists of
irregular broken crystals, nearly transparent and
colourless ; the taste is burning and aromatic ;
sp. gr. IK^S, but lighter than water when fused;
its melting-point is about 44° C. MHien once com-
pletely fused, and allowed to cool to the ordinary
temperature, it will maintain itself in the flnid
condition for several days, but the contact of a
crystal will at once cause it to crystallise. It is
freely soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, benzol,
carbon tnsnlphide, fats, and oils, and but spar-
ingly in water and glycerin. The alkaline hy-
drates of potash and soda aro powerful solvents
of thymol ; ammonia dissolves it but sparingly.

" The potash and soda solutions are spoken of
by some authors as chemical combinations; but
the following test will demonstrate them other-
wise. When shaken with ether the thymol can
be entirely removed, and obtained as a neutral
volatile residue."

With sulphuric acid thymol forms a crystalHs-
able colligated acid, the thymol sulphuric having
the formula HC,g.H]jS04. Undiluted thymol is an
energetic caustic. According to Bnohoia, thymol
possesses ten times the septic power of carbolio
acid, over which it also has the aidvantage of being
non-poisonous, and of giving off an agreeable
odour. Althongh considerably dearer than caribolie
acid, the much smaller quantity reqiured to pro-
duce an equivalent effect nearly equalises it in
point of cost. It is sidd to have been success-
fully employed In the antiseptic treatment of
wounds, in destroying the feetor arising from id-
cerated surfaces and carious bones ; in the forin
of spray during surgical applications, as well' as
for certain throat affections ; and as an ointment
and lotion in psoriasis and other skin diseases.
When thymol is to be nsed for lotions, i^jeetJODC,
inhalations, or spray solutions, the Paris Fharma-
centicsd Society recommends 1 part of thymol to
be dissolved in 4 parts of alcohol at 90°, and this
to be added to 996 parts ef distilled water.

Dr Crocker, of University College Hosidtal,
strongly recommends thymol lotion to be' pre-
inred with glycerin, which, he says, obviates tiie
drying effect npon the skin produced by aque-
ous or spirituous solutions of the thymol alone.
According to Mr Oerrard (' Thymol and its Phar-
ma^,* by A. W. Oerraid, F.C.8., 'Ph. Jo«m./
vol. viii, third series, p. 646), this lotion is pra>
pared by dissoving 1 part of thymol in ISO pairta
of glycerin, and reducing by water to 600 paite.
Dr Symes says he finds milk to be an excellent
solvent for tbvmol, of which it will take npreatUiy
to nearly 10% of its weight. In cases, theref<n«i

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1688

TIC-DOULOUREUX— TIN

in which solutions are required of greater strength
than aqueous ones he recommends the employment
of the fluid.

An ointment varying in streng^ from 1 to
S parts of thymol to 100 of lard is said hy Mr
Gerrard to be employed in our hospitals. In the
preparation of this ointment it is of importance
to &rst dissolve the thymol in a few drops of spirits,
and then to mix it with the lard. The neglect of
this precaution causes the nndissolred particles
of thymol present in the ointment to act as a
caustic irritant on the skin, and to eat little holes
in it. Ur Oerrard found vaseline an nnsuitable
and ohjectionable vehicle for the application of
thymol, since, after a few days, an ointment pre-
pared with it had its surface covered with minute
crystals of thymol.

The 'Medical Times' contains the following
formula for the preparation of thymol gauze
for dressing wounds: — "Bleached gauze, 1000
ports; spermaceti, 600 parts; resin, 60 parts;
thymol, 16 parts." This is said to yield an ex-
tremely soft and pliant preparation, excellently
adapted for wounds, fitting accurately to them,
and absorbing, at the same time, the blood and
secretions from them like a sponge would do. Dr
Ranlce has pointed ont that, in consequence of the
great reduction in the amount of secretion from
wounds caused by the use of thymol, the con-
sequent consumption of bandages becomes so
much less as to more than compensate for the
great difference in price between thymol and car-
bolic acid.

Another advantage possessed by thymol over
carbolic acid is that the redness, vesication, end
eczema, frequently induced when dressings of the
latter agent are need, does not follow the applica-
tion of thymol dressings.

Mr Squire prepares an antiseptic adhesive
pUstercontuning 1 part of thymol to 1000 parts
of plaster.

Mr Gerrard, in operating npon nine different
samples of commercial oil of thyme (so-called oil
of origanum) by means both of caustic soda and
refrigeration, states that, except in one doubtful
case^ he was unable to obtain the slightest trace
of thymol. From this drcumstance Mr Gterrard
infers that thymol is not present in the English
oils of thyme of commerce, from which it must
have been removed in the countries where it is
produced, the residual cymene andthymene being
sent to us as an oil of thyme.

liBTgre quantities of thymol are prepared in
Germany, princi{>ally from the seeds of the
Fti/eiottt ofotoan. One firm of chemical manu-
facturers residing in Leipzig is reported to have
lent ont during the montlu of September and
November test year more than a ton of it. Thymol
wadding is also in extensive demand.

Thymol Oaue. Thymol, 16 parU; resin, 60
parts; spermaceti, 600 parts. Mix by fusion and
heat. Impregnate cotton ganze with the fluid.

Thymol Solution (Volckmann's). Thymol, 1
part; alcohol, 20 parts; glycerin, 20 parts;
water, to make 1000 parts. Used as an antiseptic
lotion or spray.

tniymol SplriU. Thymol, 1 part; rectified
^t, 9 parts. Used for medicating wools and

Thymol Taponr. Thymol, 6 gr. ; rectified
spirit, 1 dr. ; carbonate of magnesium, S gr.;
water, to 1 oz. A teaspoonf nl to a pint of water
at 140° F. Used in pharyngitis and laryngitis.

TIC-D0UI.01IBXUX'. [Fr.] According to a
writer in one of the medical periodicals, a solu-
tion of atropia, 2 gr., in water, 1 fl. dr., to which
nitric acid, 1 drop (minim), has been previonily
added, applied as a paint, by means of a camd-
hair pencil, to the put of the face over the spot
affected, immediately and completely snbdnes the
pain within three to five minute* ia all accidental
cases, and affords considerate relief in others.
The application is to be continned nntil some
relief is experienced. The solution, bein^ veiy
poisonons, must not be taken internally, nor ap-
plied to the skin trhea broken. See Atkofia and
Nkusaixha.

TILIACIB' is a new glncoside extracted from
the leaves of the linden tree by Mr Latsefainow,
and found also in Cirtium anetue and JPhlox
panioulata. It is similar to hesperidin, and
among other products yields anisic acid on de-
composition.

TUT. Sn<=>118S. Sg». Stxstsvu (Ph. E.
& D.), L. This metal has been known :hx>m the
most remote antiquity, being mentioned in the
books of Moses (Numb, xxxi, 82), and by Homer
('Iliad,' X, 26) and other early writers. The
ancients obtained it principally, if not solely, from
Cornwall. The Phoenicians traded with iSigrland
for this metal at least 1000 years before the birth
of Christ.

Tin occurs in nature in the state of oxide and,
more rarely, as sulphide (TIKFTBirn). InCcmi-
wall it is found under the form of }>eroxide (xikk
Tiy, tutbtokb), associated with copper ore, in
the slate and granite rocks, and as an allnvial
deposit (bthxjlic tih) in the beds of rivers.

Prep,, t[e. The ore is first reduced to powder
in stamping-mills, washed to remove earthy
matter, and then roasted to expel arsenic and
sulphur; it is next deoxidised or reduced by
smelting it with abont l-6th of its weight of pow-
dered culm and a little slaked lime ; it is, lastly,
refined by ' liquation,' followed by a second smelt-
ing of the pnrer portion, which, after being treated
in a state of fusion for some time with UUeta of
gp'een wood, or ' tossed,' as the workmen call it,
is allowed to settle, and is then cast into large
blocks, which, after being assayed, receive the
stamp of the duchy. Two varieties of commercial
tin are known, called respectively grain tin and
bar tin. The first is the best, and is prepat«d
from the stream ore.

Prop. Tin approaches silver in whiteness and
lustre; in hardness it is intermediate between
gold and lead ; it is very malleable when pure, hot
the presence of a very small quantity of any other
metal, particularly lead, deprives it of this pro-
perty ; it exhibits a fibrous fractnre, and can be
easily rolled or hammered into foil; at 100° C. it
can be drawn out into a britUe wire ; when mbbed
it evolves a peculiar odoor, and whan bent back-
wards and forwards it emits a peculiar crack-
ling nmae ; it melts at 282'7' C, volatilises at a
white heat, and when heated above its melting-
point, with free access of air, is speedily con-
verted into a yellowish-white powder, which is the

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TIN

1689

peroxide, or the ' putty powder ' of poliibers. 8p.
gr. 7-298 at 13°.

jPKr, It is almoat entirely dinolved bj bydro-
'CUoric acid, yielding a colourleas solntion ; the
precipitate thrown down by hydrate of potassium
is wlute, and lolable in excess of the precipitant.
If it contain arsenic, brownish-blade flocks will
be separated daring the solution, and anenin-
retted hydrogen eTolred, which may be inflamed
and tested in the nsual manner. The presence
of other metals in tin may be detected by treat-
ing the hydrochloric solution with nitric acid
(sp. gr. 1-16), first in the cold, and afterwards
with heat, until all the tin is thrown down in the
s4«te of insoluble stannic oxide. The decanted
add solution from pure tin leaves no residuum on
evaporation. If, ^ter all the acid has been dis-
sipated by heat, dilution with water occasion a
heavy white precipitate, the sample contained
bismutii ; if, after dilation, a solution of sulphate
«f ammoninm or of sodium produce a similar
white precipitate (sulphate of lead), it contained
lead ; if ammonia, added in excess, occasion red-
-dish-brown flocks, or if ferricyanide of potas-
sium give a bine precipitate, it contained iron ;
and, if the clear supernatant liquid leave a resi-
<laam on evaporation, copper.

2brff. The stannous salts are characterised as
follows :— 1. Potash gives a bulky white precipi-
tate, readily soluble in excess of the precipitant ;
on concentrating the solntion the precipitate is
change from stannous hydrate into stannic hy-
drate which remains in solution, and metallic
tin, which separates in brown flakes. 2. Am-
monia, and the carbonates of potassium, sodium,
and ammonium, give white precipitates, insoluble
in excess. 3. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives, in
neutral and acid solutions, a dark bx»wn precipi-
tate, which is soluble in potash, in the alkaline
•olphides (especially when they contain an excess
of sulphur), and in strong hot hydrochloric acid ;
jmd insolnble in nitric acid, even when boiling.
4. Sulphide of ammoninm produces a similar
brown precipitate, soluble in excess of the preci-
intant, provided the latter contains an excess of
sulphur. 6. Terchloride of gold gives, in the
cold, on the addition of a little nitric acid, a pre-
dpitate of the purple of Cassins. 6. Mercuric
chloride gives a black precipitate, but in excess it
produces a white one. The stannic salts are pre-
cipitated yellow by sulphuretted hydrogen, aiid
the sulphide is readily soluble in ammonium snl-
fihide. Alkalies precipitate a white hydroxide,
which dissolves in an excess of the precipitant.

Separation. From other metals precipitated
tiy sulphuretted hydrogen by treating the well-
washed precipitate with yellow ammonium sul-
fihide, filtering and acidifying the filtrate n-ith
cold dilute hydrochloric acid ; again well wash
^tb water, digest with solid ammonium car-
bonate, heat the residue with hydrochloric acid,
and place in the solution a slip of platinum-
foil upon which a piece of zinc rests ; the tin is
deposited upon the zinc, and is then dissolved off
with hydrochloric acid.

Determination. Oxidise (if in the state of
metal or alloy) with pure strong nitric acid, well
erash, and then ignite the residue. From solu-
tion it is precipitated with ammonia as hy-

droxide; if present, however, in the ttannoae
condition it must be first oxidised with chlorine
or hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate.
The precipitate from ammonia is then dissolved
in a very small quantity of pure hydrochloric
acid, and heated with a strong solution of Glau-
ber's salt ; this precipitates the hydroxide, which
may then be washed, ignited, and weighed.
Each grain of stannic oxide well washed and
dried is equivalent to 0'7836S g^. of pure tin.

Uiet. Tin is used for a large number of pur-
poses, for the preparation of vessels for technical
and household use, for the manufacture of tin-
foil, for tinning copper and iron, and espedally
in the preparation <n alloys of tin. These alloys
are amongst the most useful and important that
are known. Tin and lead form ' pewter ' and
'solder.' Tin, copper, and arsenic give 'gun*
metal' and 'speculum metal.' Bronze consists
of copper, tin, zinc, and sometimes lead; bell-
metal of copper and tin ; phosphor-bronze of
copper, tin phosphide, and lead. With mercury
tin forms an amalgam which is largely used for
' silvering ' mirrors.

Stannous Chloride. SnCI,. Syn. Pboto-
CHLOBIDE or Tiv. JPrgp. (AvHTiwoirg.) Dis-
til a mixture of tin and mercuric chloride. Qrcy,
resin-like, solid, fusible, and volatile.

(HtSSATES ; TlV-BlLT, TlK-CBTBTALB, SuCly

2Aq.) Boil an excess of tin in hydrochloric
acid. A powerful deoxidising agent. It is
somewhat extensively used as a mordant by dyers
and calico printers, and for imparting a fine
golden colour to sugar.

BtannooB Hydrate. So(HO),. Sgm. Ht-
SBATBD OXIDE ov TIV. iVep. Precipitate stan-
nous chloride with carbonate of potassium, well
wash, and dry under 196°. Qreyish-white pow-
der, soluble in acids and alkaline hydrates, except
ammonia.

BtMiiuras Iodide. Snl^ Syn. Pbotiodisi
or Tnr. Heat tin and iodine together. Yellow-
ish needles, slightly soluble in water.

Stannous Hitrate. Sn(NOt)t. By the action
of dilate nitric acid on the metal ammonium
nitrate is also produced.

Stannous Oxide. SnO. iS^h. Psotoxisb ob
Tiw. .Prep. Ignite the oxalate in an atmoapheie
of carbonic anhydride. Olive-coloured powder,
inflammable in air, turning black on exposure to
sunlight, and insoluble in acids.

Stannous Sulphate. SnSO^. By dissolving
the metal or the hydrated oxide in dilute sul-
phuric acid. QraniUar crystals, more soluble in
hot than in cold water.

Staaaona Sulphide. SnS. Syn. Fsotobul-
PHISE OV TIH. A brittle bluish-grey substance,
obtained by heating tin and sulphur.

Stannic Ammoninm CUorids. (NH4)]8nCl(.
From a mixture of concentrated solution of am-
monium chloride and stannic chloride.

Small regular octahedra ; formerly much used
by calico printers under the name of pink salt
as a mordant for madder-red colours. Its use
has been lately greatly superseded by tbe crystal-
line pentahydrated stannic chloride.

Staanie (3il«ride. SnCl^. 8fn. Bicauyxnm
OP Tiir, Tetbachlobide or xnr, Pbbchlobisb

O* SIN, PbBMVBIAIB 0> T.f; STAJtrVI BICBLO-

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1690

TIN FILINGS— WN MOEDANTS

Sisuv, SiAsvi PBBMirRiAB, L. Prep. 1. (Lie-
hiy.) By dissolving grain tin in a mixtarc of
hydrochloric acid, 2 parts ; nitric acid and water,
of each, 1 part (all by volume) ; observing to add
the tin by degrees, and to allow one portion to
dissolve before adding another, as witbont tliis
precaution the action is apt to become violent,
and (tannic oxide of tin to be deposited.

2. (AVHXSBOUB; LIBATIUB'S rUMINO XIQTTOB.)

By heating stannous chloride in chlorine gas ; or
by distilling a mixture of powdered tin, 1 part,
with corrosive sublimate, 3 parts (5 parts —
Fownei), A very volatile, colourless, mobile
liquid, which fames in the air, and boila at
113-9° C, sp. gr. =2234 at 15° G. ; when mixed
with l-3rd of its weight of water, it solidifies to
a CT^iStalline mass (' butter of tin').

Ob». Solution of stannic chloride is much
used by dyers, under the names of ' sPlBiTg OF

TI»,* ' SXEBS' BPIBITB,' ' TIN MOBDAMT,' &C., tho

proportions of the ingredieuts and the state of
dilation being varions, according to circum-
stances or the caprice of the manofactnrcr.
Srebbcl discovered that by aid of it a permanent
red dye con be obtained from Cochineal. Dyers
now usually nse the crystalline pentahydrate
(oxymuriatc of tin). SnCI^ + SHjO. A process
which has been highly recommended, and which
seems preferable to all others, is to prepare a
simple solution of the stannous chloride, and to
convert it into a solution of the stannic chloride,
either by the addition of nitric acid and a gentle
heat, or by passing chlorine through it. See Tin

MOBDAITTS.

Staimie Hydrate. H^nOg. fyn. Htsbatbs
CBBOXISB OF TIN, SlA»NIO lOiD. Prep. By
adding hydrate of potassium or an alkaline car-
bonate to a solution of stannic chloride. A glassy
mass, soluble in acids and pnre alkalies. Its com-
pound with the latter are sometimes call btan-
HATBS. Of these the most important is sodium
stannote, NajSnOg. This is nmnu&etnred very
extensively for calico printers und^r the name of
' preparing salts.'

Stannic Iodide. SnT^. By dissolving stannic
hydrate in hydriodic acid. Yellow, silky crystals.

Stasnlc Oxide. SnO^ Syn. Bikozibb of
11V, Pbboxidb of tin. Occurs in nature as tin-
stone or cassiterite as quadratic crystals. Prep.
By the action of nitric acid on metallic tin, the
resulting white powder being well washed with
water; or by heating metallic tin above it«
melting-point in the air. Yellow amorphous
powder ; anhydrous ; insoluble. It can be ob-
tained crystalline by heating in a current of
bydroohloric acid.

Obt. Fr^my has given the name of hbtastan-
Nic AOID to the oxide prepared by the action of
nitric acid on metallic tin ; the hydrate he calls

STANSIO ACID. See POLIBBBBS' PUTTT.

stannic Sulphide. SnS,. Sgn. Bi8t;u?hii>e

OF TIV, BBONZB FOWSBB, UoSAIO gold ; AVBUM

uvawit, Avaxnt mosaiouu, Stanhi bibttlfhu-
BXTUX, L. Prep. 1. To pure tin, 12 oz., melted
by a gentle heat, add of mercury, 6 oz.; to the
jwwdered mass when cold, add of chloride of
ammoDinm, 6 oz. ; flowers of sulphur, 7 oi. ; and
after thorough admixture place tiie compound in
a glass flask, and gradually beat it, on a sand-bath,

to low redness, and continue the heat for several
hours, or nntil white fumes cease to be dit
engaged ; the ' aurum musivnm ' remains at the
bottom of the vessel, under the form of soft and
very brilliant gold-coloured flakes.

2. (Berzeliue.) Stannic oxide and mlphur, of
each, 2 parts ; chloride of ammonium, 1 part;
mix, and expose it to a low red heat, in a glass or
earthenware retort, until sulphurous fumes cease
to be evolved.

Used as a metallic gold colour, or aabstitote for
powdered gold, in bronzes, varnish work, sealing-

TIS FI'UBaS. See Tin Powsxk (ielow).

TUTFOIL, Iiead in. Tinfoil very rarely con-
sists of pure tin ; generally it contains more or
less lead. According to the recent analysis of
August Vogel, who has examined a great number
of samples from very difFerent sources, it contains
from 1 to 19% of lead. There are, however,
specimens of tinfoil which contain so little lead
that it hardly gives a reaction with the appro-
priate tests.

Since tinfoil is so much used for covering
articles of diet^ of confectionery, or of per-
fumery, it was a matter of some interest to deter-
mine whether or not there was any danger of
transference of lead from the wrapper to the con-
tents. A number of experiments upon soap, choco-
late, and different kinds of dry sngar, which had
been enveloped in tinfoil very highly ebtrged with
lead, showed that there was no contamination with
lead. Cheese, on the other band, on account of
its being moist, and being closely in contact with
the foil, did take up lead.

Of course the lactio acid of the cheeae wouM
also favour the taking np of the metal. A point
worthy of b«iug recorded in connection with this
matter is the rapid diminution of the lead toward
the centre of the cheeae. Often plenty of lead
was foimd in the rind, and none a little way in
the cheese (' Bepertoriam ffir Pharmacic,' Von
Bnchner).

TIB GIiASSf. See BiSKTrra.

TUT ■OK'DAXTS. &/n. Dtbbs' bfibit, Solv-

TtON OF TIN, SpIBIT OF T., NiTBO-lfVBIATB OF T.t

These, as noticed above, vary greatly in their eon-
poaUiou and character.

Prep. 1. Take of aquafortis, 8 parts; sal-
ammoniac or common salt, 1 part ; dissolvei and
add very gradually of grain tin, 1 part; and,
when dissolved, preserve it in stoppered bottles
from the air. This is the common ' gpnui or
TIN ' of the dyers.

2. (Beriholht.) Nitric acid, at 80° Baomi,
8 parts ; sal-ammoniac, 1 part ; dissolve, then odd
by degrees, of tin, 1 part; and when diaaolved,
dilute the solution with l-4th of its weight of
water.

3. (Damboumeg.) Hydrochloric acid, at 17°
Baum£, 4 parts ; nitric acid, at 30° Baum£, I psit ;
mix, and add by degrees, of Molucca tin, 1 part.

4. {Sellot.) Nitric acid and water, of eacli,
1 lb. ; sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. ; nitre, i oz. ; diowlvt,
then add, by degrees, of granulated tin, 2 oc

5. (Poeruer.) Nitric acid and water, at escb,
1 lb.; sal-ammoniac, 11 oz.; dissolve, then add,
by very slow degrees, of pmre tin beaten into
ribands, 2 ox.

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TlNNINa— TINCTUBE

1691

6. (Sdioeffer.) Nitric acid and water, of each,
8 lb«. ; sal-ammoniac, 2 ox. ; pure tin, 4| oz. ; aa
]a«t. All tlie above are naed chiefly for dyeing
scarlet, more particularly with cochineal.

7. (Lao bpibii.) From grain tin, 1 lb. ; slowly
dioolved in hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1'19), 20
lbs. Recommended as a solvent for lac dye. For
nae, | to 1 lb. of the liquid is digested on each lb.
of the dye for 6 or 6 honrs, before adding it to the
dye-bath.

8. Hydrochloric add, 6} lbs. ; aquafortis, ^ lb. ;
grain tin, giadoally added, 1 lb. Recommended
for lac dye.

TlH'aXaQ. iVoe. 1. Plates or vessels of
brass or copper, boiled with a solntion of stan-
nate of potaasa, mixed with turnings of tin,
become, in the course of a few minutes, covered
with a firmly attached layer of pure tin.

2. A similar effect is produced by boiling the
articles with tin filings and caustic alkali or cream
of tartar.

Ob*. By either of the above methods chemical
vessels made of copper or brass may be easily and
perfectly tinned.

3. The following method for tinning copper,
brass, and iron in the cold, and without appa-
latos, is by F. Stolha ("The Pharmacist,' iv, 86).

The requisites for accomplishing this object
are — Ist. The object to 1>e coated with tin must
be entirely free from oxide. It must be care-
fully cleaned, and care be taken that no grease
•pots are left ; it makes no difference whether the
object be clevned mechanically or chemically.
8nd. Zinc powder ; the best is that prepared arti-
ficially by melting sine, and pouring it into an
iron mortar. It can be easily pulverised imme-
diately after solidification; it should be about as
fine as writing sand. Srd. A solution of proto-
ohloride of tin containing 6% or 10% , to which
aa much pulverised cream of tartar most be
added as wiU go on to the p<nnt of a knife. The
object to be ^ned is moistened with the tinned
•ointion, after which it is rubbed hard with the
idnc powder. The tinning appears at once. The
.tin salt is decomposed by ilie zinc, metallic tin
being deposited. When the object tinned is
polished brass or copper, it appears as beautiful
as if silvered, and retains its lustre for a long
time. 4th. (C. Paul, • Dingl. Polyt. J.,' ccviii,
47 — 49, ' Joum. Chem. Soc.') The zinc or iron
articles are immersed in a mixture of 1 port sul-
phuric or nitric acid with 10 parts of water; a
solution of copper sulphate or acetate is then
slowly added. After the deposition of a thin
layer of copper, the articles are removed, washed,
moistened with a solntion of 1 part ' tin crystals '
in 2 parts water and 2 parts hydrochloric acid,
and tlien shaken up with a mixture of fine chalk
and copper. Ammonium sulphate is prepared by
dissolving 1 part of copper sulphate in 16 parts
of water, and adding ammonia until a dear dark
bine liquid is obtained.

The articles may now be tinned by immersion
in a solution of 1 part of tin crystals with 8
parts white argol in water. Brass, copper, or
nickd goods, ^so iron and zinc articles which
have been copper-plated, may be silvered by
.treatment (after thorough cleansing) with a
•olvtion of 14 grms. silver in 26 grms. of nitric

acid, to which is added a solntion of 120 grms. of
potassium cyanide in 1 litre water, and also 28-
grms. of finely powdered chalk.

TIH-FLATE. Iron-plate covered with a coating
of tin, by dipping it into a bath of that metal.
The best kind, known as ' block tin,' is that which
is covered %Tith the thickest layer of tin, and after-
wards hammered upon a polished anvil in order to
conaolidate the coating and make it adhere more
firmly.

TUr-FIulTE, To Crystallise. Crystallised tin-
plate ia made as follows: — Place the tin-plate,
slightly heated, over a tub of water, sud rub its
surface with a sponge dipped in a liquid com-
posed of 4 parts of nitric acid and 2 parts of
water, containing 1 part of common salt or sal-
ammoniac in solution. When the crystalline
spangles seem to be thoroughly brought out, the
plate must bo immersed in water, washed care-
fully, dried, and coated with a lacquer varnish,
otherwise it loses ita lustre in the air. If tiio
whole surface is not plunged at once in cold
water, but is partially cooled by sprinkling water
on it, the crystallisation will be finely variegated
with large and small figures.

TIH POWSES. SgH. Tor nuxoB, Tis
DUST ; Stahki fvltis (Ph. E. and D.), L. Prep.
1. (Ph. E.) Mdt grain tin in an iron vessel,
pour it into an earthenware mortar heated a
little above its melting-point, and triturate
briskly as the metal cools; lastly, sift the pro-
duct, and repeat the procesa with what rcmains-
in the sieve.

2. (Ph. D.) Melt grain tin in a black-lead
crucible, and, whilst it is cooling, stir it with a
rod of iron until it is'reduced to powder ; let the
finer particles be separated by meana of a sieve,
and when, after having been several times in suc-
cession shaken with distilled water, the decanted
liquor appears quite clear, let the product be dried
for use.

Ob*. Powdered tin ia also prepared by filing-
and rasping. — Dote, 2 to 4 dr., as a vermifnge.
PoLiBBUia' PVTTT, Coloured with ivory-black, is
frequently sabstituted for this powder, and hence
arise the ill effects that sometimes follow its.
use.

TUB, To Clean. All kinds of tins, moulds,
measures, kc, may be cleaned by being well
rubbed with a paste made of whiting and water.
They should then be rubbed with a leather, and
any dust remaining on them should be removed,
by means of a soft brush. Finally they must
be polished with another leather. Always let the
inaide of any veaael be cleaned firat, since in
cleaning the luaide the outside always becomes
soiled. For very dirty or greasy tins, grated
Bath brick and water must be uaed,

TIHCTTJKE. Sjfn. TzircTUBA, L.; TiurnrBB,.
Fr. Tinctures (tixoiu&b ; ALOOOLiB, Al«00iJi-
tubm) are solutions of the active principles of
bodies, obtained by digesting them in alcohol
more or less dilute. Etbbxial TlBCrimBB (txbc-

TVBJE STHIBSX ; £th£S0l£8, ^THiSOLATUXXB) .

are similar solutions prepared with ether.

Prtp. "Tinctures are usually prepared by^
reducing the solid ing^redients to small fragments,,
coarse powder, or fine powder, macerating them
for 7 days, or longer, in proof spirit or rectified.

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TINCTUEB

-apirit, straining the solation throngh linen or
-calico (or paper), and finally ezpreuing the mi-
dnnm strongly, to obtain wbat fluid is still retained
in the mass. They are also advantageously pre-
.pored by the method of displacement or percola-
tion." " All tinctures shonld be prepared in
closed glass (or stoneware) vessels, and be shaken
frequently during the process of maceration."
Cooper's patent jars are very convenient for the
preparation of tinctures, as they are made with
vide mouths large enongh to admit the hand, and
yet may be closed in an instant, with as much
■ease and certainty as an ordinary stoppered
bottle.

Tinctures are better clarified by repose than by
titration, as in the latter case a considerable por-
tion is retained by the filtering medium, and lost
by evaporation. The waste in this way is never
less than 10% of spirit. In all ordinary cases it
is sufficient to allow the tincture to settle for a
few days, and then to pour off the clear super-
natant portion through a funnel loosely choked
with a piece of sponge or tow, or absorbent wool ;
Jifter which the remaining foul portion of the
liquid may be filtered throngh bibulous paper in
s covered funnel. Tlie filtration should be con-
ducted as rapidly as possible, for the double pur-
pose of lessening the amount lost by evaporation
and the action of the air on the fluid. Tinctures
which have been long exposed to the air frequently
lose their transparency within a few days aft^
being filtered, owing to the oxidisation and pre-
■cipitation of some portion of the matter previously
held in solution, a change which occurs even in
.stoppered bottles. Besinoas and oily tinctures, as
4;lio<e of myrrh, tolu, and lavender (comp.), may
be generally restored to their former brightness
by the addition of a quantity of rectified spirit
equal to that which they have lost by evaporation ;
l>ttt many tinctures resist this mode of treatment,
and require refilt«ring.

Ethereal tinctures are best prepared by percola-
tion, and should be both made and kept in stop-
j>ered bottles.

Mr Umney says it mast always be remem-
Jbered that the quantity of spirit required to
make the measure of tinctures to a given balk
will only be strictly uniform in so far as the
-operators proceed under precisely the same cir-
cumstances.

No causes will be foand to influence results
more than the manufacture of tinctures upon a
small as compared with a large scale, and the
-use of the screw as compared with the hydraulic
press, in the final removal of the spirit from the
4narc ; even the temperature of summer and winter
may cause a variation in the results.

Qual. The tinctures of the shops are usually
very uncertain and inferior preparations, owing to
their manufacture being carelessly conducted, and
refuse drugs and an insaffieient quantity of spirit
being employed in their prodnction. It is a
-general practice among the druggists to substitute
■» mixture of equal parts of rectified spirit and
water, or a spirit of about 26 n. p., for proof
-apirit ; and a mixture of 2 galls, of water with 6
-.galls, of rectified spirit for rectified spirit.

Auaj/. 1. The RIOBNBBB in AIXJOHOL may be
•readily determined by Brando's method of wco-

holometnr, but more accurately by the method of
If. Oay-Luasac (see Aloohoioiibtbt). That of
tinctures containing simple extractive, saccharine,
or like organic matter in solution may be approxi-
mately fonnd from the boiling-point, or from the
temperature of the vapour of the boiling liquid.

2. The QUABTITY of SOLID KATTBB pCT Cent.

may be ascertained by evaporating to dryness 100
gr.-measnres in a weighed capsule, by the heat of
boiling water.

3. The QVAHTITT of the nroBSDiKHTS nsed in
the preparation of tinetnres may be inferred from
the weight last found, reference being had to the
known percentage of extract which the subatamces
employed yield to spirit of the strength nnder
examination. When the ingredients contain
alkaloids, or consist of saline or mineral matter,
an assay may be made for them.

Uta, Ifo. Tinctures, from the quantity of
alcohol which they contain, are necessarily ad-
ministered in small doses, unless in cases where
stimulants are indicated. The most important
and useful of them are those that contain very
active ingredients, such as the tinctore of Ofdiroit
foxglove, hemlock, henbane, &c. In mwiy in-
stances the solvent, even in doses of a few fluid
drachms, acts more powerfully on the living
system than the principles it holds in solution;
and, when continued for some time, produces the
same deleterious effects as the habitual use of
ardent spirits. When the action of a subatanoe
is the reverse of stimulant it cannot with propriety
be exhibited in this form, unless the dose be so
small that the operation of the spirit cannot be
taken into account, as with the narcotic tinctures.
Hence this class of remedies are in less frequent
use than formerly.

The following list embraces all the formnlse of
the tinctune of the London, Edinburgh, Dublin,
and British Fharmaoopceias, with a few others
likely to be useful to the reader. These will fnr-
nish examples for the preparation of others in less
general use, care being had to proportionate the
ingredients with due reference to the proper or
usual dose of tinctures of that class.

Tincture of Ac'etate of I'ron. Sjfn. TiircTtnu
rsEBi ACBTATIB, li. Prep. Strong solution of
acetate of iron, 6 oz. ; acetic acid, 1 oz. ; rectified
spirit, 5 oz. ; water, 9 oz. ; mix.— Dole, 6 to 30
minims.

Tincture of Acetate of Zinc. ^». Tntcinu
ziHOl ACBTATIB, L. Prep. (Ph.D. 1826.) Ace-
tate of potash and sulphate of zinc, of each, 1 ox. ;
rub them together, then add of rectified spirit,
16 fl. oz. ; macerate for a week, and filter. Astrin-
gent. Diluted with water, it is used as s ool-
lyrinm and injection.

Tincture of Ac'oBite. Syn. Tikctitra aco5Iti

(Ph. L.), TlHOT. ACOWITI BABIOIB (B. P., Ph. D.),

L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Powdered root, 1 part;
rectified spirit to percolate, 8 parts ; macerate for
48 hours with three fourths of the spirit, agitating
occasionally ; pack in a percolator and let it drain,
then poor on the remaining spirit ; when it ceases
to drop, press the marc and add spirit to make up 8
parts. — Dote, 6 to IB minims.twioe or thriceaday.
2. (Ph. L.) Take of aconite root, coarady
powdered, 16 oz. (20 oz. — Ph. li.) ; rectified s|nrit,
1 qafcrt ; macerate for 7 days, press, and filta.

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TINCTURE

1698"

Oit. Theie tinctures diifer materially in
strength.— 2)<M«. Of the Ph. L., 6 to 10 dropa ;
of the Ph. D., 8 to 6 dropa, tno or three tiiuea
daily (caref ally watching its effects) ; in rhen-
matism, goat, syphilis, &C., where a narcotic
sedative is indicated. Dilated with water, it
forms an excellent emhrocation in rheumatism,
neuralgia, &c. It should he applied hy means of
a small sponge tied to the end of a stick or glass
rod. The Ph. D. formula is nearly the same as
that fur Dr Turnbull's concentrated tincture of
aconite root, and that given by Dr Pereira. The
TINOTUBA ACOKITI FOIilOBUH of the Ph. U. S. is
made with 1 oz. of the dried leaves to 8 fl. oz. of
rectified spirit.

Tinetore of Aconite, ZfhweaL Sjin. Tmotxmt.
AOOKiTi sTHBBBA (P. Cod.), li. JV«p. Powdered
aconite, 4 oz. ; sulphuric etiier, 16 oz. (hy weight).
It is best prepared by percolation.

Tinetare of Ailan^ns Bark. 5yit. Tinotcba
AiLAiciHi C0BTICI8, L. Prf. TUce of ailanth US
bark, braised, 1^ oz. ; proof spirit, I {unt; mace-
rate for 7 days in a closed vessel with occa-
sional agitation ; then strain, press, filter, and add
sufficient spirit to make 1 pint. — Z>ote. From
i to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Al'oei. Sya. Tihotuba aloes
(B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Socotrine aloes, 1 part; extract of liquorice, 3
parts; proof spirit, 40 parts; macerate 7 days,
press, and wash the marc with spirit to mi^e
40 parts.— Dow, 1 to 3 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Socotrine or hepatic aloes, coarsely
powdered, 1 oz. ; extract of liquorice, 8 oz. ; water,
1| pints; rectified spirit, i pint; macerate for
7 days, and filter. The formula of the Ph. E. is
nearly similar. Purgative and stomachic. — Vott,
i to a. oz.

Tineture of Aloes. Alkaline, i^*. TncrvBA
ALOcs ALXAXIHA {StnUour), L. Prep. Aloes,
\ oz. ; extract of liqoorice, li dr.; cinnamon
water, 8 oz. ; proof spirit, 8 oz. ; carbonate of
soda, 1 oz. Digest and strain. — Dote, 1 dr. to
4 dr.

Tisctnie of Aloes (Componnd). Syn. Tiiro-

TVBX OF ALOSS AND ITZBBH ; TlSOTUBA ALOES
C0IIP08ITA (Ph. L.), TiKCTUBA ALOBS SI HYBBHJI

(Ph. E.), Elixib ALoSst, L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
L. & E.) Socotrine or hepatic aloes, coarsely
powdered, 4 oz. ; hay saffron, 2 oz. ; tincture of
myrrh, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, with occa-
sional agitetiou, and strain. The Dublin College
(1826) omits the saffron.

8. (Wholesale.) Prom aloes, 1 lb.; myrrh,
i lb. ; hay saSiron, 2 oi. ; rectified spirit, 6 pints ;
water, 8 pints ; ss the last. Purgative, stomachic,
and emmenagogue. — Doee, i to 2 fl. dr.

Tinetare of Amber, i^h. TwconrsA bvociki
(P. Cod.), L. Prep. Amber, in fine powder,
1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 6 oz. Digest for 6 days
and filter.— JXmv, 20 to 30 drops.

Tincture of Affibw, Alkaline. Syn. TnroruBA
BTrccim AULALiHA (Ph. E. 1744), li. Prtp.
Rab 2 oz. of amber with a safficieot quantity of
carbonate of potash to form a soft paste ; dry this,
and digest it in 16 oz. of rectified spirit for 8
days.

Tinetare of Ambergris. Sj/n. TnrcnrBA ah-
BBBSBiBKS (P. Cod.), L. Prep. Ambergris,

1 part ; rectified spirit, 10 parts. Macerate for
10 days.

Tincture of Amm"onia (Compound). 8^n. Tiiro-
TUBA AMUOiriJB COMFOBITA (Ph. L.), L. Prepi
1. (Ph. L.) Mastic, 2 dr. ; rectified spirit, 9 fl.
dr.; digest until dissolved, decant, add of oil
of lavender, 14 drops ; stronger solution of am-
monia, 1 pint ; and mix well.

2. (Ph. L. 18S6; AQUALUOI.B; Eatt SB'LTroi.)
As the last, but adding 4 drops of oil of amber
along with the oil of lavender.

Oht. This preparation is reputed antacid, anti-
spasmodic, and stimulant Doee, 10 to 20 drops,

in water; in hysteria, low spirits, &c. In tlie
East Indies eau de luce is Mgarded almost as a
specific for the bite of the cobra di capello anA
other venomous reptiles.

Tineture of Ammo"nio-e]ilo"ride of I'ron. Sgn,
AMHONIATRD TmOTDBI OP iBoy, MTiraiaHT'B
A. T. OV I. ; TlKCTUBA FIBBI AUMOHIO-OHLOBIOI
(Ph. L.), TlNCTUBA FEBBI AKKOITIAII, L. Prep.

(Ph. L.) Ammonio-chloride of iron, 4 oz. ;
proof spirit and distilled water, of each, 1 pint;
dissolve. — Dose, 20 to 60 drops, or more ; as a
stimulant, chalybeate tonic. " A fl. oz. of this, on
potassa being added, yields 6*8 gr. of sesqnioxide
of iron "(Ph. L.).

Tineture of Ammoniacnm. 8gn. TnrorrBA
OUMMI AHMOSIACI (P. Cod.), L. Prep. Onm
ammoniacnm, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, 20 oz. (hy
weifcht). Digest 10 days and strain.

Tincture of Angelica. Sgn. Tikotvba av-
OBUOX (Aust. Ph.), L. Prep. Dried angelica
root, 1 oz. ; proof ^irit, 6 oz. Digest and filter.
— Doit, 1 dr.

Tincture of Angoatu'ra. Tincture of cusparia.

Tincture, Antiscarbi(tie. 8yn. Tiitotitba ah-

TIBCOBBUTXCA, TOfCTUBA ABMOBACIA COKPOBITA

(P. Cod.), L. Prep. Fresh horseradish root,
8 oz. ; black mustard seed, 4 oz. ; muriate of am-
monia, 2 oz. ; proof spirit, 16 oz. (by weight)
compound spirit of scurvy-grass, 16 oz. (by
weight). Macerate 10 days.

Tincture of Ants. Bgn. TnrcrcBA fobki-
OABUX (Ph. O.), L. Prep. Ants recently col-
lected, cleaned, and bruised, 2 oi. ; rectified spiri V
3 oz. (hy weight). Digest 8 days.

Tincture of Ar'nica. Sgn. Tikctvsa abhic^
T. a. flobum, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor. and Hamh.
Cod.) Flowers of .^rmeaffloiitoaa,lioz.; spirit,
sp. gr. -900 (16i o. p.), 1 lb.; digest for 8 days,
and strain with expression. — Dote, 10 to 80
drops ; in diarrhsea, dysentery, gout, rheumatism^
paralysis, &c.

Tincture of Arnica Koot. 5y». Tihoivba
ABHios (B. P.), TnronrBA abnica basicib, L,
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Bruised root, 1 part ; rectified
spirit to percolate, 20 parts ; macerate 48 hours
with 15 parts of the spirit, agitating occasionally ;
pack in a percolator, and, when it ceases to drop,,
pour on the remaining spirit, let it drain, wash
the marc, press, filter, and msjce up to 20 parts..
—Dote, 1 to 2 dr.

2. From arnica root, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint;
as the last.

Tincture, Aromatic. Bgn. Ttsmv&i. abo-
KATICA (Q. Ph.), L. Prep. Cinnamon, 4 oz. t
cardamoms, 1 oz. ; doves, 1 oz. ; galangal root,
1 oz. ; ginger, 1 oz, j all in coarse powder ; prooi

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1694

TINCTCEE

spirit, 3 Iba. 2 oz. (by weight). Macerate 8 days,
and Btraiii.

Tinctnre, Aromkt'ic. Componud tincture [of
cinnamon.

Tinctore of Artielioke. %». TnroTiTBA
-CTHASf, L. Prep. Fresh articbolto leaves,
braised, 2 lbs. ; rectified spirit, 1 lb. Digest for
.7 days, express, and filter.

Tincture of Assafoetida. Sgn. Tinotvba. A8-
tkicEimiE (Ph. L., E., &, D.), L. Prep. 1.
(B. F.) Assafoetida (small fragments), Ipart;
rectified spirit, 8 parts ; macerate 7 days, strain,
'filter, and add spirit to make 8 ports. — Dole, \ dr.
toldr.

2. (Ph. L.) Assafoetida (small), 6 oz. ; recti-
fied spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 7 days (14 days
— Ph. D.), and filter. " It cannot be made by
.percolation with delay" (Ph. E.).

3. (Wholesale.) Assafoetida, 2\ lbs. ; boiling
water, 2 quarts ; dissolve, add of rectified spirit,
11 gall. J agitate well for 3 or 4 days, then let it
.settle, and decant the clear portion. — Dote, i to
■2 fl. dr. ; in hysteria, flatulent colic, &c.

Tincture of Assafoetida (Amma"niatad). See
Fbtzd Spieit of Aumonia.
Tincture of Assafoetida, Ethereal. iS^». Tinc-

TUBA A8SAFCETID.E ETESBEA (P. Cod.), L. Prep.
Assafoetida, 1 part ; alcoholised ether, 6 parts (by
-weight). Macerate for 10 days. The ether is
made by mi.'iing equal weights of ether and lecti-
iicd spirit.

Xiuctnre, Asthmat'ic. Compound tincture of
x:amphor.

Tincture, Astringwit. ^n. TnroiiniA ab-
TBiKaBHS {Dr Copland), L. Prep. Catechu,
i oz. ; myrrh, \ oz. ; Peruvian bark, 2 dr. ; bal-
sam of Peru, \i dr. ; spirit of horseradish, 1) oz, ;
rectified spirit, 1^ oz. Digest. For sponginess
of the gums.

Tincture, Balsamic. Sgn. TnrcTuBA bal-
BAMicA (Ph. E. 1744), L. Prep. Copaiba, 1 oz. ;
balsam of Peru, 3 dr. ; balsam of Tolu, 2 dr. ;
benzoin, | dr. ; saffron, 1 scruple ; rectified spirit,
16 oz, ; digest 4 days in a sand-bath, and strain.

Tincture, Balsam of Copaiba. Sgn. Tinctctba
BAiSAHi OOFAIBS (OuUourt), L. Prtp. One
part of copaiba to 8 parts of alcohol. Digest and
filter.

Tincture of Balsam of GUead. Sgn. TnrcTUBA
BALSAHi OiLEADBirsiB (Guibovrt), L. Prep.
One part of balsam to 8 parts of rectified spirit.

Tincture of Bal'sam of Fern. Sgn. Tihctitba
BALSAMi PsBUTlANl, L. Prep, (Ph. L. 1788.)
Bakam of Peru, 4 oz.j rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz. ;
dissolve. Pectoral, stimulant, and fragrant. —
J)ote, 10 to 30 drops.

Tincture of Balsam of Tola. Tincture of Toln.

TinctUTe of Bark. Tincture of cinchona.

Tincture of Belladon'iia. S^. Tinoivba bbl-
XASomrs (B. P., Ph. L, and D.), L. Prep. 1,
{B. P.) The dried leaves in coarse powder, I
part; proof spirit, 20 parts; macerate 48 hours
in 15 parts of the spirit, agitating occasionally;
pack in a percolator, and when it ceases to drop,
add the remaining spirit, let it drain, wash and
press the marc ; filter and make up 20 parts. —
Doie, from 6 to 20 minims.

2. (Pli. L.) Dried leaves of belladonna, 4 oz.
(6 oz. in coarse powder — Ph. D,); proof spirit.

1 quart ; macerate for 7 days (14 — Ph. D.), pren,
and filter.

3, (Wholesale.) From the dried leaves, 1 lb.;
proof spirit, 1 gall.; macerate 14 days. — Dote,
5 to 10 drops, gradually increased; also ex-
ternally, diluted with water.

Tincture of Benzoin. ;^i>, TnrornaA bbh-
zoiNl (Pb. O.), L. Prep. Benzoin, 2 oz.; recti-
fied spirit, 10 oz. (by weight). Digest for 8 days,
frequently shaking ; then filter.

Tiactnre of Benzoin (Simple), %». TnrCTUBA
BEirzoiiri 8IHP]:,EX (B, P. C), L. Prep. Take of
benzoin, in powder, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint
Macerate for 24 hours with, frequent agitation,
then filter, and add sufficient rectified spirit, if
required, to prodnce 1 pint.

Tincture of Benzoin (Compound). S^n. Fbias's
BAirSAjf, Traumatic b., Bauax ton cins. Cox-
uandbb'b balsam, Ybbtaim's b., Woitkd b.,

JB8UIT8' DBOFS, WADE'S ». ; TlKOrtTBA BBKZOIN'I

ooKPOsrcA (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), Tinot. BBirzoia
OOICP., Bauakith tbaumatioitm, L. Prep. I.
(B. p.) Benzoin, 8 parts; prepared storax, 6
parts; balsam of Tolu, 2 parts; Socotrine aloes,
li parts ; rectified spirit, 80 parts ; macerate 7
days, filter, and wash the maro with spirit to
make up 80 parts. — Dote, i to 1 dr., triturated
with mucilage or yolk of egg.

2. (Ph. L.) Qnm benzoin, coarsely powdered,
3i oz. ; prepared storax, 2i oz. ; balsam of Tolu,
10 dr, ; Socotrine or hepatic aloes, in coarse pow-
der, 5 dr. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart ; macerate, with
frequent agitation, for 7 days, and strain.

3. (Ph. E.) Benzoin, 4 oz. ; balsam of Peru,
2i oz. ; East Indian (hepatic) aloes, ) oz. ; recti-
fied spirit, 1 qaart.

Obe. Either of the above formula produoea a
most beautiful tincture, truly balsamic. The
following is, however, very generally employed
by the wholesale druggists, and the piquet,
though possesnng a very rich ooloar, is thin and
watery.

4. (Wholesale.) From gum benzoin, 4 lbs.;
aloes (lively colonred), li lbs. ; liquid storax, 1
lb. ; balsam of Tolu, i lb. ; powdered turmeric
(b^t), 9 oz. ; rectified spirit, 5^ galls. ; digest with
frequent agitation for 10 days, then add of hot
water, 1) galls., again digest for 4 days, and, after
24 hours' repose, decant the clear portion.

Dote, 10 drops to 2 fl. dr, ; as a stimulating ex-
pectorant, in chronic coughs and varions breath
affections. It is also employed to stop the bleed-
ing from cuts, &c,, and promote their healing,

Tinctore, Bitter. <Sy». Tihctcba amaba (!%■
0.), Ii. Prep, Umipe oranges, 2 oz.; centanrr,

2 oz. ; gentian root, 2 oz.; zedoary root, 1 oz.;
proof spirit, 35 oz. (by weight). Digest 8 da;fs
and strain.

Tinctore, Bittw Btoauuili'ie. Tincture of
gentian.
Tincture of Black Snake-root. (B. P.) Sf.

TnrCTVBA OIMICIFUa.S, T. ACT£JE BACEMOSjE, h.

Prep. Bruised root of blade snake-root, 2|oz.;
proof spirit, 20 oz. — Dote, 1 to 3 dr.

Tinetoie of Blessed Thistle. Syn. Tikcttbi
CABDUI BBITBDICTI (Ph. Bmns.), L. Prep.
Blessed thistle, 6 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 pints.

Tinctore Of Blood-root. ^n. Tikctdba siK-
avnrisui (Ph. U. S.), L. Prep. Bkxtd-ioot >o

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TINCTUBE

1695

moderately fine powder, 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 32
oz. i made by percolation. — Dote. As a stimulant
and alterative, 30 to 60 drops ; as an emetic, 3 to
4 dr.

Tincture^ Braadisli's. Alkalino tincture of
rhubarb.

Tinetnre of Brjonj. SfH. TiKOTUBiL bktoitis
(B. P. C), L. Prep. iVesh bryony root, recti-
fied spirit, and distilled water, of each, a sufficient
quantity. Ascertain the percentage of moisture
in the root by drying 100 gr. of it over a water-
bath. Bruise the remainder, after having cal-
culated the moisture it contains, and reckon this
as part of the water to form, with rectified spirit,
a miztQre equal in strength to proof spirit. Pro-
duce a tincture by macerating for 7 days of snch
a strength as that 10 fl. oz. shall represent 1 oz.
of the dried root. — Dom, 1 to 10 minims.

Tincture of Bnehu. Sjfn. Tikctttba sioska,
T. BTCKn (Ph. E.), T. BUOHU (B. P., Ph. D.), L.
Prtp. 1. (B. P.) Bnchn, bruised, 1 part ; proof
spirit, 8 parts ; macerate for 48 hours with ) of
the spirit, pack in a percolator and let it drain,
then pour on the rest of the spirit ; when it ceases
to drop, press and wash the marc, filter and make
op to 8 parts. — Dote, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Bnchn leaves, 6 oz.; proof spirit,
1 quart; macerate 7 days (14 days — Ph. D.) j or
proceed by the method of percolation. — Doti, 1
to 4 fl. dr. ; as a tonic, sudorific, and diuretic. It
is interior to the fresh infusion.

Tinetnre of Calnm'ba. 1^. TnictVBk ci.-
XCMBA (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), T. cotoMBX (Ph.
D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Braised calumba, 1
part; proof spirit, 8 parts; macerate 48 hours
-with 6 parts of the spirit, agitating occasionally ;
pack in a percolator, and let it drain ; then pour
on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop,
press, and wash the marc with spirit to make up
8 parts. — Vote, i to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Calumba root, finely sliced, 3 oz. ;
proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate a week (14 days
— Ph. v.), press, and filter. "Or, more conve-
niently, by percolation, allowing the calumba, in
moderately fine powder, to first soak in a little
spirit for 6 hours" (Ph. E.).

Tincture of Cam'phor. Sgn. SpiBiT ov wivn

AST) OAKPHOB, CaMFHOBATED SPIBIT ; TlHCTCBA

CAHFHO&X (Ph. E. & D.), Spixitvb oavphoils
(Ph.L.),8.OAMPHOBATU0,L. Prep. 1. (Pb.E.)
Camphor, 2| oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart ; dissolve.
This is only one half as strong as the Ph. L. pre-
paration.

2. (Ph. D.) Camphor, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit,
8 fl. oz. SUmnlant and anodyne. — Dote, 10 to 60
drops. Also as a liniment for sprains, bruises,
chronic rheumatism, &c. For the Ph. L. formula
see Spibit.

Tincture of Camphor (Compound). Syn. Cak-
phobatbs mfCTUBB OP oprtrif, Asthhatio

BLIXIB, PABEGOBIC B., ASTHKATIC TnrCTXTBB;
TnrOTVBA CAMPEOBaC OOICFOglTA (B. P., Ph. L.),
T. OPII CAMPHOBATA (Ph. £. k D.), EUXIB PABE-

eosioUH, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Opium, in
coarse powder, 40 gr. ; benzoic acid, 40 gr. ; cam-
phor, 80 gr. ; oil of anise, i dr. ; proof spirit, 20
oz. ; macerate 7 days, strain, wash the marc with
spirit, and filter 20 oz. — Dote, 15 to 60 minims.
2. (Ph. Ij.) Camphor, 60 gr. ; powdered opium

and benzoic acid, of each, 72 gr. j oil of aniseed,

1 fl. dr. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 7
days, and filter. The formulsB of the Ph. E. & D.
are nearly similar. The oil of aniseed, probably
one of the most useful and characteristic of tho
ingredients, was omitted in the Ph. L. 1824, but
was restored in that of 1836.

8. (Wholesale.) From powdered opium, 3 oz. ;
benzoic acid, camphor, and oil of aniseed, of each,

2 oz. ; rectified spirit and water, of each, 3 galls. ;
as before.

Obt. This tincture is a popular and excoUent
pectoral and anodyne where there are no inflam-
matory symptoms. — Dote, i to 2 fl. dr. ; in trouble-
some coughs, ie. t fl. oz. contains about 1 gr.
of opium.

Tincture of Canthar'ides. Sg». Tixctvba

CAlfTHABIDIS (B. P., Ph. h., E., & D.), TllTCTOBA

LTTT.B, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Cantharides, in
coarse powder, 1 part; proof spirit, 80 parts;
macerate, agitating occasionally, for seven days,
in a closed vessel, strain, press, filter, and add
sufficient proof spirit to make up 80 parts. — Dote,
5 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Powdered cantharides, 4 dr. (i
oz. — Ph. 1).), and strain with expression.

3. (Wholesale.) From powdered cantharides,
2i oz. ; recUfied spirit and wat«r, of each, i gall.;
as the last.— 2>o«e, 10 drops, gradually raised to
1 fl. dr., in any blaud liquid ; in fluor albos, gleets,
incontinence of urine, lepra, &c. It should be
used with caution. The Ed. College recommends
it to be prepared by displacement.

Tincture of Cantharides (Ethereal). Syn.

TiyCTUKA CANTHABIDIS ETDEBEA (P. Cod.), Ii.

Prep. Powdered cantharides, 1 oz. ; acetic ether,
10 oz. (by weight). Macerate for 10 days in a
stoppered bottle, express, and filter.
Tincture of Capsicum. Syn. TnrcTTBE op

CATSyNB PEPPBB; TlNCTURA CAP8I0I (B. P., Ph.

Ii., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Capsicum,
bmisod, ) part ; rectified spirit, 20 parts ; mace-
rate 48 hours with three fourths of the spirit, agi-
tating occasionally, pack in a iiercolator and let
it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit ; as
soon as it ceases to drop wash the marc with spirit
to make up 27 parts. — Dote, 10 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. Ii.) Capsicum, bruised, 10 dr.; proof
spirit, 1 quart; digest 14 days (or percolate —
Ph. E). — Dote, 10 to 60 drops; in atonic dys-
pepsia, scarlet fever, ulcerated sore throat, A,e. It
is also made into a gargle.

3. (Ph. v.) Cayenne pods, bruised, 1) oz.;
proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate for 14 days. This
is of fully twice the strength of the preceding.

4. (B. P.C.) Capsicum fruit, in No. 40 powder,
10 oz.; rectified spirit, a sufficient quantity.
Moisten the powder witli a suitable quantity of
the menstruum, and macerate for 24 hours in a
closed vessel ; then pack in a percolator, and gra-
dually pour rectified spirit upon it until a pint
and a half of tincture is obtained. — Dote, 1 to 3
minims. Principally nsed externally.

Tincture of Capclcnm (Concentrated). See
EssBircBa.

Tincture of Capsienm with Yeratri*. 8jfu.
TnroTiTBA OAPSioi ouic TBBATBI& (Dr Fumhidl),
L. Prep. Dissolve 4 gr. of veratria in 1 oz. of
concentrated tincture of capsicum.

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1696

TINCTUKE

Tinetme of Card'amomi. Si/n. Tikctuba

CABDAMOMI (Pb. £.)> TlHCT. AUOMI SBPBHTIS,

li. Pr^. (Ph. L. 1836.) CHrdamoin seeds, Sj
oz. (4t oz.— Ph. E.); proof spirit, 1 quart;
digrest for 14 days (or percolate — Ph. E.).

06$. Tlie shells should be sifted from the seeds
before maceration, and the latter are preferably
ground in a pepper mill instead of being bruised
in a mortar. Aromatic and carminative. — Dote,
1 to 2 fl. dr., as an adjunct to purgative miztnres.

Tincture of Cardamoms (Compound). Si/n.

StOKACBIO TniOIUBE; TlKCIUBA CABDAUOHI

C0MP08ITA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), TiNCnriiA
BTOMACHiCA, li. Prep. 1. (B. p.) Cardamom
seeds, freed from their pericarps, bruised, 1 part;
caraway, bruised, 1 part; raisins, freed from
their seieds, 8 parts; bruised cinnamon, 2 parts;
cochineal, in powder, | part; proof spirit, 80
parts; macerate 48 hours with f of the spirit,
agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and
let it drain, pour upon it the remainder of the
spirit, and, when it ceases to drop, press, and wash
the marc with spirit to make up 80 parts. — Dose,
i to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Cardiimoms (without the shelb),
caraways, and cochineal, of each, bruised, 2^ dr. ;
cinnamon, bruised, 6 dr. ; raisins, stoned, 5 oz. ;
proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate 7 days, then
itrun with expression.

3. (Ph. E., and Ph. L. 1836.) As the Inst, but
using only 1 dr. of cochineal, and macerating 14
days; or "it may be prepared by the method of
displacement" (Pb. E.).

4. (Wholesale.) From cardamoms and cara-
way seeds, of each, 4 oz. ; cochineal (a, g.), 6 oz. ;
cassia, 8 oz. ; sultana raisins, 5 lbs. ; proof spirit,
4 galls, (or rectified spirit and water, of each, 2
galls.) ; macerate, &c., as before.

Tincture, Carminative. ^<7;yii. Tiuctvba cab-
HINATITA (B. P. C), L. Prep. Cardamom
seeds, bruised, 600 gr.; stronger tincture of
ginger, li fl. oz.; oil of cinnamon, 100 minims;
oil of caraway, 100 minims; oil of clove, 100
minims ; recti6ed spirit, sufficient to produce 1
pint. Macerate the cardamoms in 15 fl. oz. of the
spirit for a week ; decant, express, and dissolve
the oils in the mixed tinctures, making up to 1
pint with rectified spirit. — Dote, 2 to 10 minims.

Tincture of Oasca. S$fn. Tikctuba ebt-
TBBOPBL(El (B. p. C), L. Prep. Casca bark,
in No. 20 powder, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, a sufficient
quantity; moisten the powder with a suitable
quantity of the menstruum, and macerate for 24
hours, then pack in a percolator, and gradually
pour rectified spirit upon it until 1 pint of tinc-
ture is obtained. — Dote, 6 to 10 minims.

Tincture of Cascarilla. Si/*. Tutotttba cab-
CABlLts (B. P., Ph. L., E., &. D.), L. Prep. 1.
(B. P.) Cascarilla, bruised, 1 part ; proof s^rit,
8 parts ; macerate 48 hoars with 6 parts of the
spirit, agitating occasionally ; pack in a percolator,
let it drain, and pour on the remainder of the
spirit, and, when it ceases to drop, wash the marc,
press, filter, and make up 8 parts.— Dom, i to 2 dr.

2. (Pb. L.) Cascarilla, bruised, 5 oz.; proof
spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 7 days (14 days —
Ph. D.; or percolate — Pb. E.). An exceUent
tonic and stomachic; chiefly employed as an ad-
junct to mixtures, &e. — Dote, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Cas'sia. Sgn. TivorpitA cassis
(Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. £.) CaSsia, 3^ oi.;
proof spirit, I quart; macerate for 7 days, or per-
colate. Stomachic and carminative. — Doie, 1 to
2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Castor. Sgn. Tihctcba cabtobii
(Ph. L. & E.), TiHCT. oastobbi Robbici, Li. Frtp.
1. Castor, in coarse powder, 1 part; rectified
spirit, 20 parts; macerate 7 days, strun, sad
wash the marc with spirit sufficient to make up to
20 parts.— i)o««, i to 1 dr.

2. (Pb. L.) Castor, braised, 2i oz.; rectified
spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate
— Ph. E.).

Obt. The Dublin College ordered Rassisn
castor in their Ph. of 1826; but the scarcity and
hitch price of that ^'ariety, we fear, too often pre-
cludes its use. The tincture of the shops if
usually made with only 8 oz. of castor to the
gall, of proof spirit. Nervine and antispasmodic.
—Dote, 20 drops to 2 fl. dr.; in hysteria, epi-
lepsy, 4c.

Tincture of Ca«t«r (A]nnio"niated). Sgn.

ElIXIB TOSTIDVU, TINCTDBA CA8T0BBI COK-
POBITA, T. 0. AMMONIATA (Ph. E.), li. Prtp.

(Ph. E.) Castor, braised, 2^ oz.; assafoetida. in
small fragments, 10 dr. ; spirit of ammonia, 1
quart; digest 7 days in a well-closed vessel.
Stimulant and antispasmodic. — Dote and utet, as
the last. With the addition of i oz. of opium, it
forms the Elixir Uterinum, or Elixir Castorei
Thebaicum of foreign Pharmacopoeias.

Tinctore of Castor (Ethereal). Sy». Tutctdba
OASTOBBI .ETHEBEA (P. Cod.), L. Prep. Castor,
in powder, 1 oz. ; alcoholised ether (see 'Ethb-
BEAL TiHci. OP Abbafcbtlda), 10 OZ. (by weight).

Tincture of Castor Oil Seeds. jSy». Timctcba
BiciNT, L. Castor oil seeds bruised are digested
with five times their weight of rectified spirit.
Tliis tincture is stated to be four times the
strength of the oil.

Tincture of Cat'eehu. Sgn. Cokpocitd tihc-
tubb op catbchu; Tikctuba catkcev com-
POSITA (Ph. L.), T. CATBCHU (B. P., Ph. E. and
D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Pale catechu, in
coarse powder, 2) parts ; cinnamon, braised, 1
part; proof spirit, 20 parts; macerate for seven
days with agitation, strain, press, and filter, and
add spirit to make up 20 parts. — Dote, ^ to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Catechu, in powder, Si oz. (4 oz.
— Ph. D.) ; cinnamon, braised, 2} oz. (2 oz. — Ph.
D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for seven
days (or percolate — Ph. E.).

3. (wholesale.) From catechu. 2 lbs.; oU of
cassia, 3 fl. dr.; rectified spirit and w«ter, of
each, 1 gall. ; macerate for 10 days.— Doce, 1 to 2
fl_. dr., as a warm astringent ; in diarrhoea, *c.,
either alone or combined with chalk.

Tincture of Cevadilla. Sg». Tiitotitra baba-
VILJJB {Dr Tumbull), L. Prep. Digest the^
seeds of cevadilla (freed from their capeulea), and
bruise for ten days in as much rectified spirit as
will cover them ; express and filter. For external
use only in rheumatism.

Tincture of Chamomil*. Sgn. Tutctitba ak-
THEMisiB (Aust. Ph.), L. Dried chamomile
fiowers, 2 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 pint.

Tincture of Chiret'ta. Sgn. TixonntA on-

BAYTX (B. P.), TnCKTBA OBIBATTA, T. CBI-

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TINCTUBE

ie>7

MTT« (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Chiretta,
cnt miaU and bmised, 1 part; proM apirit, 8
parte; maoente 48 boun with 6 part* of the
aiwit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator,
and let it drain, then pour on the remaining
■pirit; when it oeaaes to drop, preai, and waah
the marc with apirit to make up 8 parte. — Dote,
15 to 60 minima (B. Ph. doae i to 8 dr.).

2. (Ph. D.) Chiretta or chirayta (bmiaed), 6
OS. ; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 daya.
Tonic and atomachic. — Vote, i to 2 fl. dr.

naetue of Chloroform (Compound). 8g*.
TttronntA OHiiOBovoBui ookfobita (B. P.), L.
Prep. Mix 2 fl. oz. of cliloroform with 8 fl. oz.
of rectified spirit and 10 fl. oz. of oomponnd
tinctiire of cardamoms. — Dote, 20 to 40 minims.

Tisetoze of Chloroform and Morphine, ^n.
TnroTURA celobotouh ar kobphihx, L,
Chloroform, 1 oz. ; ether, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1
OS.; bydroclilorate of morphine, 8 gr.; dilated
hjrdro^anic acid, i oz. ; oil of peppermint, 4
minima; liquid extract of liqooriee, 1 os. ; treacle,

1 oz. ; syrup, enough to make 8 oz. — Dote, 6 to
10 minims.

Tinetore, Cholera. Bacc capsici, 1 oz.; ol.
menth. pip., 1| oz.; camphora, 1| oz.; opii g., }
oz. ; rhei r., } oz. ; croci stig., 46 gr. ; zingiberia
r., 60 gr. ; sacc. aolazzi, 90 gr. ; S. T. R., 40 oz. ;
aqus, 10 oz. Boil opium, safiVon, and aolazzi in
the water. Mix the liquor with the S. V. B. in
which the camphor and peppermint have been
diaaolTod, and make with the mixture a tincture
of the other ingredienta. — Dote, 6 to 30 drops to
be taken in water every ten or fifteen minutea,
until the pain and purging ceaae.

Tincture of Cinchona. Syn. Tihotttiis ov
BABK ; TiHCTTraA onroHOK£ (B. P., Ph. L., E.,
and D.), T. oobtiois Pbbvtiani, T. o. P. sm-
PLBX, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Bed cinchona bark,
in coarae powder, 4 parte ; proof apirit, 20 parte ;
macerate 48 houra with 16 parte of the spirit,
agitating occaaionally, pack in a percolator and
let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit,
and wlien it ceaaea to drop, press, and wash the
marc with apirit to make 80 parte. — Dote, 1 to

2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Yellow cinchona bark (bruised),
8 OS. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 14 daya
(or percolate — Ph. E.).

Obt. The Dublin College orders pale bark,
and the Edinburgh either spedea, according to
prescription. — Dote, 1 to 3 fl. dr.; as a tonic,
stomachic, and febrifuge.

Tincture of Cinchona (Ammoniatad). Sgn.
TnrcTtniA oracHoiriB ahmoitiatx (Ph. L. 1824),
L. Prep. Peruvian bark, 4 oz. ; aromatic spirit
of ammonia, 32 fl. oz. Macerate for 10 days. —
Dote, i dr. to 1 dr.

Tincture of Cinchona (Componnd). Sgn.

COXPOTTITD TIBOIUBB OV BABK, HxTXBAK'b

T. OH B., Fbtib TiircTinu ; TnroTiraA oimohoks
ooMPOaiTA (B. p.. Ph. L., E., and D.), T.

0OBTICI8 PBBUVIAlfl COKPOBITA, li. Prep. 1.

(B. P.) Bed cinchona bark, in coarse powder, 4
parte ; bitter orange peel, cut small and bruised,
8 parte; aerpentary, bruised, 1 part; saffron, \
part; cochineal, \ part; proof spirit, 40 parte;
macerate 48 hours with SO parte of apirit, agitat-
ing occaaionally, pack in a percolator and let it
TOL. n.

drain, then pour on the remainder of the apirit;
when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the mare
with spirit to make up 40 parte. — Dote, \ to
2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Pale bark, bruised, 4 os. ; dried
Mtter orange peel, 3 oz..(2 oz. — Ph. D.) ; serpen-
tarr root, bruised, 6 dr,; hay saffron, 2 dr.;
cochineal, in powder, 1 dr. ; macerate for 7 days
(14 days— Ph. D.; or percolate— Ph. E.), press,
and filter.

3. (Wholesale.) Prom pale bark, 3i lbs. ; dried
orange peel, 2 lbs. ; serpentary root, 4 oz. ; hay
saffron, 1 oz. ; cochineal, \ oz.; proof spirit, 4
galls, (or rectified apirit and water, of eacl^ 2
galls.) ; macerate for 14 days.

Obt. In the Ph. E, yellow bark is ordered.—
Dote and %te, as the last.
Tlaetnre of Cinchona (Pale). 8gn. Tihothbb

or FALB BABK; TlHOTUBA OIVOHONX PALLISJB

(Ph. L.), L. Prep. From pale bark, as the
last.

TtBCture of Cin'Bamon. Sgn. TnrorVBA oix-
KAHOHi (B. p., Ph. L. and £.), L. Prep. 1.
(B. P.) Cinnamon, in coarse powder, 1 part;
rectified spirit, 8 parte ; macerate 48 hours with
6 parte of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack
in a percolator and let it drain, then pour on the
remaining spirit ; when it ceases to drop, press,
and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8
parte.

2. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon, bruised, Z\ oz. ; proof
spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate
— Ph. K). In the shops cassia ia usually subati>
tnted for cinnamon, and spirit 26 u, p. for proof
spirit. — Dote, 1 to 4 fl. dr. ; as a cordial, aromatic,
and stomachic.

Tincture of Cinnamon (Compound). 8gu,

ABOMATIO TnrOTUBB; TlSOTTTBA OJlTirAKOia
OOKPOBITA (Ph. L., £., and D.), T. ABOHAIIOA,
L. Prm. 1. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon, bruised, 1
OS. ; caidamoms (bruised, without the shells), \
oz.; long pepper and ginger, of each, 2| dr.;
proof spirit, 1 quart ; digest for 7 days (or perco-
iate— Ph. E.). The Ph. E. omite the ginger, and
uses \ oz. more cardamoms.

2. (Ph. D.) Cinnamon, 2 oz.; cardamoms, 1
oz. ; ginger, \ oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate
for 14 days. The following form is current in the
wholesale houses.

3. Cassia, 1 lb. ; cardamoms, 6 oz. ; long pepper
and ^nger, of each, i lb. ; oil of cassia, \\ fl. dr. ;
proof spirit, 4 galls, (or rectified spirit and water,
of each, 2 galls.). Cordial, aromatic, stomachic.
— Dote, 1 to 2 fl. dr. ; in atonic gout, debility,
flatulence, &c.

Tinetore of Cloves. i8^. Timotttba oabto-
FHTUii (OvtionrQ, L. Prep. Cloves, 2 os.;
rectified spirit, 16 oz. Macerate 10 days.

Tincture of Coch'ineaL 8gn. TorcmTBi.
ooooi OAOTi (Ph. D.), L. Pr^. 1. (B. P.)
Cochineal, in powder, 1 part; proof spirit, 8
parte; macerate 7 days; strain, and wash the
marc with spirit to make up 8 parte. Dote, 30
to 90 minims twice a day. Used chiefly for
colouring medicines.

2. (Ph. D.) Cochineal, in fine powder, 2 oz. ;
proof spirit, 1 pint. Antispasmodic and sedative^
but chiefly employed for ite colour. — Dote, i to 2
fl. dr.

107

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TINCTURE

Tijtotare of Coeliiiieal (Ammoniated). Sg*.
TiKClVBA coooi AicHoiriATA (Vr Sberle), L.
Prep. Cochineal, i oz. j water of ammonia, i oz. j
rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.—Dote, 5 drops, in hoop-
ing-cough.

Xinetue of Col'shicnm. Sj/n. Gout tihc-
Timii, TnrcnrBE ov meadow BAnratON; Tnro-

TCSA COXOEICI BEMnniH (B. P.); TlirCTUSA

ooi«Hioi (Ph. L. and E.), T. Bmavvii colohici
(Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. Colchieum seed, bruised,
1 part : proof spirit, 8 parts ; macerate 48 hours
with 6 parts of the spirit, agitating occasionally,
pack in a percolator and let it drain, then pour
on the remainder of the spirit ; when it ceases to
drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 8
parts. — Do*e, 16 to 80 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Seeds of meadow sailh>n (Col-
chieum auiumnale), bruised (finely (ground in a
coffee-mill — Ph. E.), 6 oz. ; proof sjjrit, 1 quart ;
macerate for 7 days (14 days — Ph. D. ; or perco-
late— Ph. E.) J then press and filter. — Doie, 15
to 20 drops to 1 fi. dr. ; in gout, &c.

Tinotnre of Colchienm Bulbs. Sgn. Tnrc-

■HTBA COLOHICI B BADIOE (P. Cod.), L. Prtp.

macerate 1 part of the bnlbs in 6 parts (by
weight) of proof spirit for 10 days,
nnctore of Colchienm (Compound). Sgn.

TlHCTUKA COLOHICI OOMFOBITA (Ph. L.), SPI-
BITU8 OOLCHICI AKKOKIATUS, L. Prep. (Pb.

L.) Colchienm seeds, bruised, 6 oz. ; aromatic
spirit of ammonia, 1 quart; digest for 7 days,
<^en press and filter. — Dote, 20 drops to 1 fl.
dr. ; in gout. See.
Tincture of Colehicnm Flowers. Sgu. Tiko-

TITBA FLOSUH COLOHICI; EAU H^DIOIKALB

s'HvBBON (Dr Wilton), L. Prep. Take of the
fresh juice of oolchicmn flowers, 2 parts ; French
brandy (or proof sjnrit), 1 part ; mix, and in a
few days decant or filter, and preserve it in small
bottles in a cool place.

Tinctnic of Coloeynth. St/n. TmoTusA oolo-
CTlfTHlDis (Ph. Q.), L. Prep. Coloeynth, 1
part; rectified spirit, 10 parts. — Dote, 6 to 20
drops.

Tincture of Contrayerra. Syn. TnrOTrrRA
OOHTBATESVA (P. Cod.), L. Prep. Contrayerva
root, 4 oz. ,- rectified spirit, 1 pint.

Tincture of Copai'ba (Alkaline). %». Tnro-

TUBA COFAIBX ALKAXIVA, L. Ptep. (XeiOU

TAompton.) Dissolve carbonate of potassa, 2oz., in
water, 1 pint, and add to this balsam of copaiba,
in a thin stream, constantly stirring, until the
mixture, at first white and milky, becomes clear,
like jelly or amber, which will generally take
place when abont a pint of balsam has been
added j set the mixture aside for 2 or S hours,
then pour in of rectified spirit, 1 quart, and mix
the whole together. Sweet spirit of nitre may
he snbstitnted for spirit of wine, provided it does
not contwn free acid. — Dote, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls.

Tincture of Coto. 8gn. Tekctusa ooto (B.
P. C), L. Prep. Take of coto bark, bmised, 2
oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint. Macerate for 7 days,
with occasional agitation ; then press, filter, and
add sufficient rectified spirit to produce 1 pint. —
Dote, 10 to 30 minims.

Tincture of Croton. Syn. Tiitctuiia obo-
loxis, L. Prep. Croton seed, 1 part; rectified
-spirit, 6 parts {Seatley).

Tincture of Cn'bebs. Syn. Esbebob op or-

BEBB; TlNCTUBA CUBBBil (B. P., Ph. L. and
D.), TlKOTXTEA PIFSBI8 CUBXBJE, L. Prtp. 1.

(B. p.) Cubebs, in powder, 1 part; rectified
spirit, 8 parts ; macerate 48 hours witji 6 parts
<rf the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a
percolator, and let it drain ; pour on the remain-
ing spirit, and when it ceases to drop, waah the
marc with spirit to make up 8 parts. — Dote, 1 to
2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Cnbebs (bmised or groand in a
pepper-mill), 1 lb. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; mace-
rate for 7 days, press out the liqnor, and filter.—
Dote, i to 1 fl. dr., three or fonr times • day ; in
gonorrhcea, &c.

a. (Ph. D., and Ph. L. 1886.) Cubeba, 5 oz.;
rectified spirit, 1 quart (proof spirit — Ph. D.
1826) ; macerate for 14 dMjB.— Dote, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Cnspa"ria. Syn. TnrcnreA cus-
pabi;e (Pb. E.), T. ANOOBTtrBJE, L. Prep. (Ph. E.)
Angostura bark or casparia, 4i oz. ; proof spirii
1 quart ; digest or percolate. Tonic, stzmulsni
and stomachic. — Dote, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Deadly Bightahade. Tincture of
belladonna.

Tincture, Se Coetlogon'g. Hsffenden'a tinc-
ture.

Tincture of Digitalis. Tincture of foxglove.

Tincture of Elaterinm. Syn. TnrcTtrBA sla-
TBBli, L. Prep. Extract of elaterium, 8 gr.;
rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz. — Dote, t to 2 dr.

Tincture of Elecampane'. Sk/n. TnrcruBA
linjLa, T. HiLENir, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Pow-
dered elecampane, 4 oz. ; proof spirit, I pint;
macerate for 16 days. Tonic, deobstment, and
expectorant. — Dote, i to 2 fl. dr. ; in dyspepcns,
palsy, dropsies, nterine obstructions, &c.

Tincture of E/got. Syn. Tinctuba bboalis
OOBHVTI, T. EBBora (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep-
1. (B. P.) Ergot, bruised, 1 part ; proof apint,
4 parts ; macerate 48 hours with 3 parts of the
spirit, agitating occasionally ; pack in a percolator,
let it (brain, (£en pour on the remaining spirit;
when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with the
spirit to make up 4 parts. — Dote, 15 to 60
minima.

2. (Apothecaries' Hall.) Ergot (ground in a
coffee-mill), 2i oz. ; proof spirit, 1 pint; digest for
7 days. — Dote. A teaapoonful; to excite the
action of the uterus in labour.

8. (Ph. D.) Ergot, 8 oz.; proof spirit, I
quart; macerate for 14 days, and strain with
expression. — Dote, 20 drops to 1 fl. dr. ; as the
Ust.

Tincture of Ergot (Ammonl«ted). ^n. Tnrc-

TUBA BBOOT^ AKHONIATA, L. Prtp. Ergot (iu

No. 20 powder), 10 oz. ; aromatic spirit of ammo-
nia, a sufficient quantity. M<dsten the powdn
with a suitable quantity of the menstrunm, and
macerate for 12 hours ; then pack in a percolator,
and gradually pour aromatic spirit of ammonia
upon it until 1 pint of tincture is obtained. — Doit,
10 to 60 minims.

Tincture of Ergot (Ethereal), ^n. TnroruBA
BBQOT£ XTHEBKA (Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. li.)
Ei^t, bruised, 15 oz. ; ether, 1 quart; maceiate
for 7 days, press, and filter. — Dote, 10 dnms to 1
fl. dr.

Tiactnre of Eucalyptus. <^. TnrorcBA ic-

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TINCTDRE

1690

«ALTFn (B. P. C), L. Frep. Take of encalyptiu
leaves (in No. 20 powder), 4 oz.; rectified spirit,
a sufficient quantity. Moisten tlie powder with a
suitable quantity of the menstruum, and macerate
for 24 hours ; then pack in a percolator, and g^ra-
<lnal]y pour rectified spirit upon it nntil 1 pint of
tincture is obtained. — Dote, 15 minims to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Euphorbia. Syn. Tiitotuba. iu-
f HOBBLs (B. P. C), L. Prsp. Take of euphorbia
(in No. 20 powder), 4 oz. ; proof spirit, a sufficient
quantity. Moisten the powder with a suitable
quantity of the menstruum, and macerate for 24
hours ; then pack in a percolator, and gradually
pour proof spirit upon it until 1 pint of tincture
is obtiuned. — Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

Tiactuie, Psbrifiige. Sg». TmorvuA. tbbsi-
FtTOA {Dr Clutton), L. Pr^. Febrifuge spirit,
i pint ; angelica root, H dr. ; serpentary, 1 J dr. ;
cardamom seeds, 1| dr. Digest and filter.

Tincture of neabane. %a. TmoTxruk bbi-
-esBoins, L. Prep. Dried Canada fleabane
i^lErigeron canademe), 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 16 oz.
Macerate, express, and filter.

Tincture of Foxglove. Sgn. Tinotitba diqi-
TAMB (Ph. L., B., & D.). L. Prep. 1. (Ph. li.)
Dried foxglove leaves, 4 oz. (5 oz.— Ph. D.);
proof spirit, 1 quart s macerate for 7 days (14
days — Ph. D.; or percolate — Ph. E.) ; then press
and strain.

2. (B. P.) Digitalis leaves, in coarse powder,
2} oz. ; proof spirit, 1 pint. Proceed as for tinc-
ture of aconite (B. P.).

Obi. This tincture is a powerful sedative, di-
uretic, and narcotic. The commencing dose should
be 10 drops, gradually and cautiously increased to
30, or even 40; in asthmas, dropsies, fevers,
phthisis, Ac. " If 40 fl. oz. of spirit be allowed to
pass (percolate) through the sp. gr. will be '944;
and the solid contents of 1 fl. oz. will amount to
24 gr." (Ph. E.).

Tincture of Galangal. Sy». Tutotuba oaukoji
(Ph. Amat.), L. Prep. Oalangal root, 1 oz. ;
proof spirit, 6 oz. — Doee, 30 to 60 drops.

TinetareofOal'baiiTun. Si/*. Tinctuba oai,-
BANi, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Galbannm, 2
oz.; proof spirit, 82 fl. oz.; digest 7 days. Stimu-
lant and antispasmodic. — Dote, 1 to 8 fl. dr. "If
less nauseous than tincture of assafcBtida, it is
also less powerful " {Dr A. T. Thomson).

Tincture of Qalls. ^». Tinctitba OAixiB
(B. P., Ph. L. k D.), T. OALUBXTK (Ph. E.), L.
JPrsp. 1. (B. P.) Oalls, bruised, 1 part ; proof
spirit, 8 parts ; macerate for 48 hours with 6 parts
of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a
percolator, let it drain, and then pour on the re-
maining spirit ; when it ceases to drop, wash the
marc with spirit to make up 8 parts. — Dote, ^ to
2 dr.

2. (Ph. li.) Qalls, in powder, 6 oz.; proof
spirit, 1 quart; macerate tor 7 days (14 days —
Ph.D.; or percolate — Ph. E.); then express the
liquid, and fllter it. Astringent and styptic. —
Do*e, I to 2 fl. dr. It is chiefly used as a test for
iron.

Tincture of Garden KarigoUL Sgn. Tinotuba
OALBKDULS, L. Pr»p. A Saturated tincture of
the leaves and flowers of the garden marigold is
prepared with whisky, and is repntcd to be of
service as an application for lacerated wounds.

Tincture of Qarden JTlghtahade (Ethereal). 8t/».
TnfornBA bolasi sthkbba (P. Cod.), L. Prep.
Powdered leaves of garden nightshade, 4 oz. ; sul-
phuric ether, 16 oz. (by weight). Make by per-
colation.

Tincture of Oentian (Ani]Bo"niated). Sy»,
TiircrtrBA aBHTiAtriB ahxoniata, L. ; £i,txiB
AWrisoBOiTTtBirx, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Gen.
tian, 1 oz. ; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, i oz. ;
proof spirit, 82 fl. oz. As the last, but preferred
in acidity and low spirits.

Tincture of Gen'tian (Compound). Sy*. Bittbb

STOMACHIC TIWCTUBK ; TlNOTUBA OKKTIAITf OOJC-
P08ITA (B. p.. Ph. L., E., & D.). T. AltABA. L.

Prep. 1. (B. P.) Gentian, bruised, I J parts;
bitter orange peel, bruised, | part; cardamom
seeds, bruised, i part; proof spirit, 20 parts;
macerate for 48 hours with IS parts of the spirit,
agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it
drain, and then pour on the remaining spirit;
when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit
to make up 20 parts. — Dote, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Gentian root, sliced and bruised,
2\ oz. ; dried orange peel, 10 dr. ; cardamoms,
bmised, 5 dr. ; proof spirit, one qnart ; macerate
for 7 days (or percholate— Ph. E.). The Edin-
burgh College substitutes canella for cardamoms,
and adds of cochineal, i dr.

3. (Ph. D.) Gentian root, 3 oz.; dried bitter
orange peel, 1 ) oz. ; cardamoms, \ oz. ; proof spirit,
1 qnart ; macerate for 14 days.

4. (Wholesale.) Gentian, 2\ lbs. ; dried orai^e
peel, \\ lbs. ; bruised cardamoms, 2} lbs. ; proof
spirit, 4 galls, (or rectified spirit aud water, of
each 2 galls.) ; digest as last.

Ob». This is an excellent and popular stoma-
chic bitter and tonic. — Dote, 1 to 2 fl.dr. ; in dys-
pepsia, loss of appetite, &c.

Tincture of Geranium. Sy». Tnrcrf ba osBAim,
L. Prep. Dried roots of Oeranium maeulatum,
5 oz. ; proof spirit, 2 pints. Astringent. Used
chiefly in gaigles.

Tinc'tnre of Ginger. Syn, TiNcnniA znrai-
BBBIB (B. P., Ph. L., E.,& D.), L. Pn^j. l.(B. P.)
Ginger, bruised, 1 part; rectified spirit, 8 parts;
macerate the ginger 48 hours in 6 parts of the
spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a perco-
lator, let it drain, pour on the remaining spirit,
and when it ceases to drop, press, filter, and add
spirit to make 8 parts. — Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Ginger, bruised, 2^ oz. ; rectified
spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 7 days (or percolate
—Ph. E.).

3. (Wholesale.) Coarsely powdered unbleached
Jamaica ginger, 1^ lbs.; rectified spirit (or spirit
distilled from the essence), H galls. ; water, ^ gall.;
digest as above. StimiUant and carminative. —
Dote, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

Obi. The formula of the Ph. D. 1826 resem-
bles the above ; that of the last Ph. D. orders 8 oz.
of ginger to 1 quart of rectified spirit. The
product is, consequently, of fully 3 times the
strength of that of the others, and is similar to
the common BsesircE op aixeEB of the shops.

Tincture of Ginger (Stronger). 8yn. Tnrc-
TUBA znrarBBBis vobtiob (B. P.), L. Pack
tightly in a percolator, ginger in fine powder, 10
oz., and pour over it carefully | pint of rectified
spirit. After two bonrs more add more spirit, and

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170O

TINCTURE

let it percolate alowly nntil 1 pint of tinctare lias
been collected. — Bote, 5 to 20 minims.

TinetaxeofOold-ThTead. <Syn. Tikotcba.coptib
(JDr Wood), L. Prep. Qold-thread, 1 oz. ; proof
spirit, 16 oz. — Do*e, 1 dr. Tonic.

Tinctare, Qont. Sgn. Tincttba antabthbi-
ncA, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Graved*.) Take of
dried orange peel and powder of aloes and canella,
of each, 2 oz. ; rhubarb, 1 oz. ; French brandy (or
proof spirit), 1 quart ; digest a vreek, and strain
with expression. — Dote, 1 to 2 teaapoonf uls night
and morning.

2. (Dr WiUon't.) lecture of colchicom
flowers.

3. Tincture of colchicnm,

Tinctare of Qreen Hellebore Boot. fify*. Tnrc-

TTTBA TIBATBI TIBIDIB (B. P.), L. Prtp.

Green hellebore root in coarse powder, 4oz. ; recti-
fied spirit, 1 pint. Prepared as tincture of
aconite (B. P.).

Tinctare of Qoa'iacom. Sm. Tibotitra eirAiAOi
(Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. (Ph. E., & Ph. L. 1836.)
Qnaiacum resin (powdered), 7 oz. (8 oz. — Ph. D.) ;
rectified spirit, 1 quart ; digest for 14 days, and
filter. An excellent sudorific ; in chronic gout and
rheumatism. — Dote, 1 to 3 fl. dr., taken in milk.

Tinctare of Gaaiacom (Alkaline). Sy*. Tinc-
TVBA OUAIAOI ALEALINA {Dr Deweet), L. Prep.
Qoaiacum, 6 oz. ; carbonate of potash or of soda,
8 dr. ; piraento, 2 oz. ; proof spirit, 2 pints.
— Dote. A teaspoonful 3 times a day in dys-
menorrboea.

Tinetoie of Onaiacam (Compound). 8g». Alt-

MOHIATBO TIirCTUSB OV OUAIACVH, VOLATILB T.
or a., BHEUUATIO DBOFS ; TlKOrVBA OUAIAOI
OOKFOSITA (Ph. L.), T. G. AHUOITIATA (B. P., Ph.

E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Quaiac reun, in fine
powder, 4 parts; aromatic spirit of ammonia,
20 parts; macerate 7 days, filter, and wash
the fitter with the spirit to make up 20 parts.
— Dote, 1 to 1 dr., with 1 dr. of mucilage or yolk
of egg, to form an emulsion.

2. (Pb. L.) Guaiacnm in coarse powder, 7 oz. ;
aromatic spirit of ammonia (spirit of ammonia —
Ph. E.), 1 quart ; digest for 7 days, and decant or
filter, A powerful, stimulating sudorific and
emmenag^gue; in chronic rheumatism, gout,
amenorrhcea, &c — Dote, 1 to 2 fl. dr., in milk or
some viscid liquid.

Tincture of Oaaiacom Wood. <^». TurorVBA
euAiAOi Liam (P. Cod.), L'. Prep. 1 part of the
rasped wood to 5 parts by weight of proof spirit.
Digest 10 days and strain.

Tinctare of Ouarana. Sgn. Tinotuba pattl-
LlHlf (Dorvauli), L. Prep. Alcoholic extract
of goarana, 1 oz. ; proof spirit, 16 oz. Dissolve.

Tinctare, Haflienden's Balaam'lc. Sun. Di
Cobtxooob'b balsauio tihctubb. This is a
nostrum of many virtues, prepared from tincture
of serpentary (of double strength), 1) fl. oz. ; com-
pound tincture of benzoin, 1 fl. oz. ; tinctures of
Toln and opium, of each, i fl. oz. ; with rectified
spirit, q. s. to render the mixture 'bright,' should
it turn milky (' Anat. of Quackery ').

Tincture of Eamamelii. Sgn. TnrcTUBB of

WITOH-EAZBL ; TlKCTrBA HAHAKBLISIB (B. P.),

L. Prep. Hamamelis bark (in No. 20 powder),
2 parts ; proof spirit, 20 parts. Macerate, filter,
and make up to a pint with proof spirit. •

nnetare, Hatfield's. Prep. From gnm gmua-
cum and soap, of each, 2 dr. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint;
digest for a week. Used as TiKOiirBB OF qcau-
CT7K ; also externally.

Tinctare of Hedge-hywop. 8y». Tacrsxk
OBATIOUB (Seece), h. Prep. Dried bcdge-
byssop, 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 82 oz.

Tinctare of HeUebore. Ssfn. Tnrcnmi or

BLACK HBLLBBOBB; TlXCTirBA HBU/XBOBI (Pfa.
L.), TlKOIUBA BBIX8BOBI BIOBI, L. Prep.

(Ph. L.) Black hellebore root, bmised, 6 oi. j
proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate 7 days, then stiaii
with expression.

Obt. This tincture is a powerful emmenagogoe,
and was a favourite remedy with Dr Head in
uterine obstructions and certain cutaneons affec-
tions.— Dote, 20 drops to one fl. dr. See Tt>c-

TUBS OF TBBATBUM.

Tinctare of Hemlock. Sgn. TnroTU&A cicftx,
T. coNii (Pb. L. & E.), T. coNii kaoulati, L.
Prep. 1. (Pb. L.) Dried hemlock leaves, 6 oi.;
proof spirit, 1 quart ; digest a week, press, and
filter. In the Ph. L. 1836, cardamom seeds. 1 oc,
was added.

2. (Ph. £.) Fresh hemlock leaves, 12 oi.;
express the juice, bruise the residuum, and treat
it, by percolation, first with tincture of carda-
moms, 10 fl. oz., and next with rectified spirit, 1)
pints ; mix the liquids, and filter. Deobstrnent
and narcotic— 2>0K of the Ph. L., 20 to 60 drops ;
that of the Ph. E. tincture is less, it being
a much stronger and certain preparation. See
Hbvlock.

8. (B. P.) Hemlock fruit, bmised, 2} oi.;
proof spirit, 1 pint. Proceed as for tinctare of
aconite (B. P.).

Tinctare of Hemp. Tincture of Indian hemp.

Tincture of Hen'bane. £>ya. TmonrsA htos-
OYAMl (B. P., Pb. L., E., & D.), L. JPr^. 1.
(B. P.) Hyoscyamus leaves, dried and braised, 1
part ; proof spirit, 8 parts ; macerate 48 boon
with 6 parts of the spirit, pack in a percolator,
and when it has drained pour on the^remaining
spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press, and wash
the marc with spirit to make up 8 parts. — Dou,
16 to 60 minins.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried leaves of beubute, 5 oi.;
proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate tor 7 days (14 dsya
— Ph. D. ; or percolate— Ph. E.), then press and
filter. Anodyne, sedative, soporific, and narcotic.
—Dote, 20 drops to 2 fl. dr.

Obt. This, as well as the timctubxb OF FOX-

OliOYB, BBXIX>CE, HOFB, JALAP, LOBBLIA IBFIATi,
BHATAICr, BATtlTB, SQUILLS, BBSVA, VALBBIAV,

yroBMWOOD, Ac., is usually prepared by the drug-
gists with 1 lb. of the dried leaves (or dried Arag})
to each gall, of a mixture of equal parts of Rcti-
fled spirit and water.

Tinctare of Hop*. S^. TnicrusA ixtvu
(B. P., Ph. L. & E.). TiNCTUBA Bnnru, I-
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Hops, 1 part; proof spirit, S
parts ; macerate 48 hours in 6 parts of the spirit,
agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it
drain, add the remaining spirit, and when Bnid
ceases to drop, wash the marc, filter, and make op
8 parts.— Dote, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Hops, 6 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 qaartj
digest 7 days, then press and filter. Anodyne,
sedative, and soporific. — Dote, i to 2 fl. dr. Fc

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unctukb

1701

the formnla of the Ph. E. and D., lee TnroTCBa o>
LnFUxnr,
Tinetiire of Hopi (Compound). Syn. TnrornsA

IUFX7XI COXFOBITA, L. ; LiQUBITB DBS TBIOIIB17X

(P. Cod.), Ft. Prep. Hops, 1 oz. ; smaller centaury,
1 oz.; orange peel, 2 dr. ; carbonate of potash, 12
gr- ; proof spirit, 18 oz. (by weight).

Tlnetare of Eorae-ehestnnt. Sgn. TnroTUBA
HrPFOOASTAHBI, L. iVop. Horse-chestnnt baric, i
oz, ; proof spirit, 2 pints. Macerate for 10 days,
and filter.

Tinotore, Hndson's. Tooth tinctoie.

Tincture, Huham'i. Compoond tinctoie of
cinchona.

Tinetnre of Hydiaatia. 8yn. TiKCTintB of

€H)LI>BH BBAIi; TlHOTUEA RTDBABTIS, L. Hy-

-drastis rhizome (in No. 60 powder), 2 parts; proof
spirit, 20 parts. Pack in a percolator, and pass the
spirit through till 20 parts are collected. — Dott, i
toldr.

Tlsetnn of Indian Hemp. iSy*. TnrcTcxA
OAXKABH, T. o. Iirsios (B. P., Ph. D.), L.
^rep. 1. (B. P.) Extract of Indian hemp, 1
part; recti6ed spirit, 20 parts; dissolve. — Dote,
6 to 20 minims with 1 ii. of mucilage, adding
1 oz. of water.

2. (Ph. D.) Purified extract of Indian hemp,
i oz. ; rectified spirit, i pint ; dissolve. 21 drops
(minims) contun 1 gr. of the extract.

(Xt. The formula of (yShangbnessy and
the Bengal Ph. are similar. — Dote, 10 drops every
half-hour in cholera ; 1 fl. dr. every half-hoar in .
tetanus till the paroxysms cease, or catalepsy is
induced.

Tincture of Indian Tohae'eo. Tincture of
lobelia.

Tinetnre of I'odine. Sy». TiircruBA iodikbi
(Ph. E.), TurcTUBA iodibh, L. Frep. (Ph. E.)
lo^ne, 2i oz. ;rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve, and
preserve it in well-closed bottles. — Dote, 6 to SO
drops, twice or thrice daily, where the use of
iodine is indicated. Ezten»lly as a paint, tic.

Obt. The f ormuUe of Magendie, the Ph. U. S.,
and the Paris Codex are similar.

Tincture of Iodine (Colourless). Sgu. Tivotttba
losi SBOOLOBATA (Ph. Q.), L. Prep. 1. Iodine, 10
oz. Digest with gentle heat, occasionally shaking;
and when the solution is completed, add liquor
ammouisB ('960), 16 oz. (by weight), sliake to-
gether, and add rectified spirit, 76 oz. (by weight).

2. (B. Bother.) Iodine, 1 troy oz. ; sodium
sulphite, q. s. ; ammonium carbonate, q. s. ; alcohol,
q. s. ; water, 2 fl. oz. Upon 1 troy oz. of sodium
sulphite and 200 gr. of ammonium carbonate, each
previously powdered, pour the water, and then
gradually add the iodine until its colour is no
longer discharged. If now the effervescence has
ceased, add ammonium carbonate in proportion to
the remaining iodine, hut if ammonium carbonate
still predominates, then add sodium sulphite in
proportion to the surplus of iodine, and continue
the incorporation of the iodine until all has been
added, and a faintly yellow solution results, whilst
some sulphite and carbonate remain in excess.
Now gradually add alcohol with constant stirring
until the mixture measures 12 fl. oz. Pour this
Vftm a mnslin strainer, press the liquid out, and
measure it. Mix the solid residue with enough
alcohol to make the measure of a pint when united

with the first expression, then press the liquorout
mix it with that first obtained, and filter the
tinetnre through paper.

8. (B. P. C.) Iodine, 260 gr.; rectified spirit,
6i fl. oz. Dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat.
When cold transfer to a stoppered bottle, and add
of stronger solution of ammonia, 10 fl. dr. Keep
the mixture in a warm place until decolourise^
after which dilute it with rectified spirit sufSdent
to produce 1 pint.

Tincture of Iodine (Compound), i^n. Abti*

BOSOFUIAVa CB0F8; TlKOTUHA lODI (B. FX
TlHOTTJSA lODISn OOHFOSITA (Ph. L. & D.), L.

Prep. 1. Iodine, i part; iodide of potassmm.
I part ; rectified spirit, 20 parts ; dissolve. — Dote,
6 to 20 minims. Also an excellent application to
the throat in diphtheria.

2. (Ph. L. & D.) Iodine, 1 oz. ; iodide of potas-
sium, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart ; dissolve. —
Dote, &c, as the last.

Tincture, Iodine ; (Ethereal). <%». Tikotuba
loDiNii jETHBBEA. Prep. Iodine, 2 scruples;
sulphuric ether, 1^ fl. oz.

Tincture of Iodoform (Ethereal). ;Syn. Tnro-
TUBA lODoroua iETKiBSA {Odin and Xematre),
L. Prep. CiTstallised iodoform, 16 gr. ; ether at
60° Baumj, 1 dr. (by weight).

Tincture of Ipecacuanlia. Sgn. Tikotura
IPBCACUANHiB, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Ipeca-
cuanha (coarsely powdered), 1 oz. ; spirit sp.
gr. -897 to -600 (16 to 17 o. p.), 8 oz.; macerate
for 8 days. The tincture of the P. Cod. has twice
its strength. — Dote, 10 or 12 drops to 2 fl. dr.,
according to the intention.

Tincture of Jahorandi. Syn. Tihctdba jabo-
RAKDI (' Ph. Joum.'), L. Prep. Powdered
jaborandi leaves, 10 oz. ; rectified spirit, q. s. Per-
colate until a pint of tincture is obtained. — Dote,
10 minims to 1 or 2 dr.

Tincture of Jal'ap. iSya. Tinctvba jai^apji (B.
P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) JaUp,
in coarse powder, 1 part; proof spirit, 8 parts;
macerate for 48 hours in 6 parts of the spirit,
agitating occasionally ; pack in a percolator, and
when the fluid ceases to pass, pour on the remain-
ing spirit, press, filter, and add spirit to make 8
parts. — Dote, J to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Jalap, coarsely powdered, 6 oz.
(10 oz.— Ph. L. 1836 ; 7 oz.— Ph. E.) ; proof spirit,
1 quart (IJ pints — Ph. D.) ; macerate for 7 days
(or percolate — Ph. E.), then press and filter.
Cathartic— i)o», 1 to 4 fl. dr.

Tincture of Jalap (Compound). Sgn. Tutctttka
lALArx COMFOBITA (Ph. E. 1744), L. Prep.
Jalap root, 6 dr. ; black hellebore root, S dr. ;
juniper berries, i oz. ; guaiacum shavings, i oz. ;
French brandy, 24 oz. ; digest for 8 days, and
strain. The San de Vie JUemande of the Paris
Codex is — Jalap, 8 oz. ; turpeth root, 1 oz. ;
scammony, 2 oz. ; proof spirit, 96 oz. (by weight).
— Dote, 4 dr.

Tinetnre of Ei'no. Si/n. Tihotuka eiito (B.
P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Kino in
powder, 2 parts; rectified spirit, 12 parts; gly.
cerine, 8 piffts ; water, B parts ; macerate 7 days,
filter, and make up to 20 parts. — Dote, | to 2 dr.
2. (Ph. L.) Powdered kino, 8) oz. ; rectified
spirit, J quart j macerate for 7 days (or percolate
— Ph. B.), and filter. Astringent.— i>0M^ 1 to 2

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TINCTURE

fl. dr., comb'raed with chalk mixture ; in diarrhtea,
&e.

Tincture of Iiactnca"rinm. &/n. Tinciuha
LAOTUOABii, h. Prep. (Ph. E.) Powdered lac-
tucarium, 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; digest or
percolate. Anodyne, soporific, antispasmodic, and
sedative. — Dose, 20 to 60 drops ; in cases for
which opium is unsuited. 10 drops (minims) con-
ttun 1 gr. of lactucarium.

Tincture of Larch. Syn. Tdtotuba labiois
(B. P.), L. Frep. Larch bark, in coarse powder,
2i oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint. Macerate £ke bark
for 48 hours in 16 oz. of the spirit in a closed
vessel, agitating occasionally ; then transfer to a
percolator, and when the fluid ceases to pass,
continue the percolation with the remaining 5 oz.
of spirit. Afterwards subject the contents of the
percolator to pressure, filter the product, mix the
liquid, and add rectified spirit, q. s. to make 1 pint.
— Dote, 20 to SO minims.

Tincture of LaT'eadnr (Compound) . Sgn. Red
IlATEsdbb, Rbd lavbitdeb sbops, Rbs eabts-

BOBirj TiNCTUBA LAVANSULJE COMPOBITA (B. P.,

Fh. L. & D.), Spibitub xatamduuk oohpobhus
(Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) English oil of
lavender, 90 minims; English oil of rose-
mary, 10 minims ; cinnamon, bruised, 160 gr. ;
nutmeg, bruised, 150 gr.; red sandal-wood, 800
gr. ; rectified spirit, 40 oz. ; macerate the cinnamon,
nutmeg, and red sandal-wood in the spirit for 7
days, then press out and strain ; dissolve the oils
in the strained tincture, and add sufficient recti-
fied spirit to make 40 oz. — 2>o*e, i to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon and nutm^fs, of each,
bruised, 2^ dr. ; red sanders-wood, sliced, 6 dr. ;
rectified spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 7 days, then
stnun with expression, and dissolve in the struned
liquid, oil of lavender, 1^ fl. dr. ; oil of rosemary,
10 drops.

5. (Ph. L. 1886.) Spiritof lavender, 11 pints;
spirit of rosemary, | |nnt ; red sanders-wood
(rasped), 6 dr. ; cinnamon and nutmegs (bruised),
of each, 21 dr. ; macerate for 14 days.

4. (Ph. E.) Spirit of lavender, 1 qnart; spirit
of rosemary, 12 fi. oz. ; cinnamon, 1 oz. ; nutmeg,
i 01. ; red sanders, 3 dr. ; cloves, 2 dr. ; as
No. 1.

6. (Ph. D.) Oil of lavender, 8 fl. dr.; oil of
rosemary, 1 fl. dr. ; cinnamon, 1 oz. ; nutmegs, i
oz. ; cloves and cochineal, of each, i oz. ; rectified
spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 14 days.

_ 6. (Wholesale.) From oil of cassia, f fl. oz. ;
oil of nutmeg, 1 fl. oz. ; oils of lavender and rose-
mary, of each, 4} fl. oz.; red sanders (rasped), 3
lbs.; proof spirit, 6 galls, (or rectified spirit
and water, of each, 3 galls.); digest 14 days.
Should it be cloudy, add a little more proof
spirit.

Obt. Compound tincture of lavender is a popular
stimulant, cordial, and stomachic. — Dote, 1 to 3
teaspoonfuls (^ to 2 fl. dr.) ; in lowness of spirits,
faintness, flatulence, hysteria, &c.

Tinctnre of lem'ons. Syn. Tihotvra lixo-
vvu (Ph. L.), T. MMOKia (B. P., Ph. D. & L.),
L. Prep. I. (B. P.) Fresh lemon peel, sliced
thin, 1 part ; proof spirit, 8 parts ; macerate for
7 days in a closed vessel with occasional agita-
tion, strain, press, filter, and make up with spirit
to 8 parts.— 2)<w«, | to 2 dr.

2. Fresh lemon peel, S| oz. (cut thin, 5 oi. —
Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7
days (14 days — Ph. D.), then express the liquid
and filter it. An aromatic bitter and stomachic.
—Dose, i to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Lily of the Yall^. iSys. Tnic-
TUBA COKTALLABLB (B. P. C), L. Take of lily
of the valley flowers and stalks, dried in Ko. X^
powder, 2| oz. ; proof spirit, a sufficient quantity.
Moisten the powder with a suitable quantity of
the menstruum, and macerate for 24 hours ; then
pack in a percolator, and gradually poor proof
spirit upon it until one pint of tincture is ob-
tained.— Dose, 6 to 20 minims.

Tincture of Lobe'lia. Syn, Tisctubi or

IlTDIAir TOBACCO ; TlNOTUBA LOBBLIX IKPIATX,

T. lABBUf (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep.
I. (B. P.) Lobelia, dried and bruised, 1 part;
proof spirit, 8 parts ; macerate 48 hours with 6
parts of the spirit, agitating occasionally ; pack in
a percolator, and let it drain ; pour on the remain-
ing spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press and
wash the marc with spirit to make up 8 parts. —
Dote, 10 to 30 minims, but 1 dr. may bis given
for dyspnoea; 4 dr. as an emetic.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried and powdered lobelia in-
fiata, 6 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7
days (14 days — Ph. D.; or percolate — Ph. E.),
press, and fllter. — Dote. As an expectorant, 10
to 60 drops ; as an emetic and antispasmodic, 1
to 2 fl. dr., repeated every third hour until it
causeti vomiting. It is principally employed in
spasmodic asthma, and some other pulmonary
affections.

Tincture of Lobelia (Ethereal). 5yn. Tixc-

TtTEA LOBBLIS JBTEBBBA (B. P., Ph. L. & E.),

I L. Prep. 1. Lobelia, dried and bruised, 1 part;
i spirit of ether, 8 parts ; macerate 7 days, press,

and strain 8 parts. — Dose, 10 to 30 minims, as an

antispasmodic.

2. (Fh. L.) Indian tobacco, powdered, 6 oz.;
ether, 14 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 26 fl. oz. ; mace-
rate 7 days, press, and filter.

3. (Ph. E.) Dry lobelia, 6 oz.; spirit of sul-
phuric ether^ 1 quart ; by digestion for 7 days, or
by percolation. — Dose, 6 or 8 drops to 1 fi. dr.

4. {Whitlau/s.) From lobelia, 1 lb.; rectified
spirit and spirit of nitrous ether, of each, 4 pints;
sulphuric etiier, 4 oz. — Dote, Ac, as the last.

Tincture of Lu'pnlln. Sgn. TnrcruxB or

HOPS; TlNCTUBA ItTPULI (Ph. E.), TniCTUBA
LUPtTLiN* (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Lnpu-
lin (the yellowish-brown powder attacheid to the
scales of hops, separated by friction and sifting),
5 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14
days (or proceed by disphicement— Ph. E.), press,
and filter. — Dote, | to 2 fl. dr. See Tihctubs
o* Hops.
Tincture of Xalate of Inm. S!fn. TiBomu

JBBKI 1IAI.ATIB, T. PBBBI POMATA (Ph. G.), L.

Prtp, Extract of malate of iron (see EztbaCI
o> AppItBb), 2 oz.; spirituous cinnamon water,
18 01. Dissolve and fllter. — Dote, IS to SO
minims.

Tincture of Kastio. Syn. Tihctttxa xai-
TICHBB, L. Prep. Mastic, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit,
9 fl. oz. Used in making eau de luce. If
required for stopping hollow teeth, double tbe
quantity of mastic must be usedi

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170S

Tincture of Ibtleo. %». Tinctcka katico
(Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Matico leaves, in
co«ne powder, 8 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; maoe-
Tste for 14 days, and strain with expression.—
Don, 1 to 2 fl. dr., as an internal astringent or
bamostatic. It is a very feeble remedy, as
matico leaves are destitute of either tannin or
gallic acid, and derive their power of stopping
local bleeding from the peculiar mechanical con-
■traction of their surface.

Tincture of Kea'dow Saffron. Tincture of
colchicnm.

Tincture of Kone'sia. 3^%. Tihctuba. voiia-
BLB, L. Frvp. Frommonesia,2|oz.; proof spirit,
1 pint ; macerate a week. Astringent. — Dou, \
to 2 fl. dr.

Tincture of Mask. Sy*. Tinotuba. kobohi,
L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Musk, 2 dr. ; rectifled
spirit, 16 fi. oz.; digest 7 days. Antispasmodic ;
but principally used as a perfume, being too weak
for medical nse.

Tincture of Knsk (Artificial). 83*. Ti5a-

XVBA MOBCHI ABTIFICIALIB (Pan Molu), L.

JPrep. Artificial musk, 1 dr. ; rectified spirit,
2oz.

Tincture of Knsk Seed. Sjfn. TiNonnu.
ABXlilfOBCEi SBUiNTTii {Dr Betce), L. Frep.
Musk seed, 2 oz. ; proof spirit, 16 oz. Digest 7
days, and strain. — Vote, 1 fl. dr.

Tinctore of Kyrrh. £y». Ooldbn tooth
BBOPB; TurcnuBA mtbbkx (B. p.. Ph. L., K., &
D,), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Myrrh, in coarse
powder, 1 part; rectified spirit, 8 parts ; macerate
48 honrs with 6 parts of the spirit, agitating occa-
nonally ; pack in a percolator, and when it ceases
to drop, pour on the remaining spirit, wash the
marc, press, and make up to 8 parts. — Dote, i to
1 dr. More frequently used mixed with water
to form a ga^le.

2. (Ph. L.) Myrrh, in powder, 8 oz. (Si oz. —
Fh. E. ; 4 oz. — Ph. D.) ; rectified spirit, 1 quart ;
macerate for 7 days (14 days — Ph. D. ; or by dis-
placement— Ph. £.), and filter.

3. (Wholesale.) Mjrrh, in coarse powder, 2^
lbs. J rectified spirit, 2 gaUs.; water, 1 gall.; as
thelaat.

Obt. Tincture of myrrh is tonic and stimu-
lant.— Doee, i to 1 fl. dr., as an adjuvant in mix-
tares, gargles, &c. Chiefly used diluted with
water, as a dentifrice or wash for ulcerated and
spongy gums.

Tincture of Hyrrh (Alkaline). Sgn. Tnrc-

TITBA MTBBEA ALKALIZJi (Ph. £. 1744). Prep.

Powdered myrrh, 1| oz. ; solution of carbonate of
potaab, a sufficient quantity ; mix into a soft paste,
dry it, and add rectified spirit, 1 pint. Digest for
6 days, and strain.

linetue of Kyrrb (Compound). Sjj/n. Tnrc-
TUBA KXBBBJt OOMPOBITA, L. Prep. Prom
myrrh aind Socotrine aloes, of each, 2 lbs. ; recti-
fied spirit, 3 galls. ; water, 2 galls. ; digest for 14
days. This is frequently substituted for ' oov-
POinn> TINOTUBB 01 AIABB* in the wholesale
trade.

Tincture of Kynh and Borax. Ptep. 1. Borax
pulv., 2 oz. ; glycerine, 4 oz. (by measure) ; timet,
myrrhs, 82 oz. ; spirit, rect., 1 ^11. ; aq. destillat.,
1 gall.; eau de Cologne, 20 oz. ; tinct. krameriiB,
1 oz. ; symp. simpl., 8 oz.

2. Tincture of myrrb, IJ oz.; glycerine of borax,
8 dr. ; ess. bouquet, 1 dr. ; saccharin, 2 gr. Mix.

3. Glycerine boracis, li oz.; tr. kramerisa, 8 dr.;
tr. myrrh., 8 oz. ; eau de Cologne, 8 oz. Mix.

Tincture of Hnx Toa'ica. Sfn. Tinotvba
NtTOiB voiiioiB, L. Prep. 1. Extract of nux
vomica, 133 gr. ; water, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit,
enough to make 20 oz. — Dose, 10 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Nux vomica (ground in a
coffee-mill), 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz. ; mace-
rate7(14) days. — Dote,5 to 20 drops; in paralysis,
ie. It is poisonous.

Tincture of Snx Vomica (Ethereal), ^n.

TllfCTTTBA NT701B XOUICM STHBBBA (Ph. Q.),"'L.
Prep. Coarsely powdered nux vomica, 1 oz. ;
spirits of ether, 10 oz. (by weight). Macerate for
8 days.
Tinctuie,Odontal'glc. <Syn. Tooxhaohbtiitc-

TUBB; TlMOItTBA OSONTAXO-IOA, L. Prep. 1.

Tincture of opiuni, 1 fl. dr. ; etber, 2 fl. dr. ; oil of
cloves, IS drops.

2. Rectified spirit, 3 fl. dr. ; chloroform, 2 dr.;
creasote, 1 dr. ; mix.

3. (Collier.) Pellitory of Sp^n, 4 dr. ; cam-
I^or, 8 dr. ; opium, 1 dr. ; oil of cloves, 2 fl. dr. ;
rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz. ; digest for a week.

4. (Niemann.) Digest 60 or 80 common lady-
birds (CocmneUa teptempunotata, Linn.) in rec-
tified spirit, 1 fl. oz., for 8 days, and strain.

Obe. The above are commonly applied, on a
small piece of lint, in toothache. For other
formula see Dbops, TiNOTtrBES ow Mtbbh and

PBtLITOBT, Ac.

Tincture of Cpium. 8y». LAUDAinrM, LiQtriD

I,., AirODYITB TllfOTUBB, TEBBAIO T. ; TlITOTUBA

opii (B. p.. Ph. L., E., & D.), Thebaic A, Latt-
DABTTU LiquLDHH, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Opium,
in coarse powder, li parts; proof spirit, 20 parts ;
macerate 7 days, strain, express, filter, and add
spirit to make 20 parts. — Dote, 10 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Powdered opium, 3 oz. (3 oz. —
Ph. D.) ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 7
days (14 days — Ph. D.), and strain with expres-
sion.

8. (Ph. E.) Opium, sliced, 3 oz. ; boiling water,
13i fl. oz. ; digest, with heat, for 2 hours, break
down the opium with the hand, strain, and express
the infusion ; then macerate the residuum for about
20 hours in rectified spirit, 1 pint 7 fl. oz. ; next
strain, press, mix the wateiy and spirituous in-
fusions, and filter.

Obs. This preparation has a deep brownish-red
colour, and the characteristic odour and taste of
opium. 14 minims or measured drops of the
London, and about 16 minims of the Edinburgh
and Dublin tinctures, are equivalent to 1 gr. of
dry opium, or 1"18 gr. of ordinary opium. 14
minims of this tincture are equal to about 25
drops of it poured from a bottle. Its sp. gr.
is -952 (PhilUpt).—Doie, 10 to 60 drops ; as an
anodyne, sedative, or hypnotic. The following
form is substituted for that of the Pharmacopoeia
by many of the wholesale drug-houses : — Take of
Turkey opium, 2i lbs. ; boiling water, 9 quarts ;
digest till dissolved or disintegrated, cool ; add of
rectified spirit, 2 galls. ; and after repose for 24
hours, decant the clear portion. — Prod., 4 galls.
Tincture of Opium (Ammo"iiiated). Sgn. Am-

MONIATEC TINOTUBB OP OPIUM, SOOTOH PABB-

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19M

TINCTUEB

ooBia ; TnroTVBA opii Axttosus^ (B. P., Ph-
£.)> L. Prep, 1. (B. P.) Opinm, in powder.
100 gi. ; tHSron, cut «mall, 180 gr. ; benzoic add,
180 gr. ; oil of anise, 60 minima; strong lolntion
of ammonia, 4 ok. ; rectified spirit, 16 ox. ; mace-
rate 7 days in a closed vessel, with occasional
agitation, strain, and add safficient rectified spirit
to make np 20 oz. — Don, ( to 1 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Benzoic acid and hay saffron, of
each, 6 dr. ; opium, sliced, 4 dr. ; oil of aniseed, 1
dr.; spirit of ammonia (Ph. E.), 1 quart; digest
for a week, and filter. Stimulant, antispasmodic,
and anodyne. — Doti, 20 to 80 drops ; in hysteria,
hooping-cough, Ac.

Obt. This preparation is called ' fabsqoric,'
or 'PASlooBio KLixiB,' in Scotland, but should
be carefully distinguished from the compound
tincture of camphor, which passes under the same
names in England ; as the former contains about
four times as much opium as the latter. 80
minims, or 146 poured drops, contain about 1 gr.
of opium.

_ Tlnetare of Opiam (Cam'phorated). Compound
tincture of camphor.

Tincture of Opium (Eoard's or Bamberg's).
Sfn. Eoabd'b or BiMBBsa's thbbaio tihotubb ;
TnrcruBi. opii Eoabdi, L. iVap. Opium, 2
oz. ;^ cloves, 1 dr. ; cinnamon water, 8 oz. ; rectified
spirit, 4 oz. Digest in a warm room for 6 days,
and strain.

Tincture of Opinm (?etld). S^n. TrecruBA
OPII KBTIDA (Ph. Fulda), L. Prep. Castor oil,
4 oz.; assafcetida, 2 oz. ; salt of hartshorn, 1 oz. ;
dry opium, 4 dr. ; rectified spirit, 82 oi.—Doee,
16 minima to 1 dr.

Tincture of Opinm (Odonrleu). 8^. TmorrsA
opn DEODOEATA (Ph. U. 8.), L. Prep. Opium,
dried, and in moderately fine powder, 2^ troy oz. ;
ether, rectified spirit, of each, 8 oz. (o. m.); water,
a sufficient quantity. Macerate the opinm with \
pint of the water for 24 hours, and express. Repeat
this operation twice with the same quantity of
water, mix the expressed liquids and evaporate to
4 OS. (o*. m.) ; let cool, and shake repeatedly in a
bottle with the ether. When it has separated by
standing, pour off the ethereal solution, and eva-
X>orate the remaining liquid till all the ether has
disappeared. Mix the residue with 20 oz. (o. m.)
of water, and filter. When the liquid has ceased
to pass, add enough water to make the filtrate
measure IJ pints (o. m.). Lastly, mix in the spirit.

Tincture of Orange with Iron. Syn. Tihotuba
FBMi avbantiaca (Ph. Wurt). L. Prep. Iron
fillings, 4 oz. ; Seville oranges deprived of their
seeds, 4. Beat them together, leave them for
2 days ; then add Madeira wine, 10 oz. ; spirit of
orange peel, 2 oz. Digest, express, and filter.

Tlnetare of Or'ange Feel. Syn. Tinotvba
AUBAMTii (B. P., Ph. L., E., k D.), T. cobticis
AVBAKTll,L. Prap. 1. (B. P.) Dried bitter orange
peel, cut small and bruised, 1 part ; proof spirit,
10 parts; macerate for 7 days in a closed vessel
with occasional agitation, then strain, press, and
filter, add sufiioient proof spirit to make 10 parts.
— Dote, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried orange peel, 8i ox. (4 oz.—
Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart ; digest for 7 days
(14 days— Ph. D ; or by percolation— Ph. E.),
press, and filter. A grateful bitter stomachic—

Don, 1 to 8 II. dr.; chiefly aa an adjorant in
miztoree, &c.

Tinetnreof OiaagePeel (Treah). Bg». TiBC-ruJia.
AUBAKTn BB0BNTI8 (B. P.), L. Prep. Bitter
orange,rectified spirit, of each,aBnfficientqmuiti^-
Carefully cut from the orange the oolonred part
of the rind in thin slices, and macerate 6 os. of
this in 1 pint of spirit for a week, with freqnent
agitation; then poor off the liquid, pieaa the
dregs, mix the liquid products, and filter ; finally,
add sufficient spirit to make 1 pint. — I)o*e, 1 to
2 dr.

Tlneture of Orilt Boot. Sgn. TnroTTTKA ibidib,
L. Prep. fVeshly powdered orris roo^ 1 part ;
I>Toof spirit, 6 parts. Sold as Etprit de Violatte.

Tincture of Oxgall. Syn. Totctuba nixn
Bornn, L. Prep. Inspissated ox-gall, 2 os. ; proof
spirit, 1 pint. Digest until dissolved.

Tinetnre of FaraereH. Syn. TracnrBA art-
LAKTHi ooiCPOeiTA. Prep. Paracress, dried and
bruised, 2 ox. ; pyrethmm root, in coarse powder,
2 oz. ; spirit, 10 oz. (by wdght). Digest 8 days.
Sialogogue.

Tlnetare of Fareira Brava. Syit. TnrcnrBA
FABBiBS BBATJi ^Brodie), L. Pr^. PareiTa
brava root, 2 oz.; French brandy, 1 pint. Digest
for 7 days.

Tincture of FelOitory. Syn. TooTHAeHi TIKO-

TUBB ; TlUCTUBA PTBBTEBI (B. P.), L. pTtp. 1.

Pcllitory root, in coarse powder, 4 parts ; rectified
spirit, 20 parts ; macerate tor 48 hours wii^ 16
parts of the spirit, agitating occasionally; then
pack it in apercolator, let it drain, and ponr on
the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop,
press, filter, and make up to 20 parts.

2. Pellitory of Spain (bruised), 1 ox.; reetiflod
spirit, } pint; digest a week. In the P. Cod. a
tincture is ordered prepared with spirit about 41
0. p., and another prepared with spirit of sulphorie
ether.

3. (CoMPOTnrs — Brande.) Pellitory root, 4 dr. ;
camphor, 3 dr. ; oil of cloves, 2 dr. ; opium, 1 dr. ;
rectified spirit, 6 fl. oz. ; digest for 8 days. Both
the above are used for the toothache. See Tnro-

TUBB, OsOSTALOia

Tincture of Fepper (Stomachic). Syu. TmcruBA

FIPBBIB BTOKACHtOA, EgSBMTIA BTOXACHICA

P0LTCHBB8TA {Spielmaii), L. Prep. Capsicum, 1
oz. ; black pepper, 2 dr. ; long pepper, 2 dr. ; white
pepper, 2 dr.; solution of acetate of potash,
6 ox.; spirit of ammonia, 1 oz. Digest and
filter.

Tincture ofPerchloride of Iron. SyH. TnronmA
FBBBI PBBCHLOBISI (B. P.), L. Prep. Mix 6 fl. oz.
of strong solution of perchloride of iron with 16
fl. oz. of rectified spirit. — Dote, 10 to 30 minims.

Tincture of Fhoe'phoms (Ethereal). Sya.

.£tHKB FEOaPHOBATUB, TlITCTTrBA PBOBPHOBI

STHBBBA, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Hann. 1831.)
Phosphorus (powdered by agitation with rectified
spirit), 16 gr. ; ether, 2 oz. ; macerate with agita-
tion for 4 days, then decant the clear portion, and
preserve it in a stoppered bottle, in a cool dark
situation.

2. (P. Cod.) Phoephoms, cat small, 1 part;
ether, 60 parts ; digest with occasional agifaititm
for 1 month, and decant the dear. — Doea, 6 to IS
drops, in any bland vehicle, thrice daily; in impo-
tency, low sinking oonditiona of the syitem, tie.

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TINCTURE

1706

Ttnetnre of Fhoaphonii (Componsd). Sfgn. Tnro-

TITBA FH08FE0BI OOKFOBITA. (B. P. C), L.

JPnp. Take of phoaphorns, 12 gr. ; chloroform, 2i
fl. oz. Place in a itoppered bottle, and apply the
heat of a water-bath until disBoIved. Then add the
aolntion to ethylic alcohol, 12) fl. oz.

Tincture of Poplar Buds. Sgn. TnrorusA
POPUM (Va» Mono), L. Prap. Poplar buds,
4 01. ; rectified ipirit, 24 ox. Macerate and
eiter.

TinetUTe of Qvas'sia. 8g%. Tnrcnnu avAssut
JB. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Qoaaaia
in chips, f part; proof spirit, 20 parts; digest

7 days, filter, and make up to 20 parts. — I>o*e, 1
to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Quassia, in chips, 10 dr. j proof spirit,

1 quart ; digest 7 days. Bitter, tonic. — Dote, | to

8 fl. dr. ; in dyspepsia, &c.

Tlnctnre of Qoassia (Compound). Syn. Tinc-

TCBA QtTABSIS OOMPOBITA (Ph. E.), L. Prtp.

^Ph. E.) Cardamoms and cochineal, of each,
bruised, \ oz. ; powdered cinnamon and quassia
chips, of each, 6 dr. ; ndsins, 7 oz. ; proof spirit, 1
qoart ; digest for 7 days (or by percolation), then
press and filter. Aromatic and tonic. — Data and
«M, as the last.

Tincture of (kninine (Ammooiatad). Syn. Tinc-
TintA QunmrjB amkohiata (B. P.), L. Prep.
Sulphate of quinine, 160 gr. ; solution of ammonia,
2i fl. oz. ; proof spirit, 17i oz. ; dissolve the quinine
in the spirit with a gentle heat, and add the
solution of ammonia. — Dote, ) to 2 dr.

Tincture of Quinine (Compound). Syn. Fetxb
SS0F8 J TmcrnjBA vnsM (B. P.), Tixctura
QUiiriE OOMPOBITA (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Hydrochlorate of qainia, 1 part ; tincture of orange
peel, 60 parts ; dissolve with a gentle heat, digest
for 8 days with occasional agitation, and strain. —
Dott, 1 to 1) dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Sulphate of quinine, 5 dr. 1 semp.
(or 32^ gr.) ; tincture of orange peel, 1 quart ;
digest, with agitation, for 7 days, or until sointion
is complete.

Ohi. Unless the tincture employed as the
solvent be of the full strength some of the disul-
phate remains undissolved. It is an excellent
medicine when faithfully prepared. — Dote, ) to

2 fl. dr. ; in debility, dyspepsia, &c

Tincture of S«d Gum. Syn. Tihotuba oummi
BVSBI (Mr Squire), L. Prep. Red gnm, 1 part;
rectified spirit, 4 parts ; digest and strain. — Dote,
20 to 40 minims.

Tincture of Bed Lav'ender. Compound tinctn>«
•of lavender.

Tlnetnra of Bhat'any. Syn. TmOTtTBA kba-
XBBtB (B. P.. Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Rhatany, bruised, 1 part ; proof spirit, 8 parts ;
macerate 48 hours in 6 parts of the spirit, agi-
tating occasionally; pack in a percolator; when
it ceases to drop pour on the remaining spirit, and
wash the marc with spirit to make up 8 parts. —
Dote, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. D.) Rhatany root, in coarse powder,
'S oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14
days, then press and filter. Astringent. — Dote,
1 to 2 fl. dr. The formula of the Ph. U. S. is
similar.

Tiaetnrc of Rhododendron. iSSys. Tutotuba
XBOSODBITDBI (Niemann), L. Prep. Leaves of

Biododendron eiryiantkum, 2 oz. ; French
brandy, i lb. ; sherry, ) lb. Digest for 16 days.

Tincture of Bhu'barb. ;S'y>i. TmcrnKA bhii
(B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Rhubarb,
bruised, 2 parts ; cardamom seeds, bruised, i part ;
coriander, bruised, i part ; saffron, i part ; proof
spirit, 20 parts ; macerate for 48 hours with 16
parts of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in
a percolator, and when it ceases to drop pour on
the remaining spirit ; press and wash the marc,
and add spirit to make up 20 parts. — Dote. As
a stomachic, 1 to 2 dr. ; as a purgative, ) to 1 oz.

2. (Ph. E.) Powdered rhubarb. Si oz. j car- .
damom seeds, bruised, i oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ;
digest, or proceed by the method of displacement.

3. (Ph. L. 1824.) Rhubarb, 2 oz. ; cardamoms,
4 dr. ; safiron, 2 dr. ; proof spirit, 32 fl. oz. Both
the above are cordial, stomachic, and laxative.—
Dote, 1 fl. dr. to 1 fl. oz.

Tlnctnre of Rhubarb (Aqueous). Syn. Tnro
TUBA BBBi AQUOSA (Ph. a.), L. Prep. Rhubarb,
10 oz.; borax, 1 oz.; carbonate of potash, 1 oz.;
boiling water, 85 oz. ; infuse for J hour, then add
rectified spirit, 10 oz. (by weiglit); let it stand 2|
hours, and add cinnamon water, 15 oz.

Tincture of Rhubarb (Brandiah's Al'kaline).
Syn. TiMCTtrBA bhbi axkaxina Bsakdibhu, L.
Prep. From rhubarb, in coarse powder, 1 1 oi. ;
Brandish's alkaline solution, 1 quart; macerate
for a week. In the original formula only i oz. of
rhubarb is ordered. — Dote, 20 drops to 2 fl. dr.,
in any blsnd liquid not addulous; in acidities,
dyspepsia, &c.

Tincture of Rhubarb (Compound). Syn. Tnio-
TITBA BHBI OOMPOBITA (Ph. L. AD.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L.) Rhubarb, sliced, 2i oz. ; liqnorice root,
bruised, 6 dr. ; ginger (bruised) and hay saffron,
of each, 3 dr. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for
7 days, then press and filter.

2. (Ph. D.) Rhubarb, 3 oz. ; cardamoms, 1 oz. ;
liquorice root, i oz. ; saffron, i oz. ; proof spirit,
1 quart ; macerate for 14 days.

8. (Ph. L. 1824.) Rhubarb, 2 oz.; liquorice
root, 4 dr.; ginger and saffron, of each, 2 dr.;
proof spirit, 16 fl. oz.; water, 12 fl. oz.

Obt. This tincture is a popular remedy in
diarrhoia and colic, and is an especial favourite
with drunkards. — Dote. As a stomachic, 1 to 3
fl. dr.; as a purgative, i to 1) fl. oz. The tinc-
ture of rhubarb of the shops is mostly inferior,
being generally deficient both in rhubarb and
spirit. The following forms we have seen exten-
sively employed in the wholesale trade: — East
Indian rhubarb, 20 lbs. ; boiling water, q. s. to
cover it; infuse for 24 hours; then slice the
rhubarb, and put it into a cask with moist sugar,
14 lbs. ; ginger, bruised, 8| lbs. ; hay saffron, 1
lb. ; carbonate of potash, i lb. ; bruised nutmegs,
i lb. ; rectified spirit, 19 galls. ; water, 21 gslls. ;
macerate with frequent agitation for 14 days, de-
cant the clear portion, and press and filter the
bottoms. Those houses that adhere to the Ph. L.
for 1824 substitute cardamom seeds, 6 lbs., for the
ginger. For the corresponding Ph. E. formula see
the last article.

Tincture of Bhubarb and Aloes. Syn. Saobbb

ELIXIBt; TINOTUBA BHBI ST AXOKB (Ph. E.), L.
Prep. (Ph. D.) Rhubarb, in powder, li oz.
Socotrine or East Indian aloes, 6 dr. ; cardamom

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TINCTURE

seeda, bruised, 5 dr. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; mace-
rate 7 days, or percolate. A warm stomachic pur-
gative.— Dote, \ fl. oz. to 1 fl. oz.
Tincture of KhalMirb and Gen'tian. Sgn, Tinc-

TUKA. BBBI AKABA, TlNCTTTaA BHBI BT exMTIAKA

(Pli. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Khubarb, 2 oz. ;
gentian, \ oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; proceed as
for the last. Stomachic, tonic, and purgative. —
Dote, 1 fl. dr. to 1 fl. oz.
Tincture of Shnharh and Sen'na. ^n. Wab-

NBB'S aOVT COBDIAL; TlHCTUBA BHBI BT SEIWjE

(Ph. V. S.), L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) Ehuharb, 1
oz. ; senna and red sanders-wood, of each, 2 dr. ;
Isoriander and fennel seed, of each, 1 dr.; saffron
and extract of liquorice, of each, \ dr. ; stoned
raisins, 6 oz. ; proof spirit, 2^ pints ; macerate for
14 days. A popular stomachic and lazaUve. —
Dote, i to li fl. oz.

Tincture (Eiemer's liervoas). Prep. From oil
of juniper, 1 part ; volatile liquor of hartshorn, 4
parts; rectified spirit, 16 parts. — Dote, 1 tea-
spoonful in water.

Tinctnre of Bose. Sgn. Tutctvba boss, L.
Prep. Dried red rose, 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 pint.
Digest for 10 days.

Tinctnre of Bosemary. Syn. Tikctuba bos-
MABINI (Ph. Bruns.), L. Prep. Flowering tops
of rosemary, 1^ oz. ; spirit of rosemary, 6 oz.
Digest, express, and filter.

Tinctnre, Bnspini's. See Tikctttbb, TpOTH.

Tinctnre of Saffron. Syn. Tinctuba cboci
m. P., Pli. E. & D.), T. c. SATIT*. L. Prep. 1.
(B. P.) SafFroD, 1 part; proof spirit, 20 parts;
macerate 48 hours with 15 parts of the spirit,
aj^tating occasionally; pack in a percolator, let it
drain, and then pour on the remaining spirit;
when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit
to make up 20 parts. — Dote, i to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Hay saffron, 2 oz. (2oz.— Ph. D.) j
proof spirit^ 1 quart (1 pint — Ph.D.) ; proceed
either by maceration (for 14 days — Ph. D.) or by
displacement. Stimulant and eramenagogne. —
Dote, 1 to 2 B. dr. Chiefly used for its colour and
flavonr.

Tinctnre of Saponin. Syn. Tinctuba SAPOltDn,
Prep. Bark of Quillaia taponaria, 1 part; alcohol
(90 per cent.), 4 parts. Heat to ebullition and
filter.

Tinctnre of Sarsaparilla (Componnd). Sjy».

TnrOTDBA SABZJE COUPOBITA, L. ; LiQUBUB s£-
PTTBATITB (Fraufoit), Fr. Prep. Sareapsrilla,
guaiacum, china root, sassafras, of each, 1 oz. ;
proof spirit, 16 oz.

Tinctnre of Savlne. Syn. Tibctuba BAsnrjt
(B. P.), L. Prep. Savine tops, dried and coatBcly
powdered, 2^ oz. ; proof spirit, 1 pint. Proceed
as for tincture of aconite.

Tincture of Scammony. Syn. Tikctuba scax-
MONII (P. Cod.), L. Prep. Scammony, 4 oz. ;
rectified spirit, 20 oz. (by weight).

Tinctnre of Senega. Sgn- TiHcmrBA bb-
HBSiB (B. P.), L. Prep. Senega, bruised, 8) ot.;
proof spirit, 1 pint. Prepared as tinctnre of
aconite.

Tinctnre of Senna (Compound). Syn. Tihctubb

01 BBHNA, ElIXIB O; HBALTBf ; TiyOTUBA sssva

iB. P.), TlHCTUBA SENNf COUPOBITA (Ph. L., E.,
'.V.),l.. Prep. 1. (B.P.) Senna, broken small,
6 parts ; raisins, freed from seeds, 4 part*; cara-

way, bruised, 1 part; coriander, bruised, 1 part;
proof spirit, 40 parts ; macerate the ingredients 48
hours in three fourths of the spirit, agitating occa-
sionally; pack in a percolator, and when it ceases
to drop, pour on the remaining spirit ; press,
filter, and make up 40 parts. — Dote, 2 to 8 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Senna, Si oz. ; caraway seeds,
bruised. Si dr. ; cardamom seeds, bruised, 1 dr. ;
stoned rusins, 6 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate
for 7 days, press, and filter.

3. (Ph. £.) Senna and stoned ntisins, of each,
4 oz. ; sugar, 2^ oz. ; corianders, 1 oz. ; jalap, 6 dr. ;
caraways and cardamoms, of each, 6 dr. ; pm<^
spirit, 1 quart; digest, or proceed by perooUition.

4. (Ph. D.) Senna, 4 oz. ; caraway and carda-
mom seeds, of each, bruised, i oz. ; proof spirit, 1
quart ; macerate for 14 days.

6. (Wholesale.) From senna, 6 lbs. ; treacle, 2
lbs. ; caraways, f lb. ; cardamoms, ^ lb. ; reciafled
spirit, and water, of each, 4 galls. ; as before. Car-
minative, stomachic, and purgative. — Dote, i to 1
fl.oz.

Obt. " If Alexandrian senna be used for this
preparation, it must be freed from cynanchnm
(argol) leaves by picking " (Ph. E.).

Tinctnre of Bar'pentary. Sy*. Tixctobb o>

VlBOlNIAN BNAXB-BOOT ; TlHOTUBA 8BBPBNTABIA

(B. P., Ph. L. & B.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Serpentary, bruued, 1 part ; proof spirit, 8 parts;
macerate 48 hours with 6 parts of the spirit, agitat-
ing occasionally ; pack in a percolator, and let it
drain ; pour on the remaining spirit; and wlien it
ceases to drop, press and wash the marc to make
np 8 parts. — Dote, i to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Serpentary, bruised, 3i oz. (cochi-
neal, 1 dr. — Ph. E.) ; proof spirit, 1 quart ;
macerate for 7 days (or by percolalion — Ph. E.),
strain, and filter. Stimulant, tonic, and diapho-
retic.— Dote, 1 to 3 fl. dr.

Tinctnre of BesqnicUorlde of Iron. Syn. Tntc-

lUBB OF MUBIATB 07 IBOH, TlHCTUBB OP 8TBBL,
StBBL DBOPB; TIKOIUBA FBBBI PBBCaiABIDI
(B. p.), TiNOTCBA PBBBI BESQUICHIiOBIDI (Ph.
L. & D.), T. PBBBI KVBIATIS (Ph. E.), Fbbbi
HUBIATIB LIQUOB, L. iVsp. 1. (B. P.) Strong
solution of perchloride of iron, 5 parts ; rectified
spirit, Sparta; water, 10 parts; mix. — I>ote, 10
to 30 minims in water.

2. (Pb. L.) Sesquioxide of iron, 6 os. ; hydro-
chloric acid, 1 pint ; mix and digest in a sand-
bath, frequently shaking (with a gentle heat, for
a day — Ph. E.), until solution is complete ; then
add, when cold, of rectified spirit, 8 pint^ and
(in a ahort time) filter. Sp. gr. -998. " 1 0. oa.
potash being added, depoaite nearly 80 gr. «f ses-
quioxide of iron" (Ph. L.).

3. (Ph. D.) Iron wire, 8 ot. ; pnre hydrochloric
acid, 1 quart ; distilled water, 1 pint ; mix, and
dissolve by a gentle heat ; next add, in successive
portions, of pure nitric acid, 18 fl. dr. ; evapoiate
by a gentle heat to a pint, and when cold, mix this
in a bottle with rectified spirit, li pints; lastly,
after 12 hours, filter. Sp. gr. 1-237.

Ob». This tinctnre is an active ferruginous
tonic.— Dims, 10 to 30 drops, gndnally increased,
take in water, ale, or wine. In the old Tinctnia
Martis (Ph. L. ) iron filings, and in the T. Firri
Moriatis (Ph. E. 1817) black oxide of iron were used
instead of the sesquioxide or carbonate. 'U««-

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TINCTDEE

170r

tachef s nemne tinotnre ' of the P. Cod. is prepared
hy dinolving 1 dr. of dry aeaqaichloride of iron in
7 dr. of spirit of sulphuric ether. See Qoldbn
Dbops.

Tinetaieof SMqnlni'trateoflroiit. Syn. Tinc-

TUBA n»BI 8B8QUINITBATI8, L. iVep. (OntOH.)

Iron filings, i oz. ; nitric acid(l'6),8ioz. ; dissolve ;
add of hydrochloric acid (116), 6 dr. j simmer
for 2 or 3 minutes, cool, add of rectified spirit, 8
oz., and filter. Proposed as a substitute for the
last preparation, but the name misrepresents its
chemical constitution.

Tincture of Soap. Sgn. Tikotuba SAPOms
(P. Cod.), L. Prep. White soap, 8 oz.; car-
bonate of potash, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 6 oz. (by
weight). Dissolve.

Xlnctnre of Soap with Toipentine. Syn.
TnrCTUBA eapokib tsbbbinthinata, Baithb
91 Tli BXTBBV8, h. Prep. White soap, 3 oz.;
oil of turpentine, S oz. ; spirit of wild tiiyme, 2
lbs. ; water of ammonia, 2 oz.

Tincture of Squills. Si/n. TixcrvBA bbcbi-
OA, Ttkotuba. scillx (B. p.. Ph. L., E., and
D.),L. Pr^. 1. (B. P.) Dried squill, bruised,
1 part; proof spirit, 8 parts; macerate for 4S
hours with 6 parts of the spirit, agitating occa-
sionally ; pack in a percolator, let it dnun, and
pour on the remaining spirit ; when it ceases to
drop, press, filter, and make up to 8 parts. — Dote,
15 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Squills, recently dried and sliced
(or in coarse powder). So:;.; proof spirit, 1
quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days — Ph. D. ;
or by percolation — Ph. E.), press, and filter. A
stimulating expectorant and diuretic. — Dote, 10
to SO drops ; in chronic coughs, and other bron-
chial affections.

Tincture of Sqnilla (Alkaline). Syn. Tiho-
nrsA. scuxs alkauka (Ph. O.), L. Prep.
Squill, 8 parts ; caustic potash, 1 part ; rectified
spirit, 50 parts ; macerate 8 days.

Tincture of Stavesacre (Concentrated). Si/n.

TnrOTUBA STAPHISAaKIiB CONOEirTBATA (Dr

TurnbuU), L. Prep. Digest stavesacre seeds
in twice their weight of rectified spirit. For
external use in neuralgic and rheumatic affec-
taona, as a substitute for solutions of delphinia.

Tinctore, Stomachic. Compound tincture of
cardamoms. Compound tincture of gentian is
also occasionally so called.

Tincture of Stramo"nlum. Sgn. Tikciubb

OF TROBH-APFI.E ; TlHOTUBA 8TBAH0SII (B. P.,

Ph. D. and U. S.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Stra-
monium seeds, bruised, 1 part; jtroof spirit, 8
parte; macerate 48 hours with 6 parts of the
spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a perco-
lator, let it drain, and pour on the remwning
spirit. When it ceases to drop, press, filter, and
add spirit to make 8 jpaxta.— Dote, 10 to 20
minims.

2. (Ph. D.) Stramonium or thorn-apple seeds
(bmiwd), 6 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate
lor 14 days (or by displacement — Ph. U. S.),
then press and filter. Anodyne. — Dote, 10 to
20 drops ; in neuralgia, rheumatism, &e. Said to
be superior to laudanum.

Tincture of Strophanthus. 5^ Tihctuba
BTBOPHANTHi, L. Prep. Strophanthus seeds in
No. 80 powder, dried at 110° F., 1 oz.; pnre

ether and rectified spirit, of each, a sufficiency.
Percolate the seeds with ether until the fluid
passes colourless. Remove the seeds, and dry
them at 120° F., repack in the percolator, add
slowly the rectified spirit until 10 oz. of tincture
is obtained. Dilute with more spirit to make 1
pint. — Dote, 2 to 10 minims.

Tincture, Styptic Sjf"- Tihctuba sTYPricit
(Ph. L. 1746). L. Prep. Calcined sulphate of
iron. 1 dr. ; French brandy, coloured by the cask.
2 lbs.

Tinctnx*. Sndoriflc. Sj/n. Tihotvba susobi-
MOA (Ph. E. 1744), L. Prep. Serpentary root,
5 dr.; cochineal, 4 dr.; castor oil, 1 dr.; saffron.
2 scruples ; opium, 1 scruple ; spirit of Mindere-
ms. 16 oz. Digest for 8 days, and stnun.

Tinetnre of Snm'bul. Syn. Tihctuba buk-
buli (B. p.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Sumbul.
bruised fine, 1 part ; proof spirit, 8 parts ; digest
7 days, and filter. — liote, 15 to 30 minims.

2. From sumbul, bruiised, 5 oz. ; proof spirit,

1 quart ; macerate for a week, and strain with
expression. Stimulant and tonic. — Dote, 10 to
30 or 40 drops.

Tincture of Tartrated Iron. Sjfn. Tinotuba
MABTis tabtasizata, L. Prep. Pure iron fil-
ings, 100 parts; cream of tartar, 260 parts ; rec-
tified spirit, SO parts (by weight). Put the
filings and tartar into an iron kettle with suf-
ficient water to form a paste, leave them for 24
hours, add 3000 parts of soft wster and boil for

2 hours, stirring constantly ind supplying the
waste of water. Decant and filter the liquor,
snd evaporate it till it has the density of 1*286,
and add the spirit. — Dote, 3 to 6 drops.

Tincture of Thorn-apple. Tincture of stramo-
nium.

Tincture of Thuja. S^n. Tihctuba thujjb..
L. Prep. Fresh leaves of thuja, 1 part ; spirit
(90%), 10 parts. Macerate for 10 days, and'
filter.— 2Jo»«, 10 drops in water. The leaves of
thuja are collected in June and July. Those of
the T. orieiUaUt and T. occidenialit hnve the
reputation in Belgium of curing smallpox.

Tincture of Tobae'co. Sgn. Tinotuba hico--
TiASM, Tihctuba tabaci. L. Prep. Fronir
pure manufactured tobacco, 1} oz. ; proof spirit,
1 pint ; macerate for 7 days. Compound spirit
of juniper is often used instead of proof sprit.
Sedative and narcotic. — Dote, 10 to 80 drops.
A tincture is also made from the fresh leaves.
See YBaxTABLB Juiobb and Tihotuebb (Ethe-
real).

Tincture of Toln'. Sf». Tihctuba tolu-
TAHUB (B. p.), TiHOTUBA TOXUTAHA (Ph. L. and

D.), T. BAUAXI TOLUTAHI, T. TOLUIPKBS BAL-

BAici. L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Balsam of Tolu. 1
part; rectified spirit, 8 parts; dissolve, filter, and
make up to 8 parts. — Dote, 15 to 30 minims,
mixed with mucilage or syrup.

2. (Ph. L.) Balsam of Tolu, 2 oz. (8i oz.—
Ph. E.); rectified spirit, 1 quart (1 pint— Ph..
D.) ; dissolve (by the aid of a gentle heat— Ph.
E. and D.) and filter.

Oft*. This tincture is reputed pectoral and
expectorant; but it is chiefly used as an adjuvant
in mixtures, on account of its flavour. — Dote, 10
to 60 drops.

Tinctore, Tooth. Prep. 1. (Greenho%gh't.\

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1706

TINCTURE

From bitter almonds, 2 oz. ; BrazQ-wood, cin-
namon, and orris root, of each, 1 oi.; alnm,
cochineal, and salt of sorrel, of each, 1 dr.; spirit
-of scarvy-grasB, 2 fl. oz. ; proof spirit, 1^ pints ;
macerate a week.

2. {Sudton't.) From the tinctores of myrrh
and cinchona, and cinnamon water, eqnal jnrts,
with a little arqaebusade and gnm-arabic.

8. (^Biupini't.) From orris root, 8 oz. ; cloves,
1 oz. ; ambergris, 20 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart ;
digested for 14 days. The above are used as
-cosmetics for the teeth and gums. The last has
long been a popular dentifrice.

nnsture. Toothache. Odontalgic tincture. See
also Dbofs, Essehob, &c.

Dnetnre of Tormerio. Sy»' TnroTUBA oub-
«UM« (Br Wood), L. Prep. Turmeric, 1 oz.j
proof spirit, 6 oz.

Tincture of Tnrpentiue. Syn. TiNOTUBi. tbbb-
BiNTBiHjt (P. Cod.), L. Prep. Venice turpen-
tine, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 {nnt.

Tincture of Tuyaya. I^n. Tinctitra tvtatjb,
L. Frep. Tuyaya root, m powder, 12 oz. j proof
spirit, 36 oz. j macerate for 14 days. If for in-
ternal use it must be diluted with four times its
volume of spirit. — Dote, 1 to 10 minims. In
syphilis.

Tincture of Tale'rian. Sgn, TnroiVBA TAIiB-
BlAHi (B. P., Ph. L., K., & D.), L. Prep. 1.
(B. P.) Valerian, bruised, 1 part ; proof spirit, 8
parts; macerate the valerian 48 hours with 6
parts of the spirit, agitating occasionally ; pack
in a percolator, let it drain, pour on the remainder
of the spirit; when it ceases to drop press and
filter, washing the marc with spirit to make up
8 parts. — Do»e, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Valerian root, bruised, 5 oz.; proof
spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days (14 days — Ph.
D. ; or by percolation — Ph. E.), press, and filter.
Tonic and antispasmodic. — Dote, 1 to 8 fl. dr.; in
hysteria, epilepsy, &c

Tincture of Valerian (Compound). %». Am-

JCONUTBD TIirCTTIEB OP VALBBIAN, VOLATIIiB T.
•OFT. ; TmOTITBA YALEBIAHiB COKFOSITA (Ph. L.),

T. V. AMMOKiATA (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1.
(6. p.) Valerian, bruised, 1 part; aromatic
-spirit of ammonia, 8 parts ; macerate the valerian
7 days, press, Biter, and add spirit to make up 8
parts.— Doxe, J to 1 dr.

2.^ (Ph. L.) Valerian root, bruised, 6 oz. ; aro-
matic spirit of ammonia (simple —Ph. E.), 1 quart ;
■macerate for 7 days (or by percolation — Ph. E.),
then press and filter. Stimulant, tonic, and anti-
"spasmodic. — Dote and uie, same as those of the
simple tincture, than which it is thought to be
more powerful. The tincture of the shops is
generally made with only 1 lb. of the root to the
-gallon.

Tincture of Vanilla. Syn. Tinotttba yakills
(Ph. G.), L. Prep. Vanilla pods, 1 part; recti-
fied spirit, 6 parts ; macerate 8 days.

Tincture of Veratria. Syn. Tihctitba tbba-
TBi;b (Magendie), L. Prep. Veratria, 4 gr. ;
rectified spirit, 1 dr.

Tincture of Vera'trum. Syn. Tibotubb op

■WHITB HKLLBBOBB ; TlNCTTTEA -VEBATBI TIBIDIS,
TlirOTTTBA HBUEBOBI AIBI, T. TBBATBI (Ph. E.),

li. Prep. 1. (B. p.) Green hellebore root, in
coarse powder, 4 parts ; rectified spirit, 20 parts;

macerate the powder with 16 parts of the spirit
48 hours, agitating occasionally; pack it in a per-
colator, let it drain, pour on the remainder of the
spirit ; when it ceases to drop, press, filter, wash
the marc with spirit to make up 20 parts. — Dote,

5 to SO minims.

2. (Ph. E.) White hellebore, 4 oz. ; proof spirit^
1 pint; digest or percolate. — Dote, 10 drops, 2 or
8 times a day, gpradnally increased; in gont, rheu-
matism, &c., as a snbsatnte for colchicnm; alao
externally.

Tincture of Virginian Snake-root, llnctnre of
serpentary.

Tincture of Vittie-vayr. 8yn. TnrcxuBA vbii*
TBBI.S, L. Prep. From vittie-vayr (roota of
Andropogon mmricatit), 2i oz. ; proof spirit, 1
pint; macei'ate a week. Stimulant, tonic, and
sudorific. — Dote, 16 to 80 drops.

Tincture, Vulnerary. Syn. TnconrRA yuutb-
BAXIA (P. Cod.), L. Prep. Fresh leaves of worm-
wood, angelica, basil, calamint, fennel, hyiaop,
maijoram, halm peppermint, origanum, rosemary,
rue, savory, sage, wild thyme, St John's-wort tops,
lavender tups, of each, 1 oz. (all cut up), rectified
spirit, 20 oz. (by wraght) ; digest 10 days.

Tincture of Walnuts. Sgn. Tincivra ju>
o];Ain>is (Ph. Dan.), L. Prep. Green shells of
walnuts, 6 oz. ; proof spirit, 24 oz. Digest for

6 days.

Tincture of Walnut Leave*. <^ii. TurcnrxA
JT7aLAin>iB FOLIOBUH (Mr Jitcs), L. Prep. Dried
walnut leaves, 16 oz. ; macerated for 7 days in a
gallon of proof spirit. — Dote, 1 to 2 teaspoonftals.
To prevent siclcness, or to cover the taste of cod-
liver oil.

Tincture, Warburg'srevsr. S9». TiifCTUBA fkb-
BiFDOA Wabbubqii, L. Prep.l. The oompositioB
was for a long time kept secret ; but in 187S Or W.
published the following formula for it through
Prof. Maclean:— Aloes (Soo.), Ib.j; Bad. Rhei,
Sem. Angelic, Conf. Damocrat., aa 5iv; Bad.
Helenii, Croci Sat., Sem. Fcenic, Crete ppt., ia
Jij; Bad. Gent., Bad. Zedoar., ^p. Cnbeb.,
Myrrhsa, Camphors, Boleti Laric, ia jj. Digest
with 600 oz. of proof spirit in a water-bath tar
12 hours; express, and add Quinin. Disulph., ^z.
Then replace in water-bath until the quinine ia
dissolved. Filter when cooU — Dote, i oz. (undi-
luted), after an aperient.

2. Tincture of orange, 6 parts ; compound tinc-
ture of aloes, 20 parts ; alcohol, 16 parts ; spirit
of camphor, 2 parts ; sulphate of quinine, 1 part.

Tincture of Wild Cherry Bark. Syn, Turc-
TUBA FBnri VtBenriAirx (B. P. C), L. Wild
cherry bark, in No. 20 powder, 4 oc. ; diatilled
water, 7i fl. oz. ; macerate for 24 hours in a elowd
vessel, and add rectified spirit, 12| fl. oz.; mace-
rate for 7 days, then press, filter, and add proof
spirit suf&ciont to produce 1 pint. — Dote, 20 to GO
minims.

Tincture of Winter Cheny. Syn. TnrcruKA
PHYBALI8 ALEAKBirax, h. Prep. Take of the
whole plant, dried, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint.
Digest for 10 days, strain, and filter. Diuretic
and febrifuge. — Dote, i dr. to 1 dr.

Tincture of Wormwood. Syn. TurcrtrsA
ABaiNTHii (Ph. G.), L. Prep. Ih-ied wormwood,
6 oz. ; proof spirit, 30 oz. (by weight) : macerate
for 8 days, and strain. — Dote, 1 dr

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TINCTURE

1709-

Lou of Spirit m making Tineiuret bg the BriHth Pharmaeopcria.^— Mr Uvirar giveg the
following table as embodying the remit of his experience :

Alcohol -838

Alcohol -930

Quantity

tomaka

tomaVe

Low percent.

Gain per cent.

made.

up maaanre.

np rneaaun.

b; volame.

by volame.

Qalla.

Plnta.

Pints.

Tinct. aconit.

4

2-5

7^9

„ amicffi .

10

8-0

8^8

„ aurantii .

10

...

6-6

6-3

„ belladonnsB

2

...

•7

4-1

„ benz. eomp.

6

'..'.

10-0

„ buchn .

2

...

ii>

6"8

„ calnmbtB

6

...

80

71

„ camphor, com
„ caDtharid.

P-

10

...

•6

•7

4

...

•6

1^9

„ capsici .

5

1-0

• ••

2^5

„ c^am. CO.

20

...

2^6

>, cascarillffi

6

2-0

5"0

„ castor .

2

•5

8-2

„ catechn .

6

• ••

No loss

„ chirettea.

2

...

2-0

12-5

„ dnchoDSB

10

• ••

120

16^0

M M CO.

10

>•■

9-0

11^8

„ cinnam. .

6

• ••

4-0

100

„ cocci .

1

• ••

•25

31

„ colchid «em.

2

• •*

1-5

9-4

„ conii

2

...

•75

4,-6

„ croci

1

, ,

•6

75

„ cabebts .

2

•6

8^2

„ digitalis.

6

...

aii

7-6

„ ergotn .

2

• •■

2^0

12-5

„ fern acet.

1

1-2

• ••

16^0

„ gallai

1

...

•4

5^0

„ gent. CO.

10

• •■

7^0

$•7

„ hyoscyami

10

.*•

60

7^5

„ iaIapsB .
„ kino

6
1

KoiosB

2^0

6^0

„ kramerin

5

...

i'o

5"o

„ lavand. comp.

20

2-0

1-8

„ limonis .

2

i-6

9^4

„ lobeKffi .

8

2-5

10-5

„ „ other.

8

S-S'

• *•

14^5

„ Inpoli .

6

4^0

100

>i myrrlue .

6

2-6

6^2

„ nnc. Tom.

4

•0

.••

62

» opii

10

, ,

•75

10

„ f, ammon.

2-6

•6

...

2-6

„ pyrethri.

1

I'O

• ••

12-5

u qnaasite .

1

*•.

•7

8-7

» rhei .

10

4^0

60

„ labinn .

2

!!!

■8

60

„ acilUg .

6

•••

8^0

76

„ Renegte .

1

,,,

•76

98

„ senna .

10

...

2^0

2^5

„ serpentar.

1

•••

•9

109

„ itramoD.

1

•••

•6

6-8

„ rombnl. .

3

*..

1^0

4-2

„ Taler. ammon

6

8-5»

4-4

„ valerian.

5

2-8

57

„ reratri virid.

2

2-'s

166

„ zingiber.

S

2-6

...

6-8

„ » fort.

10

S-6

87^5

• ' Pbarm. Jonm.,' 8rd series, i, 821—379. * Sp. wther. sulph.

p. ammon. aromat.

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ino

TINCTDRES— TIPULA OLERACEA

Tinetnre of Wormwood (Compound). Syn.

TlHOTTIBA ABSIKTHII CXJMPOSITA (P. Cod.), L.

JPrep. Dried wormwood tope, 1 ox. ; gentUn,
bitter orange peel, of each, 1 OB.; germander,
1 oz. ; rhubarb, ) oz. ; aloes, 2 dr- ; cascariUa, i
■dr. ; proof spirit, 2 pints.

Tiactare of Tellow Jasmine. Ssfn- Tinotvba
•OBL8IHII BBXPBBViBBNB. Prep. Yellow jasmine,
■2i OS. ; proof spirit,! pint. — Dote, 10 to 30 minims.

Tincture of Zedoary. Sj/n. TnfCTUBA zbdo-
ABLfi (Ph. Amst.), L. Prep. Zedoary root, 1
part ; rectified spirit, 8 parts. Digest and filter.

Tinetnre of Zedoary (Compound). Sj/». Tnro

'TUBJl ZBDOABIf C0ICP08ITA, WBDBL'S EsSBBTIA

Cabxinatita, L. iVsp. Zedoary, 4 oz. ; calamos,
galangal, of each, 2 oz. ; chamomile, aniseed, cats-
way seed, of each, 1 oz. ; hay berries and cloves, of
'each, 6 dr. ; orange peel and mace, of each, 4 dr. ;
peppermint water and rectified spirit, of each, 24
dr. In 6 days strain, and add hydrochloric ether,
4 oz.

TmCTUSES (Concentrated). £^. Tinctubjb
€ON0BNTBAT£ Habnii, L. Prep. (Ph. Baden.)
Digest 8 parts of the vegetable powder in 16 parts
-of spirit of the sp. gr. -857 (45 o. p.) for 4 days
at 72° F., with occasional agitation ; then press
and filter ; to the marc or residonm add as mnch
spirit as it has absorbed, and again press and
filter; the weight of the mixed liquors should be
16 parts. In this way are prepared concentrated
tinctures of aconite leaves ; arnica and chamomile
■flowers ; belladonna, digitalis, hemlock, henbane,
peppermint, and savine leaves ; ipecacuanha and
valerian roots, &c.

TDTCTUBES (CBlinary). See Essbhobb,
Sfibits, &c.

THrCTUSES (Ethe"real). Sy». Tikctub*
jbthebe£,L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the vegetable
substance, I oz. ; sulphuric ether, 4 oz. (or 6 fl.
iz.); by maceration for 4 days in a well-closed
vessel ; or preferably by percolation in a cylin-
drical glass vessel furnished with a stopper, and
terminating at the lower end in a f nnnel, obstrocted
with a little cotton. The powder being introdnced
over the cotton, pour on enongh ether to moisten it,
put in the stopper, fix the tube into the neck of
a bottle, and leave it for 48 hours; then add,
'{gradually, the remaining portion of the ether, and,
lastly, enongh water to displace the ether absorbed.
In this manner are prepared the ethereal tinctures
of aconite leaves, arnica flowers, belladonna,
hemlock, foxglove, tobacco, pellitory, solanum,
valerian, stramonium, &c., of tiie Paris Codex.

The ethereal tinctures of amber, ambergris,
assafajtida, cantharides (acetic ether), castor,
mask, tolu, &c., are prepared by maceration only.

TIBCTUSES (Odoriferous). These are pre-
pared from odoriferous substances by the usnal
processes of digestion or percolstion. See Spibitb.

TUTCTTTKES from Secent Vegetable*. See
Vboetablb Juiobb.

Tnrl)EB (German). See Akadou.

TIHEA OSABXLLA, Linn. Thb Cobh Wovb
Moth. This pretty little moth belongs to the
family Tineida ot the group Tineiita, according
:to Mr Stainton, the great authority upon this
division of Lbfidoftbba. It is called the wolf,
«nd is so called because of its ravages to com in
^granaries and storehouses, and is known in every

part of the world. The manner of the injury
done by the larva of this moth is much the same
as that caused by the Trogotita moMrUamea,
only that it appears to consume much more of
the grain. Its attack is often mistaken for that
of the Trogosita. This moth belongs to the same
genus as the clothes moth, the carriage moth,
and tbe fur moth.

lAfe Sietory. The moth appears first towards
the middle of May, and is seen flying towarda
dark in granaries and warehouses, not only of
com but also of other commodities. Is is abont
three sevenths of an inch across the wings, and
its body is less than half an inch in length. It
is of a dull white colour with dark spots on the
whitish wings. The female lays thirty or more
eggs, yellowish, and so small that they cannot be
seen without a glass. She places one or two
upon single grains of com — wheat, barley, oata,
and rye. In the course of a fortnight tiny cater-
pillars with dark brown heads come fmth and
attack the gnun with their stout jaws. They are
of a light bnff colour with reddish heads, having
thirteen segments, and are close upon one third of
an inch in length. They fasten several grains
together with a kind of web. Sometimes heap*
of com that have been undisturbed for some time
are covered with these grey webs, which Cnrtis
believes are for their protection. In Kirhy and
Spence's 'Introduction to Entomology' it is
stated, " On vinting com granaries at Uristol we
found the barley lying on the floors covered
with a gauze-like tissue formed of the flve silken
thresds spnn by the larva) in traversing its aar-
face." In due time the Urvee retire to chinks
and holes in rafters, beams, and ceilings, and
make cocoons covered with fine webs, and rest
until the warmth of the spring sun tempts them
forth. The larvss of this moth are frequently
found in the fissures of the bark of oak trees and
of fruit trees, from whence the perfect insects fly
to the storehonses of grain.

Preoention. To prevent the attacks of this
destructive moth all rooms and buildings nsed tta
storing grain must be kept well and constantly
swept, and the whole places — sides, ceUings, and
floors — cleansed. As it is said that the larvie
bore into wood to make resting-places for their
transformation, it is important that all wood-
work should be scrubbed hard and well, so as to
let the soap and water into every cranny. No
lumps of dust or grain should be allowed to
remun in corners, or on the ledges or window-
sills. Ceilings should bo carefully and frequently
whitewashed. Strong decoctions of qnassia may
be mixed advantageously with the soap and water
used for cleansing.

Bemediet. When com in store is found to be
' moth-eaten,' and webs are seen upon the heap, it
must at once be moved, and frequently. If poa-
sible it should be run down through the winnow-
ing machine. Should the injury be great and
evidently increasing, kiln drying should be re-
sorted to. Cora in sacks should be frequently
examined, as the moth and larvte work in sacks
as well as in the heaiw (' Reports on Insects In-
jurious to Crops,' by Chas. Whiteliead, Esq.,
F.Z.S.).

TIFDLA OLXKACEA. Linn. Thx C&un ThX

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TIPULA OLEBACEA

1711

<Daddt Lono-lkob). Every one knows this
long-legged, awkward fly, called Daddy Long-
legs. It is also known as the crane fly, as Curtis
says, on account of its beaked head. It is a gene-
ral destroyer of crops, and an omnivorous feeder
upon farm and garden productions, attacking all
kinds of com, grass, turnips, mangels, clover,
peas, cabbages, strawberries, and' others. There
is also another and a smaller species, known as
Tijtula maealosa, or the spotted crane fly, having
-spots on its body, which is injurious to varioas
crops. Its habits and history are similar to those
of the TtptUa oUraeea, and the methods of pre-
vention and remedies against it are the same.
There has been a large increase of these insects
during the past few years, and the injury caused
to corn crops in England and Scotland has been
very great. The wet summer season previous to
1880 favoured their propagation, as they delight
in moisture and revel in damp, marshy, boggy
places, in which they prefer to deposit their

eggs-
it is the larvae or grubs that injure plants of
corn and grass by attacking them with their
strong jaws, and eating into them just beneath
the surface of the ground, so as either to kill
them or to make them weak and sickly. In the
early spring, if wheat plants which show signs of
failing are examined, large ash-grey grubs, ormag-
got8,will often befound close to the affected plants.
Oats and barley are equally liable to harm from
these grubs — not, perhaps, quite to such an extent
as autumn-sown wheat, and especially wheat sown
alter clover leys. One instance may be given
here of serious loss in a large wheat-field in Kent
after clover ley, well ploughed and duly pressed,
with a deal of sward turned in. The plant, which
was forward and very vigorous, looked like yield-
ing five quarters per acre. In February it began
to fail, bat the actnal cause was not ascertained
nntil the middle of March— too late for any
effectual remedies. Only about four sacks per
acre were obtained from this field. A field of oats
sown on the 1st of March, after clover, was
attacked by these grubs. Although it was an even
atrong plant it was soon nearly half devoured,
and, instead of nine quarters per acre being ob-
tained, as might have been expected from the state
of the land and the circumstances of its cultiva-
tion, and the prodnce of other land hard by, only
about four quarters per acre were grown. It is
computed that the loss in this case amounted to
£80. Upon a form in Essex, in 1882, the bean
crop was materially reduced by an attack of these
«rane fl^ grubs ; and on a market-garden farm
near Rainham, in Essex, early peas were almost
entirely rained by them. Grave complaints of
great iiyury and of heavy losses to com have been
rife from many parts of England, Scotland, and
Ireland during the last six years.

Pastures have also suffered alarmingly in some
-places. The grubs seem to select the best and most
succulent grasses, and those of upright growth,
such as cock's-foot (Dactglii glomerata). In pas-
tures and meadows the amount of dami^ done
by these insects cannot be estimated, as so much
of it is unseen and unknown. It is stated that in
pasture land known to be attacked by them as
many as 200 grubs have been taken from a square

foot of turf. In 1884 Lord's Cricket Ground
was seriously injnred by the grubs of the Daddy
Long-legs.

lAfe Satorjf. The life history of the crane
flies, both of the Tipula oUracea and its close
congener, Tipula macvlota, is simple. The eggs
are small, oval, conical grains, shining and black
as ebony, as Curtis writes, forming a mass which
occupies nearly the whole of the abdomen. As
many as 300 have been found in one female. These
are deposited inthcautumnupon grass and herbage,
and more frequently in the ground. Wet un-
drained meadows, and marshy and damp places are
preferred by these insects, and the conditions of
such spots are probably favourable to the pre-
servation and the ultimate hatching of the eggs.
This hatching takes place in the early spring,
directly the weather becomes mild. Taschenberg
reports that they have been fi>und as early as
January and February in mild winters.

Hiss Orinerod rel»tes that they may be found
as early as February, for in 1880 they were de-
stroying hundreds of acres of autumn-sown wheat
on heavy land after clover at that date. After
hatching, the maggots or larvee grow fast until
they become an inch in length. Labourers call
them 'leather jackets,' because of their tough
skins. Their colour is of the earth, with a slight
dash of grey or ash colour in it. Although they
have no legs they are able to move rapidly from
place to place, and burrow in the ground. It is in
this grub form that they do mischief to crops, and
they remain in this stage of their existence until
the beginning of July, at which period they
change into pupee under the surface of the soil.
After a while the pupie work their way up to the
light by means of the hooks or recurved spines,
and in a short time the crane flics appear, and
soon nnfold their long wings, and fly away to
commence a new series. Most persons are ac-
quainted with these insects in their perfect forms,
but it may be stated that the females are about
an inch long, with wings two inches across. Their
colour is light brown ; they have six legs, and a
long tapering body with nine divisions or seg-
ments. The male insects are not so large as the
females. Puiring takes place in the beginning of
August. In fields and meadows infested with
crane flies thousands of empty papa cases can be
seen sticking half out of the ground. It should
ho mentioned that in some seasons the flies may
he seen as late as October.

Fret)enlion, Spots where there is long inter-
twisted herbage and weed-growth, wet ditches,
the wet sides of hedgerows, damp headlands, un-
drained meadows, and marshes, are congenial
habitations of the crane flies. These being their
head-qunrters and chief breeding-places, an ob-
vious means of prevention is to keep ditches well
brushed and cleaned ont, to abolish hedgerows
where possible, or to keep them well and closely
trimmed up, also to drain wet land. Wetness
and decay, as is affirmed by Curtis, Taschenberg,
and Kaltenbach (' Die Pflanzenfeinde aus der
Klasse der Insekten,' von J. H. Kaltenbach), are
natural to them, and long immersion in water doea
not destroy their eggs.

In very many instances the attack of crane flies
upon field crops is where these follow clover or

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1712

TISANE

artiflcial grasses, whose herbage has served as
shelter for the eggs. The necessity of keeping
clover and other leys down close before they are
ploughed cannot he too strongly urged, not only
as a means of prevention against crane 6ies, but
also against many other injurious insects. How-
ever well ploughed, however well pressed down
the land may be, some eggs will be left in circum-
stances in which they can be hatched out if there
are long stalks and much herbage. It is also im-
portant to plough leys early, in order that the
eggs may be baried deeply, so that they may be
prevented from changing into larvae. It goes
almost without saying that weed-growth in fields
serves equally as a harbour for the eggs. The
clean and careful farmer, as a rule, is not so
liable to attacks from insects as he who is slovenly.
As the eggs and the grubs of these flies are with-
out doubt carried out on to the land in farmyard
manure, it is very desirable to keep old mizens
clear from weeds, and to turn mizens that have
lain some time three weeks or so before they are
carted out, that the eggs and grubs may he de-
stroyed by the renewed heating. Old mizens are
a very fertile soorce of insect attacks of many
other kinds. Weeds shoold not be allowed upon
them. They should never be carried out when their
heat has been long exhausted; but old mizens
are altogether a mistake from all points of view.

Semedie*. In the case of wheat plants suffering
from a bad attack of crane-fly grubs the following
treatment was adopted with much success in
1883 : — Early in February the grubs were found
at work in numbers in a strong piece of wheat
after clover. It was horse-hoed well and side-
hoed as soon as the land was dry enough for these
operations. A few days afterwards 2 cwt, of
nitrate of soda was put on, and a heavy roller
was applied. This checked the grubs, and gave
time to the plants to grow away and produce a
fair crop, though the grubs were very numerous
as seen at first.

In 1882 a field of wheat was losing plant fast
at the beginning of March; 1^ cwt. of nitrate of
soda, mixed with 4 cwt. of soot, was broadcasted
over the plants, and, as the soil was a little mi-
kindly, it was ring- rolled both ways. Growth
was stimulated ; the soil was pressed well round
the plants. Eventually a crop of 4} quarters was
grown. Oats attacked badly have been much
helped by hand-hoeings and horse-hoeings, and
dressings of soot, salt, nitrate of soda, and gnano.
Freqnent horse-hodngs at the right time have
materially benefited peas and beans which ap-
peared to be giving way fast. Hand-picking by
women and boys following hoers where labonr is
plentiful has been of great service. In market-
garden farms and market gardens crops have
been saved by careful hand-picking, also by
means of stimxuating manures hoed in. Chemical
manures act as deterrents, but obviously it is
difficult in large fields and in large cultivation to
get them directly in the paths of the grubs.
Applications should, if it is practicable, be
sprinkled up the drills or rows of plants instead
of being broadcasted in the usual way, in order
that the application may be close to the grubs ;
not that these act directly npon their leathern
jackets, bnt they are offensive to them.

Moles, rooks, starlings, peewits, ploven, and
gulls are natural remedial agents, devonting these
grubs wholesale, and should be encouraged and
protected (' Reports on Insects Injurious to Crops,'
by Chas. Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

TISABS. [Pr.] %». Ptibas; Piisaxa, h.
This form of medicine is much used in France.
Tisanes may be readily prepared by slightly medi-
cating barley, lice, or tamarind water, lemonade,
Sus. See DsooonoK, Ihfubiok, Julkp, Pukav,
&c., and Moto,

Tisane, Antimonial. {Srera.) Lemonade, 2
pints ; tartar emetic, 2 gr. ; sugar, q. a.

Tisane, Antiseorbutie. An infusion of boek^beu
and the fresh roots of horseradish.

Tisaiie, Antlvenereal. Various compound deooc*
tions of sarsaparilla are known by this name.

Tisane of Arnica. (P. Cod.) As elder-flower
tisane.

Tiaaiw of Arnica TlowMri. (P. Cod.) iVap.
Arnica flowers, | oz. ; boiling water, 6 pints.
Infuse half to an hour and fllter throngh paper.
Prepare in the same manner saffron tisane.

Tisane of Aspaiagns. (P. Cod.) Asparagus
root, i oz. ; boiling water, 2 pints. Infuse S houn
and stnun. Tisanes are prepared in the same
way from the roots of elecampane, comfnj,
strawberries, rhatany, soapwort, spruce flr buds,
Peruvian bark, dulcamara, and burdock mot.

Tisane of Bread. Sgn. Dbcoctux aisvk
(P. Cod.), L. iV«p. Prepared hartshorn, 1 oz. ;
bread crumb, 2 oz.; gum-arabic, 1 oz.; water,
sufficient quantity to yield 5 pints ; boil for half
an hour, strain through a coarse sieve, and add
white sugar, 6 oz. ; orange-flower water, 1 os.

Tisane of Cassia. (P. Cod.) Prep. £ztraet
of cassia, I oz. ; diMolve in 6 pints of water at
140° P.

Tisane, Common. A decoction of pearl barley
and couch-grass, flavoured with liquorice root.

Tisane of Couch-grass. (P. Cod.) JV». Root
of couch-grass, slic^, 6 dr. Boil for halfan hoar
with water sufficient to yield 2 pints.

Tisane of Elder Flowers. (P. Cod.) J^tp.
Elder flowers, 1 dr.; boiling water, H pints.
Macerate for half an hour, and strain.

Tisane of Gentian. (P. Cod.) Prep. Oentian,
sliced, i oz. ; cold water, 6 pints. Infuse 4 boms
and strain. In the same manner prepare tisanes
of quassia, simaruba, and rhubarb.

Tisane of Gnats. From groats, as tisane of peari
barley.

Tisane of Gnaiaeun Wood. (P. Cod.) frep.
Ouuacum shavings, 1| oz. Boil for 1 hour with
sufficient water to yield 2 pints, and strain.

Tisane of Gum. ^u. Eau ds eomu, Fr. J¥tp.
Bruised gum-arabic, 1 oz. ; water, 2| pints. Dia.
solve without heat, and strain.

Tisane of Iceland Moss. (P. Cod.) Prtp.
Just boil 2i dr. of Iceland moss in a little water
and throw away the first decoction, then wash
the remaining moss with cold water ; then add a
fresh quantity of water and boil for half an hour,
so as to obtain 2 pints.

Tisane of Irish Moss. (P. Cod.) Prep. Wash

90 gr. of carrageen in cold water; then, after

boiling 10 minutes, add water in snffident qoantity

so as to yield 2 pints.

Tisane of Liqnerloe. (P. Cod.) Prep. ' Sliced

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TISSUE— TOBACCO

1718

Ilqtiorice, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 6 pints. Infase 2
hoars, and strain. Prepare in the same manner
(hut infnsing for | hoar) tisanes from the dried
leaves of borage, wormwood, holy thistle, chicory,
Aunitory, ground-ivy, pellitory, wild pansy, soap-
wort, scabious, from the cones of the hop, ani-
seed, red rose leaves, lesser centaury tops, and
linseed.

Tisane of If esereon. (P. Cod.) Prtp. Heze-
reon bark, 2 dr. ; water, 2^ pints j boil to 1} pints,
and strain.

Tiaane of Orange Leaves. (P. Cod.) Prep.
Leaves of the orange tree, \ oz. ; boiling water, 5
pints J infase i hour, and strain. Prepare in the
same manner tisanes from the leaves of worm-
wood, maidenhair, hyssop, balm, mint, and sage ;
and from the flowers of white mullein, chamo-
mile, red poppy, mallow, marsh-mallow, lime,
coltsfoot, and violet.

Tisane of Pearl Barl^. (P. Cod.) Prep.
Wash i oz. of pearl barley in cold water; strain
off water, and boil in a sufficient quantity of
water, so as to yield 2 pints. Tisanes of groats
and rice are made in the same manner.

Tiaane, Pectoral. An infusion of the roots of
liquorice and marsh-mallow, Canadian maiden-
hair, and the flowers of the red poppy and colts-
foot, in a decoction of rice.

Tiaane of Bice. (P. Cod.) Prepared in the
same manner as tisane of pearl barley.

Tisane of Bice with ibemon. {Auguttin.)
Prep. Washed rice, 1 o». ; water, 4 lbs. ; boil,
strain, add barley-sngar, | dr. ; lemon juice, 1 oz.

Tisane of Boses with Kilk. (P. Cod.) Prep.
Conser-ve of roses, 1 oz. ; new milk, 1 pint. Bub
together and strain.

Tisase, Boyal. Prep. From senna, fresh
chervil^ and sulphate of soda, of each, 4 dr. ; ani-
seed and cinnamon, of each, 1 dr.; 1 lemon,
sliced ; cold water, ij pints ; macerate for 24 hours,
stirring occasionally, then press and filter. Ape-
rient.— Doee, A wineglassful or more, repeated
every half-honr nntil it operates.

Tisane of Salop. (P. Cod.) Prep. Boil 1 dr.
of salep in 16 oz. of water, and strain.

Tiaane of Senega. (P. Cod.) Prep. Senega,
1 oz. ; boiling water, 6 pints. Infase for 2
boon, and strain. Prepare in the same manner
tisanes of the roots of marsh-mallow and vale-
rian.

Tiaaae of Snlphnrie Aeid. (P. Cod.) Syn. Li-
XOKAsa BVLTTBIQUB, Fr. Prep, Snlphnrie acid
(1*84), 72 minims; water, 4| pints ; syrup, 10 oz.
(by weight) ; mix s. a. Prepare in the same
manner nitric and phosphoric acid lemonade ; the
first with acid of sp. gr. 1'42; the second with
acid of sp. gr. 1'46.

Tisane of Tamarinds. (P. Cod.) Prep. Pulp
of tamarind, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 2 pints. Infuse
ihoor.

Tisane, Tartaric. (P. Cod.) Prep, larrup of
tartaric acid, 2 oz.; water, 18 oz. Prepare in
the same manner, with their respective syrups,
lemonades of citric acid, gooseberries, cherries,
and raspberries.

TIS'BXTE (Blis'terlng). See VssiCAirrg.

TITA'BIUII. A rare metal, discovered by
Klaproth in 1794, and examined by Wollaston in
1822. It is occasionally found at the bottom of
TOL. n.

the smelting-furnaces of iron-works, in combina-
tion with nitrogen and cyanogen, under the form
of minute crystals, having a coppery lustre,

TOAS-Ur-THE-HOLE. One to six ounces of
flour, break the contents of one egg, and stir in
by degrees one pint of milk, taking care to keep
the mixture free from lumpiness. Place meat or
ox kidney cut in slices in a greased pie dish or
tin; then pour the batter over the meat scfter
adding a pinch of salt, and let it bake for an hour
to an hour and a quarter. The batter should be
allowed to stand before being cooked.

TOAST (Essence of). This is liquid burnt
sugar or spirit colouring. Used to make extem-
poraneous toast-and-water (3 or 4 drops to tbo
glass), and to flavour soups, gravies, &c.

TOAST AHB WATEB. Toast a crust of
bread, taking care not to char it, and put it into
a pint of cold water in a covered vessel. After
standing half an hour it will be ready for use.

TOBACCO. 8gn. Tabacum (Ph. L., E., and
D.), L. ; Tabao, Fr. The prepared leaf of SteO'
tiana tabaeum, Linn., or other species of the
same genus. The name was given to this herb
by the Spaniards, because it was first seen by
them at Tabasco, or Tabaco, a province of Yuca-
tan, in Mexico.

The tobacco of commerce is chiefly obtained
from Virginia and other parts of the United
States, and recently from Japan nnd California,
but the finest varieties are imported from
Havannah and from the East. The plants are
gathered when mature, daring hot dry weather,
and are hung up in pairs, in sheds, to dry.
When sufficiently dry, the leaves are separated
from the stems, bound up in bundles, and these
are formed into bales, or packed in hogsheads, for
exportation.

Prep. To impart to the dried leaves the cha-
racteristic odour and flavour of tobacco, and to
render them agreeable to smokers and snuffers, it
is necessary that they should undergo a certain
preparation, or kind of fermentation. If a fresh
green leaf of tobacco be crushed between the
fingers, it emits merely the herbaceous smell
common to most plants ; but if it be triturated in
a mortar along with a very small quantity of
quicklime or caustic alkali, it will immediately
exhale the peculiar odour of msnufactured to-
bacco. This arises from the active and volatile
ingredients being liberated from their previous
combination by the ammonia developed by fer-
mentation, or the action of a stronger base.
Tobacco contains a considerable quantity of chlo-
ride of ammonium, and this substance, as is well
known, when placed in contact with lime or
potassa, immediately evolves free ammonia. If
we reverse the case, and saturate the excess of
alkali in prepared tobacco by the addition of any
mild acid, its characteristic odour entirely dis-
appears. In the preparation of tobacco pre-
viously to ite manufacture for sale, these changes
are effected by a species of fermentation. Pare
water, without any addition, is quite sufficient to
promote and maintain the perfect fermentation
of tobacco. The leaves soon become hot and
evolve ammonia ; during this time the heaps re-
quire to be occasionally opened up and turned
over, lest they become too hot, take fire, or ran

108

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1714

TOBACCO

into the patrefactive fermentation. The extent
to which the process is allowed to proceed varies,
for different kinds of snaft or tobacco, from one
to three months.

Qiial., i[o. Tobacco is a powerful narcotic,
sedative, and emetic ; and is also cathartic and
dinretic; hot the last in a weaker degree than
either squills or foxglove. Its action is violently
depressing and relaxing, producing fainting, and
even death, in comparatively small quantities.
Toxicologists rank it among the more active nar-
cotico-acrid poisons; and physicians, when they
wish to produce sudden physical prostration, in
accidents or spasmodic diseases, order an enema of
the infusion or smoke of tobacco. Its deleterious
properties depend on the presence of narcotine, one
of the most frightful vegetable poisons known, of
which ordinary Vlrs^nia tobacco contains from
6% to 7%.

" The chief sources of tohacco in Europe are
Germany, Holland, Salonica, Hungary, and
Bnssia ; in Asia, the principal are China, Japan,
the East Indies, Latakia, and other parts of
Asiatic Turkey, Persia, Java, Syria, and Manilla j
in Africa, Algiers ; in South America, Varinas,
Brazil, Uruguay, New Qrenada, Paraguay, Cu-
mana, and other fields are most productive; while
the great tohacco districts of North America are
the United States, Mexico, Cuba, Hayti, and
Porto Rico. The extent to which these and others
are severally laid under contribution by the manu-
facturers of this country is shown by the following
partial analysis of the imports of 1873 and 1874"
(' British Manufacturing Industries,' Sandford) :

Prom

1873.

1874.

lbs.

lbs.

Germany

687,720

866,646

Holland.

5,429,511

7,356,798

France . . . .

1,436,985

1,712,839

Greece ....

330,712

84,161

Turkey . . . .

1,430,572

696,182

British India .

3,068,109

2,359,987

Philippine Islands .

171,808

780,098

China . . . .

2,136,637

1,898,467

Japan . . . .

4,846,892

2,948,036

Spanish V^est India Is-

lands . . . .

295,664

242,304

New Grenada (United

States of Columbia) .

2,199,885

1,617,573

Argentine Republic

340,787

663,940

United States of America

67,593,826

53,567,555

Other countries

1,404,640

1,890,679

81.382,783

76,176,215

Most of the so-called Havannah cigars which
arrive in England are shipped from German ports.
It appears that a higher price is obtainable for
dark than for light-coloured cigars, the demand
for the former being about three times as large as
for the latter. Unfortunately, however, owing in
a great measure to the partial failure of the to-
bacco crops of late years, light-coloured tobacco
is much more common than dark. In order.

therefore, to render the cigars made of light-
coloured tobacco saleable at a higher price, and
also to improve the appearance of old and faded
cigars, if we are to believe a pamphlet recently
published at Bremen, where there are several of
these manufactories, various infusions have of
late been prepared and largely sold, nnder the
name of ' Havanna hmwn,' ' sap brown,' and
' condensed sauce.' All these preparations are
now openly advertised, and directions given for
using them. None of these infusions contain
anything particularly injorioua, most of them
consisting of brown vegetable dyes ; neverthdee
they enable the manufacturer to give to cigan
made of old and faded leaves the appearance of
good Havannah cigars. A German paper slates
that if a piece of white blotting-paper, satniated
with diluted sal-ammoniac, is passed a few times
lightly over the cigar, the colouring matter, if
any has been used, will come off on it, whereas
the natural brown of the tobacco leaf will remain.
Tobacco Adulteration. The popular beUef that
1)ad cigars are made of cabbage leaves is not justi-
fied by the last ofScial report on tobacco adnlten-
tion. This document contains a tabulated accotmt
of the seizures of spoiions tobacco made in the
United Kingdom since 1864 ; and in the whole
paper there is no mention whatever of the moeh-
suspected vegetable. Its place in the black list
is supplied by a variety of ingredients large enough
to rejoice the heart of any member of the Anti-
Tobacco League. The dishonest dealer in things
smokahle is shown by the report to make nse of
three different sorts of materials besides that
which he professes to employ. The first sort is
required for the actual substance of the cigar; the
second for improving its outward appearance ; and
the third for imparting to it what is supposed to
he a better taste. In the former category the
favourite substances seem to bo the leaves of the
lime tree, the husks of wheat and oats, cotton
yarn, and Tonquin bean. But there are numerous
cases where the ingredients have been mndi more
curiously selected, and have included cocoa-nut
fibre, small seeds, cotton, wood, and bread. At
one establishment 60 lbs. of ' tobacco dust ' wen
found and analysed, when it was shown to con-
tain string, wood, nails, grindings of tobacco-pipe,
dirt, and all sorts of refuse. Another large clas
of materials is apparently used for secnnng the
adhesion and consistency of the cigar when made.
Amongst these starch is the most prominent ; but
it includes gum and amidine blue, gnm-arabic,
glne, glycerin, and essential oils. 'Taa colour of
the fabrication is the next thing to be attended
to, and for this purpose resort is had to yellow
ochre, red sandal-wood, logwood, lampblack, and
Venetiau red. As for the flavour of the cigar, it
is varied to suit the most diverse tastes ; but the
usual object seems to be to impart to it a pleasin|r
sweetness of tone. Accordingly saccharine matt^,
and especially treacle, is very largely pressed into
the service. For those who like a rather more
decided taste, liqnorice, salt, logwood, glycerin,
and aniseed are used. It is in Dublin where the
last ingredient is most fashionable, while Bdin-
burgh is fondest of treacle and sng^r, and East
London is addicted to liquorice (' Fall Hall
Gazette '}.

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TODDY— TRANSPARENCIES

1715

Tobacco. Britiah. 8yn. Hbsb tobaooo;
Tabacum Awoliouh, Species btbbituiobis,
!<• Frep. Take of thyme, marjoram, and
hysaop, of each, 2 oz. j betony and eyebrigbt, 8
oz. ; rosemary and lavender, of each, 4 oz. ; colts-
foot, 1 lb. ; mix, press them tof^ether, and cut the
mass in imitation of mannfactured foreign to-
bacco. Some asthmatic subjects add 6 or 6 oz. of
stramonium or thorn-apple leaves; and others add
i lb. of gennine tobacco.

Tobacco, Indian. See Lobblia.

TOS'ST. Obtained from various species of
palms, by cutting off the end of the flowering bud,
and collecting the sap. Used fresh as a cooling
beverage j and, after fermentation, as an intoxi-
cating one. Sweetened grog is so called in Oom-
Mrall, and in some other parts of England.

TOftY. Sgn. EvEBTOir tofft. A sweet-
meat prepared by heathig brown sugar in a sauce-
pan or skillet, with about one half its weight of
fresh butter, for 15 to 20 minutes, or until a ' little
of it dropped into cold water forms a lump that
breaks crisply;' it is then poured into a little
battered tin mould.

TOLUOLE. Syn. Tocuoi.; Bbnzobnb. C^H.
One of the hydrocarbons homologous with benzol,
'M'ith which it occurs, associated with xylol and
isocnmole, in the light oil obtained from the
distillation of coal tar. It is also one of the pro-
ducts of distillation of balsam of Toln,and would
seem to he identical with the retinaphtha obtained
by Pelletier and Walter from the distillation of
rosin. If oxidised by means of chromic acid it
yields benzoic acid. Its boiling-point is 230° F.,
and its sp. gr. 0-87.

TOK'BAC. An alloy consisting of copper, 16
lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. ; zinc, 1 lb. Red tombac is composed
of copper, 10 lbs. ; zinc, 1 lb.

TOMQA. A remedy nsed by the natives of
the Tonga Islands, a group of the Fijis. It is
s mixture of parts of three planks. Mr E. M.
Holmes has shown two of them' to be the scraped
stem of Saphidopkora vitentii, and bark of
PreflMa Taiteiuit ; the third substance is some
nnknown leaf. These are enclosed in a wrapper
composed of the inner bark of the cocoa-nut tree.
The drug is used for neuralgia, and seems harmless.
A liquid extract is made, and sold as a proprietary
article. — Doie, 1 dr.

TOB'ICS. Medicines that increase tiie tone
of the muscular fibre, and impart idgour to the
system.

TOH'aUIK BEKEDY. Sgn. PtriTis Tbun-

OEINBKSIS, p. ALBXIFHABKICUB SlIfBNBIS, L.

I'rep. From valerian, 20 gr. ; musk, 16 gr. ;
camphor, 6 gr. ; mix. Antispasmodic and alexi-
terian, in doses of 6 to 12 gr., in hooping-
cough, &o. ; 1 dr. in hydrophobia, exanthemata,
and mania.

TOOTH'ACHE. Sj/n. OooinAlAiA. L. This
annoying affection frequently arises from sym-
pathy with a disordered stomach. In such cases a
saline purgative should be administered, and an
emetic if required. When cold is the cause, an
excellent remedy is a hot embrocation of poppy
heads, followed by the use of flannel and diapho-
retics. When it arises from a hollow or decayed
tooth, the best application is a piece of lint
moistened with creasote, or a strong spirituous

solution of creasote, and closely rammed into the
cavity of the tooth. Laudanum, the essential
oils of cloves, caraway, and ctyeput, and essence or
tincture of pellitory of Spain, are also used in the
same way. To prevent the recurrence of the
latter kind of toothache, the cavity should be
filled with an amalgam of gold, or with mineral
inarmoratum, or some other good cement. In
many cases, chewing a piece of good ginger, or, still
better, a small piece of pellitory, will afford relief
in a few minutes. The celebrated John Wesley
recommended a ' few whiffs ' at a pipe containing
a little caraway seed mixed with the tobacco. A
slight 'shock' from a voltaic battery will often
instantly remove the toothache after all other
means have failed. See Dbofs, Essbmob, Tnrc-
TITBB, &c.

TOOTH CEHEKTS. See Dsxtibtby.

Obt. It is absolutely necessary for success
that the teeth be well cleaned out, and wiped
dry, before applying any of the above stoppings
or cements.

TO^AZ. See Obkb.

TOB'KEirTIL. Sj/n. ToBUBKTraui kadix;
TOKMEifTiitA (Ph. L. ft E.), L. The root or
rhizome of Potentilla tormentilla. It is astringent
and febrifuge, without being stimulant. — Doie,
20 to 60 gr. ; in agues, diarrhcea, ftc. ; also for-
merly in syphilis.

TOBTOISESHELL, to Polish. Dip a soft linen
rag into rouge powder, and rub the tortoiseshell
with it, and finish off with the hand. Tortoise-
shell combs will not lose their polish if they are
rubbed with the band after removal from the
hair.

TOUCH-ITEEDLEB. See Assatino.

TOTTCHWOOB. See Akasot;.

T0US-LES-H0I8. The fecula of the roots of
Canna edulu (Ph. D.) ; intended as a substitute
for arrowroot. To the naked eye it closely re-
sembles the finest quality of potato starch, bat
under the microscope its granules are found to be
oblong, oval, with a concentric structure, and
larger than those of the potato tuber.

r

Hicroscopic appearance of tons-le<-moia.

TOXICOt'OGT. See Poison.
TKAG'ACABTH. See QvM.
TBAV8FA"BEHCI£S. Water-colour pictures

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1716

TR4.PS— TEEACLB

on paper, linen, or calico, if execnted in non-opaqne
or glazing colours, may be converted into transpa-
rencies by simply brushing over their backs with
Canada balsam, thinned down, when necessair,
with a little oil of turpentine. For coarse work,
hoiled oil may be employed.

TBAPS, HOUSE. With few exceptions, the
endless varieties of traps advertised for honse
drains are all modifications of the older forms of
the syphon, the midfeather, and the hall trap. The
syphon trap consists of a bent tube with a deep
cnrre, in which the water lies snd acts as an
hydraulic valve.

The following conditions are essential for its
proper action : — The cnrve must be of such a
depth as to ensure a height of not less than j
inch of water always standing above the highest
level of the water in the curve. The ontlet pipe
attached to the trap should not be too small nor
have too sudden a fall as it leaves the trap, other-
wise when ' running full ' of water, all the water
will be sucked out of it by the pipe beyond, owing
to the too narrow bore and too perpendicular in-
clination of this latter.

The midfeather trap consists of a round or
square box or receptacle, into the upper part of
which, on one side, an inlet pipe discharges,
whilst at a corresponding height on the opposite
side there is an outlet pipe. The npper part of
the box is divided by a partition, which dips at
least } inch below the surface of the water, always
standing in the receptacle, at the level of the out-
let pipe. The principle, therefore, of the mid-
feather is similar to the syphon trap. The re-
ceptacle is so arranged that any heavy substances
collected at the bottom can from time to time be
removed. A useful variety of the midfeather is
' Dean's patent drain-trap,' manufactured by
Edwards, of Buabon.

The hall trap is not in very general use. By
this arrangement the drain is ^pped by means
of a hollow hall, which rises with the water in
the drun until it is carried against and closes an
orifice.

The common ball trap is inefficient and nn-
satisfactory. The facility with which it can be
removed or placed out of gear often leads, in
the hands of careless servants, to the untrapping
of the drain altogether. A good description of
common sink trap is Antel and Lock's, shown in
the accompanying engr., which explains itself.

5-vSf-^

Amongst the circumstances that impair the
efficiency of house traps may be included the
neglect to allow the passage of water through
them sufficiently often, and with forcp enough
to flush and cleanse the trap, and renew the
water in it. The results are that the nater be-
comes saturated with sewage exhalations, which
escape into and contaminate the air in the honse ;
and that the trap becomes either dry or choked up.

Another contingency to which house traps are
exposed when the drains are made to form a con-
tinuous and disconnected system with the sewers
is that of the water being sncked ont of the
trap, owing to the combined effect of the preasnre
of sewer air and the aspirating power of the
house, into which the sewer gas would then pass
unchecked.

In onr articles Dsaikaob and Sineb we bare
pointed out the peril attaching to the intimate
connection between the house drains and aewen,
and given in the former practical directions for
its avoidance.

To rest in the belief that the danger can he
removed (although the risk may be slightly di-
minished) by the use of traps alone, is to enter-
tain a very false sense of security.

TBADKAriC BAISAK. Compound tincture
of benzoin is known by this name. See Tisc-

TVBB.

TBAUKATICIHZ. This article, as manu-
factured by the Gntta Percha Company, is simply
a solution of white and dry unmanufactured gntta
percha in hisulphuret of carbon. A small portion
dropped on a wound, or raw surface, almost in-
stantly forms a pliable, waterproof, and air-tigfat
defensive covering to the part. 'The only objec-
tion to the preparation is the fetid odour of the
menstruum, which, however, is lost in a few
seconds, or may be obviated by employing chloro-
form as the solvent.

When fresh it is a nseful extomal application,
and being painted over a given surface with a
camel's-hair pencil, a thin covering of a brownish
colour is deposited. It has been thought possible
to increase the value of the preparation by dis-
solving in the chloroform solution a certain quan-
tity of chrysophanic acid, in order to make the
pellicle more adherent. So medicated, it has been
employed with success in the treatment of psoria-
sis i but traumaticine can be used as a vehicle for
a great number of remedies soluble in chloroform,
or susceptible of being held in suspension by its
means.

M. Auspitz introduces, in 8 parts of chloroform,
1 part of chrysophanic acid and 1 part of gutta
percha, and this formula is stated to have given
favourable results. H. Besnier prefers applying
first chrysophanic acid in the chloroform solution,
and covering the slight deposit formed with a
varnish of gutta perclia. Ue gives two formnlc :

1. Chrysophanic acid, 10 to 15 grms. ; chloro-
form, 85 to 90 grms.

2. Ootta percha, purified, 10 g^rms. ; chloro-
form, 90 grms.

TSATELLEB'S JOT. Sya. Cj.iatATi8 ttuxba,
L. The inner bark is used in Switzerland for
straining milk and for other domestic purposes.
The slender shoots are used in France to Innd
faggots, and their tips are sometimes pickled.

T&EA'CLE. Sgn. Hoi.assbs; Tbkkuca
(B. P.), Sacchabi vmx. (Ph. L. dc E.), L.
The viscid, brown, nncrystallisable syrup which
drains from moist sugar during its formation
(molasses), and from the sngar-reflniog moulds
(sugar-house molasses). The last, according to
Dr Ure, has generally the sp. gr. 1'4, and contains
about 76% of solid matter.

Treacle is more laxative than sugar, and always

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TRI- — TBOQOSITA MACEITANICA

mr

contiuna more or leaa free acid. It u used as the
Tehicalnm in some of the pill-masses of the Ph.
I4. See SusAX.

Treacle, German. S!f»- Thubiaca OsvxATnM,
Ii. An evaporated infosion or decoction of
juniper berries. It is sweet-tasted, aromatic, and
dioretic.

Treacle, Venice. 8gn. LoiTDOir tebacli;
Thjibuca, T. AiTDBOCHi, L. The theriaca of the
Ph. L. 1746 consists of 61 ingredients, and con-
tains 1 gr. of opinm in 76 gr. ; that of the Paris
Codez consists of 72 ingredients, and contains 1
gr. of opiam in 72 gr. ; that of the Ph. E. 1744
consists of 10 ingredients, and contains 1 gr. of
opiam in every 100 gr. It is prepared as follows:
— Take of serpentary root, 6 at.; valerian and
contrayerva roots, of each, 4 oz.; aromatic powder,
3 oz. ; gnaiaeum resin, castor, and nntmeg, of
each, 2 oz. ; saffron and opium (dissolved in a
little wine), of each, 1 oz. ; cUtrifled honey, 76 oz. ;
reduce all the dry ingredients to fine powder, then
mix them. The confections or electuaries of
catechu and opium are the representatives of the
above polypharmic componnds in the modern
British Pharmacopoeias.

TSI-, Tsia-. See KoxiiroLATUBB.

TSIBASIC-PHOSPHATE Ot LIM£. <S^. Tsi-
«Ai«io PHOSPBATB. Ca,(P04)2. Tricalcic phos-
phate occurs nearly pure in the mineral known as
OBTBOI.11B. See Caloiuk Peosfhatb for its
artificial preparation.

TSimXHTLAMnrX. Sfn. TBnaTBTUA.

CjHjN, or

\ CH, I N.
ICH,J

An ammonia found in

large quantities in the roe of the herring. It
also occurs in putrefying flour and urine, and is
the ingredient which gives to the Chenopodium
nUvaria its peculiar and disagreeable odour. It
may also be obtained by distilling ergot of rye
with csostic potash. Trimethylia is a volatile
fluid, with a very pungent and unpleasant fishy
smell. It boils at about 41° F. It is metameric
with propylamine.

TBIHITSnr. Sgn. GroironrB, NnBO-OLT-
CBBIX (B. P.). A solution is official containing 1
part of trinitrin by weight, and rectified spirit to
produce 100 fl. parts. — Dote, i to 2 minims. For
properties sec Nitbo-oltobbih.

TBIPX. This is the pannch, or first portion of

the ruminant stomach of the oz. It is nutritious

and easy of digestion, ^cept when very fat.

Letheby gives the following as its composition :

Nitrogenous matter . 13'2

Fat .... 16*4

Saline matter . . 2*4

Water .... 68-0

100-0
Tripe fried in Batter. "Tripe is cnt into
pieces about S inches sqoare, and dipped into a
batter made of 6 oz. of flour, 1 table-spoonful of
oil, or 1 oz. of butter, and 1 pint of tepid water.
Hiz the oil with the flour, add the water by de-
grees, whip the whites of 2 eggs to a stiff froth,
stir into the batter, dip the tripe in, throw it into
a saucepan of boiling fat, let it fry 3 or 4 minutes,
take it out, and drain " (Tegetmeier's ' Scholar's
Handbook of Cookery, &c.,' MacmiUan and Co.).

TSIP'OLI. Sj/n. RoTTBir-BTOKB ; AlUTA,
Tbbba oabiosa, L. a mineral employed as a
polifhing powder, originally imported from Tripoli,
in Barbary. It consists almost entirely of silica,
and is composed of the skeletons of minute in-
fusoria, the precise character of which is readily
distinguishable under the microscope.

TBIS'inJS. See Tbtanub.

TBITICUM. The rhizome of Tritiam repm
or creeping couch-gisss, dog-grass, or quitch
gathered in the spring and deprived of its root-
lets. Used in the form of decoction or liquid ez-
tract, as a diuretic and emollient in bladder and
kidney afiisctions. — Do*e. Decoction, 4 to 8 oz. ;
liquid extract, 1 to 4 dr.

TBITUSA'TIOS. Sgn. Tbitcba, TsirnKATlO,
L. The act of rubbing a solid body to powder.

See PtTlTBBIBATlON.

TBO'CHBS. See Lozbnobs.

TB0008ITA KAUBITAHICA. Linn. Teb
CoBir Bbetlb. This is another grain-boring in-
sect, and belongs to the family Tenebrionidtt,
Curtis says it was introduced from Africa, and
that it is abundant in America, and in many
European countries. In France it is called the
Cadelle, and Olivier alludes to it as doing great
harm to housed grain in the south of France. It
is of the same family as the meal-worm and the
worm which eats ship's biscuits. It is found in
granaries and warehouses, and its larvce sometimes
greatly damage com and other produce by biting
the cuticle or skin, as it would seem in mere
wanton mischief. At first sight it appears as if
the corn lying in heaps had been nibbled by mice,
but on close inspection the bran flakes are smaller,
and bitten off differently. Sometimes when corn
has been lying long, the quantity of bran which
comes from the heap is surprising.

JUfe jRitloty. The beetle inlmbits stores and
wardiouses among other places. It is about the
third of an inch long, of a dark brown or chestnnt
colonr, with nx legs, and fairly sized wings. It is
not known where the eggs are placed. The larvn
live in the com heaps, in which they go from
grain to grun, biting off the skin and consuming
the flour. They are | of an inch in length, of a white
colour, having dark brown heads. Their bodies
are covered with short hairs or bristles, and have
twelve divisions or segments, with six thoracio
feet. The jaws are strong, pointed, and homy,
adapted especially for biting hard substances. At
the beginning of autumn they bury themselves in
dust, and in cracks of floors, and lie there until
the early spring, when they assume the pupa form,
and from thence soon come forth in beetle shape.

Frevenlion. As this insect is most troublesome
in foreign countries, particularly in hot climates,
constant suspicion should be directed towards
granaries and warehouses where foreign com is
stored. After the presence of these beetles has
been detected the floors and boardings all round
should be scrubbed with water, and strong solu-
tions of soft soap well worked into the joints and
cracks. All dust should be swept away and
bnmt, all ceilings whitewashed, and non-boarded
sides must be washed with hot lime wash.

Stmediet. When com, English or foreign, is
fonnd to be infested with the Trogorita Isma
it should be frequently moved, and winnowed

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TRONA— TUNGSTEN

ooeamonally. If this does not prove effectual, kiln
drying must be adopted to kill them (' Beports on
Insects Injarioos to Crops,' by Chas. Whitehead,
Esq., F.Z.S.).

TBO^A. A native carbonate of soda, found
on the banks of the soda lakes of Sokena, in
Africa.

TKOPH'AZOME. A concentrated infusion of
minced lean meat mixed with the fluid obtained
from the residuum after being heated for 20
minutes in a water-bath, and flavoured with salt
and spices, the whole being, lastly, simmered for
a few minutes. Excellent for convalescents.

TBODT. TheiSa2mo/arioofLinniBus, a highly
esteemed fish, found in most of the rivers and
lakes of this country. Other members of the
genus Salmo are also so called, as S. trior, the
bull or grey trout j 8. ferox, the great grey or
lake trout ; S. trutta, the salmon trout, &c. All
of these varieties are in the finest condition from
the end of May to late in September.

The trout contains about 6 per cent, of fat. ift
is desirable to cook this fish as soon as convenient
after taking it.

TSUSSINO. This is a well-known operation
performed on poultry or game previous to their
being roasted or boiled. It simply consists in
draioinff or removing the intestines and other
objectionable parts. In doing this, care must be
taken to avoid rupturing the gall-vessel, which, if
broken, would impart a very bitter flavour to the
poultry, &c., extremely difficult of removal.

The cook should never take for granted that
poultry or game, when it comes from the dealer,
has been thoroughly cleansed inside, but, in order
to be safe in this matter, should always make a
point of cleansing it herself.

TSTP8IH. A ferment found in the pancreas.
It has the power of changing proteids into pep-
tones, both in alkaline and neutral media.

TITLIFIB'. An active principle, of which
little is known at present, has been called tuUpin
from the fact of its having been extracted from
the garden tulip when fully developed. It occurs
probably in every part of the plant, even in the
brilliantly coloured petals (according to Dr Phip-
ton). Tulipin was discovered some little time
back by Gerrard, and next alluded to by Br
Binger in the ' Edinburgh Medical Joamal.' It
acts as a powerful sialogogue, producing a consi-
derable flow of saliva without exerting any action
on the pupil of the eye. Frogs poisoned by tulipin
died with the heart in systole, and with the same
symptoms as those exhibited by animals poisoned
with veratrine. Chemically and therapentically
very little is yet known with regard to this new
alkaloid. It is supposed to be a 'muscular
poison ' by some writers, acting also on the
medulla and on the nerves of sensation. It is not
improbable that it will be found to be more or less
closely related to scillitin.

TULIP TBEE {Liriodendron tuUpifera, Linn.).
A large tree of North America. Wood fine
and even grained ; used in America for cabinet
work, door panels, &c. The bark is used as a
stimulant tonic.

TUXOUBS. Tumours, of which there are a
great variety, are abnormal growths, occurring
in different parts of the body. Sir Jas. Paget

describes them as belonging to the class of over-
growths or hypertrophies, their most constant dis-
tinctive characters being — 1. Their deviations, both
in respect to size and shape, from the normal type of
the body in which they are found. 2. Their
apparently inherent power and method of growth.
8. Their development and growth being indepen-
dent of those of the rest of the body, and eontinn-
ing with no evident purpose when the rei>t
of- the body is only bang maintained in its normal
type.

Tumours are divided by pathologists mto
malignant and imnoeent or benign.

In the former division is included cancer. The
most common varieties belonging to the second
division are eulaneont ogtU, fatty tnmouri, and
fibro-cellular tnmours. Cutaneous cysts, which
may occur under any part of the skin, are most
frequently met with in the scalp. They mostly
arise from " the morbid growth of natural ducts
or follicles, or by the enormous growth of elemen-
tary structures, which increase from the form
of cells or nuclei, and become closed sacs with or-
ganised walls capable of producing other growths "
(' Chambers' Cyclopaedia ').

The most commonly occurring tumour is the
fatty one. It usually develops itself on the bo^it
of persons of from forty to fifty years of age. It
seldom occasions inconvenience, and appears to be
in no way prejudicial to health; occasionally, how-
ever, these tumours are very unsightly and
unpleasant to look upon. The fat of which they
are composed appears to differ in no respect from
ordinary human fat. The uterus is the principal
seat of the fibro-cellular tumour. It occurs also
in the scrotum, the bones, and tho subcutaneous
tissue. These tumours sometimes attain great
size and grow very rapidly. They are sometimes
met with exceeding 40 lbs. in weight. Certain
polypi belong to this class of tumour.

A pseudo-tumour is occasionally met with in
surgical practice, which may often be mistaken
for a real one by the unwary or inexperienced
practitioner. This, which is known as a phantom
tumour, appears to be caused by muscular
contraction. Sir Jas. Paget, writing on this
subject, says, " The abdominal muscles of hys-
terical women are most often affected, sometimes
with intentional fraud. The imitation of a tumour
may be so close as to require great tact for its
detection ; but chloroform, by relaxing the mus-
cles, dissipstes the swelling. Occasional^ the
apparent tumours move."

TUV6STATE OP SOSIUX. NajWO^-fSHjO.
This salt is used for rendering linen, cotton, and
other fabrics uninflammable ; also as a suhstitnte
for stannate of sodium aa a mordant in dyeing.
It may be prepared by adding 9 parts of finely
powdered tungsten to 8 parts of fused carbonate
of sodium, and continuing the heat for some
time ; on boiling the cooled and pulverised ma^s
with water, evaporating the filtrate to dryness,
and treating the residae with lukewarm water,
the salt dissolves out. Muslin steeped in a 2C>%
solution of this salt is perfectly uninflammable
when dry, and the saline fllm left upon ita sur-
face is so smooth that the muslin may be ironed
without difficulty.

TUKe'STEH. W » 183-6. Sfm. Turn-

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TUNGSTIC GLUE— TURMERIC

1719

smniK, WOLPBAHIVH, L. A heavy, grey, brittle
metal, discovered by Delhnyart.

The word tungtten, in Swedish, signifies ' heavy
stone ' (tung-tien), the name being applied to the
element becaase the sonrce from which it is
obtained is a heavy mineral called Wolfram.
Wolfram may be regarded as a variable doable
tnngstate of iron and manganese, and the tung-
sten occurs in this. A native tnngstate of copper
has been discovered in Chili. Tungsten is lUso
found in the mineral leheelite, a tungstate of
lime. — Prep. By digesting finely powdered
■cheelite in hydrochloric acid. Chloride of cal-
cium is formed, together with insolnble tiingstic
acid. Upon heating the acid to bright redness
in a stream of hydrogen gas, the metal is left
behind. When thus procured it is of a dark
grey colour, but under the burnisher it may be
made to assume a metallic lustre. Metallic
tungsten may also be obtained by the reduction
of tongstic acid, by means of charcoal at a white
hea.t. When procured by this method it is unaf-
fected by hydrochloric or dilated sulphuric acid,
altliough it becomes reconverted into tungstic
acid by the action of nitric add.

VHien tungsten occurs in the pulverulent form,
it bams easily into tungstic anhydride when
heated in the air ; and is oxidised and dissolved
when boiled with the caustic alkalies or their
carbonates in solution^

Ute*. An alloy, possessed of extreme hard-
ness, may bo procured when tungsten is com-
bined with steel, in the proportion of 1 part of
tung^sten to 10 parts of steel. This alloy is a
good material for tools. The addition of from
1% to 2% of tungsten to nipkel silver forms the
alloy 'platinoid.'

Testt. A solution of a tnngstate turns blue
on treatment with zinc and hydrochloric acid.
Fused with a small quantity of tin in the reduc-
tion flame with microcosmic salt, a tungsten com-
pound if pure yields a blue bead, but if it con-
t^ns iron the head will be blood-rod. Tungsten
is determined quantitatively as the triozide.

IHoild* or Bisozide of Tungsten. WO,.
This is obtained by treating tungstic acid with
hydrogen at a low red heat. It occurs as a
brown powder, which absorbs oxygen greedily
from the air, and is dissolved by boiling with
solution of caustic potash, hydrogen being evolved
and potassium tungstate being formed.

Trloxlde of Tuigiten. WOa. Syn. Tvira-
BTIO ANHTDBiSB. A bright canary-yellow co-
loured powder which may be obtained by decom-
posing wolfram with aqua regia, and evaporating
to dryness. The resulting tungstic acid is dis-
solved in ammonia, and the ammonic tungstate
purified by crystallisation. When this ammonic
tungstate is heated in the air, it loses ammonia
and water, pure tungstic triozide being left
beUnd. The triozide combined with potusinm
or with sodium forms the so-called tungsten
bronzes.

Tungstic Acid. HJWO4. This compound
may be procured by adding an excess of hydro-
chloric acid to a boiling solution of the trioxide
in any of the alkalies. It occurs as a yellow
powder.

Tuigttio Chloride. WC1«. This may be

obt^ned by heating tungsten in chlorine, when
it sublimes in bronze-colonred needles, which
are decomposed by water. When gently heated
in hydrogen, this chloride becomes converted into
tetrachloride (WCI4). Two other chlorides are
known, viz. WClj and WCl^.

Bisulphide of Tungsten. WS^ By the ac-
tion of sulphur, sulphuretted hydrogen, or carbon
disulphide on ignited metallic tungsten, a black
crystelline substance, having the above composi-
tion, may be obtained, resembling plumbago in
appearance. A trisulphide, WSg, is also known.

Of the salts of tungsten, tungstate of baryta
has been nsed as a substitute for white-lead in
painting; but the most important of these is the
tungstate of soda, described above. See also
TgwasTio GiiVB.

TUVaSTIC GLUE. Tnngstic glue has been
suggested as a substitute for hard India rubber,
as it can be used for all the purposes to which
this Utter is applied. It is thus prepared : — Mix
together a thick solution of glue with tnngstate
of soda and hydrochloric acid. A compound of
tungstic acid and glue is precipitated, which, at
a temperature of 86° to 104° f ., is sufficiently
elastic to be drawn out into very thin sheets.

TUBUT f ISE, i. la Paxisienne. As a rule
tunny fish is very indigestible, and may be de-
scribed as " neither fish, flesh, fowl, nor good red
herring;" nevertheless some of our readers may
come across this fish, and will be glad to hear of
a way in which to make it palatable and digestible.
Take three or four pounds of fresh tunny fish ;
lard it with bacon as you would veal; cook it
gently in its own gravy for three hours, with salt,
pepper, sweet herbs, little onions, and a small
quantity of wat^r. When well cooked tunny fish
makes a nice dish cold for breakfast.

TXTB'BOT. The Shombua maximtu, Cuvier,
said to be the best, and, excepting the halibut,
the largest of our flat-fishes. Dutch turbots are
the most esteemed.

Comporition of the turhot 1
Nitrogenous matter 18*1 per cent.

Fat ... . 2-9 „
Saline matter . . I'O „
Water .... 780

100-0

TUa'KEY. See Pottltbt.

TUBHERIC. Am. CiTBOTnu (Ph. L. & D.),
L. The rhizome of Oarcutna longa. The best is
imported from Ceylon. It is stimulant and car-
minative, but is chiefly used in dyeing yellow, and
as an ingredient in curry powder ; iJso as a test
for alkalies. It gives a fugitive golden yellow
with woad, and an orange tinge to scarlet. It dyes
wool and silk, mordanted with common salt or nl-
ammoniac, a fugitive yellow. — Dote, 10 to 30 gr.
See CvBCCKiHB.

Under the microscope turmeric presents a
very characteristic structure, viz. "a cellular
tissue containing large, loose, yellow cells, with
here and there small but very distinct starch
grannies, similar in shape and size to those of
Cttreuma arrowroot, and some woody fibre and
dotted ducts. The yellow granular ceUs can
readily be identified whenever they occur" (Dr
Winter Slyth).

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TURNBULL'S BLUE— TYPHOID FEVER

Compo*itio» of an mtrage ta»fU of Cvxevnoi
longa:

Water .... 14-249

CuTcamine . . . 11*000

Turmeric . . . 12-076

VolatUe oil . . . 1-000

Oam .... 8113

Starch .... 3-627

Extractive . . . 3888

Woody fibre . . . 46-548
Ash, included in above

weights . . . [5-468]

100-000
TTTSHBirXiL'S BLUE. 8yn. Fbbbictaitisb

OF IRON; FbRBI VBBBISOTAVIDUIC, L. Prtp.

Precipitate a solution of protosalphate of iron
with another of red prnssiate of potash (ferri*
° cyanide of potassium).

Ob*. This is a variety of Prassian blue re-
markable for its beautiful colour, and may be
distinguished from the ordinary Prussian blue
of commerce by its action on the yellow prns-
siate of potash. When boiled in a solution of
the latter it is decomposed, a portion is dissolved,
and a grey residue remains.

TUSHEB'S YELLOW. See YmLOW PlG-

XIBTS.

TUBNIF. The Brattica napu*. This vege-
table possesses but little nutritive value, as will
be inferred from the annexed description of its
composition given by Letheby :

Kitrogenoos matter . . 1-8
Starch ... . . .6-1

Sugar 2-1

Salt 0-6

Water ' . 910

1000

Turnips shonld always be thoroughly cooked,
otherwise they are very liable to produce indi-
gestion.

TUBg'SOIJ. See LirMtra.

TUKTEHTnTB. Syn. TuBPERTnrj Tbbb-
BIWTHiirA (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. " An oleo-resin
flowing from the tmnk, the bark being removed,
of Pinut paltutrU (pitch or swamp pine) and
Piniu Taeda (loblolly, or old field pine) " (Ph. L.).
" From Pintu lylvettrU (the Scotch fir) " (Ph. D.).
" From various species of Pinut and Ahiei " (Ph.
G.). It is viscid, of the consistence of honey,
and transparent ; by distillation it is resolved into
oil of turpentine, which passes over into the
receiver; and into resin, which remains in the
stilL

Turpentine, Bordeaux. Sgn. Fbsitor tub-
FBKTHIb. From the Pinut maritima, or cluster
pine. Solidifies with magnesia {Lindley).

TnTpentine, Chian. ^n, Chio tubfintinb,
Ctfbus T., Scio T.; TsBKBiKTHisA Chia (Ph. L.
& E.), L. "An oleo-resin flowing from the in-
cised tmnk of Pittaehia terehinthut," Linn. (Ph.
L.). It is pale, aromatic, fragrant, and has a
warm taste, devoid of acrimony or bitterness. It
is much adulterated. A factilious article (tere-
binthina Chin factitia), made as follows, is also
very generally sold for it: — Black resin, 7 lbs. j
melt, remove the heat, and stir in of balsam of

Canada, 7 lbs. ; oils of fennel and juniper, of eadi,
1 fl. dr.

Turpentine, Taniee. 8^ TxBBBnriBiXA
VBITBIA (Ph. E.), L. liquid resinous exudation
from the AJbiet Unix, or larch tree. It is sweeter
and less resinous-tasted than common turpentine,
but is now scarcely ever met with in trade. That
of the shops is wholly a factitious article^ made
as follows : — Black resin, 48 lbs. ; melt, remove
the heat, and add of oil of turpentine, 2 gmlls.

TUB'PETE MIKEBAL. Basic sulphate of
mercury.

TUKBET OF CHESTHirTS. A 'turret of chest-
nuts' (tourelle da marront) is the name of a
most toothsome dish. Take rather over 2 lbs. of
chestnuts, peel, and cook them in water, with a
pinch of salt therein ; then put them, whilst hot,
into a colander ; beat into a paste, with a little
milk, sugar, and vanille; put the mixtoie into
a mould in the form of a turret, aboat an indi
thick ; when quite firm, open the mould and turn
out the contents carefully ; glaze with symp ;
fill the middle with whipped oream, flavonrad
with chocolate or vanille.

TDB'TLK. Syn. Obbbh tttbtlb. The Ta-
tuda midat, Linn., a chelonian reptile, highly
esteemed for its flesh, eggs, and fat.

TUSSILA'OO. See Coltsfoot.

TITTEKAO. A name sometimes applied to
German silver, at others to pale brass and bell
metal. " In India zinc sometimes goes under this
name " (Srande),

TUTTTY. Stfn. TuTiA, Tuthia, Imtitbb oxide
OF ziiro. The sublimate that collect* in the
chimneys of the furnaces in which the ores of
zinc are smelting. Drying; astringent. Used
in eye-waters and ointments.

TYPE KETAL. An alloy formed of antimony,
1 part; lead, 3 parts; melted together. Small
types are usually made of a harder composition
than large ones. A good stereotype metal is said to
be made of lead, 9 parts; antimony, 2 parts; bis-
muth, 1 part. This alloy expands as it cools, and
consequently brings out a fine impression.

TYFHOU) FEVEB. Syn. Oabtbic fbtbb,
Entebio or Intbbtinai; fevbb. Low nvEB,
Common continited feveb, Ixfaittilb uxit-

TENT, EVDBMIC feveb, PrTHOOBXIC fbteb.
Although the term ' typhoid ' expresses the tact
that this particular form of fever resembles ty-
phus, the researches of later patholonsts, includ-
ing Perry, Lombard, Stewart, and Jenner, have
satisfactorily demonstrated that the two diseasrs
are altogether distinct.

" Typhus and typhoid fevers difFer," says Sir
Thomas Watson, "notably and constantly in
their symptoms and course, in their duration, in
their comparative fatality, in the superficial
markings which respectively belong to them, and
which warrant our classing them among the ex-
anthemata, in the internal organic changes with
which they are severally attended, and (what is
the most important and the most condnsive) in
their exciting causes."

About the beginning of the present oentoiy,
the French practitioners, after sevetal fott-
mortem examinations, were the first to point out
that the specifically distinguishing feature of this
disease was an internal exanthema. This salient

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TYPHOID PBVEE

1721

charaeterUiic oonpled with the highly infectious
nstore of typhoid fever, has caused it to be
defined by pathologists as " a contagions emp-
iive fever occurring on the macous membrane
of the intestines, and therefore removed from
view."

The morbid appearance presented by the intes-
tinal mncons membrane varies with the time
that elapses between the period of seizure and
death. If the patient dies within the week, the
folliclee on the membrane present a thickened
appearance, and are raised above it, whilst they
are seen to be filled with a yellowish, cheesy-
looking sabstance. The result of these details is
to give the bowels the appearance of being
covered with pustules.

When death has occurred at a later period,
ulceration more or less extensive has been ob-
served to have set in.

The influence of sge in predisposing to typhoid
fever is forcibly illustrated in the following table
extracted from Dr Walter Blyth's ' Dictionary of
Practical Hygiene : '

Tnn of Age.
Under 5 .
From 6to 9 .

., 10 .. 14 .

„ 15 „ 19 .

„ 20 „ 24 .

„ 25 „ 29 .

„ 80 „ 84 .

y, 85 „ 89 .

„ 40 „ 44 .

„ 45 „ 49 .

„ 50 „ 64 .

„ 65 „ 59 .

,, 60 „ 64 .

„ 66 „ 69 .

,. 70 „ 79 .

Per cent

0-98

9-44

18-16

26-86

19-69

10-16

5-86

3-40

2-09

1-08

0-60

0-38

0-88

0-08

1-88

Dr Hnrchison asserts that those nnder thirty
are more than fonr times as liable to be attacked
by typhoid fever as persons over that age. The
practical bearing of the above figures is obvious.
Typhoid patients should only be nursed by the
xoiddle-sged.

The season of the year also exercises an infln-
ence over the development and spread of this
disease. In most countries it prevails with the
^eatest violence and is most general in au-
tumn, and much more frequently follows a very
hot and dry summer than a damp one. The car-
riers of the typlioid poison are the alvine and
possibly the cutaneous and other excretions.
The disease may therefore be conveyed by con-
tact with the bands or skin of an infected patient,
by his urine, by his body linen, the bedclothes,
or by dissemination from these into the surround-
ing air. But the most fertile and unquestionable
cause of propagation is the contamination of
drinking-water by matter derived from thafsecal
discharges of typhoid patients, which having
soaked into the soil from the privy into which
they had fonnd their way, filtered from thence
into a neighbouring well, or by means of drains
proceeding from a privy or cesspool into a
stream. We can easily understand that the dis-
ease, when traced to potable water, should always
so virulent and frequently fatal a cha-

racter. _ The fever poison is tbns directly con>
veyed intothe stomach, and hence easily reaches
the intestines, whence the disease originates.
This will also account for the very small quantity
of infected water which it has been found com-
municates the disease.

The outbreak of typhoid fever in Marylebone
in 1874, which attacked some 600 persons, was
traced to the milk vended by a certain company;
this milk having been placed in cans that had
merely been washed out and cooled with water
obtained from a well into which it was dis*
covered the excreta from a typhoid patient had
percolated from an adjoining privy. After the
statement of these facts, the need for thorough
and efficient disinfection of all the excretions, im-
mediately they leave the body of the patient, as
well as of his body and bed linen, mattresses, Ac.,
and also of the sick apartment, will be obvious.

The best method of effecting this will be to
follow the instructions given by Dr William
Budd for the prevention of the propagation of
this disease, which are as follows :

"The means by which typhoid fever may be
prevented from spreading are very simple, very
sure, and their cost next to nothing.

" They are founded on the discovery that the
poison by which this fever spreads is almost
entirely contained in the discharges from the
bowels.

"These discharges infect (1) the air of the
sick room ; (2) the bed and body linen of the
patient; (3) the privy and the cesspool, or the
drains proceeding from them.

"In these various ways, including the con-
tamination of drinking water, already described,
the infection proceeding from the bowel dis-
charges often spreads the fever far and wide.
The one great thing to aim at, therefore, is to
disinfect these discharges on their very escape
from the body, and before they are carried from
the sick-room. This may be perfectly done by the
use of disinfectants. One of the best is made of
green copperas.

"This substance, which is used by all shoe-
makers, is very cheap, and may be had every-
where. A pound and a half of green copperas to
a gallon of water is the proper strength. A tea-
cupful of this liquid put into the night-pan every
time before it is used by the patient renders the
bowel discharge perfectly harmless. One part of
Calvert's liquid carbolic acid in fifty parts of
water is equally efficacious.

"To disinfect the bed and body linen, and
bedding generally, chloride of lime, or Macdon-
gal's or Calvert's powder, is more convenient.

" These powders should be sprinkled by mean^
of a common dredger on soiled spots on the linenj
and about the room, to purify the air.

"All articles of bed and body linen should be
plunged, immediately on their removal from the
bed, into a bucket of water containing a table-
spoonful of chloride of lime, or Macdougal's or
Calvert's powder, and should be boiled before
being washed,- a yard of thin white gntta
percba, placed beneath the blanket, under the
breech of the patient, by effectually preventing
the discharges from soaking into the bed, is a
great additional safeguard. The privy or doset,

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1722

TYPHUS FEVER

and all drains communicating with it, shoald be
flashed twice daily with the green copperas
liquid, or with carbolic acid diluted with water.
[See Sfoboiton.]

" In towns and villages where the fever u
already prevalent, the last rule should be put in
force for all the houses, whether there be fever in
them or not, and for all public drains.

" In the event of death, the body should be
placed as soon as possible in a coffin sprinkled
with disinfectants. Early burial is on all accounts
desirable.

" As the hands of those attending on the sick

often become unavoidably soiled by the discharges

from the bowels, they should be frequently washed.

" The sick-room should be kept well ventilated

day and night.

"The greatest possible care should be taken
with regard to the drinking-water. When there
is the sligliteet risk of its having become tainted
with fever poison, water should be got from a
pore source, or should at least be boiled before
being drunk.

" Immediately after the illness is over, whether
ending in death or recovery, the dresses worn by
the nurses should be washed or destroyed, and
the bed and room occupied by the sick should he
thoroughly disinfected. These are golden rules.
" Where they are neglected the fever may
become a deadly scourge ; where they are strictly
carried out it seldom spreads beyond the person
first attacked."

No part of the globe appears to be exempt from
the visitations of typhoid fever, since it occurs
not only in all the older countries of Europe,
Asia, and Africa, but in those also included in the
North and South American continents, as well as
in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. It
would appear also to have prevailed in the earliest
ages, since it is evidently alluded to in the works
of Hippocrates, Galen, and others. Later writers,
including Sydenham and Hoffman, also constantly
refer to it under a different name.

Pathologists differ as to the time that this dis-
ease lies dormant in the system before developing
itself. Some practitioners contend that the nsual
period is from ten to fourteen days, whilst others
think it is much less than this, and, in some
instances, that it may not exceed one or two days.
The late Dr Murchison entertained the latter
opinion. The symptoms, when they show them-
selves, are as follows : — An irritable condition of
the stomach, accompanied by sickness or vomiting;
pun, with more or less tendei-ness, about the abdo-
men; sometimes the patient suffers from great
constipation, at others from diarrhcsa; he also
experiences great prostration of strength, has a
feeble pulse and a brown furred tongue; he is
extremely restless, and at night frequently deli-
rious; the lower limbs are frequently cold; he
passes but little urine, and that of an offensive
smell; the stools are dark, offensive, and very
frequently bloody, this latter being a very charac-
teristic accompaniment of typhoid fever. Bleeding
from the nose sometimes occurs. The perspiration
has a sour and fetid odour. After seven or eight
days, small rose-coloured spots or petechia maku
their appearance on the skin,

n-eatment. The abdomen should be leeched.

and mustard poultices applied. If not too pros-
trated, the patient should he ^ven a hot hath ;
hut if he is not sufficiently strong to venture upon
this, ablation of the whole of the body with hot
water and soap should be had recourae to, the
operation being performed by means either of a
sponge or a flannel.

An effervescing draught, consisting of 20 gr.
of carbonate of ammonia dissolved in water, to
which a tablespoonful of lemon-juice should be
added, ought to be administered, and dmnk while
effervescing, every three or four hours. Hie diet
should consist of beef tea, nutritious broth, milk,
and eggs.

The necessity of thorough ventilation of the
patient's apartment, together with the methods of
disinfection of the bodily discharges, the linen,
tc., have been already emphasiso<l in the direc-
tions given by Dr Budd for the prevention of the
propagation of this fever.

It is, perhaps, needless to state that the outline
of treatment given above is intended only for
adoption by the emigrant, or of any one so un-
fortunately situated with regard to locality as to
be unable to secure the services of a medical
practitioner. Where these are obtainable, tlie
patient or hii friends should use all speed in pro-
curing them.

Sortet. Horses are occasionally attacked with
typhoid fever, the symptoms of which bear a
general resemblance to those which characterise
the disease in the human subject. The appear-
ances presented after death are also very similar,
particularly in the lesions observable in the mucous
membrane of the intestines. As in man, the dis-
ease is greatly aggravated by insanitary surround-
ings and depressing external agencies, and by the
animals partaking of water containing decaying
organic matters.

Upon tlje commencement of the attack give a
few doses of calomel or laudanum, or of tincture
of aconite, and if the bowels are costive two or
three drachms of aloes, afterwsrds keeping up
the laxative effect by mild clysters and mashes.
Afterwards administer, three or four times a day,
a drachm each of chlorate of potash and chloride
of ammonium, adding to these an ounce of oil of
turpentine or ether, or sweet spirit of nitre, if the
animal exhibit dulness or weakness. If there is
tenderness or pain about the abdomen, apply hot
fomentations constantly ; and should tliere be much
flatulence give occasional drenches of ammonia,
carbonate of ammonia, or whisky and water.

The food of the animal must be nutritive and
generous. He should be kept in a loose box, his
legs should be bandaged in flannel, and warm rags
should envelop his body. Rest and qniet are
essential. During convalescence let him have
small doses of gentian, chloride of iron, with ale
(Finlay !>«•).

TTPHUS lEVEB. This fever is known under
various names, such as Sfottsd ttphtts, JAII4
FETBB, Ship -fbtbb, Caxp fbybb, Milraxt
vxTEB, iBisa AOVB, Favikb rBTSx, Bbaut

FBTBR, PlBTIUHTIAL VBTBB, MAUSKANT FXTBB,
0CHI,OTI0 FBVBK, TtPBO-BUBBOLOIS.

" 1. Typhus prevails for the most part in great
and wide-spread epidemics.

"8. The epidemics appear during seasons of

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TYPHUS FEVER

1728

general scarcity and want, or amidst hardships
and privations arising from local causes, snch as
warfare, commercial failures, and strikes among
the labouring population. The statement that
they alvrays last for three years and then subside
is erroneous.

" 8. During the intervals of epidemics sporadic
cases of typhus occur, particularly in Ireland, and
in the large manufacturing towns of Scotland and
England.

"4. Although some of the great epidemics of
this country have commenced in Ireland, and
spread thence to Britain, appearing first in those
towns on the west coast of Britain where there
was the freest intercourse with Ireland, it is wrong
to imagine that all epidemics have commenced in
Ireland, or that typhus is a disease essentially
Irish. The disease appears wherever circum-
stances favourable to its development are present.

" 5. In many epidemics typhus has been asso-
ciated with relapsing fever, and the relative pro-
portion of the two fevers has varied greatly.

"6. From the earliest times typhus has been
regarded as a disease of debility, forbidding de-
pletion, and demanding support aud stimulation.

" 1. The chief exception to the last statement
originated in the erroneous doctrines taught in
the early part of this century, according to which
the disease was looked upon as symptomatic or
inflammation or congestion of internal organs.

"8. The success believed at one time to follow
the practice of venesection was only apparent. It
was due to the practice, for the most part, having
been resorted to in cases of relapsing fever and
acute inflammations, and to the result having been
compared with those of the treatment by stimula-
tion of the much more mortal typhus.

" 9. Although typhus fever varies in its severity
and duration.at different times, and under different
circumstances, there is no evidence of any change
in its type or essential characters. The typhus of
modem times is the same as that described by
Fracastorins and Cordames. The period during
which epidemic fever was said to present an in-
flammatory type was that in which relapsing
fever was most prevalent ; and the times in which
the type has been described as adynamic have
been those in which relapsing fever has been
scarce or absent" {Murchuon).

In the article " Typhoid Fbtsb" it has been
stated that its propagation was mainly due, and
had been very clearly traced, to the drinking
of water contaminated by the alvine discharges
of typhoid patients; in the dissemination of
typhns, on the contrary, the air in the neighbour-
hood of the infected person appears to be the great
medium for the conveyance of the disease, the
poison, it is conceived, being disseminated into
the surrounding atmosphere from the surface of
the body or the lungs of the patient, or from the
clothes, body linen, &c., worn and discarded by
him. Hence it is we find, as we should expect,
in the past no less than in the present, that the
spread and degree of virulence of the malady
have always been associated with overcrowding
and bad ventilation. Although amongst the
cavses that predispose and induce susceptibility
to its attacks, ns shown above, are poverty, and
consequent deficiency of food and clothing, and

squalor, it has been demonstrated that, with all
these unfavourable conditions, patients may often
recover from typhus provided they are supplied
with a sufSciency of fresh air.

The fact that of late years typhus has rarely
visited the inmates of our prisons, barracks, or
shops, and that their comparative immunity from
it has been coincident with improved ventilation
and the avoidance of overcrowding, can lead to no
other deduction than that previous to this reform
these sanitary conditions were altogether ne-
glected. We may narrate some of those outbreaks
of typhus that have taken place previous to the
application of hygienic principles to the treatment
of the disease. During an assize held at Cam-
bridge in 1622 the disease, which had broken out
amongst the prisoners, spread to the justices, the
boilifib, and other officers, as well as to many
people frequenting the court-house, with the result
that many of those so seized died.

Another outbreak of a very malignant character
occurred at Exeter in 1586. Some Portuguese
were captured at sea, and (the words of the old
historian who records the fact clearly indicate the
cause of the virulent nature of the malady) were
" cast into the deep pit and stinking dungeon."
When brought into court they imparted the con-
tagion to those around them. The judge and
eleven out of the twelve jurymen who were thus
attacked died, whilst the disease spread through
and devastated the whole country.

A fourth case is recorded by Howard "at the
Lent assizes in Taunton in 1730. Some prisoners
who were brought there from Ivilchester jail in-
fected the court, and Lord Chief Baron Pengelly,
Sir James Shepherd, Serjeant, John Figot, Esq.,
sheriff, and some hnndi«ds besides, died of the
jail distemper."

Another eruption, which broke oat during an
assize held at the Old Bailey in 1750, resulted
in the contraction of the disease by the judge, -
the Lord Mayor, and the alderman, and caused
the death of forty persons who were present in
the close and narrow court-house daring the
judicial proceedings. One circumstance recorded
in connection with this last attack needs no com-
ment. It is to the effect that " a hundred
prisoners were put into two rooms measuring
fourteen feet by eleven feet, and seven feet high."
The instatftes above quoted explain why it waa
this disease acquired the name of Jail fever.

During the present century six different epi-
demics of typhus have broken out amongst the
convicts on board the Toulon Galleys. They
occurred in 1820, 1829, 1833, 1845, 1855, and
1856. Although the above statement of facta
indisputably points to the intimate connection
existing between the prevalence and violent
character of typhus and overcrowding, and con-
sequent contamination and vitiation of the air
breathed by the patient, it is still a moot point
with pathologists whether the disease can he-
generated de novo by these conditions, or whether
they merely assist to disseminate and intensify it-
Dr Parkes, writing on this subject, says : — " With
reference to the particular kind of fever at Metz,.
it may be noticed that an important argument
against the production of ezanthematic typhna
from simple overcrowding has been drawn from

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J

1724

UDDER

the Gzperience both of Hetx and Paiia. In both
places during the sieges there was overcrowding,
wretchedness, and famine, particularly at Metz;
yet, as pointed out by Professor Chanffard to the
Academie de Medecine, there was scarcely any or
no typhus, as there had been in the wars of the
first Napoleon. There was typhns in the Oerman
besieging force, bnt so strict was the blockade
that it was not imported into Metz, and was not
generated there " (Blgth).

The mortality which has been caused in large
armies by the ravages of typhns has been enormous.
Daring the thirty years' warfare that desolated
Germany from 1619 to 1648, innumerable soldiers
fell victims to it, the Bavarian army alone
losing 20,000 men ^m this cause. Typhus also
committed appalling havoc among the legions of
the first Napoleon. The Bavarian contingent of
the French army in the campaign in 1812 lost
nearly 26,000 men from this canse ; whilst in
Ifayence 25,000 of Napoleon's soldiers in garrison
perished from the same cause in six months.
More lately, viz. during the Crimean campaign
(in 1856), typhns slew more than 17,000 French
•oldiers.

It frequently infested the Oerman armies dnring
the Franco-German war of 1869-70, and com-
mitted great havoc both amongst the hosts of
Russia and Turkey in the late war between those
coantries.

When we turn to the civil population, we find
that typhus has been no less ruthless, and has
slain its myriads of these also. Confining our
attention to our own country, we find it to have
especially devastated Irehind, which has sufTered
from no less than eleven violent outbreaks of
typhns within the last 130 years.

In one of these visitations, viz. that of 1840,
80,000 people are estimated to have died from
the disease. Tlie largest recorded epidemic of
typhus within onr islands during the present
century was that of 1846. It extended over the
whole of the British islands, and the number of
persons attacked by it were nearly 1,400,000, out
of which 1,000,000 occurred in Ireland. "The
Irish flocked to England in thousands, bringing
the pestilence with them. It therefore was ex-
tremely prevalent in Liverpool, no less than 10,000
persons dying of typhus in that city " {Blyih).
The latest outbreaks in England have been in
1862 and 1869; they were principally confined
to London.

Dr Murchison soys that 14,000 persons were
admitted to the London Fever Hospital during
the two epidemics, and that amongst them a small
number only were Irish.

AU^ European countries, hs well as North
America and some parts of Asia, sufier from the
ravages of this alarming disease. Africa, how-
ever, as well as Australia and New Zealand, is
said to be exempt from it.

Symptomi. The symptoms of typhns are thus
descriljed by Dr Murchison : — " More or less
aaddcn invasion, marked by rigors or cliilliness ;
frequent compressible pulse ; tongue furred, and
nltimately dry and brown ; bowels in most cases
constipated ; skin warm and dry ; a rubeloid rash
appearing between the fourth and seventh days,
the spots never appearing in successive crops, at

first slightly elevated, and disappearing on plea-
sure, but after the second day persistent, and
often becoming converted into true petechis;
great and early prostration ; heavy flushed counte-
nance; injected conjunctivs; wakefulness and
obtuseness of the mental faculties, followed, at
the end of the first week, by delirium, which is
sometimes acute and noisy, bat oftener low and
wandering; tendency to stopor and coma, tre-
mors, snbsnltns, and involnntary evacuations, with
contracted pupils. Duration of the fever from
ten to twenty-one days, usually fourteen. In the
dead body no specific lesion, but hypenemia of all
the internal organs, softening and dinntegration
of the heart and voluntary muscles, hypostatic
congestion of the lungs, atrophy of the ln«in, and
oedema of the pia mater, are common."

Treatment. The following remarks, bearing
on this branch of the subject, are suggested for
adoption by the non-medirail reader, in the event
of his being preclnded by circumstances from
calling in the aid of the medical practitioner.
The most important points to be observed are the
isolation of the patient, and the thorough venti-
lation of his apartment by the continuous admis-
sion into it of fresh air without stint or hindiaaoe.
Dr Parkes recommends the patient to be put in
the top room of the house or hospital, since there
is strong evidence to show that the contagions
virus is volatile and ascends through the atmo-
sphere.

The forms of disinfection best suited for adop-
tion in this disease, together with the method of
employing them, will be found fully described in
the aitide ' Disinfeoiantb.'

The body of the patient should also be fre-
quently sponged with Condy's fluid, properly
diluted, or covered with olive oil, to which has
been added a small quantity of carbolic acid.

As an internal remedy, dilute hydrochloric at
nitro-hydrochloric acid has been highly oom-
mended. Chlorate of potash, in large doses, was
formerly much employed.

These remedies may be supplemented by the
use of saline medicines, sudoriflcs, and moderate
purgatives. The diet should consist largely of
milk and water, beef tea, broth, and such like
digestible and nntritious food.

TJSSEK, Inflammation of. Sg: Oaxost;
Mammitib, L. Amongst domestic animals, cows
are the most frequently subject to this affection.
It is most common amongst those cows that hmv*
lately calved or have been thoroughly milked.
Heifers, and even yonng cows tliat have never had
a calf, however, are not exempt from it, and occa-
sionally suffer from its attacks. The inflamma-
tion varies in intensity, in some cases only show-
ing itself in a dryness, tenseness, heat and
tenderness of the skin of the udder, whilst in
others it is much more serious, and extends to the
interior parts and vessels ; in the latter case gri^ins
rise to hard lumps amongst the softer texture of
the udder.

Inflammation of the odder appears to resnit

from various causes — indigestion, over-drivinjf,

the too long retention of the milk in the udder,

and cold ; it is also very frequently associated with

I munain, rhenmatism, and swelling of the joints.

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ULCERATED SORE THROAT— ULTRAMARINE

1726

Treatment. If the disease be consiitntional, as
indicated by the suddenness of the attack, the
beat conne woald be to administer at once a good
dose of Epsom or Olsaber salts combined with a
little ginger, and to give copious doses of nitre.
A modified form of this treatment should be kept
np for some little time b; means of gentle aperi-
ents, and smaller doses of nitre. In the milder
form of inflammation, riz. in that confined to the
exterior of the udder, it will be best to have re-
course to spirit lotions or refrigerant applications,
sach as ice water, or a mixture of shloride of am-
meainm and nitre applied immediately after mix-
ing with water. The udder should be kept con-
stantly cool by means of these. When the in-
flammation is deeper seated, as evidenced by the
presence of lumps in the udder, the continuous
application of warm water is advisable. Whether
the cold or hot treatment be indicated, it should
be diligently kept up for a day at least. In the
adoption of either the cold or hot local remedies
above specified, they shonld be combined with
some means of support (by the agency of a proper
bandage) to the udder. It is also important to
have the milk removed every 8 or 4 hours ; if the
milking operation cause pain, a syphon shonld be
used. The hard lumps will be found to disperse
best under gentle friction applied by the band
twice a day, for an hour each time, the hand being
previously anointed with lard. When the surface
pits or becomes soft, and very hot, it may be
assumed that suppuration has set in, in vvhich
case the confined pas must be liberated by means
of the lancet.

TTLCSBATUD SOKE THBOAT. This form of
sore throat, in which ulcers develop themselves
upon the tonsils, is a very frequent accompani-
ment of scarlatina, syphilis, and other diseases,
in which cases to prescribe the method of treat-
ment would be beyond our province. For ordinary
ulcerated sore throat arising from cold, chronic
inflammation of the part, or a low state of health,
the best course will be to gargle the throat 4 or 6
times daily with either of the following gargles :
— 1. Alum, 30 gr. ; infusion of rose, 6 oz. 2.
Sulphate of zinc, 30 gr. ; distilled water, 6 oz.
8. Hydrochloric acid, 1 dr. ; water, 6 oz. Should
these fail, touch the ulcers every morning with a
solation of nitrate of silver, containing 10 gr. of
the nitrate to an ounce of distilled water.

ULCEBS. These are open sores, mostly accom-
panied by a discharge of pus, or serous matter.
They differ from ordinary wounds by the edges
showing no disposition to unite. When they ex-
tend or deepen, it is by a process of absorption ;
while they heal by granulation, whereby they
become filled up with little granular growths
of flesh. Ulcers may appear on all parts of the
body, but they most frequently attack the legs
and arms.

In enfeebled states of the body, wounds, boils,
and abscesses may degenerate into ulcers ; they
are also a consequence of enlarged or varicose
veins, or the result of some specific poison in the
system.

Ulcers may be dassed into simple, irritable,
indolent, and specific

Treatment. When an ordinary wound or sore
shows a disinclination to heal, bn^ on the con-

trary, extends or deepens, it should be poulticed
with bread and water or linseed meal. Should
these remedies be ineffectual, an old-fashioned bat
useful one, viz. a carrot poultice, may be applied.
When the ulceration is irritable or painful, the
poultices may be supplemented by the frequent use
of a lotion consisting of 4 parts of water to 1 of
tincture of opium, or of a warm decoction of
poppy heads applied by means of a linen rag.
Filling the cavity with prepared chalk has hem
recommended.

It sometimes happens that during poulticing,
proud flesh may form in an ulcer. This may re-
quire the attention of a surgeon. When the ulcer
has a bad or fetid odour, it shonld be washed with
a lotion composed of 1 part of solution of chlo-
rinated soda to 16 parts of water ; or it may be
sprinkled over with charcoal powder, or with a
mixture of starch and salicylic acid. The best
application to bad smelling ulcers caused by vari-
cose veins is a lotion consisting of nitric acid con-
siderably diluted with water. Very irritable
ulcers are often greatly relieved by the gentle appli-
cation to them of lunar caustic, and indolent ones
by dressing with yellow basilicon ointment, or by
the judicious use of black wash. The general
health should be attended to by the administration
of tonics consisting of the mineral acids, gentle ape-
rients, and s digestible and nourishing diet.
Small ulcers on the mucous memlirane of the
month or on the gums may be made to disappear
instantly upon touching them with a piece of
lunar caustic. Where any difficulty is experienced
in the healing of an ulcer, or if it be at all of a
serious nature, the medical practitioner should be
consulted.

ULEZIHS. An alkaloid obtained by M. Gerrard
from UUx europtnu, common goise. Gerrard
and Symons, who chemically examined the base,
gives it the following formula : iCsHjgN^O,. The
physiological action of ulexine lias been recently
studied by Mr J. Rose Bradford. The drug acts
first as a stimulant, and then as a depressor of the
respiratory system, and, in large doses, paralyses
the motor nerves of mammals. It has a powerful
effect on the kidney, causing constriction, followed
by a very large expansion of short duration. The .
physiological effects point to a possible diuretic
action, and this is what really happens. It hag
been employed in University College Hospital
with saccess in cases of dropsy due to heart dis-
ease.—Z)o*«, -A to A gr-

UL'Mnr, TTLKIC ACID. By boiling sugar in
dilute sulphuric acid for a long time, a brownish-
black substance is produced. Boullay and Mala-
guti state that this is a mixture of two distinct
bodies — ulmin (sacchulmin — Liebig) and ulmic
acid (sacchulmic acid — Liebig). The first is in-
soluble in solutions of the alkalies ; the latter dis-
solves in them freely. A number of black un-
crystallisable substances, produced by the action
of powerful chemical agents upon vegetable
matter, have been confounded under these names.

TTLI^AKASINE'. Syn. LAPis-LAztru blvb,

UlIRAHIBIKB B.; CsBULBITK ULTBAXOKTAinnr,

L. This beautiful pigment is obtained from the-
blue mineral azure-stone, lazulite, or lapis lazuli,
the finest specimens of which are brought from,
I China, Persia, &c.

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1726

UM BEE— UPAS

Prep. Pare lapis laznli (reduced to fragments
about the size of a pea, and the coloarleis pieces
rejected), 1 lb., is heated to redness, quenched in
water, and ground to an impalpable powder; to
this is added of yellow resin, 6 oz. ; turpentine,
beeswax, and linseed oil, of each, 2 oz., previously
melted together ; the whole is next made into a
mass, which is kneaded in successive portions of
warm water as long as it colours it bine; from
these it is deposited on repose, and is then col-
lected, well washed with clean water, dried, and
sorted according to its qualities. The first water,
which is usually dirty, is thrown away; the
second gives a blue of the first quality; and the
third and following ones yield samples of less
value. The process is founded on the property
which the colouring matter of azure-stone has of
adhering less firmly to the resinous cement than
the foreign matter with which it Is associated.
When azure-stone has its colour altered by a
moderate heat, it is reckoned bad or fictitious.

Ob». Ultramarine is the most costly, but at
the same time the most splendid and permanent
of our blue pigments, and works well in oil.

Ultramarine, Artificial. Syn. AzirsB blttb,
Meibskeb ttltbauabiite, Pabis b., Vibnna b. ;

CiEBDLEim DLTBAHONTANtrM FACTITITTX, L.

From the researches of Clement, Desormes, and
Robiquet, it has been inferred that the colour of
ultramarine depends on the presence of sulphide
of sodium in a peculiar state of combination with
the silicates of soda and alumina ; but, according
to Eisner and Timmon, a minute quantity of sul-
phide of iron is also an essential ingredient. It
is by heating mixtures of this kind that the arti-
ficial ultramarine of commerce is prepared. The
finer specimens, thus obtained, are quite equal in
durability and beauty of colour to those prepared
from lazulite, while they are very much less
expensive.

Prep. 1. Kaolin, 37 parts ; sulphate of soda,
16 parts ; carbonate of soda, 22 parts ; sulphur,
18 parts; charcoal, 8 parts; intimately mixed
and heated from twenty-four to thirty hours in
large crucibles ; the product is then heated again
in cast-iron boxes, at a moderate temperature,
till the required tint is obtained; it is, finally,
pulverised, washed, and dried.

2. {Omelin.) Sulphur, 2 parts; dry carbonate
of soda, 1 part; mix well; gradually beat in a
covered crucible to redness, or till the mixture
fuses, then sprinkle in, by degrees, another mix>
tnre of silicate of soda and ' aluminate of soda'
(containing 72 parts of silica and 70 parts of
alumina), and continue the heat for an hour. The
product contains a little free sulphur, which may
be separated by water.

3. {Mobiquet.) By exposing to a low red heat,
in a covered crucible, as long as fumes are given
off, a mixture of pure kaolin, 2 parts ; anhydrous
carbonate of soda and sulphur, of each, 3 parts.
Some manufacturers who adopt this process use
l-3rd less carbonate of soda.

4. (2Yr»nio».) Take of crystallised carbonate
of soda, 1076 gr.; apply a gentle heat, and, when
fused in its water of crystollisation, shake in of
finely pulverised orpiment, 6 gr.i and, when
partly decomposed, add as much gelatinous
hydrate of alumina as contains 7 gr. of anhydrous

alumina; finely sifted clay, 100 gr., and flowen
of sulphur, 221 gr., are next to be added, and the
whole placed in a covered crucible, and at first
gently heated, to drive off the water ; bat as sooo
as this is effected, nused to redness, tbe heat
being so regulated that the ingredients only
'sinter' together, without actually fusing; tlie
mass is then to be cooled, finely pulverised, sus-
pended in river water, and brought upon a filter;
the product has now a very beautiful delicate
green or bluish colour, but on being heated in a
covered dish,^nd stirred about from time to time^
until the temperature reaches that of dull red-
ness, at which it must be kept for one or two
hours, it changes to a rich blue. If the heat of
the first calcination has been properly r^ulated,
the whole of the mass taken from the crucible
will have uniform colour ; but if too little heat
has been used, and the ingredients have not been
properly mixed, there will be colourless puti^
which should be rejected; if too much heat has
been used, or the mass allowed to fuse, brown
parts will appear, especially if the crucible is of a
bad kind, or easily destroyed ; these must also be
rejected. ,

6. Heat to bright redness, in a covered crucible,
three or four hours, an intimate mixture of pure
kaolin, 100 parts, dried carbonate of soda, 100
parts,8alphur,60parts,RndcharcoaI,12partB. The
mass has now a green colour (green ultramarine).
This is powdered finely, washed, dried, mixM
with l-6th its weight of sulphur, and gently
wasted to a thin layer till the sulphur has burnt
off; this operation being repeated with fresh
additions of sulphur till the residue has a fine
blue colour.

Ultramarine Ashes, ^n. Saith^dbkb vsm.
Obtained from the resinous mass from making
ultramarine, by melting it with fresh ml, and
kneading it in water containing a little potash or
soda ; or by burning away the wax and oil of the
mass, and well grinding and washing the residue
with water. Very permanent, but mach less
brilliant than ultramarine.

Ultramarine, Cobal'tio. Sy*. Chibbsb BLrx,
C0BAI.T B., LovtSA B., HSvfkbb's b., Th^itabii'b
B. A very rich blue pigment, prepared by slowly
drying and heating to dull redness a mixture rf
freshly precipitated alumina (freed from water
as much as possible), 8 to 10 parts ; arseniate or
phosphate of cobalt, 1 part. By daylight it is of
a pure blue, but by artificial light the coloaT
turns on the violet. For other f ormulte see BUII
PXOKBNTS.

UMBES. A species of clay coloured with
oxides of iron and manganese, used as a pigment;
the commonest kind consists of limonite or brawn
hiematite, and the hydrated oxide of manganesei
mixed with clay. It occurs in beds associated
with brown jasper in Cyprus and elsewhere. It
may be used either raw or burnt as a brown
pigment.

U'PAS. The Javanese name for several deadly
poisons. ' Bohnn upas * is a gum-rcsin obtained
from the bark of the AntUtrii toticaria. (See
ANTtABlKs.) Tbe ' upas tientj ' is obtained from
the StrychHot tieuU, and owes its fatal power to
strychnine. They are both used to x>oison arrom
and other deadly weapons.

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URANIUM— URIC ACID

1787

1TBA"BITTK. U =■ 239. A rare metal, dig-
covered by Elaproth in 1789. It ocean in the
intch-blende of Saxony and the nranite of Corn-
wall. Uranium is employed in the arts only in
the state of compound.

Uraslc Oxide (U,0,) may he obtained in the
anhydrous state by heating the hydrated sesqui-
oxide to a temperature of 672° F. It is capable
of acting both as an acid and a base. UO^ is
also known. The uranic salts are yellow.

Uranoiu Oxide. UO. This may be procured
by igniting uranium oxalate in a closed Tessel, or
in a stream of hydrogen gas. Acids are without
action upon this oxide. When, however, it is
obtained as a hydrate (which it may be by treat-
ment of its chloride with ammonia), this latter is
easily acted upon by acids, and gives rise to salts
having a green colonr, which rapidly absorb
-oxygen. Peligot proposed to call this oxide
Uranifl, from the tendency it showed to follow
the deportment of a metal when it combined
with elementary bodies.

Chlorides of Uranium. Uranium forms two
chlorides, U,Clg and UCl^

Ure*. Its ores and oxides (U,Og and 2UO.U3O2)
are used to colour glass yellow and porcehun
black. This glass possesses a beautiful canary-
green fluorescence.
U'SATES. Salts of uric acid.
U'BEA. COH4N2. £^ Cabbakidb. A
-crystailline, colourless, transparent substance, dis-
covered by Fourcroy and Vanquelin in urine, and
by Wohler as the first organic compound artifi-
cially produced.

Urea generally occorg in slender, striated,
colourless prisms, as shown on next page. It is
slightly deliquescent. It has a neutral reaction
and a bitterish taste. It is extremely soluble in
water and in hot alcohol, but very slightly so in
ether. At about 248° F. it melts. At a little
higher temperature it becomes decomposed into
ammonia carbonate, cyanate of ammonium, and
cyanuric acid, this last being left in the retort.

The ammouiacal odour acquired by urine after
a few days is due to the conversion of the urea
into carbonate of ammonia, as shown by the
following equation :

Um. Water. Csrb. Ammonia.
CH^ONj + 2H50 = (NHOjCO,.
This change is effected by a minute organism.
Micrococcus urea, present in the urine. A solu-
tion of pure nrea may be kept at ordinary tem-
perature, or even boiled, without undergoing
alteration. *

Urea occurs as an essential component of the
urine of man and animals, being more particu-
larly abundant in the urinary excretion of the
flesh-eating mammalia ; nor is it altogether absent
from the urine of birds and amphibia. According
to Bischoff and Voit, nrea is the result of tissue
metamorphosis. The greater number of inquirers,
however, hold an opposite opinion, and believe
that it is derived from the albuminous constituents
of the food. [Accurate experiment on the human
subject shows that the total daily nitrogen of the
excreta corresponds, within limits of error, with
that of the ingesta. — Kd.]

Prep. (Thinard.) Fresh nrine, gently eva-
porated to the consistence of a symp, is treated

with its own volnme of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1'19 ;
the mixture is shaken and immersed in an ice-
bath, to solidify the crystals of nitrate of urea
(p. 1728) ; these are washed with ice-cold water,
drained, and pressed between sheets of blotting-
paper ; they are next dissolved in water, and the
solution is decomposed and precipitated with car-
bonate of potassium (or carbonate of barium) ; the
whole is then gently evaporated nearly to dry-
ness, and the residuum is exhausted with pure
alcohol, which dissolves the urea, which crystal-
lises oat as the solution cools.

Urea, lactitions. Prep. Hix 28 parts of well-
dried ferrocyanide of potassium with 14 of black
oxide of manganese (both in fine powder), and
heat them to dull redness on an iron plate. Lixi-
viate with cold water, add 22i parts of dry sul-
phate of ammonia, concentrate by evaporation
with a heat not exceeding 212° F., decant the
concentrated liquid, treat it with rectified spirit^
and crystallise. This is intended as a cleanly
substitute for the preceding.

Urea, Bl'trate of. St/n. Ubbjb nitbab, L.
Prep. From urine, as described above j or it may
be prepared by saturating artificial nrea with
nitric acid. Diuretic. — Dose, 2 to 5 gr., twice or
thrice daily ; in dropsy.

UBEOMETEB. See p. 1738.

TJBETHAH. Sya. Ubethanb. Ethyl-urethan.
which is commonly understood by the commercial
name urethan, is NH^COOCoHj, and forms colour-
less columnar or tabular crystals, melting between
47° and 50° C. It is practically tasteless, giving
rise, when placed in substance on the tongue, to
a feeble saline sensation. In water and in most
media it is very readily soluble; the aqueons
solution is neutral. It boils between 170° and
180° C. without decomposition ; the vapours given
off bum with a blnish flame. I3y Kobert,
Schmiedeberg, and others it has been recom-
mended as a useful hypnotic, distinguished from
morphine, chloral hydrate, paraldehyde, kc, by
the absence of unpleasant secondary symptoms,
which makes it particularly valuable in the treat-
ment of children, of delirium tremens, and acute
mania. — Dote, 16 to 60 gr.

U'EIC ACID. CsH^N^Oj. Syn. Lithio acid ;
AciDUM LiTHiocM, A. UBiculf , L. A substance
discovered by Scheeic, and peculiar to the urine
of certain animals, and the excrement of serpents
and several birds. The feecea of the boa-con-
strictor consist of little else than urate of ammo-
nium. It constitutes one of the commonest
varieties of urinary calculi, and of the red gravel
or sand which is voided in certain morbid states
of the urine. Gnano derives its principal value
as a manure from the presence of urate of am-
monium. The gouty concretions of the joints,
popularly known as chalk-stones, consist chiefly
of urate of sodium.

Prep. Dissolve the chalk-like excrement of ser-
pents, reduced to fine powder, in a solution of
caustic potassa, by hoilitig ; then add hydrochloric
acid in excess, again boil for 15 minutes, and well
wash the precipitate with water.

Prop., Jj;e. Brilliant, very minute, white and
silky scales, which are tasteless, inodorous, slightly
soluble in boiling water, and dissolve in strong
snlphuric acid, but are again precipitated by

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1728

UEIC ACID

water. It forms salts with the bases called urates,
all ot which are very sparingly solnble. The
characteristic reaction of uric acid is, that when
moistened with nitric acid and heated, it dissolves,
and by evaporation yields a red compound, which,
npon the addition of a drop or two of solution of
ammonia, assnmes a magnificent crimson colour,
being converted into mnrexide.

Uric acid is a constituent of healthy human
urine, in which it exists combined with bases in
the form of urates, which, being in small quantity.

are solnble in the urine. 1000 gr. of the nrioe
contain from 1 gr. to 1 gr. of the acid. Dra Beale
and Thndichum respectively estimate the amount
of uric acid excreted in 24 honrs by a healthy
adult man at from 5 to 8 gr. To determine the
amount of uric acid in urine proceed as follows:
— To a certain weight of the urine, hydrochloric
or nitric acid is added, and the urine set aside for
some hours, at the end of which time the insoluble
crystals of uric acid which are formed are washed,
dried, and weighed.

Vntk CTyitallised from urine.

Urea crjaUUised rrom water.

Nitrate of urta fonned in nrine.

Kitiate of area crjratalliicd from water.

The majority of the cuts illustrating ' urea,' ' urinary diseases,' and ' nrine,' are taken from Br
Beale's work on ' Kidney Diseases, Urinary Deposits, and Calculous Deposits,' by that g«ntleiiiaii't
kind permission.

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URINARY DISEASES

1729

With the exception of the urates, uric acid is
one of the deposits, most frequently met with in
abnormal urine, wherein it occurs as a small red-

dish powder adhering to the bottom or sides of
the contAining vessel. As a urinary deposit, uric
acid assumes a great variety of forms, that of
most frequent occurrence being the rhombic,
modi6ed in many of the crystals by the rounding
of two of the angles, as shown in the engr.

TTailTABT DISEASES. This class of disorders,
which in general terms may be said to embrace
affections of the kidneys, bladder, ureters, &c.,
comprises diseases of these parts varying greatly
in character and pathological importance.

The most serious forms of kidney disease are
COKOSSTION of the kidney, a very frequent accom-
paniment of heart or lung disease ; ftblitis, or
inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney; bitf-
PUBATITB HBFBSITia, or inflammation of the
substance of the kidney, which ends in suppura-
tion ; ACTTTB HBPHBITIS, Or ACTTTB BbIOHT'B DIS-

BABB, acute inflammation of the kidney, fre-
quently arising from scarlatina or cold; chbokio
HIFHRITIB, or CHBONio BBIOHT'B DIBBABE, a for-
midable and incurable variety of kidney affection,
givii^ rise to dropsy, and, owing to the disintegra-
tion of the organ, to poisoning of the blood by
area. In advanced cases of this disease the urine
conbuns a large quantity of albumen and casts of
the nrinsry tubes.

CAT.cuLt7B OP THB EiDMBT. The most dan-
gerous diseases of the bladder are those caused
by the deposition in it of earthy and other con-
cretions, known as ttbikaby oalouli, which arc
described in the present work under Calculub.
The presence of these calculi is indicated by acute
pain in the bladder and urinary passages, extending
to the adjacent parts, the pain being excruciating
immediately after passing the urine. Sometimes
VOL. II.

daring the act of excretion the stream of water ii
suddenly stopped.

Inflammation is another dangerous disease of
the bladder, calling for the prompt summoning
of the medical practitioner wherever possible.

The following particulars as to its symptoms
and treatment are offered for adoption to emi-
grants and others, so placed as to he beyond the
means of medical succour.

Inflammation of the bladder commences with
pain in the region of that organ, the pain becom-
ing continnons and increasing in violence, and
being accompanied with a sense of burning heat
and of tenderness on pressure. The arine is fre-
quently voided. The inflammation is sometimes
so acate as to give rise to suppuration, and the
consequent discharge of pus with the arine.
Sometimes the disease assumes a chronic cha-
racter.

In the acute form of the disease recourse should
be had to leeches, hot fomentations, and warm
baths; a dose of calomel, to be followed by a
brisk dose of castor oil, should likewise be admin-
istered. Alcoholic drinks of any kind moat be
carefnlly avoided, the patient being allowed to
drink only cool demulcent beverages. With these
should be combined effervescing draughts, fre-
quently repeated, and small doses or Dover's
powder. Great relief will also be derived from
the use of enemas of gruel containing laudanum.
Where inflammation of the bladder arises from
goat or rheumatism it must be treated as for
these diseases. A suppository, consisting of 2 gr.
of opium combined with 20 gr. of soap, is fre-
quently of great benefit.

Should the disease become chronio the best
method of treatment will be the repeated use of
mild aperients, the combined employment of uva
ursi in infusion or powder, with either tincture of
perchloride of iron or the mineral acids. Spiritu-
ous liquors of any kind must be avoided. De-
mulcent drinks form the best beverage, and a
farinaceous or milk diet the most desirable food.

N£TrBAi,OIA OP TBB Blabsbb. The pain which
attends this disease is unaccompanied either by
inSammation or irritation, and is recurrent in
character. It may generally bo arrested by tinc-
ture of perchloride of iron, or of iron and quinine>
administered three times a day.

Ibbitation op THB Bi^ADSEB. The patient
affected with this disorder gratifies the freqnent
desire he has to pass his urine, the operation
being accompanied with pain and forcing, the
most severe pain being experienced after the ex-
cretion has taken place. The tincture of per-
chloride of iron will also be found the best
remedy for this disorder. It should be given in
conjunction with the infusions of uva ursi, Fareira
brava, or bnchn. Mucilaginous drinks should also
be had recourse to.

Catabbh op TBB Blacdeb. The symptoms
of this disease are irritation, and the presence of
much mucus in the urine. The same treatment
may be adopted as recommended for irritation of
the bladder. If there be an absence of pun,
spirits of nitre and copaiba balsam in moderate
doses frequently afford relief.

STBANOUBr. Constant micturition, only a
few drops of urine passing at the time, occasion-

109

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UBINE

ing burning and catting paina around the parts.
Strangury is generally due to gome irritating
cause, whidi should, if possible, be diaoovered and
remoyed. Canttiaridea taken either internally,
or applied externally, as in the form of a blist^,
'will sometimes give rise to it. The patient
should drink copiously of mucilaginous bever-
ages, such as Unseed tea, slippery elm liark,
barley water, with gum-arabic dissolved in it.
An ij\jection consisting of thirty or forty drops
of laudannm in a spoonful of gruel will be found
to afford immediate relief. If the above means
fail, a pill containing a grain of camphor in five
gruns of extract of henbane should be given, and
a warm bath taken. See Obavb^.

U'RIHX. The density of the urine
from 1-005 tojlOSO (from 1-016 to l-OSB—BeaU);
the average, in health, being 1*020, when it con-
tains about 880 gr. of solid matter in the pint.
According to Berzelius, the proportion is abont
6|% , the rest being pare water. It exhiUts >
decidedly add reaction, and is never «lV«li»M\
except during disease, or the use of large qoaii*
titles of alkeJine salts of the vegetable acids.
The average quantity secreted during 24 hons
may be taken at 2 pints to 3 pints ; as might be
supposed, a lai^er quantity is passed during the
summer than in the winter months.

Miller gives the following as the oompositJOD
of healthy urine :

Specific gravity

1-020

In 100 parts of solil

ter

966*80

rUrea.

14-28

. 83-00

Uric add .

0*37

. 0-86

Organic matters, 29*79 •

Alcoholic extract

12-53

. 29-OS

Watery extract .

2-50

, 6-80

^Vesical mucus .

0-16

. 0-87

'Sodic chloride .

7-22

. 16-73

Phosphoric anhydride
Sulphuric anhydride .

2-12

4-91

1-70

. 8-94

Fixed salts, 18-85 . .-

Lime.

0-21

0-49

Magnesia .

0-21

0-28

"^

Potash .

1-93

4-47

Soda.

0-09

. 0-12

Loss . . . .

0-08

-

3

I.

I

The presence of bile in urine, or other like
fluids, may be detected as follows : — Put a small
quantity of the suspected liquid into a test-tnbe,
and add to it, drop by drop, strong sulphuric
acid, until it becomes warm, taking care not to
rtuse the temperature above 122° F. ; then add
from 2 to 6 drops of syrup (made with 6 parts of
sugar to 4 parts of water), and shake the mix-
ture. If the liquid contain bile, a violet colora-
tion is observed. Acetic acid may be substituted
for sugar.

Another test for bile consists in pouring a
little of the suspected urine into a test-tube, and
adding to it a few drops of tincture of iodine,
when, if bile be present, the fluid becomes dis-
tinctly green. B^enbach says that urine con-
taining bile, when passed through white filtering-
paper, imparts a yellow or brown colour to the
paper. On allowing one drop of strong nitric
acid to run down the side of the moist filter it
leaves a yellow streak, soon changing to orange,
with a violet border, on the outside of which
blue and emerald-green zones may be observed.
These colours remain visible for some time.

Dark-coloured urine, owing to substances other
than bile, does not produce this play of colours.

The reagents most generally employed for de-
tecting the presence of sugar in urine are Tram-
mer's (see Suoab) and Fehling's solutions. For
the efiective application of Fehling's test, Dr
Roberts (' Urinary and Renal Diseases,' by Dr W.
Roberts) advises the following method of proce-
dure : — Pour some of the Fehling's solution into
a narrow test-tube to the depth of J of an inch ;
beat until it begins to boil; then add 2 or 8

1000-00

lOOOO

drops of the suspected urine. If the lugar he
abundant, a thick yellow opadty or depont of
yellow suboxide is produced (and this changes
to a brick-red at once if the blue colour of the
test remains dominant). If no such reactioai
ensue, go on adding the urine until a bulk nearly
equal to the test employed has been poured in ;
heat again to ebullition, and, no change occur-
ring, set aside without further boiling. If no
milkiness is produced as the mixture cools, the
urine may confidently be pronounced free from
sugar, or, at any rate, it contains less than

If the quality of sugar is very small, viz. from
i% to ^% , the precipitation of the yellow or
cuprous oxide does not take place immediately,
but occurs after some time as the liquid cools, and
the manner of the change is peculiar. Firat^ the
mixture loses its transparency, and passes tram a
clear bluish-green to a light greenish opacity, jost
as if some drops of milk had fallen into the tube.
This green milky appearance is quite character-
istic of sugar.

Before using the Fehling's solution it ihoold
be always examined previously to the addition of
the urine, by being first boiled alone, when if it
remains clear it may be pronounced in 8t oco-
dition. On the contrary, should the preliminai^
boiling give a deposit, the solution must be dis-
carded, and some freshly made employed instead.

BSttger has proposed the following qnanUbttive
test for the presence of sugar in urine :

He first adds some potash to the sample of
urine, and then a small quantity of subnitrate of
bismuth, and boils the mixture. If sugar is

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URINE

1781

-present, the sabozide i< reduced, and metallic
' bismuth being liberated is precipitated as a black
powder.

Anothw method of applying the bismnth test
is as follows : — 1 part of crystaUised carbonate of
soda is dissolved in 3 parts of water, and added to
an equal quantity of the urine. A small quantity
of basic nitrate of bismuth is then added to the
mixture, which is then heated to the boiling-point.
A black precipitate is formed if the urine contains
sugar.

Horsley's test consists in hiding with the sas-
pected urine a mixture of equal parts of neutral
chromate of potash and solution of potash, when,
if sugar be present, a g^een colour will be pro-
duced, owing to the formation of the sesquioxide
-of chromium.

In M. Luton's, which is a modification of Hors-
ley's test, a solution of bichromate of potash is
decomposed by excess of sulphuric acid, and
upon the urine being boiled with the mixture, a
splendid green colour is imparted to it. Urea,
albumin, and the urates do not interfere with this
reaction.

Vidaa has observed that a mixtare of equal
parts of hydrochloric acid and oil of bmne (oil
of sesame), either in the cold, or when slightly
heated, assumes a distinct rose colour in the
presence of cane or grape sugar, provided O'OOl
gramme of sugar is present for every c.c of
mixture.

One of the best methods for the accurate and
quick estimation of the amount of sugar in urine
is, perhaps, the volumetric, devised by Fehling,
who employed a standard copper solution, known
as ' Febling's solution,' of the following composi-
tion :

Sulpb&te of copper . . . 90} gnUns.

Nentntl tartrate of potash , 364 „

Solution of caustic soda, sp. gr.
1-12 4 fl. oc

Add water to make np exactly 6 „
Of this solution 200 gr. are exactly decomposed
by 1 gr. of sugar.

The following is the mode of performing the
analysis given by Dr Boberts (' Urinary and Kenal
Diseases,' by Dr W. Roberts) :— Measure off 200
gr. of the above standard solution in a 200-grain
tube, pour this into a flask, and add about twice
its volume of water ; then place over a spirit-lamp
to boil. While the copper solution is being heated
the urine to be analysed should be diluted with
water to a known degree. In the case of ordinary
diabetic nrines the best dilution is 1 in 10. This
is obtuned by carefully filling a 6-oz. measure
with water to the depth of 4} oz., and then add-
ing urine so as to make up exactly 6 oz. The
mixtuie will then contain exactly -^ of urine
(when the quantity of sugar in the nrine is very
small, a dilution of 1 in 6, or even the nndilnted
urine may be employed). The next step is to fill
a burette (which mnst be graduated to grains)
with the diluted urine to O. Then proceed to
add it in snccessive small portions to the boiling
copper solution until the blue colour has entirely
disappeared. After each fresh addition from the
burette, the mixture should be raised to the boil-
ing-point, and then allowed to stand a few
seconds, so that the precipitated copper may sub-

side^ and the observer may see, by holding the
flask between the eye and the light, whether the
mixture still retains any blue colour.

As soon as the bine colour baa disappeared the
analysis is complete, and the quantity of diluted
nrine may be raid off. The percentage of sugar
in the urine can now be readily calculated. Sup-
pose 125 gr. had been added from the burette,
this represents -^, or 12'5 gr. of undiluted urines
and contains exactly 1 gr. of sugar ; by dividing
12*6 into 100 the percentage of sugar is obtained,

100
or — r'-S; the urine contains 8% of sugar.
12'6

Another process for the quantitative deter-
mination of sngar in nrine, called by its author,
Dr Roberts, 'the differential density method,'
is based upon the loss of density experienced by
diabetic urine after all the sugar has been re-
moved by fermentation. Dr Roberts says re-
peated examples derived from diabetic arine so
treated, together with corresponding experiments
made with solution of sngar of known strength
in normal urine, and in pure water, as well as
theoretical calculation, have warranted the con-
clusion, tAat the uumbet of degree* of deutity to
lott indieatet a* many grains of nigar per Jlmd
o»nee.

The method, which is extremely simple^ is
thus performed :— Into a 12-oz. bottle measure 4
fl. oz. of the diabetic nrine, and drop into it . a
piece of fresh German yeast, about ss large as a
cobnnt or walnut ; insert a cork in the bottle, and
let the cork have a nick cut in the side, to allow
«f the escape of the carbonic acid. Then fill an
ordinary 4-oz. bottle with the same sample of
nrine, omitting to add any yeast, and cork it in
the ordinary manner. Place both bottles in a
warm situation, where the temperature is abont
80° or 90° P., for twenty or twenty-four hours ;
at the end of which time, the fermentation being
over, the scum will either have cleared off or sub-
sided. The fermented urine is then poured into
a proper urine-glass, and its specific gravity as-
certained.

The specific gravity of the nnfermcnted com-
panion portion is also taken, and by compandg
the two results the loss of density is thus arrived
at. Before the respective densities are taken it
is best to remove the two samples to a cool place,
where they should remain for two or three hours,
in order that they may acquire the temperature
of the surrounding air.

The two following examples may serve as illns-
tratlons of the method.

I. II.

Density before fermentation
Density after fermentation
Degrees of density lost

1053 . 1088

1004 . 1013

49 . 26

40

25

Qiaina of sngar per fluid ounce

If it be desired to bring out the result as so
much per cent., this is accomplished hy multiply-
ing the number indicating the ' density lost by
the coefficient 0-23. Thus, in the first of the
above examples, 49x0-23 = 11-27; and in the
second 25x0-23=5-69, which are amounts of
sugar respectively per 100 parts {Sobertt).

In taking the densities Dr Roberts advises the

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1782

URINB

operator to employ a urinometer having a long
scale, since the degrees are mnch further apart
than in the scales of the short-stemmed instru-
ments, and are therefore more distinct and can he
more easily read off.
The following are examples of diabeUc nrine :

able salts

Ko. 1 (Simon).
Specific gravity
Water .
Solid constitaents
Urea .
Uric acid
Sugar

Extractive matter and sol
Earthy phosphates
Albumen

No. 2 {Dr Percy).
SpeciBc gravity .
Water ....

Solid constituents .

Urea

Uric acid ....
Sugar

X01800

957-00

4300

Traces.

Traces.

39-80

2-10

0-52

Traces.

1042 00

894-eO

105-60

12-16

0-16

40-12

Extractive matters and soluble salts 58-06

No. 3 (Bovehardat).

Water 887-68

Solid constituents . . . . 162-42

Urea 8-27

Uric acid .... Not isolated.

Sugar 134-82

Extractive matters and soluble salts 20*84

Earthy phosphates . . . 0-38

"Diabetic nrine nsnally possesses a pecuUsr
smell, which has been compared with that of
violets, apples, new hay, whey, horses' urine,
musk, and sonr milk. Such comparisons serve
only to show how difficult it is to give by de-
scription a correct idea of a particular odour.
The colour of diabetic urine is generally pale.
Sometimes, but not nsnally nntil after two or
three days, the surface becomes coloured with n
whitish film, owing to the development of the
ntgar ftingut and the Penieillium glawmm, and
gradually the urine becomes opalescent in con-
sequence of these fungi multiplying in great
numbers in every part of the fluid. See Usi-

HAST DBPOBITS (FDNOI).

" Diabetic urine has a sweet taste, and often
numbers of flies are attracted to it, which fact
sometimes leads the patient to suspect that tbe
urine is not healthy" (' Kidney Diseases, Urinary
Deposits,' &c., Dr Lionel Beale).

White merino, that has been wet with a solu-
tion of bichloride of tin, is also said to form a
ready test for sugar in urine.

Albumen in urine may be detected by the
nitric acid, or by the heat test. The nitric acid
test is perf ormei as follows : — Fill a test-tube to
about an inch with the urine, then incline the
tabe and pour in strong nitric acid down the side
of the tube, so that the add sinks to the bottom
and displaces the urine, which by reason of its
smaller specific gravity rests above it. Let the
acid be added till it forms a stratum about a
quarter of an inch thick at the bottom.

If the nrine contain albumen three layers will
be perceptible — one, perfectly colourless, of nitric

acid at the bottom ; immediately above Vtaa an
opalescent zone of the coagulated albumen ; and,
on the top, the unaltered urine.

In his work, ' Kidney Diseases and Urinai;
Deposits,' Dr Lionel Beale directs attention to
the very important fact that " two or three drops
of nitric acid to about a drachm of albtuninons
nrine in a test-tube will produce a precipitate of
albumen which will be dutolted on agitation;
while, on the other hand, about half as much,
strong nitric acid as there is of urine will redis-
solve the precipitate of albumen, unless the
quantity present be excessive. Albumen preci-
pitated by nitric acid is soluble in weak nitric
acid, and in a considerable excess of mine, and
it is also tolnbU in tlrong nitric acid. It ii
therefore neeettary in employing the nitric acid
test to add from ten to fifteen drop* of the Hrong
acid to about a draehm of the urine nupected to
contain albumen."

Dr Roberts gives the following directions for
applying the heat test : — If tbe urine have its
nsnal arid reaction it becomes turbid on boiling
when it contains albumen, and this turbidity per-
sists after the addition of an acid. There are two
p<dnt8 to be remembered on using heat alone as a
test for albumen. First, that albumen is not
coagulated by heat when the urine is alkaline ; in
such cases, therefore, it is necessary before boiling
to restore the acidity by a few drops of acetic acid
(carefully avoiding excefs). Secondly, when the
urine is neutral, or very feebly acid, it may become
turbid on heating, from precipitation of the earthy
phosphates, but turbidity from the cause is easily
distinguished from albumen by a drop of nitric or
acetic acid, which instantly causes the phosidiatc*
to disappear. It may sometimes happen that the
patient whose urine is to be submitted to exami-
nation for albumen may be taking largo doses of
nitric or hydrochloric acid. Under these circum-
stances Dr Bence Jones recommends the addition
of ammonia to tbe nrine, nearly to the p<rint of
neutmlisation,

Mr Louis Siebold proposes a modifi(«tion of Dr
Roberts's method of applying the heat teat in acid
states of the urine, which is as follows : — Add
solution of ammonia to the urine until jost per-
ceptibly alkaline, filter, and add dilated acetic
acid very cautiously nntil the nrine aoqnirea a
fiunt acid reaction, avoiding the use of a single
drop more than is necessary. Now place equal
quantities of this mixture into two test-tobes of
equal size, heat one of them to ebullition, and
compare it with the cold sample contained in the
other test-tube. The least turbidity is thus dis-
tinctly observed, and gives absolute proof of tbe
presence of albumen, the error of confounding
phosphates with albumen being out of tbe ques-
tion, as they are precipitated by the ammonia and
removed by filtration.

H. Oalipe, ' Pharm. Zeitong ffir Rnaslaad,' xiv,
48 (' Pharm. Jonrn.'), says the following Is a
delicate as well as tmstworthy test for albuminous
urine. A few drops of the urine are carefully
added to a solution of picric acid contained in a
small conical test-glass. If albumen be present
a well-marked turbidity will be produced at the
point of contact between the two liquids. On
applying heat the albumen agglutinates, and

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1783

rises to the surface. Phosphates and nratei tse
said not to interfere with this test.

In order to determine the quantity of albamen
in mine proceed as follows : — Add a little acetic
acid to the nrine, and then heat it in a water
bath nntll it boils. Or the albuminous urine may
be dropped into boiling water acidalated with
acetic acid. In either case collect the precipitate
on a wei|^hed filter, wash it well, dry it, and
weigh it. The albumen must afterwanis be in-
cinerated, and the resulting residue, which con-
sists of ^rthy salts, must be deducted from the
' dried precipitate.

Stolnikow, 'Cbem. Contralb.' ('Pharm. Jonrn.'),
adopts the following method for the quantitative
estimation of albumen in nrine:— The urine is
diluted with water until a sample poured upon
some nitric acid contained in a test-tube produces
still a faint white ring at the point of contact
after the lapse of forty seconds. The number of
Tolnmes of water added to the volume of nrine
(which may be taken as one) is divided by 250,
and the quotient will be the percentage of albu-
men in the nrine. This relation has been
established and confirmed by gravimetric deter-
minations.

It is sometimes desirable to remove the alba-
men from the urine before proceeding to search
for other substances. There are several methods
of nccomplishing this. If the urine be boiled the
albnmen will become coagulated, but in many
cases it may happen, owing to the nrine being
slightly alkaline or neutral, that a small quantity
may remain in solution. Hence it will be ad-
visable to add a little acetic acid to the nrine
before applying heat to it, to remove the preci-
pitated matters by filtration, and to exactly neu-
tralise the acid in the filtrate. If a few crystals
of sulphate of soda be heated with albuminons
urine, the ulbamen and allied matters may be en-
tirely removed without injury to other organic
matters dissolved, and without interfering with
the employment of other reagents. When it is
desirable to free the urine from albumen previous
to testing for sugar, this Ihtter method will be
itonnd the best and most convenient.

The following analyses represent the amount
' of albnmen present in the urine of two patients
■suffering from Bright's disease :

No. 1 (Simon).

Specific gravity 1014-

Water .... 966-10

Solid constituents . . 33*90

Urea VT?

Uric acid .... 040

Fixed salts .... 8*04

Extractive matters . ' . 2*40

Albnmen .... 18*00

No. 2 (Dr Pen}/).
■ Specific gravity . . . 1020-
Water 946T-

SoUd constituents .

Urea

•Uric acid and indeterminate \
animal matter J

Fixed soluble salts .
Earthy phosphates.
Albumen . . . .

53-18
7-68

17-52

6-20

0-14

22-64

Dr Parkes records the case of a patient suf-
fering from albuminuria, who excreted 646
grains of albumen in twenty-four hours. See
Ubatbb.

Urine frequently contains an abnormally large
quantity of nrea. Such urine is of high specific
gravity — 1-030 or more. When present in large
excess the urea becomes depoaitad in ' sparkling
crystalline lamellss ' of the nitrate, if it be mixed
with an equal quantity of strong nitric acid in
the cold.

The crystals vary slightly in character, accord-
ing to the amount of nitric acid employed and
the degree of concentration of the urine. Urine
which thus yields, without previous concentration,
the nitrate, is said to contain an excess of urea.
See page 1727.

The quantity of urea present in urine is best
determined by a process invented by Liebig.
When a solution of pemitrate of mercury is added
to one of pure nrea, the urea and mercuric salt
unite and form an insoluble compound, of un-
determined constitution. If, however, the chlo-
rides of the alkalies and alkaline earths are
present, this combination does not take place,
owing to the decomposition of the mercuric ni-
trate, and the formation of bichloride of mercory,
and a nitrate of the alkali or alkaline earth, both
of which are soluble. When, however, the de-
composition of the chloride has been completed,
the urea may be entirely precipitated, provided a
sufficient quantity of mercuric nitrate be added
to the solution. In estimating the amount of
urea in urine, therefore, it is only necessary to
add to the nrine a solution of the mercuric salt
of known strength, since from the quantity of
this latter, which has been employed in throwing
down the urea, this can easily be calculated.

In performing this analysis, three special solu-
tions are requisite :

1. A solution consisting of one part (by mea-
sure) of a cold saturated solution of barium
nitrate (also by measure) in saturated baryta
water. This serves for the removal of the phos-
phates and sulphates, the presence of which in
the urine would interfere with the analysis.

2. The standard solution of mercuric nitrate,
which is made as follows: — 772 grains of red
oxide of mercury placed in a beaker are dissolved
in a sufficient quantity of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-20)
by a gentle heat, and evaporated over a water-
bath until all exeett of fre» aeid is driven off.
This may be known by the liquid becoming dense
and syrupy in appearance. It is then poured
into a properly graduated vessel and diluted to
10,000 grain-messnres. Of this solution, 10
grain-measures = 0-1 grun of urea.

3. A solution of carbonate of soda in distilled
water, 20 grains to the ounce. This solution is
employed to indicate when the titration is com-
plete, and to show the operator that all the urea
has been precipitated by the mercuric salt.

The operation is thus performed :

(a) 400 grain-measures of the clear urine are
mixed with 200 grain-measures of the baryta
solution. No. 1. The mixture is poured into a
filter, and of the clear filtrate which passes
through 160 grain-measures are carefully mea-
sured off, and poured into a small bei^ker. T)iia

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1784

URINE

qoantity, ot conrse, contain! two thirds, or 100
grain measures of wine.

(h) A graduated burette (each division of
which equals a grun-measore of water) is next
filled with the solution (No. 2) of mercunc ni-
trate, which is then dropped into the heaker
containing the filtered urine, until the mixture
becomes turbid. The qnantity of solution that
has been required to just reach the point of
turbidity is then noted down; it shows that all
the chloride of sodium has been decomposed,
and that the urea is now beginning to preci-
pitate.

(o) The solution (No. 2) is now added more
liberally, and thoroughly mixed with the contents
of the beaker by means of a glass rod ; a copious
white precipitate is being formed. The operation
is completed when, of coarse, no more precipitate
is thrown down.

(li) This point is ascertained hy means of the
solution ot carbonate of soda (So. 8), to a few
isolated drops of which dotted about a white
plate or slab, or placed on a watch-glass, give,
when mixed by means of the stirring rod with a
drop of the tnrbid mixture from the beaker, a
yellow tinge, owing to the formation of hydrated
oxide of mercury.

(e) The quantity of solution of mercuric ni-
trate that it has taken to produce the above re-
action is then noted down, and from this the
portion used before the occurrence of the turbidity
is deducted, the remainder, of course, being the
amount required to precipitate the area. By
bearing in mind the statement already made that
10 grain-measares of the mercurial solution in-
dicate O'l grain of urea, the quantity excreted in
twenty-four hours may be arrived at by a very
easy and obvious calculation.

ir Davy's Method cf estimaiing Urea. This
consists in the decomposition of a known quan-
tity of urine by sodium hypochlorite, the amount
of urea being calculated from the resulting nitro-
gen. A glass tube, 12 or 14 inches in height,
and graduated to tenths and hundredths of a
cubic inch, is filled to more than a third of its
length with mercury; a measured quantity of
urine, varying from a quarter of a drachm to a
drachm, is next poured into the tube, which is
then filled up with a solution of sodium hypo-
chlorite (the liquor sodsB chlorinatn of the Dublin
Fharmacopoaa). This latter must be poured in
quickly, and the open end of the tube immediately
closed with the thumb. The tube is then shaken
to ensure admixture between the urine and hypo-
chlorite, nnd stood with the open end downwards
in a cup filled with a saturated solution of com-
mon salt ; the mercoi-y escapes into the tube, its
place being &lled by the solution of salt, which
bring heavier than the mixture of urine and hypo-
chlorite, retains them in the upper part of the
tube. The urine becomes soon decomposed, the
carbonic acid, which is one of the products of its
decomposition, being absorbed by t\e excess of
chloride of sodium present, whilst the liberated
nitrogen bubbles up to the top of the tube. When
no more evolution of gas takes place, the volume
of nitrogen is read off, and from its amount the
quantity of urea present in the amount of urine
experimented upon is calculated : one fifth of a

grain of nrine=0'3098 parts of a cubic indi of
nitrogen at 60° F. and 80" barometric preasnre.

DetermiTMtion of the Water. The amount of
water in any sample of urine may be determined
by weighing 1000 gr. of the recently excreted
urine into a counterpoised platinum or poroelaia
dish, and ascertainijig the loss it has undergons
after evaporation to dryness. The operataoa
should be performed as speedily •■ posnUe. Tlie
best plan is to concentrate the urine in s water-
bath, the evaporation should be continued in vaem
over strong sulphuric acid, until the wmghtof the
rendne remains constant. By way of control,
another sample of the same urine, consisting of
500 gr., may be operated upon at the same time,
and under the same conditions.

UKnr ABZ Djifobiib, &o. These differ from the
albumen, sugar, YAla, Ilc., previously described, in
being insoluble in abnormal urine. Sometimes
they are diffused throughout the whole body of
the urine, when they give it an opaque appear-
ance. Sometimes they may be met with floating
on its surface ; at others they are only partially
diftused through the fluid, frequently in tiie form
of a transparent or opaque cloud, when they
occupy a considerable space; whilst very often
they occur in a crystalline or granular form, de-
posited sometimes at the bottom and sometimes
at the udes of the vessel holding the urine.

Of the nnmberlos insoluble substances met
with in urine, both in health and disease, our
limits will only permit us to notice thoae which
are most important and of frequent occDrrence.

For the detection of the generality or these the
microscope is indispensable. An instrument mag-
nifying 200 to 220 diameters (i of an inch objec-
tive) will generally be found sufBciently power-
ful, and in some instances an inch objective^
magnifying, 40 diameters (as in the larger forma
of crystalline deposit) will answer all the par-
poses.

Some of the varieties of these deposits admit of
a double examination, viz. a microscopical and
chemical one. When this is the case, the particu-
lars applying to each kind of investigation witt-
be given.

Muemt. Mucus is always present in small
quantity in healthy urine, in which it shows itwlf
within a few hours after the urine has been
excreted in the shape of a transparent cloud
towards the bottom of the vessel containing the
urine.

PuM. ThepresenCeof pus in urine is indicated
by an opaque, more or less bulky, cream-like de-
posit at the bottom of the vessel holding the urine,
to which some separated pus globules, finding,
their way to the supernatant liquid, give an
appearance of slight turbidity. By shaking the
vessel the whole of the liquid becomes tari>id,
owing to the equal dissemination through it of
the pus globules. The pus again deposits on
standing. A small quantity of ^bumen is always,
met with in the clear part of urine which con-
tains pus ; the albnmen being derived from the
liquor purit, the liquid by which the pa»-cor-
puscles are surrounded.

Whenever it can be obtained in sufficient quan-
tity, pns should always be examined chemically,
as follows: — The supernatant urine being de-.

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UBINB

178S

canted, the siupected sediment !a shsken np witb
liqnor potasue, wben if it become converted into
a geUtinons, riscid substance, incapable of being
dropped from tbe tube, and when poared from it
mnninn as a slimy and almost continuous mass,
it may be pronounced pus. This same gelatinous
viscid mass is met with in alkaline nrines con-
taining pus, adhering to the sides of the vessel in
which the urine is placed, where it has been
formed by the action of the carbonate of am-
monia (caused by the decomposition of the urea)
upon the pus. The reaction upon the pus is the
same as that which takes place when liquor po-
tasssB is employed. The stringy viscid substance
dae to the last cause is frequently, but errone-
ously, termed m*eut.

In nrines containing pus, the clear portion
should always be examined for albuiQen, since
where this is found, except in small amount,
some form of kidney disease may be suspected.

But it sometimes happens that the pas is pre-
sent in such small quantity in the urine as to
preclade its chemical examination. Under these
circnmstances, recourse must be had to the micro-
scope. Dr Lionel Beale says, " Pas-globules,
which have been long removed from the body,
always have a granulated appearance in the mi-
croscope, and, when fresh, do not always exhibit
a well-defined nucleus ; the oatline is usually
distinct and circular, but it is finely crenated.
Upon the addition of acetic acid tbe globule in-
creasea somewhat in size, becomes spherical, with
a smooth, faint outline, and from one to four
nearly circular bodies are developed in tbe centre
of each. If the pus-corpnscles have lain some
days in tbe urine they will have undergone com-
plete disintegration."

Spitkelium. A great many varieties of epi-
thelium, derived from different parts of the kid-
neys, ureters, bladder, urethra, vagina, &c., are
more or less present in urine. A few of these
•re given in the accompanying engr. In the
various diseases peculiar to the urinary and g^-
nito-nriniry organs the quantity of epithelium
present in the urine is frequently considerable,
and as in some cases it presents itself in an im-
perfect or disintegrated form, its identification,
except to the experienced microscopist and phy-
siologist, becomes a matter of great difficulty.

Catit, Casts or moulds which have been
formed in the tubes of the kidneys, or in the
ntems and vagina, are constantly finding their
way into the urine of persons affected with acute
or chronic renal diseases and uterine affections.
They are very varied both in character and ap-
pearance, and difficult of recognition, except by
the skilled microscopist and pathologist.

Slood-corjxueU*. These, wben present in
quiescent urine, occnr as a sediment at the
bottom of the vessel. Some few globules, how-
ever, are diffused tbrougbont tbe supernatant
urine, and impart to it a smoky appearance, if
the fluid have a marked acid reaction ; whereas if
the reaction be alkaline the corpuscles assume a
bright red colour.

hx the accompanying plate the three upper
groups represent blood-corpascles taken from the
haman body; the three lower, those found in
urine. Of these latter some will be seen to have

lost their circular outline, and to have become
jagged or crenated. In some cases, on the con-
trary, they swell and become much enlarged.
These changes in appearance take place when tbe
blood has remained for some time in the urine,
and appear to be dne to the forces of endosmose
and ezosmose.

„0 o O WoOPO

XllS

ifitotl.)

Fungi. The chief vegetable organisms found
in urine are the tugarfiingtu and the Penieillium
glaueum. The sugar fungns is precisely tbe same
as the yeast plant (the Torula eerevina). The
PenioilUMm is very frequently present in albn.
minoos nrine, with an acid reaction, as well'as in
diabetic.

Urie Aeid. See above.

Urate*. According to Bence Jones the solu-
ble urates met with in heslthy urine consist of
uric acid, potassium, ammonium, and sodium.

In abnormal nrine the urates of ammonium
and sodium sometimes occur, the latter, which
are the more general, presenting under the micro-
scope the appearance shown below.

Urate of sodium is, however, much more com-
mon in the urine of children than of adulta,
when it presents itself in the form of spherical
crystals.

In both cases the urates are associated with
uric acid (resulting from their partial decompo-
sition), represented by the small spiked crystals

protruding from the spheres in the form of
needle-shaped crystals. Urate of sodium occnra
as the concretions known as ' chalk-stones' in
gout. But by far the most abundant kind of urates
met with in abnormal nrine is that known as

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1786

URINE

amorpkou* irate*, nhich constitate the most
common variety of urinary deposits.

Vnte of imU in a globnUr rorm, commonlf foand in the
urine of children.

Heintx states that they are a mixture of urate
of sodinm with small quantities of the nrates of
ammonium, lime, and magnesium. They are very
frequently seen in the urine of persons in excel-
lent health, in which, owing perhaps to too abun-
dant or nitrogenous diet and an insufficiency of
muscular exercise, being in excess, they are
thrown down when the urine cools.

An excess of the amorphous urates in urine,
like the presence of pus and phosphates, is indi-
cnted by the bulky precipitate more or less dif-
fused throughout the vessel containing the urine.
A very easy test will decide as to which of the
three classes of substances (if only one of them
be present) the precipitate belongs. The super-
natant fluid being decanted from the deposit,
abont an eqnal bulk of liquor potassss is added to
the latter, when one of three results will ensue :

1. If it be put, and become viscid, it will ex-
hibit the qualities already mentioned under the
description of that substance.

2. It phoiphate*, no alteration wUl ensue.

8. If amorphout urate, it will at once dissolve.

■^ ^ fli? V- V ^ -■

0 t

CrjriUli of triple phuphate, vilh iphemles of ante of wdt {Bttde).

When amorphous nrates are uniformly dis-
tributed throughout the urine they give it a
milky appearance, which may sometimes lead to
its being mistaken for ehglou* urine, or urine
thronghout which fatty particles of chyle are
diffused. This latter doubt, however, may be
easily set at rest by gently heating it. If tbe
tnrbidity is owing to the urate it will disappear ;
if to chyle it will remain.

If the amorphous nrate be decomposed by *
little hydrochloric acid, it will yield uric add,
easily Tec<^Tiised by its characteristic form under
the microscope, or when treated with nitric add
and ammonia will answer to the annexed test.

It sometimes happens that in testing an add
urine suspected.to contain albumen, the urine may
contain so large an amount of uric acid in solu-
tion that, npon adding a drop of nitric acid to it,
a bulkylprecipitate of nric acid exactly resembling
albumen is thrown down, and it may be errone-
ously regarded as this substance if examined
under the microscope immediately npon its forma-
tion. Upon being allowed, however, to stand
some time, and then placed under the micro-
scope, the well-known crystals of the acid will
reveal themselves.

In such urine no precipitate takes place when
the liquid is heated — another essential feature in
which it differs from albumen.

Fhotphatee. The urinary earthy phosphates
occur under two varieties, viz. the phosphate of
ammonia and magnesia, known as the triple phos-
phate, and tbe phosphate of lime.

In the following engravingt the prindpal
crystalline forms of the triple phosphate arc
shown.

Of these the triangnlnr prismntic, with the
truncated extremities, is the most common. In
some cases the prisma are so much reduced in
length as to resemble the octahedral crystals of
oxalate of lime, for which they are sometimes
mistaken by the inexpe-
^ rienced. When any doubt

exists on this point it
must be set at rest by
having recourse to the
chemical tests given fur-
ther on. The triple phos-
phate is rarely met with
alone, urate of ammonia,
and sometimes uric add
and oxalate of lime, being
present, althongh gene-
rally occurring in neutnl
or alkaline urine. The
triple arid is sometimes
fonndfn that which is add.
When ammonia is added
to fresh urine the triple
phosphate is precipitated,
and if it be then examined
by the microscope it will
be found to consist of
benntif ul stellate crystals,
and to form a most at-
tractive object. The pre-
sence of phosphoric acid
can be demonstrated by
the ordinary reagent*.

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URINE

1737

Phosphate of lime dis-
solves in strong acids with-
out effervescence. The
presence of lime, as well
«8 of phosphoric acid, can
•easily be verified by the
vsnal tests.

Oxalate of Lime. The
principal crystalline forms
of oxalate of lime, when
it occnrs as a nrinary de-
posit, are the octahedral
and the dnmb-bell. Of
these the most common
is the octahedral. These
octahedra (which have one
axis much shorter than
the other two) vary consi-
derably in size ; but there
is reason to believe that
the diversity in appear-
ance which tliey exhibit
is due to crystals of pre-
cisely the same shape oc-
cupying different positions
as to the direction of their
Axes, when examined by
the microscope. There are
a great many diversities
«f the dnmb-bell form of
oxalate of lime, which
seem to be derived from circular and oval crystals.
The subjoined engn. illustrate the varieties of
fi^stalline oxalates the most generally met with.

Oxalate of lime {BtaU).

When the crystals of oxalate are extremely

minute they are very liable to be overlooked, since

they then appear as almost

■opaqae cubes, and may not

unnaturally be taken for urate

of soda, to which they bear no

alight resemblance, but from

which they differ by being

insoluble in potash or acetic

acid, and not dissolving on the

application of heat. We have

already alluded to their resemblance to the

dumb-bells of the earthy phosphates. Another

distincUve feature is that the oxalates rarely sink

to the bottom of the vessel, but are diffused

CrTStala of triple phosphate, wilh triangular prismi with tmiieated extremities (£<«(«).

through the mucous cloud, which forms in urine
after a short time.

Cyatine. Cystine is an occasional ingredient
in nrine, when it occurs as a whitish precipitate
crystallised in hexagonal plates. At other times,
but not so frequently, it is met with dissolved in
the nrine. It may be separated from the urine
holding it in solution by the addition of an excess
of acetic acid. Under the microscope cystine
bears somewhat of a resemblance to uric acid,
from which, however, it differs when under treat-
ment with ammonia. When ammonia is added
to cystine the cystine dissolves, but by the spon-
taneous evaporation of the ammonia remains he-
hind in its original form ; whilst, if the ammonia
be allowed to escape under the same circum-
stances from the urate of ammonia which has
been formed, this remains behind as an amor-
phous mass. Ammonia, therefore, dissolves the
cystine without entering into chemical union
with it. Potash also readily dissolves cystine, as
do also oxalic acid and the strong mineral acids.
It is, however, insoluble in boiling water, in weak
hydrochloric acid, and, as we have seen, in acetic
acid.

Ob: In the examination of urine it is impor-
tant that the investigation should he conducted
upon a portion taken from the whole of the urine
excreted during ttoenty-four hours, and not on an
isolated quantity voided at any piu^icnlar time.

The compiler of the present article has to ac-
knowledge his indebtedness to Dr Linnel Beale's
very valuable and exhaustive work, ' Kidney Dis-
eases, Urinary Deposits, &c.,' as well as to Dr W.
Roberts's excellent book, ' Urinary and Renal
Diseases,' to both of which volumes the reader,
desirous of further and more explicit information
on the subject, is referre4,

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1788

URINOMETEH— USQUEBAUGH

Amount of aagar

isarine.

Per cent.

100 .

9'5 .

9-0 .

8-6 .

8-0 .

7-6 .

70 .

6-5 .

60 .

6-6 .

60 .

4-5 .

4-0 .

8-6 .

SO .

2-6 .

2-0 .

1-5 .

1-0 .

Kr A. W. Gerrard communicates to tlie
' Lancet ' a note on an improved form of burette
called a glycosometer, for estimating the amount
of sugar in urine, which is based upon a reversal
of the usual method, the urine in this case being
placed in the burette and the Fehling's solution
in the boiling-dish. As 10 c.c. of Fehling's solu-
tion is equal to 0-5 gim. of glucose it follows that
the following are equivalent figures :

Tolnme of nrine (1 in !0)
required to reduce 10 cob.
cent, of Feliliug'i lolution*
Cob. ceut.
100
10-52
11-1
11-76
12-6
1888
14-28
16-38
16-66
18-18
20-0
22-22
26-0
28-67
33-38
400
60-0
66-66
. 100-0

The burettes are graduated in percentages, and
there is a pair of them clasped by a pair of
swinging arms, supported by a shoulder fixed to
an upright brass stand; the swinging arrange-
ment allows the burettes to be moved at will, so
as to be brought over the dish containing the
Fehling's solution. To graduate the instrument
it is filled with water and marked with a 0 line,
then the volumes of water represented by the
right-hand column of figures in the table are
withdrawn in the order of their sequence, the
levels after each withdrawal being marlced with
their proper percentage, as shown to the left.
As the range of percentage from 1 to 10 would
necessitate a very large burette, two are employed,
one thin and narrow for high percentages, the
other of larger capacity for low percentages.

USnrOK'ETEB. An hydrometer adapted to
determining the density of urine. That of Dr
Front is the simplest and best. Urinometers
should always be tested by placing them in dis-
tilled water at 60° F. from 1-015 to 1025 {BeaU).

VXEOKETES, Oerrard's. This is a simple form
of apparatus for estimating urea, the operation
being completed in less than five minutes. The
determinations are scientifically accurate, no cal-
culations being needed, as the result of the ana-
lysis is read at once in per cents of urea {aide
' Diseases of the Kidney, and Morbid Conditions
of the Urine, dependent on Functional Derange-
mento,' by C. H. Kalfe, H.A., M.D.Cantab.,
P.R.C.P.LondO.

Method of Using (see engr.). Pour into the tube
6 C.C. of the urine to be examined, and in the bottle
(a) 26 c.c. or 6 fi. dr. of sodium hypobromite so-
lution. Place the tube carefully inside the bottle,
as shown in the illustration, avoiding spilling

any of the contents. Kll the gUss tabes (i,e)
with water, so that the level reaches the xero
line, taking care that when this is done the tube
a contains only a little water by being placed
high — it having to receive what is displaeed
from e by the nitrogen evolved. Now connect
the india-rubber tubing to the bottle, and noting,
lastly, that the water is exactly at lero. upset
the contents of the tnbe into the hypobromite
solution. Nitrogen is evolved, and depreaies the
water in J. When this ceases, lower c until
the level of the water in both tube* is equal
To be exact, dip a into cold water to oool the
gas before taking a reading, and note the result,
which shows percentage of urea.

The solution of hypobromite of soda is made
by dissolving 100 grms. of caustic sods in 250
c.c. of water, then adding 22 c.c. of bromine.

To avoid the danger of the bromine vapour,
the bromine is sold in hermetically sealed glass
tubes, containing 2-2 c.c; one of these placM in
the large bottle with 26 c.c. of the soda solution
gives, when broken with a sharp shake, the exact
quantity of hypobromite for one estimatioo of
urea, and all bad odour is avoided.

nSV POVSES. Crocus martis, or jeweDer'a
rougo.

UKTICAB'IA. See Rase.

U8'(i1T£BAU0H. iSyii. Escubao. LitenDy,
mad water, the Irish name of which ' whisky ' is
a corruption. At the present time it is applied
to a strong cordial spirit, much drunk in Ireland,
and made in the greatest perfection at Drogheds.

Prep. 1. Brandy or proof spirit, S galls. ;
dates (without their kernels) and raisins, of each,
bruised, i lb.; juniper berries, braised, 1 oc;
mace and cloves, of each, 1 oz.; coriander and
aniseed, of each, \ ox. ; cinnamon, i oa. ; mace-
rate, with frequent agitation, for 14 days, then
filtet, and add of capillaire or simple syrup, 1
gaU.

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VACCINATION— VANADIUM

1789)

S. Pimento and oanwaya, of each, 3 oz. j mace,
doTM, and nntmega, of each, 2 oz. ; aniseed, co-
riandOTS, and angelica root, of each, 8 oz. ; rai-
■ilia, atoned and bruized, 14 Iba. j proof spirit, 9
gaUi. ; digest as liefore, then press, filter, or
clarify, and add of simple syrup, q. s. Should it
torn ndlky, add a little strong spirit, or clarify it
with alnm, or filter through magnesia.

01*. Usquebaugh is either coloured yellow
with saftron (about i oz. per galL), or green with
sap-green (abont ^ oz. per gall.) ; either being
added to the otiier ingredients before maceration
in the spirit.

ITTA UBSI. The Areto*tapAi/lo* uva-nrti
(the Bearberry) is an indigenous plant, the leaves
of which are employed in medicine. Bearberry
leaTes contain a large percentage of tannic acid,
a small quantity of gallic acid, some resin, and a
little volatile oil and extractive, together with a
cr^stallisable principle named arbutin, which is
said to he a very powerful diuretic. Another
crystallisable resinous body named arbuti» has
also been discovered in them. Bearberry leaves,
either in the form of powder, infusion, or ex-
tract, are chiefly used in chronic diseases of the
bladder in which there is an abnormal secretion
of mucus, such as catarrkui vttiem, bat neither
acnte nor active inflammation.

TACdSA'TIOir. See Cow-poz (Pox).

TACdBE KATTEB. Sgn. Ltmpbia tac-
Oraui, L. This is collected either upon the points
of lancet-like pieces of ivory, or by opening the
pristnle, and applying a small glass ball and tube
(like those called by the boys in London candle-
pops, or fire-pops) to the orifice, expelling part
of the air in the ball by bringing a lighted taper
near it ; then, withdrawing the taper, the matter
i» SDck^ into the ball, in which it may be sealed
op hermetically or cemented, and thus kept for a
length of time. It is, however, now generally
preserved between two small pieces of glass, or in
straight capillary glass tubes. It is said that
cotton thread is a convenient and efficient vehicle.
The matter may be liquefied with a little clean
water before application. A degree of bent
scarcely higher than that of the blood lessens its
efficacy.

VAC'TJITK. Empty space ; a portion of space
▼tnd of matter. For experimental and manufac-
turing purposes, a sufficient vacuum is produced
either by means of the air-pump, or by filling an
enclosed space by steam, which is then condensed
by the application of cold. Evaporation proceeds
much more rapidly, and liquids boil at much
lower temperatures in an exhausted receiver than
when exposed to the air. Thus, under ordinary
circamstances, in the air, ether boils at 96°, alco-
bol at 177°, and water at 212° P. ; but in vacito
water boils at about 88°, alcohol at 56°, and ether
at — ^20° F. In the best vacuum obtainable by a
powerful air-pump, water placed over oil of vitriol
to absorb the aqueous vapour as it forms, will
often enter into violent ebullition whilst ice is in
the act of formation on its surface. The reduc-
tion of the boiling-point with reduced pressure is
jnactically taken advantage of by the pharma-
ceutist in the preparation of extracts, by the sugar
leflner in the evap<Mntioa of his syrups, by the

distiller in the production of certain liqueurs, and'
by the chemist in a variety of processes of in-
terest or utility. See ExTBACTg, EvAPOBATlOir,.

RSFBISBBATIOir, &0.

TALE"SIA1I. Syn. VALBBiANif basix (B,.
P.), Vaxebianj) kadix, Valsbiava (Ph. L., K,
&. D.), L. " The root of the wild plant Valeriana
offieindUi, Linn., or wild valerian " (Ph. L.). An
excitant, antispasmodic, tonic, and emmenagogue^
not only acting on the secretions, but exercising
a specific infiuence over the cerebro-spinal sys<
tern, and in large quantities producing agitation,
mental exaltation, and even intoxication. — Doie,
10 to 30 or 40 gr., thrice daily; in hysteria, epi-
lepsy, headache (affecting only one side), morbid
nervous sensibility, &c. Even the odour of it
exerts a species of fascination over cats.

TAXJESIAJTIC ACID. CtH,gOr Syn. Va-

LBBIO ACID; ACISUM YALIBIANIOrK, A. YAXB-

BICVX, L. Chemically speaking, tbere are four
valeric acids, viz. normal valeric acid (propyl
acetic), isovaleric acid (isopropyl acetic), second-
ary valeric acid (methyl-ethyl acetic), tertiary va-
leric acid (trimethyl acetic). The valerianic acid
of the shops is the isovaleric acid. It is com--
monly prepared as follows: — 1. A mixture of
potato oil or corn-spirit oil (hydrated oxide of
amyl) with about 10 times its weight of quick-
lime and hydrate of potassium in equal propor*
tions, placed in a glass flask, is kept heated to
about 400° F., for 10 or 12 hours, by means of a
bath of oil or fusible metal ; the nearly whito
solid residuum is mixed with water, an excess of
sulphuric acid added to the mixture, and the
whole subjected to distillation; the distillate is
supersaturated with potash, evaporated nearly to
dryness, to dissipate any undecom posed potato oil,
and then mixed with weak sulphuric acid in ex>
cess; a light oily liquid separates, which by
cautious rectification yields at first water con-
taining a little acid, and afterwards pure mono-
hydrated valerianic acid, which is identical with
that prepared from valerian root.

2. (Ph. D.) See Valbbiakatb or Sosivx.
This is a most economical process.

JProp., Ifc. A limpid oily liquid, smelling
strongly of valerian root ; it has an acid taste
and reaction, and leaves a sensation of sweetness
and a white spot on the tongue ; is inflammable;
boils at 175° C. ; is freely soluble in alcohol and:
ether; dissolves in 30 parts of water, and forms
salts called valerianates, most -of which have a
sweetish taste, are soluhle, and uncrystallisable ;
sp. gr. 0'947 at 0° C. ; placed in contact with,
water, it absorbs a portion of it, and is converted,
into the terhydrated acid, with increase of sp. gr.
and reduction of the boiling-point.

TALE"SIC ACID. See Valbbianio Acid.

VALOlnA. The cup of a large species of
acorn, imported from the Levant. Used in tan-
ning leather.

VASA'SinM. V=-51-2. A rare metal dis-
covered by Sefstom, in 1880, in some Swedish iron-
extracted from an iron mine near JSnkSping. It
has since been found in a vanadinite lead ore met
with in Scotland, Zimpanan in Mexico, and Chili,
and in the iron slag of Staffordshire. Of late
years a more abundant source of vanadium has
been discovered by Professor Rqscqq in the cnpcU

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1740

VAMLLA

feroag gtratam of the new red sandstone at
Alderley Edge in Cheshire. There are four, and
possibly five oxides of this element.
Vanadlc Acid. VjO,. S^». Vasadio a»-

HYDKtDE, TbbOXIDK OF V. ; ACIDUM TANASICUH,

L. /"rep. (Johtuton.) From the native vana-
date of lead, by dissolving it in nitric acid, passing
Bulphnrctted hydrogen through the solation, to
throw down lead and arsenic, filtering, and eva-
porating the resulting bine liquid to dryness ; the
Tesiduum is then dissolved in a solution of am-
monia, and a piece of sal-ammoniac, consider-
ably larger than can he dissolved, introduced; as
the latter dissolves, a pulverulent precipitate of
vanadate of ammonium is formed, which must he
washed, first in a solution of sal-ammoniac, and
then in alcohol of 0860 ; by exposing this salt, in
an open platinum crucible, to a heat a little below
redness, and keeping it constantly stirred, until
it acquires a dark red colour, pure vanadic acid
is obtained.

Prep., i^c. Vanadic acid is orange-coloured,
scarcely soluble in water, and forms, with the
alkuline hasna, soluble salts called vansdites ; and
with the other bases sparingly soluble salts. All
of these have an orange or yellow colour.
" Vanadate of ammonia mixed with solution of
galls forms a black fluid, which is the best writing
ink hitherto known. The quantity of salt re-
■qnired for this purpose is very small ; the writing
is perfectly black, and not obliterated by alkalies,
acids, chlorine, or other reagents " ( Ure).

Yanadic Oxychloride. Si/n. Vanadic oxt-
TBIOHLOBIDB. VOClj. Roscoe sUtes there are
several oxychloridcs of vanadium, which, how-
ever, have not been studied. The roost interest-
ing of them is the oxytrichloride, which corre-
aponds to the phosphorous oxychloride. This
■oxytrichloride is a yellow fuming liquid, which is
instantly decomposed by water into vanadic and
hydrochloric acids. The oxytrichloride may be
obtained by heating vanadic anhydride and char-
coal (mixed together) in a current of hydrogen,
after which it is heated in a current of dry
■chlorine. An easier method is by passing dry
■chlorine over the sesqnioxide of vanadium.

Tanadle Fentozide. Syn. Vanadio akhtdbidb.
VgOj. At a red heat this oxide fuses, and on
cooling, crystallises in rhombic prisms. It is but
little soluble in water; the aqneons solution,
which is of a yellow tint, is strongly acid, and
produces a marked reddening effect on litmus.
Vansdic anhydride forms both normal and acrid
salts. The ammonio vanadiate (Bosooe's meta-
vanadiate) is the chief source of the acid. This
salt may be obtained by adding pieces of sal-
ammoniac to a crude solution of potassic vanadiate ;
the resulting ammonic vanadiate, being insoluble
in a saturated solution of sal-ammoniac, is de-
posited in small crystalline grains. The vanadic
anhydride may be obtHined from the ammonic
vanadiate by heating an aqueous solution of the
salt in the open air, when the ammonia is driven
ofT, and the vanadic anhydride is leftbelund. The
4»cid ammonic vanadiate, mixed with tinctnre of
igalls, makes a very durable writing ink, unacted
npon cither by alkalies or chlorine. Acids turn
such blue without, however, destroying it.

Vanadic Trioxide, V,0^ is the VaHadi/l of

Roscoe, who obtained it in the form of s grey
metallic-looking powder, by the trannnissioii of a
current of dry hydrogen charged with the vapoun
of oxychloride of vanadium through a tube con-
taining ignited charcoal. It cUssoIves in dilute
acids, with evolution of hydrogen. Solutions of
its salts are lavender coloured. BerzeUns !«•
garded-this oxide as a metal.

Tests. The vanadiates mostly occnr of a red
or yellow colour. When treated with sulphuretted
hydrogen they yield a solution of a fine Une
colour, a reaction that distinguishes them from
the chromatea, which, under similar treatment,
would give a green liquid. When mixed with
borax and exposed to the reducing flame of the
blowpipe, compounds containing vanadiam give
a green gloss, which tnms to yellow in the oxi<fis-
ing flame. Professor Uoscoe, to whoso researches
we are indebted for all the chemical knowledge
we possess respecting vanadinm, says : — " All the
main facts now established in connection with the
chemical department of this element prove it to
bear a strung analogy to the elements phosphorus
and arsenic; in fact, it occupies a previously
vacant place in a well-defined group of triad, or,
as some chemists prefer to consider them, pentad
elements. There is a property of vanadinm in
virtue of which it may ultimately obtain con-
siderable importance in the arta, though in the
present infancy of the history of the metal it is
difficult to foretell this with any certainty. Tliis
property is the power of forming a permanent
black for dyeing purposes. The black prodnced
by the action of vanadinm has the advantage
over copper and aniline bhicks, via. that it is
permanent, whereas the latter are liable to torn
green. This application of an element that was
first introduced into notice as a chemical curiosity
furnishes one more example of the importance ra
original scientific investigation. However far a
newly discovered substance may seem to be
removed from purpoaes of practical utilify, we
never know at what moment it may be tuned
to account for the benefit of the human race."

VABIL'LA. Syn. Vahillb, Fr. The dried
pods of various species of Vanilla, a genus of the
Nat. Ord. ObchidACES, It is chiefly used in
tlie manufacture of chocolate and perfumery. As
a medicine it is much employed on the Continent
as an aromatic stimulant and nearotie. — J)o*e, 6
to 12 gr. ; in asthenic fevers, hysteria, hypo-
chondrusia, impotency, &c.

Vanilla is reduced to powder (fultib taxillb;
POUSRB Dl yanillb) by slicing it, and triturating
the fragments with twice or thrice their weight
of well-dried lump sugar. For svcrb vt Tl-
Nli-LB, 11 parts of sugar are employed.

Vanilla Extract. Musk greatly improves the
ilavour of vanilla, and a good flavouring eaaenoe
may be made as follows : — Take of vanilla, 1 os.;
musk, 2 gr. ; carbonate of potash, 1 scruple ; pat
into a pint flask and pour on 1 oz. of tepid water;
when cold add 10 oz. of rectifled spirit and 5 oz.
of vrater. Allow to stand for at least 14 days
before filtering.

The following table, pven by Messrs Tiemann
and Harmann in the 'Journal of the Berlin
Chemical Society,' represents the qoantitiea of
vanillin (the aromatic principle of yanilla) cm-

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VANILLIN— VARNISH

1741

tained in that sabstance, as obtained from dif-
ferent sources :

Vanillin

percent.

Mexican vanilla (1878 harvest) . . 1-69

„ „ (1874 harvest) . . 1-86

„ „ (medium quality) . 1'82

Bourbon, best quality (1874-76) . . 1-91

(1874-75) 1-97

w » 2*90

„ small medium (1874-76) . 1'66

Java, best quality (1878) .... 2-75

(1874) .... 1-66

VAHILLnr. A crystallised substance obtained
from pine juioe by Messrs Tieinann and Bar-
mann. It has been shown to be identical with
the aromatic principle of vanilla.

In a paper read before the Royal Society tho
authors have described the process by which
▼anillin was artifically prepared by them. They
state that the sap of the cambium of coniferous
trees contains a beautiful crystalline glucoside,
coniferine, which was discovered by Kartig, and
examined some years ago by Kubel, who arrived
at the formula Cj^HqOu + 3Aq. A minute study
of this compound leads us to represent the mole-
cule of coniferine by the expression CieH],Oi-l-
2Aq., the percentages of which nearly coincide
with the theoretical values of Kubel's formula.

Submitted to fermentation with emulsine, coni-
ferine splits into sugar and a splendid compound,
cTystalliaing in prisms which fuse at 73°. This
body is easily soluble in ether, less so in alcohol,
almost insoluble in water ; its composition is re-
presented by the formula CioHgO,. The change
is represented by the equation —

CttHaO, -t- HjO = CeHuO, + C,„HuO,.
Under the influence of oxidising agents, the
product of fermentation undergoes a remarkable
metamorphosis. On boiling it with a mixture of
potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid, there
passes with the vapour of water in the first place
ethylic aldehyd, and subsequently an acid com-
pound soluble in water, from which it may be
removed by ether. On evaporating the ethereal
solution, crystals in stellar groups are left behind,
which fuse at 81°. These crystals have the taste
and odoar of vanilla.

An accurate comparative examination has
proved them to be identical with the crystalline
substance which constitutes the aroma of vanilla,
and which is often seen covering the surface of
vanilla pods.

On analysis, the crystals we obtained were
found to contain CsH,0|. This is exactly the
composition which recent researches of Carles
have established for the aromatic principle of
vanilla. The transformation of the crystalline
product of fermentation into vanillin is repre-
sented by the following equation :

C,oH,jO, + O = CiBfi + C,H,0y
To remove all doubt regarding the identity of
artificial vanillin with the natural compound, we
have transformed the former into a series of salts,
which have the general formula CgHjMOg, and
into two substitution products, CgUyBrOu, and
CgHfTO,, both of which bad previously been pre-
Itared by Carles from the natural compound.
TAH SWUTES'S SOLUTIOir. Contains -n^

part of its weight of corrosive sublimate, or ) gr,
per fl. oz.

TAPOUS. Vapours are really gases, and amen>
able to substantially the same physical laws ; aa
ordinarily understood, however, the difference
between a gas and a vapour is the following : —
A gas is a form of matter which exists, at ordi-
nary temperatures and pressures, in a state of
vapour; whilst a vapour has been formed by the
application of heat to a body usually existing in
the solid or liquid form ; gases, therefore, differ
from vapours only in being derived from bodies
which, in the solid or liquid form, boil at very
much lower temperatures. See IVHAi.ATiairB.

YABICOSE VSIHS. See Vabix.

YASIZ. The permanent unequal dilation of a
vein or veins, which are then said to be ' varicose.'
It is known by the presence of a soft tumour,
which does not pulsate, and often assumes a ser-
pentine figure. Varicose veins of the groin and
scrotum generally form a collection of knots.
The treatment consists of cold applications and
pressure from bandages. Some cases are relieved
by ligature. When occurring in the legs much
standing or walking should be avoided, and the
use of the elastic stockings made for the purposo.
will be proper. Professional advice should be
sought at once in all cases of varicose veins }
much intolerable suffering may be saved by so
doing.

VASlriBH. Sgn. Vebnis, Fr. Any liquid
matter which, when applied to the surface of a.
solid body, becomes dry, and forms a bard, glossy
coating, impervious to air and moisture.

Varnishes are commonly divided into two.
classes — vat or OIL tabnishbs and spibit tab-
mSHSB. The fixed or volatile oils, or mixtures of
them, are used aa vehicles or solvents in the
former, and concentrated alcohol in the latter
(methylated spirit is now generally used for mak-
ing spirit varnishes in place of duty-paid alcohol).
The sp. gr. of alcohol for the purpose of making
varnishes should not be more than -8156 ( = 67
o. p.), and it should be preferably chosen of even
greater strength. A little camphor is often dis-.
solved in it to increase its solvent power. The oil:
of turpentine, which is the essential oil chiefiy
employed for varnishes, should be pare and colour-
less. Pale drying linseed oil is the fixed oil generally
used, but poppy oil and nut oil are also occasionally
employed. Among the substances which are dis-
solved in the above menstrua are amber, anime,
copal, elemi, lac, mastic, and sandarach, to impart
body and lustre; benzoin, on account of its agree-
able odour ; annotta, gamboge, saffron, Socotrine
aloes, and turmeric, to give a yellow colour;
dragon's blood and red sandal-wood, to give a
red tinge; asphaltum, to give a black colour
and body ; and caoutchouc, to impart toughness
and elasticity.

In the preparation of spirit varnishes care
should be taken to prevent the evaporation of
the alcohol as much as possible, and also to pre-
serve the portion that evaporates. On the largo
scale a common still may be advantageously em-
ployed, the head being furnished with a stuffing-
box, to permit of the passage of a vertical rod,
connected with a stirrer at one end and a work-
ing handle at the other. The gum and spirit

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1748

VARNISH

lieinff introdaced, the head of the still closely
fitted on and luted, and the connection made with
a proper refrigeratoT, heat (preferably that of
steam or a water-bath) should be applied, and the
spirit brought to a gentle boil, after which It
should he partially withdrawn, and agitation con-
tinned nntil the gum is dissolved. The spirit
which has distilled over shonld be then added to
the varnish, and after thorough admixture the
•whole should be run off, as rapidly as possible,
through a silk-gauze sieve into stone jars, which
should be immediately corked down, and set aside
to clarify. On the small scale spirit varnishes
are best made by maceration In closed bottles or
tin cans, either in the cold or by the heat of a
■water-hath. In order to prevent the agglutina-
tion of the resin it is often advantageously mixed
with clean siliceous sand or pounded glass, by
which the surface is mnch increased, and the
flolvent power of the menstruum greatly pro-
moted.

To ensure the excellence of oil varnishes one
of the most important points is the use of good
{trying oil. Linseed oil for this purpose should
be very pale, perfectly limpid or transparent,
-scarcely odorous, and mellow and sweet to the
taste. 100 galls, of such an oil is put into an
iron or copper boiler, capable of holding fully
150 galls., gradually heated to a gentle simmer,
-and kept near that point for about 2 hours, to
expel moisture ; the scum is then carefully re-
moved, and 14 lbs. of finely pulverised scale
litharge, 12 lbs. of red-lead, and 8 lbs. of pow-
-dered nmber (all carefully dried and free from
moisture) are gradually sprinkled in ; the whole
is then kept well stirred, to prevent the driers
-sinking to the bottom, and the boiling is con-
"tinned st a gentle heat for about 3 hours longer ;
i;he fire is next withdrawn, and after 30 to 40
hours' repose, the scum is carefully removed, and
the clear supernatant oil decanted from the ' bot-
■toms.' The product forms the best boiled or
drying oil of the varnish maker. Another me-
thod is to beat a hogshead of the oil gradually
for 2 hours, then to gently simmer it for about 3
lionrs longer, and, after removing the scum, to
add, gradually, 1 lb. of the best calcined mag-
nesia, observing to mix it up well with the oil,
and afterwards to continue the boiling pretty
briskly for at least an hour, with constant agita-
tion. The fire is then allowed to die away, and,
after 24 hours, the oil is decanted as before.
The product is called ' clarified oil,' and requires
to he nsed with driers. It should be allowed to
lay in the cistern for 2 or 3 mouths to clarify.

In the preparation of oil varnishes, the gnm
is melted as rapidly as possible, without dis-
colouring or burning it; and when completely
fused, the oil, also heated to nearly the boiling-
point, is poured in, after which the mixture is
boiled until it appears perfectly homogeneous
and clear, like oil, when the heat is raised, the
■driers (if any are to be used) gradually and cau-
tiously sprinkled in, and the boiling continned,
with constant stirring, for 3 or 4 hours, or until
a little, when cooled on a palette knife, feels
strong and stringy between the fingers. The
mixture is next allowed to cool considerably, but
'While still quite fluid, the turpentine, previously

made moderately hot, is cautiously added, and
the whole thoronghly incorporated. The vsnush
is then run through a filter or sieve into stone
jars, cans, or other vessels, and set ande to
clarify itself by subsidence. When no driisTa ue
used, the mixture of oil and gnm is boiled until
it runs perfectly clear, when it is removed Cram
the fire, and, after it has cooled a little, the tur-
pentine is added as before.

It is generally conceived that the more per-
fectly the gnm is fused, or run, as it is caUed,
the larger and stronger will be the prodnet ; and
the longer the boiling of the ' gnm ' and oil is
continneid, within moderation, the freer the re-
sulting varnish will work and cover. An excess
of heat renders the varnish stringy, and injoies
its flowing qualities. For pale varnishes as little
heat as possible should be employed throng^boat
the whole process. Good body varnishes shonld
contain If lbs. ; carriage, wainscot, and maho-
gany varnish, fully 1 lb. ; and gold size and black
japan, fully i lb. of gnm per gall., besides the
asphaltnm in the Utter. Spirit varnishes sboiild
contain about H lbs. of gnm per gall. The nae
of too mnch driers is found to injure the bril-
liancy and transparency of the varnish. Copperas
does not combine with varnish, but only hmrdens
it; sugar of lead, however, dissolves in it to a
greater or less extent. Boiling oil of turpentine
combines very readily with melted copal, and it
is an improvement on the common process, to nae
it either before or in conjunction with the oil, in
the preparation of copal varnish that it is desired
should be very white. Qnms of difficult solu-
bility are rendered more soluble by bang ex-
posed, in the state of powder, for some time to
the ur.

Varnishes, like wines, improve by age^ and
shonld always be kept as long as possible before
use.

From the inflammable nature of the materials
of which varnishes are composed, their mano&c-
tnre should be only carried on in some detached
building of little value, and built of nninflam-
mable materials. When a pot of varnish, gum,
or turpentine catches fire, it is most readily eztin-
gnished by closely covering it with a piece of
stout woollen carpeting, which shonld be always
kept at hand, ready for the purpose.

An excellent paper, by Air J. W. Niel, on the
manufacture of varnishes, will be fonnd in the
' Trans, of the Soc. of Arts,' vol. xlix. See also
the articles Aloohol, Axbbb, Copai., Oiu, Acl,
in this work.

Varnish, Amljer. Prep. 1. Tkke of amiwr
(clear and pale), 6 lbs. ; fuse it, add of hot clari-
fied linseed oil, 2 galls. ; boil nntil it ' strings
well,' then let it cool a little, and add of oil of
turpentine, 4 galls., or q. s. Nearly as pale as
copal varnish ; it soon becomes very hard, and is
the most durable of the oil vamuhes ; but it re-
quires some time before it is fit for ptdiahing,
unless the articles are ' stoved.' When reqmred
to dry and harden quicker, drying oil may be
substituted for the linseed oil, or ' driers ' may
be added during the boiling.

2. Amber, 4 oz. ; pale boiled oil, 1 qnartj pro-
ceed as last. Very hard.

3. Pale transparent amber, 6 os. ; darifled

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VARNISH

174S

Unseed oil or pale boiled oSl, and oil of tnrpentine,
of eacb, 1 pint ; ai before.

4. Amber, broken small, 2 ox. j Venice tnrpen-
tine, 2 ox. ; pale linseed oil, 1) oz. Dissolve, and
thin with abiaut 2 oz. of oil of turpentine.

Oi*. Amber yamish is suited for all purposes
where a very hard and durable oil varnish is
required. The paler kind is superior to copal
varnish, and is often mixed with the latter to in-
crease its hardness and durability. The only ob-
jection to it is the difficulty of preparing it of
a very pale colour. It may, however, be easily
bleached with some fresh-slaked lime.

Tamlah. Balloon. See VASKias, Fi.bxibIiB
(««2o»).

Varniih, Beuemer's. This consists of a pale
oil copal varnish, diluted with about six Umes its
yolnme of oil of turpentine, the mixture being
anbsequently agitated with about l-80th part of
dry slaked Ume, and decanted after a few days'
repose. Five parts of the product mixed with
4 parts of bronse powder forms 'Benemer's
gold pidnt.'

Yamish, Black. Prtp. 1. (Blaox AHBXB
TAmnsH.) From amber, 1 lb. ; (bse, add of hot
drying oil, ^ pint ; powdered black resin, 3 oz. ;
•■phaltum (Naples), 4 oz. ; when properly incor-
porated «nd considerably cooled add of oil of tur-
pentine, 1 pint. This is the beautiful black var-
nish of the coachmakers.

2. (iBOirwoBK BLACK.) From asphaltum, 48
lbs.; fuse, add of boiled oil, 10 galls.; red-lead
«nd litharge, of each, 7 lbs. ; dried and powdered
white copperas, 3 lbs. ; boil for 2 hours, then add
-of dark gum amber (fused), 8 lbs. ; hot linseed
oil, 2 galls. ; boil for 2 hours longer, or until a
little of the mass, when cooled, may be rolled into
-pills, then withdraw the heat, and afterwards
thin it down with oil of turpentine, 80 galls.
XJsed for the ironwork of carriages, and other
nice purposes.

8. (Black jafas, BrrrKisoiTB tabsibh.) a.
From Naples asphaltum, 50 lbs. ; dark gum anime,
9 lbs. ; fuse, add of linseed oil, 12 galls. ; boil as
before, then add of dark gum ambo-, 10 lbs., pre-
viously fused and boiled with linseed oil, 2 g^ls. ;
next add of driers, q. s., and further proceed as
•ordered in No. 2. Excellent for either wood or
metals.

b. From burnt umber, 8 oz. ; true asphaltum,
4 oz. ; boiled linseed oil, 1 gall. ; grind the umber
with a little of the oil ; add it to the asphaltum,
previously dissolved in a small quantity of the
■oil by heat ; mix, add the remainder of the oil,
boil, cool, and thin with a sufficient quantity of
•oil of turpentine. Flexible.

4. (BaxmrswiOK 1IIACK.) a. To asphalt, 2 lbs.,
-fnsed in an iron pot, add of hot boiled oil, 1 pint ;
mix well, remove the pot from the fire, and, when
-cooled a little, add of oil of turpentine, 2 quarts.
Used to blacken and polish grates and ironwork.
Some makers add driers.

i. From bbick pitch and gas-tar asphaltum,
of each, 26 lbs.; boil gently for S hours, then
add of linseed oil, 8 galls. ; litharge and red-lead,
■ of each, 10 lbs. ; boil as before, and thin with oil
-of turpentine, 20 galls. Inferior to the last, but
■cheaper.

YamUh, Body. Prep. 1. From the finest

African copal, S lbs. ; drying oil, 2 galls. ; oil of
turpentine, 3^ galls.; proceed as for AXBXB
YAlurigH. Very hard and durable.

2. Pale gum copal, 8 lbs. ; clariOed oil, 2 galls. ;
dried sugar of lead, | lb. ; oil of turpentine, 8i
galls. ; proceed as before, and mix the product,
whilst still hot, with the following varnish :—
Pale g^m anime, 8 lbs. ; linseed oil, 2 galls ; dried
white copperas, i lb. ; oil of turpentine, 3) galls. ;
the mixed varnishes are to be immediately strained
into the cans or cistern. Dries in about six bonis
in winter, and in about four hours in summer.
Used for the bodies of coaches and other
vehicles.

Varnish, Bookbinder's. I'rep. Take of rale
gum sandarach, 3 oz. ; rectiSed spirit, 1 pint;
dissolve by cold digestion and frequent agitation.
Used by binders to varnish morocco leather book-
covers. A similar varnish is also prepared from
very pale shell-lac and wood naphtha.

Varnish for Boots and Shoes. See Boors and
Shobb.

Vamlah, Cabinet-maker's. French polish is
occasionally so called.

Vamlah, Carriage. Frep. 1. (Spibit.) Take
of gum sandarach, 1^ lb.; very pale shellac,
I lb. ; very pale transparent resin, } lb. ; rectified
spirit of -8221 (64 o. p.), S quarts; dissolve, and
add of pure Canadian balsam, H lbs. Used for
the internal parts of carriages, &c. Dries in 10
minutes or less.

2. (Oil.) a. (Best pale.) Takeof pale African
copal, 8 lbs. ; fuse, add of clarified linseed oil, 2^
galls. ; boil until very stringy, then add of dried
copperas and litharge, of each, i lb.; again boil,
tbin with oil of turpentine, 5i galls.; mix whilst
both are hot with the following varnish, and im-
mediately strain the mixture into a covered ves-
sel : — Qum anime, 8 lbs.; clarified linseed oil, 8|
galls. ; dried sugar of lead and litharge, of each,
i lb. ; boil as before, thin with oil of turpentine,
5i galls. Dries in four hours in summer and six
in winter. Used for the wheels, springs, and
carriage parts of coaches and other vehicles, and
by house painters, decorators, &c., who want a
strong, quick-drying, and durable varnish.

h. (Second quality.) From gnm anime ('sorts'),
8 lbs. ; clarified oil, 3 galls. ; litharge, 6 oz. ; drieid
and powdered sugar of lead and white copperas,
of each, 4 oz. ; boil as last, and thin with oil of
turpentine, 6^ galls. Used as the last.

Varnish, Chinese. Prep. From mastic and
sandarach, of each, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit (64 o. p.),
1 pint; dissolve. Dries in 6 minutes. Very
tough and brilliant.

Varnish, Colourless, for Printa, ftc. The ' Art
Amateur' g^ves the following directions for
making a colourless varnish suitable for prints,
oil paintings, and hard white wood : — Dissolve 2]r
oz. shellac in a pint of rectified spirits of wine;
to this about 6 oz. of well-burnt animal charcoal
that has been recently heated must be added, and
the whole boiled for a few minutes. If, on filter-
ing a small portion of the mixture through blot-
ting-paper, it is not found to be perfectly colour-
less, more charcOHl must be added, until the desired
result is obtained. When this has been achieved,
the mixture must be strained through a piece of
silk and filtered through blotting-paper.

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VARNISH

Vainlah, Copal. iV«p. 1. (On.) a. From
pale hard copal, 2 lbs. ; fuse, add of hot drying
oil, 1 pint ; boil as before directed, and thin with
oil of turpentine, 8 pints, or q. s. Dries bard
in 12 to 24 hours.

h. From clear and pale African copal, 8 lbs. ;
pale drying oil, 2 galls. ; rectified oil of turpen-
tine, 3 galls. ; proceed as before, and immediately
strain it into the store can or cistern. Very fine,
bard, and durable.

2. (Spibit.) a. From coarsely powdered copal
and glass, of each, 4 6%.; alcohol of 90% (64
o. p.), 1 pint ; camphor, i oz. ; heat the mixture,
with frequent stirring, in a water-batb, so that
the babbles may be counted as they rise until
solution is complete, and, when cold, decant the
clear portion.

h. From copal (which has been melted, dropped
into water, and then dried and powdered), 4 oz. ;
gum sandarach, 6 oz. ; mastic, 2 oz. ; pure Chio
tnn)entine, 3 oz. ; powdered glass, 5 oz. j spirit of
90% ,1 qnart ; dissolve by a gentle heat. Dries
rapidly.

8. (TrBFBBTiNB.) To oil of turpentine, 1
pint, heated in a water-bath, add, in small portions
at a time, of powdered copal (prepared as above),
8 to 4 oz. ; dissolve, &c., as before. Dries slowly,
but is very pale and durable.

4. (Japasheb's COPAI TAENiBH.) From pale
African copal, 7 lbs. ; pale drying oil, \ gall. ;
oil of turpentine, 3 rails.; proceed as in No. 1.
Dries in 20 to 60 minutes, and may be polished
as soon as hard, particularly if stoved. See
jAFAMimro.

Oht. All copal varnishes, when properly made,
are very hard and durable, though less so than
those of amber ; but they have the advantage
over the latter of being paler. They are applied
on coaches, pictures, polished metal, wood, and
other objects requiring a good durable varnish.
Anime is frequently substituted for copal in the
copal varnishes of the shops. See VABmgBBS,
BoDT, Cabbiase (ahove), and COPAli, &c.

Tarnish, Crystal. Prep. 1. From genuine
pale Canada balsam and rectified oil of turpentine,
equal parts. Used for maps, prints, drawings,
and other articles of paper, and also to propare
tracing paper, and to transfer engravings.

2. Mastic, 3 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint ; dis-
solve. Used to fix pencil drawings.

Varnish, Drying. Spirit copal varnish.

Varnish, Batch. Lac and toy varnishes are
often so called.

Varnish, Etch'ing. See ErcHiire.

Varnish, Pat. See Oil Vaenish.

Varnish, Flexible. Syn. Balloon tabmibb.
Caoutchouc t., Imdia-bubbbb t. Prep. 1.
From india rubber (cut small), 1^ oz. ; chloroform,
ether (washed), or bisulphuret of carbon, 1 pint ;
digest in the cold until solution is complete.
Dries as soon as it is laid on. Pure gntta percba
may be substituted for india rubber.

2. India rubber, in shavings, 1 oz. ; rectified
mineral naphtha or benzol, 1 pint ; digest at a
gentle heat in a closed vessel, and strain. Dries
very badly, and never gets perfectly hard.

3. India rubber, 1 oz.; dryiug oil, 1 qnart;
dissolve by beat. Very tough ; dries in about 48
hours.

4. Linseed oil, 1 gall. ; dried white ooppens
and sugar of lead, of each, 3 oz. ; litharge, 8 oz.;
boil, with constant agitation, until it strings
well, then cool slowly, and decant the clear por-
tion. If too thick, thin it down with quick -drying
linseed oil. The above are used for balloons, gas
bags, &c. See Balloon, Caoutchouc, kc

Vamlah, Fnrnltare. A solution of pore white
wax, 1 part, in rectified oils of turpentine, 4
parts, frequently passes under this name. See

VABNI8HB8, BODT, CaBBIASB, CoPAX, &C.

Varnish, Oilder's. Pr^. {Watin.) Pale gum-
lac in g^rains, gamboge, dragon's blood, and an-
notta, of each, 12) oz. ; saffron, 3i oz. ; dissohre
each resin separately in 6 pints of alcohol, of
90%, and make two separate tinctures of the
dragon's blood and annotta, with a like quantity
of spirit ; then mix the solutions in the proper
proportions to produce the required shade. Used
for gilded articles, &c.

Vamisli, Olais. A solution of soluble glass.
Used to render wood, &c., fireproof.

Tarnish, Onn-barreL Prep. From ahellac,
\\ oz. ; dragon's blood, 3 dr. ; rectified spirit,
1 quart. Applied after the barrels are 'browned.'

Varnish, Hair. Prep. From hog's briaUes
(chopped small), 1 part; drying oil, 10 parts;
dissolve by heat. Said to be used to give-
cotton or linen cloth the appearance of horee-
halr.

Varniah, India-rubber. SeeVABHisB, FLXxiBUt
{above).

Tarnish, Italian. Prep. Boil Scio turpemiane
until brittle, powder it, and dissolve this in <h1 of
turpentine. Used for prints, &c.

Tarnish, Japan. Pale amber or copal vsnush.
Used for japanning tin, papier miche, &e.

Tarnish, Label or Paper. Prep. African
copal, 60 grms. ; powdered gla«<, 60 grma. ; cam-
phor, 15 grms. ; etJier, 260 grms. ; absolute aJcobol,
60 grms. Reduce the copal to fine powder, and
mix the glass with it ; place both in a 500-gramme
bottle with the camphor and the ether, close well
and set aside for a month, shaking occauonally.
At the end of this time add the alcohol, and after
shaking well, set aside for 14 days : then pour oS
the clear portion of the varnish. Before using this
varnish it is advisable to size the paper surface
with a solution of isinglass in spirit, 1 part; and
water, 3 parts.

Tarnish, £ao. Prep. 1. Pale aeed-Iae (or
shellac), 8 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 qnart; dis-
solve,

2. Substitute lac bleached with chlorine for
seed-lac. Both are very tough, hard, and dur-
able, but quite inflexible. Wood naphtha may
be substituted for spirit. Used for pictures,
metal, wood, or leatiier, and particnkrly toe
toys.

Tamiah, Lac (Aqueous). Prep. From pale
shellac, 6 oz,; borax, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pint;
digest at nearly the boiling-point until disserved ;
then strain. Equal to the more costly spirit
varnish for many purposes ; it is an excellent
vehicle for water-colours, inks, &;. ; when dry, it
is waterproof.

Tarnish, Lac (Coloured). Sjf». Laoqubb,
Bbabswobk tabnise. Prep. 1. Tkke of tur-
meric (ground), 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 2 galls.;.

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VABNISH

1746

IDaceorate for a week, ■train with ezprenion, and
add to the tinctore, gamboge, li oz. ; pale shel-
lac, I lb.; g^m sandaracb, S) lbs.; when dis-
solved, strain, and further add of good turpentine
vamidi, 1 quart. Oold coloured.

2. Seed-iac, 8 oz. ; turmeric, 1 oa.; dragon's
blood, ^ oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest for a
week, frequently shaking, then decant the clear
portion. Deep gold coloured.

8. Spanish annotta, 8 lbs. ; dragon's blood, 1
lb. ; gum sandarach, 3} lbs. ; rectified spirit, 2
galls.; turpentine varnish, 1 quart; as before.
Bed coloured.

4. Gamboge, I oz. ; Ctipe aloes, 3 oz. ; pale
shellac, 1 lb. ; rectified spirit, 2 galls. ; as before.
Pale brass coloured.

6, Seed-lac, dragon's blood, annotta, and gam-
boge, of each, i lb. ; gum sandarach, 2 oz, ; saffron,
1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 gall, Besembles the last,

Obt. Lacquers are used upon polished metals
and wood, to impart to them the appeamnce of
gold. Articles in brass, tin plate, and pewter, or
which are covered with tinfoil, are more especially
ao treated. As lacquers are required of different
depths and shades of colour, it is best to keep a
concentrated solution of each of the colouring in-
gredients ready, so that it may be added at any
time to produce any desired tint.

Tarnish, Xahogany. Prep. From gum anime
(' sorts '), 8 lbs. ; clarified oil, 3 galls. ; litharge and
powdered dried sugar of lead, of each, i lb.;
proceed as for body varnish, and thin with oil of
turpentine, 5 galls, or q. s.

Tarnish, Ibutic. Syn. PicrrBB tabvish,
TUBPENTINB v., Tih&»t'8 bbskkob V. Frep. 1.
Take of pale and picked gum mastic, 6 lbs. ; glass
(ponnded as small as barley, and well washed and
dried), 8 lbs. ; finest newly rectified oil of turpen-
tine ^nkewarm), 8 galls. ; put them into a clean
4-galL tin, bottle, or can, bung them securely, and
keep rolling it backwards and forwards pretty
smartly on a counter, or any other solid place, for
at least 4 hours, when, if the gum is all dissolved,
the varnish may be decanted, strained through
mnsUn into another bottle, and allowed to settle ;
if the solution is still incomplete, the agitation
must be continaed for some time longer, or a
gentle warmth applied as well. Very fine.

2, (Second quality.) From mastic, 4 lb«, ; oil
of turpentine, 2 galls. ; dissolve with beat.

OS*. Mastic varnish is much used for pictures,
&e. ; when good, it is tough, hard, brilliant, and
colourless. It greatly improves by age, and, when
possible, should never be used before it has been
made at least a twelvemonth. Should it get
' chilled,' 1 lb. of well- washed siliceous sand shonld
be made moderately hot and added to each gallon,
which must then be well agitated for 5 minutes,
and afterwards allowed to settle.

Taniih, Oak. /Syn. Waih8C0t vabitibe,
COUXON TFBSSirxiNB Y. Prep. 1. Clear pale
rerin, 8( lbs. ; oil of turpentine, 1 gall. ; dissolve.

2. To the last add of Canada balsam, 1 pint.
Both are cheap and excellent common varnishes
for wood or metal.

TaniJah, OU. The finer qualities are noticed
under Akbbb, Bout, Cabbiasb, and Copal
Vabitibh; the following produces the ordinary
oil Tarnish of the shops : — Take of good clear resin,

TOi. n.

8 lbs. ; drying oil, \ galL ; melt, and thin with oil
of turpentine, 2 quarts, A good and dorable

varnish for common work.

Tarnish, Painter's. See Cabbiaob, Co?ac,
KABOOAirr, Oak, OiIi,. and other varnishes ; the
selection depending greatly on the colour and
quality of the work.

Vanish, Patent Leather. This is caref uUv pre-
pared drying oil. The skins being stretched on a
board, and every trace of grease being removed
from them by means of a mixture of f uUer's-earth
and water, tiiey are ready to receive the varnish,
which is then spread upon them very thinly
by means of a species of scraper. The first coat
varnish consists of pale Prussian blue (that oon>
taining some alumina), 6 oz. ; drying oil, 1 gall, j
boiled to the consistence of single size, and when
cold, ground with a little vegetable black ; it is
stoved and afterwards polished with fine-grained
pumice. The second coating resembles the first,
excepting in having a little pure Prussian blue
mix«l with it. The third coat varnish consists of
a similar mixture, but the oil is boiled until it
strings well, and a little more pure Prussian blueand
vegetable black are added. The last coat varnish,
or finish, is the same as the third, but must
contain \ lb. of pure dark-coloured Prussian blue,
and \ lb. of pure vegetable black, per gall., to which
a little oil copal or ami)er varnish is often added ;
each coat being duly stoved and pumiced before the
next is applied. The heat of the stove or oveq
is commonly 120° F. for 'enamelled skins,' as
those of the calf and seal, intended for ' uppers ;*
and 175° to 180° for stout 'japan leather;' the
exposure in the stove is commonly for 6 to 10
hours. The skins are next oiled and grained. The
'graining' of the 'enamelled skins 'is done by
holding the skin in one hand, and with a curved
board lined with cork (graining stick), lightly
pressed upon the fleshy side, working it up and
down until the proper effect is produced.

Varnish, Picture. Several varnishes, especially
mastic varnish, are called by this name. Pale copal
or mastic varnish is generally used for oil paintings;
and crystal, white hard spirit, or mastic varnish,
for water-coloured drawings on paper.

Varnish, Printer's. IMluted with twice its
volume of oil of turpentine, it forms a good
common vsmish.

Tarnish, Sealing-wax. Black, red, or any
coloured sealing-wax, broken small, with enough
rectified spirit (or methylated spirit) to cover it,
digest till dissolved. A most useful varnish for
wood- work of electrical or chemical apparatus, for
tops of corks, &c.

Tarnish, Spirit. Prep. 1. (Bbowh HABS.) a.
From gum sandarach, 3 lbs.; pale seed-lac or
shell- lac, 2 lbs. ; rectified spirit (66 o. p.), 8 galls, ;
dissolve, and add of turpentine varnish, 1 quart;
agitate well, strain (quickly) tlirough gauze, and,
in a month decant the clear portion from the Bedi<
ment. Very fine.

h. From seed-lac and yellow resin, of each, 1^
lbs. ; rectified spirit, 5 quarts ; oil of turpentine, 1^
pints ; dissolve. Inferior to the last.

2. (Weitb HABS.) a. From gum sandarach,
(pitted), 6 lbs. ; camphor, 2 oz. ; washed and
dried coarsely pounded glass, 3 lbs. ; rectified spirit
(66 o. p.), 7 quarts; proceed as in making

110

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1746

VABNI8HINO— VEGETABLES

mastic TaniiBh ; when atrained, add of pare Cluiada
balsam, 1 quart. Very pale, durable, and bril-
liant.

6. From gam sandarach and gum mastie, of
each, picked, 4 oz.; coarsely powdered glass, 8 ox. j
recti6ed spirit, 1 qnart ; dissolve and add of pure
Strasbarg turpentine, 3 oz. Very fine.

8. (Soft bbilliaitt.) From sandarach, 6 oz. ;
elemi (genuine), 4 oz. ; anime, 1 oz. ; camphor, )
oz. ; rectified spirit, I qnart ; as before.

4. (SOBITTED.) To the preceding add some gam
benzoin, balsam of Peru, balsam of Tola, oil
of laTender, or the essence of musk or ambergris.
The first two can only be employed for dark var-
nishea.

06t. The above varnishes are chiefiy applied to
articles of the toilette, as work-boxes, card-cases,
Ac. ; but are also suitable to other articles,
whether of paper, wood, linen, or metal, that
require a brilliant and qnick-dry ing varnish. They
dry almost as soon as applied, and are usually
hard enough to polish in 24 hours. They are,
however, much less durable, and more liable to
crack, than oil varnishes.

Vaniah, 8topping-ont. Sgn. Pbtit tkbhu,
Fr. From lamp-black, made into a paste with
turpentine. Used by engravers. See ETOHnra.

TamJah, Tlngiy's. See Hastio Vabnibh.

Yamldi, T<^. Similar to common spirit
yamiah, but using carefully rectified wood naph-
tha as the solvent. See Vabnibhbb, Lao and

SPIBIT.

Vandih, Transfer. 8y». Mobdaht TABimH.
Prtp. From mastic (in tears) and sandarach, of
each, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1^ pints ; dissolve, and
add of pure Canada balsam, i pint. Used for
transferring and fixing engravings or lithographs
on wood, and for g^ding, eilvering, Ac. See Vab-
WISH, Cbtstai.

Vamiah, Turpentine. See Vabitibeib, Mas-
TIO and Oak.

VamlabiWalBseot. See Vabhibr, Oak.

Yamiah, 'Waterproof, for Boots. Prep. 1. Ozoke-
rite (hard paraffin), 1 part; castor oil, 2 parts;
lamp-black, 1 part. Mix.

2. Salad oil, 1 pint; mutton snet, 4 oz. ; white
wax and spermaceti, of each, 1 oz. Melt together,
And apply to the boots warmed.

8. Spermaceti, S oz. ; melt and add india rubber
in thin shavings, } oz. ; when dissolved add tallow,
6 oz. ; lard, S oz. ; amber varnish, 4 oz. Mix well,
and while still warm apply with a brush.

Varaisli, Wax. Svn. linx ov wax ; Emnso
finix 8PIBRV0BA, L. JPrtp. 1. Take of white
wax (pure), 1 lb. ; melt it with as gentle a heat
as pcesiblo, add of warm rectified spirit, sp. gr.
'880 (60 0. p.), 1 pint; mix perfectly, and pour
tbe liquid out upon a cold porphyry slab ; next
grind it with a muller to a perfectly smooth paste,
adding more spirit as required ; put the paste into
A marble mortar, make an emulsion with water,
3i pints, gradually added, and strain it through
modin. Used as a varnish for paintings ; when
dry, a hot iron is passed over it, or heat is other-
<wise evenly applied, so as to fuse it, and render it
^transparent, after which, when quite cold, it is
polished with a clean linen cloth. The most pro-
tective ot all varnishes.

*• Wax (pure), 6 oz. ; oil of toroentine 1 quart!

dissolve. Used for furniture. See VASsm^
SBArnra-fvAx.

Tandili, White. See Vabitibh, Spur, a, a
and b.

VASHI8HIV0. To give the highest degree of
lustre to varnish after it is laid on, as well as to
remove the marks of the Inmsh, it nndergoes the
operation of polishing. This is performed by
first mbbing it with very finely powdered pninios-
stone and water, and afterwards with an tnlod tBg
and tripoli, until the required polish is produoeo.
The surface is, last of all, cleaned with soft lincit
cloths, cleared of all greasiness with powdered
starch, and then rubbed bright with the palm of
the hand.

In varnishing great care most be taken that tlie
surface is free from grease or smoke ; as, nnleaa
this be the case, the iMstoil or tarpentine vainiak
in the world will not dry and harden. Old
articles are usually washed with soap and water,
by the painters, before being varnished, to prsvesit
any misadventure of the kind alluded to.

YASXIiOrE. See Ooskolthb.

YSAL. "The grain should be close, firm, and
white, and the fat of a pinkish white, not a dead
white, and the kidneys well covered with a thick
white fat" (Soger).

Veal, like pork, requires to be well dressed, to
develop ite nutritive qualities. It should also be
eaten fresh, as a peculiar principle is generated in
it when improperly kept, which acto as a malignaat
poison. See ROABTlMa, &c.

VEG'ETABLS AL'KAXlf. Potassa.

YSaKTABLS JUICES. See belov.

VBOETABIiES. Vegetables are organic bdags,
which are distinguished from animals by a number
of characteristics, but, like them, are composed of
certain proximate principles, or compounds, which
possess a high degree of scientific interest, and in
many cases are invaluable to man. Among tbe
most important of these are — albnmen, gluten,
gum, lignin, starch, sugar, tannin, wax, tlw fixed
and volatile oils, the resins and gam-resins^, the
alkaloids, and innumerable forms of extrsetrre
matter. Several of these snbstences are notioed
under their respective names.

The method of propagating planto from tiiair
seeds, depending on their simple exporare, at ike
proper season, to warmth and moisture, under the
protection of the soil, is well known ; that by pro-
pagation from ' slips ' and ' cuttings,' which will
doubtless prove interesting to the amateur gar-
dener, is noticed below.

The choice of slips and cuttings should be nada
from the side shoots of trees and plants, and, when
possible, from snch as recline towards the groaaA,
observing, when they are removed by the knife,
to leave a little wood of a former year or seaaom's
growth attached to them, as such are found to take
root more readily than when they are whollv com-
posed of new wood. The time to take ^pa or
cuttings is as soon as the sap gete into full motion.
BefoTO setting them the latter should be cut across,
just below an eye or joint, with as smooth a seetian
as poirible, observing not to ii^jnre the bad. The
superflnous leaves may be removed, but asufBotent
number should he left on for the purpoaaa of
vegetation. The common practice of removing all
or nearly all the leaves of catting* is ii^j«d!«Km(.

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VEaETABLES

1747

In some caiea leaves alone will (trike root Wlien
CQttingi are set in pota, they ahonld be so placed
as to reach to the bottom and touch the sides
ihronghont their whole length, when they will
aeldom fail to become rooted plants. In the ease
of tobular-stalked plants it is said to be adranta-
fgeofOB to insert both ends into the soil, each of
which will take root, and may then be divided,
when two parte will be produced instead of one.
An equable temperature, a moist atmosphere, a
ahady situation, and a moderate supply of water,
are the principal requisites to induce speedy root-
ing. Sxoessof any of these is prejudicial. When
the size of the cuttings admits, it is better to place
them under a hand- or bell-glass, which will pre-
serve a constant degree of heat, and prevent evapo-
ration from the surface of the leaves, which is the
most common cause of their dying, especially in
hot dry weather.

Qmal. The vegetable kingdom furnishes by fM
the larger portion of the food of man, and indi-
rectly, perhaps, the whole of it. The great value
ct culinary vegetables and fruit in a mixed diet
need not be insisted on, since it is a fact which is
almost universally known and appreciated.

In the choice of culinary vegetables observe
that if they are stiff and break freely and criaply,
they are fresh, and fit for food ; if, °on the
contrary, they have a fiabby appearance, or are
•oft or diseolonred, they are stale, and should be
rejected.

The dose of the generality of vegetable sub-
ttances that exercise no very marked action on the
hnman frame is about i to 1 dr. of the powder,
night and morning ; or 1 oz., or q. s. to impart
a moderately strong colour or taste, may be in-
fused or boiled in 1 pint of water, and a wine-
glassful or thereabouts taken 2 or 3 times a day.

OolUetion and Fret, The following general
directions are given in the London Pharmacopceia
for the collection and preservation of vegetable
anbstancas (vegetabilia — Ph. L.) :

" Vegetables are to be collected in dry weather,
and when neither wet with rain nor dew ; they are
to be collected annually, and are not to be kept
beyond a year.

"Barks are to be collected at that season in
which they can he most easily separated from the
wood." Spring is the season here alluded to ; as
at this time, alter the sap begins to ascend, the
bark is, in general, very easily separated.

" Flowers are to be collected recently blown."
The red rose, however, mnst be gathered before the
buds are expanded.

"Fruits and seeds are to be collected when
ripe.

" Herbs and leaves are to be gathered after the
Bowers have expanded, and before the seeds are
mature.

" Roots and rhizomes (nndergronnd stems), for
the most part, are to be dug np after the old leaves
and stalks have fallen, and before the new ones
appear." (" Booto wMch are required to be pre-
•erved f resn should be boned in dry land "—Ph.
li. 1886.)

" Seeds are to be collected when they are ripe,
and before they drop from the plant." (" They
ought to be preserved in their seed-vessels "—Ph.
L. 1886.)

"The different parte of vegetables are to be
kept dried for use, except where we shall other-
wise direct. Expose those you wish to dry, within
a short time after they have been gathered, in
shallow wicker baskets, to a gentle heat, in a dark
place, and where there is a current of air. Then,
the moisture being driven off, gradually increase
the heat to 160° F., in order that they may be
dried. Finally, preserve the more delicate parts,
viz. flowers and leaves, in black glass vessels, well
closed, and keep the rest in proper vessels, pre-
venting the access of light and moisture."

Fruits, culinary vegetables, and vegetable juice,
of every class, may be preserved for any length of
time by several of the methods described under
PuTBBVAOTlor. On the small scale the following
method is often adopted : — ^The substances to be
preserved are put into strong glass or stoneware
bottles, with necks of a'proper size, which are then
corked with the greatest care, tied or wired, and
luted with a mixtnre of lime and soft cheese, or
with a paste formed of linseed meal and water,
spread on rags ; or tin cases are employed, and are
soldered up instead of being corked. The bottlea
are then placed in an oven, the temperature of
which is cautiously raised to fully 212° F. ; or
they are enclosed, separately, in canvas bags, and
put into a copper of water, to which some salt has
been added, which is then gradually heated until
it boils, and thus kept for 15 or 20 minutes; the
whole is next left to cool, when the bottles are
taken out and carefully examined before being hud
by, lest they should have cracked or the lute have
given way.

Herbs and flowers are now generally preserved
for distillation by means of common salt. The
objection which is raised against the use of fresh
aromatic plante is thus obviated, whilst the odooia
of the distilled prodncte are rendered snperior to
those obteined from either the recent or dried
plant, fruit, or flower, without the great loss, in-
convenience, or trouble attending the common
methods. Besides, many aromatic and odorous
substances almost entirely lose their properties by
drying ; while most of them yield more oil, and
that of a finer quality, in the fresh than in the
dried state. The odours of roses, elder flowers,
and a variety of others are vastly improved 1^
this treatment, and these flowers may thus be
preserved with ease and safety from season to
season, or even longer, if required. The process
simply consists in intimately mixing the flowers
or other vegetebles, soon after being gathered,
with abont l-4th their weight, or less, of good dxy
salt, and ramming down the mixture as tightly
as possible in strong casks. The casks are then
plaiced in a cold cellar, axtd covered with boarda,
on which heavy weights are put, to keep the
mass tight and cloee. See Fbtttcs, Puibx-

VAOTIOir, &c.

. Tegetablaa, Jnieei of. Frep. 1. (Ezpsebsss

TISBTABLB mOBS, SlKPXB>. J.; BVCCl BXFBBBBI,

L.) These are obtained by bruising the fresh
leaves, or other vegetable matter, in a marble mor-
tar, or in a mill, and expressing the liquid portion
by means of a powerful screw press. After defe>
cation for 12 or 14 honrs in a cold situation, the
juice is either decanted or filtered from the
feenlons sediment, and is next heated for some

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1748

VEGETABLES

minntea to abont 185° F., to coagulate albnmi-
DODs matter. The clear portion is sabaeqneiitly
lepamted as before, and the prodnct preferred
for lue in well-cloaed and well-filled bottles, in •
oool situation. Some plants, as borage, cabbage,
&c., require the addition of i-8th of water before
being pressed. The expression of the juice of
lemons, oranges, qnlnces, &c., is facilitated by
previously mixing the pulp with clean chopped
straw. Buckthorn berries, mnlberries, &c., after
being crushed between the hands, are commonly
left for 3 or 4 days to nndergo a slight fermenta-
tion before pressing them.

The expression of the juices of the narcotic
plants, and of gome other vegetables, has lately
assumed considerable interest, from these juices
being now extensively used in pharmacy for the
preparation of extracts and the preserved juices
noticed below. It appears that the juice of young
plants just coming into flower yields only 2-3rds
the amount of extract which may be obtained from
the same quantity of juice expressed from the
matured plant, or when the flowers are fully
blown, and the strength of the product is also in-
ferior; the case appears to be best met by selecting
the plants when more than half the flowers are
fully blown . The leaves alone should be preferably
employed, and should be exclusively of the second
yen's growth when the plants are biennials
{SqfUre). The homoeopathists commonly employ
the whole flowering herb.

The IKBPIBSATBD TBaSTABLB JUICIB (gUCd

SFlBBATi) are now included among the ex-
tracts.

The prindpal umple vegetable juices of com-
merce are —

BVOETHOSir JVICB (SVCOVa SHAXNI — Ph. L.),
from the fruit of JZ&ommm earthartieut, or
buckthorn berries.

CiTBON jricB (BxrooxrB oitbi), chiefly imported
.from Italy in lai^e casks.

Lbkoh jtticb (bucous ukokux — Fh. L.), from
lemons that spoil before they can be sold ; also
imported.

MUXBBSRT JUICB (srCCTTB MOBI— Ph. L.),
from the fruit of the mulberry.

O&uroB JUiCB (buccub aubuitii), obtained
from the same source as that of lemons.

COKOINTBATED OBANQB JUICE (bUOCUB BPIS-
BATUB A1TBAKTII Vel ATTBANTIOBUK) and COK-

Obbtbatbd LBJioir jiricB (snccua bpibbatub
UXONUM) are prepared by evaporating the fresh
juices of oranges and lemons, either alone or
mixed with sugar, and are employed as substi-
tutes for the fruit where the latter cannot be
obtained.

2. (AliCOHOI.IBB1> VBaBTABLB JVICIB, PbB-
BBBTBD T. 3., TIH0T17BBB OF BECBNI PLANTS;

Sircci ALOOHOiATi, L. ; Alooolatttbbb, Ft.)
a. The juice, obtained by powerful pressure,
in the manner noticed above, is allowed to re-
main for 24 hours in a cold place, when the
clear portion is decanted from the f ecnlous matter
which has subsided, and is then agitated with one
half its volume of re(!tifled spirit (66 o. p.) ; after
another 24 hours the clear portion is again
decanted and, if necessary. Altered through
bibulous paper or linen. In this way are now
generally prepared the preserved juices of aconite,

belladonna, oolchicum (eorms), hemlock, henbane^
foxglove, elaterium, lactuca viroaa, taraxacnm,
&C., sold in this conntry.

b. (P. Cod.) To the fresh leaves, braised in a
marble mortar, is added an eqnsl weight of recti-
fled spirit, and after maceration for 16 days the
whole is pressed, and the resulting tincture fil-
tered. In this manner are prepared tinctnres of
the fresh leaves of aconite (tinctnra aeoniti earn
foliis recentibns), belladonna, foxglove, hemlock,
henbane, strong-scented lettuce (Laetaoa virota),
stramonium, trailing poison oak (JSiu* tosieo-
dendro»), mugwort {Artemitia vulgariB), ool-
chicum (corms), squirting cucumber, white poppy,
taraxacnm, &c., of tfae Paris Codex.

Ob*. These tinctures are much more powerful,
and more certun in their operation, than thoae
prepared from the dried plants. The commendn^
dose is from 2 to 5 drops, the effects of which
should be carefully watched. The products of
the first of the above formnle keep as well as
the ordinary tinctures, and there is less waste of
spirit than with the second. That of the P. Cod.
is, however, preferred by M. Soubeiran, as afford-
ing more uniform products — an opinion which ia
questionable. B^l orders equal wdghts of jnice
and spirit ; Hr Squire recommends ^ part,
Messrs Bentley & Davenport } part (both by
volume), and Hr Oiesekeonly \ part (by woght)
of spirit to 1 part of the expressed juice. The
homoeopathists generally go with M. B^ral.
" Our own experience, which has been very con-
siderable, and extends over upwards of sixteen
years, leads us to prefer the proportions given in
formula a, which are similar to those of Mr
Squire. If less spirit be employed, the product is
apt to suffer rapid deterioration when kept in •
warm shop or surgery" (^Cooley).

8. (EtEBBIBBD VBOBTABLB XUICBS; Succi
.sthbbizati, L. ; Ethj^bolatcbbs, Sues <THi-
b£s, Fr.) For these we are indebted to H.
Bouchardat. They are prepared as follows : —
Ether is gradually added to the depurated freshly
expressed juice until, after active agitation, a thin
layer of it rises to the surface, on the mixture
being allowed to repose for a minute or two ; the
whole is then set aside for 24 hours, when the
supernatant ether is expertly removed by means
of a pipette or syringe, and the juice is filtered ;
lastly, the decanted ether is returned to the fil-
trate, and the etherised juice is at once put into
well- stoppered bottles. For use, one of the bottles
is reveraed, and the dose taken from the lower
part, so that the ether remains behind. We find
in practice that decantation, carefully conducted,
may be substituted for filtration ; thus not only
rendering the process less costly, but ensuring a
more uniform product.

The etherised juices are said to retain their
active properties for an indefinite period. Tiie
method has been successfully applied to the juices
of aconite, anemone, black hellebore, and hem-
lock, and is probably applicable to many others;
but, we think, not to the juices of all the narcotic
plants, as has been asserted.

Testable fibres. The following method for
the identification of vegetable fibres is intended
to supplement the information previously given
on this subject. Its originator, M. Vetillaid, ap-

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VEGETATION— VELVBT COLOUES

1749

pliei it for distingnUhing the fibres of linen,
hemp, cotton, jute, China grass, and New Zealand
flax. The following extract, descriptive of the
process, is from the ' Joonial of Applied Che-
mistry:'

" If a woven or spnn fibre is to be examined
it most first be disintegrated into the single
fibres, and any colour or finish must be removed
as completely as possible. Vertical and longi-
tudinal microscopic sections are next made. These
are rendered transparent by glycerin or chloride
of calcium, and ti«ated with tincture of iodine,
made by simply dissolving iodine in a solution of
iodide of potassium. The excess of this tincture
is removed, a drop of dilute solphnric add added,
and the sections examined by the aid of the
microscope."

Jjinen lUtre. Bandies of similar fibres, with a
fine canal in the centre, long, uniformly thicic,
and pointed at the ends. Longitudinal section :
tiie fibres are coloured blue, the canal yellow.
Cross section : regular polygons, loosely connected,
coloured blue ; centres yellow.

Stmp. Fibres aggregated; each fibre covered
with a thin skin ; coloured yellow. They are
thick and less uniform than the linen fibres. The
ends are thick and of the shape of spatulas, and
become blue or greenish blue with iodine. Cross
section: irregular polygons, firmly connected;
rim yellow, the mass blue, the centra colourless.

Cotton. liongitndinal section: single fibres
spirally woand on their own axes, with a central
canal and broad ends ; coloured blue by iodine.
The cross sections are rounded in the shape of
kidneys and coloured blue, with yellow spots in-
tersp^'sed.

China Orcua. Longitudinal section: fibres
separated lengthwise, of varying thickness. The
interior canal is often filled with a yellow granu-
lar substance, which is coloured brown by iodine.
The fibre is turned blue by iodine. Cross section :
irregular, with re-entrant angles, and little cohe-
sion. The fibres are stouter than all other fibres,
and are turned blue by iodine.

JtUe. Fibres strongly coherent, the ends un-
dulating and difficult to separate ; central canal
wide, empty, and gently rounded at the ends ;
coloured yeUow. Cross section : polygons strongly
coherent and regular, much like those of hemp,
but the central opemng is larger ; coloured yellow,
darker at the rim.

Nem Zealand Flax. Bundles of cells of the
leaves easily separated with a needle into stiff
little fibres, provided with a canal of uniform
width. The sides are rolled inwards, coloured
yellow. The cross section resembles that of
jote^ but the comers of the polygons are
ronnded off. They are coloured yellow by iodine
tincture.

TiiOETATIOB'. Vegetation (which is here
employed in the sense of plants in general) is
very unequally distributed over the earth's sur-
face. Thus towards the poles plants are found
not only in diminished numbers compared to their
occurrbnce in warmer and more temperate regions,
hot also of much smaller size or stunted growth.
No plants at all^ are met in the regions of
eternal frost and snow, whilst in equatorial climes
they attun to the most gigantic proportions, and

are possessed of the most exquisite colours and
perfumes, and yield the finest fruits. The habitat
of a plant will, of course, be that on which it finds
the conditions favourable to ite existence and
growth, in the shspe of soil, climate, moisture,
geographical position, &c.

VEO£TATIOV (Metallie). This name has been
fancifully applied to the following :

Lbad tbbs; Abbob Saiubiti. Take of sugar
of lead, 1 oz. ; distilled water, 1^ pints ; acetie
acid, a few drops ; dissolve, place the liquid in a
clear nrhite glass bottle, and suspend a piece of
zinc in it, by means of a fine thread.

S11.TBB TBBB; Abbob Diaitjb. From nitrate
of silver, 20 gr. ; water, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve in a
phial, and add about i dr. of pore mercury.

TiK Tbbe ; Abbob Jotib. From chloride of
tin, 3 dr.; nitric acid, 10 to 16 drops; distilled
or rain water, 1 pint ; dissolve in a white glass
bottle, and hang in it, by a thread, a small rod
of zinc.

Obi. In the above experimente the metals are
precipitated in a very beautiful arborescent form.
It is curious to observe the lamince shoot out, as
it were, from nothing, assuming forms resem-
bling real vegetation. This phenomenon results
from voltaic action being set up between the
liquid and the metal.

TXeSTO-AL'KALI. See Aucixon].

TSLLUH, FKEFABIHO. The skins used
are those of calves, kids, and stillborn lambs.
These are nnhaired either by steeping with
lime, by sweating (i. e. by hanging in a smoke-
house heated by a smouldering fire till fermente-
tion sets in), or by soaking with dilute acids. As
yon seek a cleanly method you may, perhaps,
prefer the last. The hair, &e., is scraped off
with a two-handed unhairing knife. After this
the skin is stretched in a ' herse ' (merely a
square frame of four sticks joined at comers) ;
strings from the edges of the skin to this frame
allow of its being made qnite tight, and it is well
scraped with a half-moon knife to clear away all
fleshy particles, dirt, kc. Next it is ground.
The grain side is merely ground over with a flat
pumice-stone, but the flesh side is rubbed over
with powdered chalk before grinding. The half-
moon knife is now passed over the skin to drain
it; this make* it look whiter. Fine chalk is
then rubbed over both sides, and it is put to dry.
It has next to be pared down to a proper thick-
ness— probably about one half — with a sharp
circular knife, and then pumiced smooth where
required. Lutiy, it is glazed with albumen-
white of egg.

The skins of sheep are commonly used for
parchment; those of he-goat» and wolves for
drum-heads ; and those of the ass for battiedores.
The species of vellum used for church services by
binders is said to be prepared from pig-skins.
See FouiroB.

VEL'VET C0L0XTB8. Sgn. Map stains,
Papbb BTAIN8; Laoca fluisa, L. Prep. 1.
(Blub.) a. Dissolve litmus in water, and add \
of spirit of wine. b. Dilute Saxon blue or sul-
phate of indigo with water. If required for
delicate work, neutralise the acid with chalk, o.
To an aqueous infusion of litmus add a few
drops of vinegar, until it turns of a full blue.

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1760

VELVET LEAF— VENTILATION

2. (Obebn.) a. DissolTe crystalliied ver-
digris in water, b. Dissolve up green In water,
and add a little alum. e. Add a little salt of
tartar to a blue or purple solution of litmus,
until it turns green, d. Dissolve equal parts of
crystallised verdigris and cream of tartar in
water.

8. (Pttbflb.) a. Steep litmus in water, and
■train the solution, b. Add a little alum to a
strained decoction of logwood, c. Add a solu-
tion of carmine (red) to a little blue solution of
litmus or Saxon blue.

4k (Rbd.) a. Macerate ground Brazil wood
ia vinegar, boil a few minutes, strtun, and add a
little alum and gum. b. Add vinegar to an in-
fusion of litmus until it turns red. e. Boil or
infuse powdered cochineal in water containing a
little ammonia or sal volatile, d. Dissolve car-
mine in liquor of ammonia, or in weak carbonate
of potash water ; the former is superb.

6. (Yellow.) a. Dissolve gamboge in water,
and add a little alum. b. Dissolve gamboge in
equal parts of proof spirit and water. Golden
coloured, c. Steep French berries in boiling
water, strain, and add a little alum. d. Steep
turmeric, round zedoary, gamboge, or annotta,
in a weak ley of snbcarbonate of soda or potash.

Obt. The preceding, thickened with a little
gum, are used as inks for writing, as colours to
tint maps, foils, paper, artiScial flowers, &c., and
to paint on velvet. Some of them are very
beautiful. Those containing litmus are, how-
ever, fugitive. It must he observed that those
made with strong spirit do not mix well with
gum water, unless somewhat dilated with water.
Any other transparent colours or stains may be
employed for painting on velvet, as well as the
above.

VELTST LEAF. Sf. FABsnu bbata, Pa-
BBIB^ (Ph. L., E., and D.), L. "The root of
Cittampelo* Pareira " (Ph. L.), white pareira or
velvet leaf. It is tonic, aperient, and diuretic. —
Dott, 20 to 60 gr.; in chronic and purulent
inflammation, and extreme irritability of the
bladder ; in lencorrhoea, dropsy, olceration of the
kidney, Ac.

VEITESECTIOH. The practice of venesection,
bloodletting, or phlebotomy, as it is variously
denominated, has within the last thirty or forty
years been nearly banished from medical prac-
tice. It Bcems very evident that prior to the
above period medical practitioners were in the
habit of resorting to venesection to an unwise
extent, and in cases which the progress of mo-
dem pathology has shown it to he wholly inap-
plicable.

There are, we believe, some practitioners who,
whilst admitting the evils arising from its mis-
application and abuse, still advocate its occa-
sional and judicious employment.

Becanse of the dangers that beset the opera-
tion when performed by a tyro, we forbear to
give any particulars as to the method of carrying
it out. The veins of the arm are those invariably
opened in venesection, although the operation
nay be performed on many other superficial
veins.

VEV'ISOV. The flesh of several species of
deer. That from good land, killed at the proper

AleohoUe

Allm-

cztnct.

WUBk.

43-04

. 63-6

12-46

. 15-7

7-00

. 7-1

season, and eaten in a moderately fresh state, is
most easily digestible, and, perhaps, the most
wholesome, of all the red meats ; but when it is
' high,' or in a state of incipient pntrefaction, it
is far from wholesome, and often poisonous.

T£H0 BSHO (La). See Tba.

VDHOIC. Drs Bmnton and Fayrer, who have
devoted many years to the study of the nature
and physiological action of snake poisons, state
that there appears to he some resemblance in the
action of the venom or vims of the cobra, li(ya
tripadian*, and of curara, the arrow-p(nsoa of
the Indians; both poisons causing death by paia-
lysing the respiratory organs.

Dr Armstrong, who has analysed the cobra
poison, has not been enabled to isolate firom it say
crystalline principle. From its reactions he ooa-
eludes that its chief ingredioit is an albnminoid
substance.

Dr Armstrong obtfuned a white precipitate
from the poison by treating it with absolute
alcohol, and also prepared an alcoholic extract
from it.

He gives the following as the composition of
the three substances. The albumen is appended
for comparison :

Cnile Aloifaolic

poison. precipiUM.

Carbon . 4356 . 4676 .

Nitrogen. 43-30 . 1430 ,

Hydrogen ... . 6-60 ,

Sulphur ^-50 .

Ash traces.

" But although tiiere is little difference between
the composition of the alcoholic precipitate and
extract, there is an immense difference between
their physiological action, the extract being a
virulent poison, the precipitate almoct inert.
This is notably different firom what bas been
stated by Dr Weir Mitchell respecting the poitoo
of the rattlesnake, viz. that the alcoholic precipi-
tate is active, whilst the extract is inert" (Royal
Society's Proceedings, ' Pharm. Joom.').

TElTCILA'TIOir. The proper ventilation of
our habitations, as well as of other bniWngs in
which we pass any considerable portion of onr
time, is quite as necessary to health as food and
clothing. Lavoisier, writing in the middle of the
last century, remarks : " It is certain that man-
kind degenerate when employed in sedentary
manufactures, or living in crowded honses, or in
the narrow lanes of large cities ; whereas they
improve in their nature and constitution in mart
of the country labonrs which are carried on in the
open air." Yet many persons, by the care which
they take to shut out fresh air, and to prevent
the escape of that which their own bodies, by
pulmonary and surfacial respiration, have con-
taminated, would seem to hug to themselves the
discomfort of breathing over and over again an
impure and unrefreshing atmosphere, and to be
anxious to finish their career by lingering snidde.
The almost nniversal indifference to the snbjert,
considering its importance, is unacooontable.

The first step towards effecting and mahiiain-
ing a liberal supply of fresh air, is eitiier by
means of ventilators or by regularly opening the
windows for stated periods daily. Daring the
colder portions of the year, when fires an bpt

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VEBATBINE

1761

burning, and there if an np-eaiTent in the
chimney, nothing is so simple and effective as the
well-known chimney-Talve of Dr Amottj and,
indeed, without this, open fires are powerful in-
struments of ventilation. In cold weather, where
expense is not an object, the apartments may be
supplied with air that has been previonily warmed
by passing throngh a heated chamber, on &e
ininciple recommended by Dr Keid ; bat care
mast be taken that, in warming the air, we do
not overheat it, nor contaminate it.

A sufficient supply of light, another powerfol
sanitary agent, is now regarded as nearly as essen-
tial as thorough ventilation, and the two are
commonly treated of together. According to
PaUadio, the opening of windows should not ex-
ceed a fourth, nor be less than a fifth, of the
length of the side of a room, and should be in
height two and one sixth times the width. Mr
Chvilt, another high authority on this subject, has
fpven as a definite rule, that we should allow 1
square foot of glass to every 100 cubic feet of
space in any apartment or inclosure. A great
deal must, however, depend on the shape of the
apartment j bnt, in aU oases, care should be taken
that the windows are placed at the longest side of
the room, and not at the narrowest, or the end of
it. A southern aspect aSbrds the moat light and
heat; a northern one the most difiused and least
variable light, and is hence usually chosen by
artists for their studios.

YEBA'TKIBE. 8fn. ViBATBU, Ybbatbika,
SiSASiLLiKB ; Vb&atbia (B. P., Ph. L. & E.),
li. An alkaloid, or mixture of alkaloids, dis-
covered by Pelletier and Caventon, in the seeds
of 8ekanaetMlo» officinale (sabadiUa), and in the
rhizomes of Veratmm album (white hellebore).

Prtp. 1. (Ph. E.) Digest sabadilla seeds in
boiling water for 24 hours, then squeeze them,
dry them thoroughly by a gentle heat, beat them
in a mortar, and separate the seeds from the cap-
sules by agitation m a deep and narrow vessel ;
next grind the seeds in a coffee-miU, and exhaust
them by percolation with rectified spirit ; concen-
trate the resulting tincture by distillation so long
aa no deposit forms, and pour the residuum,
whilst still hot, into 12 times its volume of cold
water; then filter through calico, and wash the
residuum on the filter as long as the washings
yield a precipitate with ammonia; nnite the
filtered liquid with the washings, add ammonia
in excess, collect the precipitate on a filter, wash
it slightly with cold water, and dry it first by
imbibition with filtering paper, and then in the
vapour-bath. " The product is not pure, but
sufficiently so for medical use. From this coloured
substance it may be obtained white, bnt at con-
•ideiable loss, by solution in very weak hydro-
chloric acid, deoolorisation with animal charcoal,
and r^recipitation with ammonia."

2. (Vb. L. 1836.) This is the same in principle
aa the last ; a tincture is formed by boiling the
seeds in rectified' spirit, which is then evaporated
to a syrup, dissolved in very dilute sulphuric acid,
the veratrine precipitated with magnesia, redis-
solved in very dilute acid, treated with animal
charcoal, the filtrate again evaporated to a syrup,
and precipitated with ammonia; it is, lastly,
wMhed and dried.

8. By means of ether, as noticed under Alka.
LOID and AooKlTim. This is by far the best
method.

4. (B. P.) Cevadilla, 2 lbs. ; distilled water,
q. s. ; rectiGed spirit, q. s. ; solution of ammonia,
q. s. ; hydrochloric acid, q. s. ; purified animal
charcoal, 60 gr. Macerate the cevadilla with half
its weight of boiling distilled water in a covered
vessel for 24 hours. Hemove the cevadilla, squeeze
it, and dry it thoroughly with a gentle heat. Beat
it now in a mortar and separate the seeds from the
capsules by brisk agitation in a deep narrow
vessel, or by winnowing it gently on a table with
a sheet of paper.

Orind the seeds in a coffee-miU, and form them
into a thick paste with rectified spirit.

Pack this firmly in a percolator, and pass recti-
fied spirit through it tiU the spirit ceases to be
coloured. Concentrate the spirituous solution by
distillation so long as no deposit forms, and pour
the residue, while hot, into twelve times its volume
of cold distilled water. Filter through calico, and
wash the residue on the filter with distilled water,
till the fluid ceases to precipitate with ammonia.
To the united filtered liquid add the ammonia in
slight excess, let the precipitate completely subside,
pour off the supernatant fiuid, collect the precipi-
tate on a filter, and wash it with distilled water
till the fluid passes colourless. Difl^ise the moist
precipitate through 12 oz. of distilled water, and
add gradually, with diligent stirring, sufficient
hydrochloric acid to make the fluid feebly but per-
sistently acid.

Then add the animal charcoal, digest at a gentle
heat for 20 minutes, filter, and allow the liquid to
cool. Add ammonia in alight excess, and when the
precipitate has completely subaided, pour off the
supernatant liquid, collect the precipitate on a
filter, and wash it with cold distilled water till the
washings cease to be affected by nitrate of silver
accidental with nitric acid. Lastly, dry the pre-
cipitate, first by imbibition with filtering paper,
and then by the application of a gentle heat.

iFVop. Pure veratrine is perfectly white; but,
as usually met with, it is a grey powder; it is highly
acrid ; scarcely soluble in water, soluble in ether,
and freely soluble in hot alcohol j heated to about
126° F., it fuses like wax, and solidifies, upon
cooling, to a transparent yellow mass. With the
dilate acids it forms salts, which are either amor-
phous or difficultly crystalliaable. The smallest
possible portion of its powder causes violent
sneezing.

2fc«(*. 1. Potassa, ammonia, and their car-
bonates, give flocculent white precipitates which
at first are not crystalline under the microscope,
but which, after some minutes, assume the appear-
ance of small scattered chisters of short prismatic
crystals ; they are insoluble in excess of potassa
and its carbonate, and only very slightly so in
excess of ammonia. 2. With sulphuric acid it
strikes an intense red colour, changing afterwards
to crimson, and finally to violet. 3. A dilute
acetic solution of veratrine is turned to a superb
red by strong sulphuric acid.

Veratrine is distinguished from brucine and the
other alkaloids by its fusibility, by the crystalline
form of its precipitate with potassa, and by its
reaction with oil and vitrioL

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175S

VERATBtTM— VERMILION

Vm, 4%. " As an eicternal application, it has
been efficacioivly employed by Hageudie in France,
and by Dr TurnbuU in this coontry ; bat the ex-
trayagant eulogies of the latter have not tended
to confirm the reputation of this remedy" (Dr
A. T. Thompton). From 6 to 12 gr. dissolved in
1 fl. oz. of rectified spirit, as a liniment ; or 80 gr.,
mixed with 1 dr. of olive oil and 1 oz. of lard, as
an ointment, have been occasionally fonnd very
serviceable in neuralgia, and other like painfal
affections, and in gonty and rhenmatic paralysis.
As an internal remedy it possesses no advantage, as
if, merely acts as a violent and depressing cathartic.
— Dott, ^ to 1^ gr. In larger doses it acts as a
powerfnl irritant poison. For antidotes, kc., see
AucALOip.

TESA^BUH. See Whitb Hkllbbobs.

TEB'DIOBIS. SfH. Mrvoo, L.; Vsbt-db-
QBI8, Fr. This is a mixture of several basic
acetates of copper which have a green or bloe
colour. It is obtained in the wine districts of
the Bonth of Europe, by the action of refnse
grapes, from which the juice has been expressed,
on thin sheets of copper. When pure it shonld
dissolve almost entirely, and without efferves-
cence, in dilute sulphnric acid. It is very poi-
sonous ; for antidotes, see Cofpxb.

An inferior quality of verdigris is now prepared
from pommage, or apple marc, in the cider dis-
tricts of England.

▼erdlgria. Distilled. Sgn. Cbtbtaxxisbd
TBBDiaBlB. This name is applied to the normal
acetate of copper, which is prepared in the wine
districts by dissolving ordinary verdigris, 1 part,
in good distilled vinegar, 2 parts ; the operation
being performed in a copper vessel by the aid of
a gentle heat and agitstion ; the solution is after-
wards slowly evaporated until a pellicle begins to
form on the surface, when it is transferred into
glazed earthen pans (' oulas '), in each of which
are placed two or three cleft sticks, and it is then
left in a warm apartment for 14 or 15 days to
crystallise.

A spurious article is often prepared by adding
a solution of sulphate of copper, 12^ lbs., to a
solution of sugar of lead, 19 lb«., or q. a., and
filtering, evaporating, and crystallising the mix-
ture.

There is an acetate of copper and lime which
resembles distilled verdigris in colour. It was
numufactnred pretty extensively in Scotland some
years ago, and fetched a high price, till Dr Ure
published an analysis of it in the ' Edin. Phil.
Trans.' It is much inferior for all uses in
the arts.

Pare distilled verdigris is entirely solnblo in
water, and is not precipitated on the addition of
sulphnric acid or of nrnmonia in excess.

Terdigris, English. iVep. Blue vitriol, 24 lbs. ;
white vitriol, 16 lbs. ; sugar of lead, 12 lbs. ;
alum, 2 lbs. (all coarsely powdered) ; mix, and
heat them in a pot over the fire until they unite
into a mass. Sold by fraudulent dealers for
foreign verdigris.

TEB'DITEB. Syn. BitTB tbbditbb, Bb-

TISIB'S VBEDITFB; CENDBBS BI.BVB8, Fr. A

blue pigment, obtained by adding chalk, whiting,
or milk of lime, to a solution of copper in nitric
acid J or by triturating recently precipitated and

still moist carbonate of oxide of copper with
hydrate of lime.

.Prep. A quantity of whiting or milk of lime
is pat into a tub, and upon this the solntion of
copper is poured ; the mixture is stirred every day
for some hours together, until the liquor losea ita
colour; it is then poured off, and more solntion of
copper added ; this is repeated until the whitings
or lime has acquired the proper colour ; the whole
is then washed with water, drained, spread oa
chalk stones, and dried in the sun.

Ob*. The cupreous solution employed in tlie
above process is made by neutralising the nitric
solntion obtained from the refiner* of gold
and silver by beaiing it along with metallic
copper. For the finer qualities of verditer the
lime shonld be of the purest k ind, and the cupreooa
precipitate should be carefully triturated with it,
after it is nearly dry, by which a fine velvety
appearance is produced. The ' cendres bleoee en
p&tes ' of the French differ from the above mainly
in a solution of chloride of copper being em-
ployed, and in the resulting g^een prediutate
being turned blue by the action of carbonate of
potassa. Verditer is made into crayons whilst
moist, or dried into a powder, or it is used aa a
water-colour in the moist state.

Verditer, Green. Sgn. Bbbmxx qbbbn. The
process for refiner's verditer frequently miscarries,
and a green colour is produced instead of a bine
one. It may also be obtained directly by omitting
the ' blueing up ' with carbonate of potaan,
mentioned above.

VEB'JXIICE. 8gn. Asbrsta, OKPHAcnnr,
L. The expressed juice of anripe grapes. The
term is also often extended to the expressed juice
of the wild or crab apple. It was formerly naed
aa an astringent and r^igerant in medicine ; bat
it is now principally employed as an ingredient in
sauces, ragoiits, &c.

VEBKICELU. This, like macaroni, ia pre-
pared from a stiff paste made of a peculiar ftne
kind of granular wheat fiour, called s^moale,
which is mixed up with hot water, and, after
being well kneaded, is formed into small ribands,
cylinders, or tubes, by being placed in a vertical
cylinder press, the bottom of which is filled with
proper-shaped holes, through which it ia driven
by an iron plate or ' follower ' being forced down
by a powerful screw. The pieces that protmde
are broken off, twisted into any desired shape
upon paper, and dried. Those in the form of
fillets or ribands are called ' lazagnes.' Vermi-
celli contains a large amount of gluten, and ia
extremely nutritious, although slightly leaa
digestible than the ordinary wheaten fbodi. Sea
Maoabohi.

VEBlOTUeES. Sy». AHTHBZ.in)iTl08 ; Av-
thblmixtioa, Hblxihthasooa. Vbbxifuoa, L.
Hedi<anes employed to destroy or expel intestinal
worms. Some of these, as coarsely powdered tin
and iron filings and cowhage, act as mechanical
agents, by irritating the worms ; other* have a
specific action upon worms, as male fern, kooMis
santonin, tec ; others, again, owe their power to
their action as purgatives, aa calomel, gamhnge,
jalap, kc See WoBKS.

VEBKIIi'IOS. Sg». Faotitiottb oiinrABAB,

RBD SULFHIOB or MBBOimT, RbD 817LFBUSR

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VERMIN— VEETIGO

1763

O* ifBAOUltT. Thia article may be prepared both
in the moist and dry way; that of commerce
ia almost entirely obtained by the latter; it
coDsiats, for the most part, of mercuric sulphide,
HgS,

iVsp. ■ 1. By sublimation. Take of pure mer-
caiy, 208 parta; pure solphnr, S3 parts; fuse
them together by a gentle heat, observing not to
allow the mass to take fire; when fused, corer
over the vessel, and, when the whole has become
oold, powder the mass, and sublime it in a closed
Teasel, so placed in s furnace that the Bame may
freely circulate and play upon it to about half its
height, the heat being at first gradually applied,
and afterwards augmented until the lower part
of the subliming vessel becomes red-hot; the
cold sublimate is broken into pieces, ground along
with water to a fine powder, elutriated, passed
through a sieve, and dried. — Prod. Fully 112%
of the weight of the mercury employed.

8. In l£e humid way (BrHnner), Take of
pore quicksilver, 300 parts; pure sublimed sul-
phur, 114 parts; triturate them together for
several hours, until a perfectly black product is
fonned; add gradually of canstic potash, 76 parts,
(dissolved in) water, 400 parts; continue the
tritnration for some time longer, then gently
heat the mixture in an iron vessel, at first con-
stantly stirring, but afterwards only from time
to time, observing to keep the heat at about 120°
F. (49° C.),and to add fresh water to compensate
for the portion evaporated. When the colour
begins to redden, great cantion is requisite to
preserve the mixture at the lower temperature,
and to keep the sulphide of mercury perfectly
pulverulent; as soon as the colour becomes nearly
'flue,' the process must be conducted with in-
creased caution, and at a lower heat for some
hours, or until a rich colour is produced, when
the newly formed vermilion must be elutriated
ifith water, to separate any particles of metallic
mercury, and carefully dried. — Prod., 332 parts
of vermilion, equal in brilliancy to the finest
Chinese.

Oh$. It has been said that the rich tone of
Chinese vermilion may be imitated by adding
to the materials \% of sulphide of antimony, and
by digesting the ground sublimate, first in a solu-
tion of sulphide of potassium, and next in diluted
hydrochloric acid, after which it must be well
edulcorated with water, and dried. Our own
belief is that the finer qualities of vermilion owe
their superiority of shade more to the care be-
stowed on their sublimation, and the extent to
which their division is carried, than to anything
else. The sublimed vermilion is generally in-
ferior to that obtained by the wet process.

Vermilion is a beautiful and permanent red
pigment, and works and covers well both in oil
and water.

TESHIV. This term has rather a large appli-
cation, since, although it is generally understood
to be applied to rats, mice, and certain parasitic
insects infesting the dwellings and sometimes the.
bodies of men, it is extended by the farmer, the
gardener, and the breeder of game, to those crea-
tures from the depredations of which these three
classes suffer pecuniary loss. Hence it embraces
not only foxes and polecats, but weasels, stoats.

hedgehogs, owls, hawks, kites, carrion crows,
magpies, wood-pigeons, hares, rsbbits, rooks,
moles, and small birds.

Whilst the attempted partial destructiou of
any of the classes of animals or birds above spe-
cified may be regarded as of doubtful value, there
can be no question about the practice when it is
carried to the verg^ of extermination.

In thia latter case the balance of Nature is
interfered with, and the system of checks which
she has established for the prevention of the un-
due preponderance of one tribe of the animal
kingdom over the other being interfered with,
the result will be the undue propagation of par-
ticalar species inimical to the operations of the
husbandman, &c.

As illustrating this we may mention the de-
struction to various crops in France caused some
years ago by the ravages of certain grubs and in-
sects, the unnsual increase in the numbers of
which was clearly traced to the foolish practice,
amongst French farmers, of shooting all the small
birds. See Bua, LouBX, Ratb.

VEBHOTTTH, or TESMUTH. This preparation
is one of the many unofficial wines wUch require
for their sale a wine licence. It appears to have
recently become an article of commerce in this
country, but it has been used for a number of
years as a kind of liqueur on the Continent, espe-
cially in Italy and France, and is taken whenever
a pick-me-up would be called for by us. It is a
stomachic, and composed of the following in-
g^redients in the proportions named :

1. Chamtedrys, 12 parts; inula root, 12 parts;
calamns rhizome, 12 parts; cinchona bark, 12
parts; cinnamon, 12 parts; elder flowers, 16
parts ; cloves, 20 parts ; coriander, 20 parts ; star
anise, 20 parts; tansy, 16 parts; orange peel, 24
parts ; blessed thistle, 16 parts; common centaury,
16 parts; wormwood, 16 parts ; quassia, 8 parts;
nutmeg, 4 parts ; galang&l, 4 parts ; white wine,
containing 11% or more alcohol, 8000 parts. The
whole is macerated for 8 days and completed in
the usual way. The soluble matter of 1 part of
the solid ingredients is present in 33'3 parts of
finished product, and the medicinal dose would be
about a table-spoonful, diluted with an equal
quantity of water.

2. Wormwood, 4 oz.; gentian, 2 oz. ; angelica
root, 2 oz. ; blessed thistle, 4 oz. ; calamus aioma-
ticuB, 4 oz. ; elecampane root, 4 oz.; centaury
leaves, 4 oz. ; germander leaves, 4 oz. ; nutmegs,
No. 16 ; oranges, sliced. No. 6 ; alcohol of 86°, 9
pints ; sweet white wine, 20 galls. Macerate 16
days and filter.

VjEBTI'QO. Dizziness and swimming of the
head. In its more serious forms there is more
or less mental confusion, the objects around the
patient appear in motion, the ears are oppressed
with strange sounds, and visible illusions are ex-
perienced, whether the eyes be closed or open,
and in darkness as well as in the light. The
causes are fulness of the vessels of the head,
nervous derangement, general debility, htemor-
rhage, the use of uarcotics, an overloaded stomach,
and, in some cases, an empty one. It is also fre-
quently symptomatic of fevers and inflamma*
tions, and of a condition threatening apoplexy.
The treatment must be varied, acqording to the

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17(4

VESICANTS

cran and the peculiar babit or condition of the
patient.

TZSICAiTTS. i^». Efispasticb; Epibpab-
TIOA, Vbsioabtia, L. Substances which vesicate
or raise blisters. Among these are the eantharis
or blistering fly, mezereon, croton oil, boiling
water, Ac., the first only of which is now in com-
mon use in England.

" It is a principle sufficiently established with
regard to the living system, that, where a morbid
action exists, it may often be removed by induc-
ing an action of a (Uflerent kind, in the same or a
neighbouring part. On this principle is erplained
the utility of blisters in local inflammation and
spasmodic action, and it regulates thrir applica-
tion in pneumonin, gastritis, hepatitis, phrenitis,
angina, rheumatism, colic, and spasmodic affec-
tions of the stomach — diseases in which they are
employed with the most marked advantage. A
similar principle exists with respect to pain ; ex-
citing one pain often relieves another. Hence
blisters often give relief in toothache, and some
other painful affections. Lastly, blisters, by their
operation, communicate a stimulus to the whole
system, and raise the vigour of the circulation.
Hence, in part, their utility in fevers of the
t^hoid Itind, though in such cases they are nsed
with still more advantage to obviate or remove
local inflammation " (■ Med. Lex.').

Blisters are commonly prepared with cantharides
plaster, or with some other preparation of can-
tharides; and, in the former case, are usually
lightly covered with the powdered fly. In order
to prevent the action of the cantharides npon the
mncons membrane of the bladder, blistering
plasters are often sprinkled with a little powdered
camphor, or, better still, are moistened with cam-
phorated etlier, which leaves a thin layer of cam-
phor. In all these cases the layer should not be
too thick, for in that case the plaster would not
take effect.

When it is not wished to maintain a discharge
from the blistered part, it is sufficient to make a
puncture in the vesicle, to let out the fluid ; but
when the case requires the blister to be ' kept
open,' as it is called, the whole of the detached
cnticle is carefully removed with a pair of
scissors, and the part is dressed with either the
ointment of cantharides or of savine, at first more
or less diluted with lard, or simple ointment, with
an occasional dressing of resin cerate. Accord-
ing to Mr Crowther, the blistered surface is best
kept clean by daily fomentation with warm water.

Of late years, to obviate the unpleasant eflfects
occasionally arising from the common blister,
various compounds having cantharides for their
base have been brought before the public. Of
these, the vesicating coUodion noticed under
COLIODION is the most convenient and effective.
The following also deserve notice:

1. Take of cantharides, in fine powder, 8 parts ;
spermaceti, 2 parts ; olive oil, 4 parts ; whits wax,
8 parts ; water, 10 parts ; simmer, with constant
agitation, for 2 hours, strain throngh flannel,
separate the plaster from the water, gently
remelt it with common turpentine, 1 part, and
'spread the mass whilst still fluid. This nearly re-
Mmbles the form recommended by MM. Henry
and Quibourt.

2. (P. Cod.) Diatil off the ether frana a con-
centrated ethereal tincture of cantharides, melt
the oily residue with twice its weight of white
wax, and spread the mixture on thin oiled ralk,
or on cloth prepared with wax plaster.

8. (OeMt*gr«r.) Cantharidal ether (prepared
from cantharides, 1 part ; ether, 2 parts) and anl-
phuric ether, of each, 10 dr.; tnrpentine and
black resin, of each, 2i dr. ; mix, dissolve, and
apply it to the surface of stretched silk or taifete
which has been previously prepared with two
coatings of a solution of isinglaas.

4. (Cbabta BPI8FASTI0A, B. P.) Digest 4
01. of white wax, 1) oz. spermaceti, 2 ox. fluid of
olive oil, 3 oz. of rpsin, 1 os. of cantharides in
powder, and distilled water, 6 oz., in a water-
bath for two hours, stirring constantly, strain,
and separate the plaster from the watery liqnid.
Mix i fl. oz. of Canada balsam with the plaster,
melted in a shallow vessel, and pass strips of
paper over the hot liquid, so that one surface of
the paper shall receive a thin coating of plaster.
It may be convenient to employ paper ruled in
square inches.

6. (Chabta stvapib, B. P.) Black mnstard
seeds, in powder, 1 oz. ; solution of gntta percha,
8 oz., or q. s. Mix so as to make a semi-fluid,
and having poured this into a shallow fiat-bottomed
vessel, such as a dinner-plate, pass strips of cart-
ridge paper over its surface, so that one ride of
the paper shall receive a thin coating of the mix-
ture. Then lay the paper on a table, with the
coated side upwards, and let it remain exposed to
the air until the coating has hsrdened. Before
being applied let the mnstard paper be immersed
for a few seconds in tepid water.

6. (VBSicATrNa sfabadbap, F. Cod.) Gnia
elemi, 1 oz. ; olive oil, i oz. ; basilicon ointment, %\
oz. ; resin, 1 oz. ; yellow wax, 8| oz. ; cantharides,
in fine powder, 4} oz. Melt the first five sab-
stances together, and stir in the cantharides;
when sufficiently cold, and well mixed, spread on
waxed strips of linen.

Obt. The above compounds are spread on
leather, linen, paper, silk, oiled silk, taffeta, &c.,
and then form the numerous compounds vended
under the names of blistering tissue, rannns
vesicatorins, papier dpispastique, sparadrapnm
vesicatorium, taffetas vesicans, tela vesicatoria, ftc

Acetic extract of cantharides, croton oil, or
extract of mezereon is sometimes snbstitnted
for the ethereal extract ordered in the above
formulse.

The 'papier jpispastique' of YSe is prepared
of three strengths, which are respectively dis-
tinguished by the colours white, green, and red.
The composition is made by boiling powdered
cantharides for an hour with water, lard, and
green ointment, or with lard coloured with
alkanet root, adding white wax to the stnuned
fats, and spreading the mixture whilst fluid.
No. 1 is msde with 10 oz. of cantharides to 4 lbs.
of lard ; No. 2 of 1 lb. of cantharides to 8 Iba. of
green ointment ; and No. 8 of 1^ lbs. of flies to
8 lbs. of reddened lard. To each are added 8 Iba.
of white wax {DorvamU).

The magistral blister of Yalleix is a revival of
the vesicating epithem. See Bubtib, Cav-
IHABIDB8, CatusBlov, &e., and beloip.

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VESICATION— VBTEKINART MEDICINES

17S6

VXSICA'TIOir. The formation of a bluter ii ■
Titel process, and its snccess m^ be taken as a
proof of the presence of life. Hence a French
phyrieian, ])r Mandl, has suggested sach a stimu-
lation of the skin as would ordinarily oanse a
blister as a test of life, in those cases of long-
oontinned trance which we occasionally hear of,
where all the functions of life seem to be extinct.
Dt Mandl's plan is to apply a stick of lunar
caostic. The application of a little strong
yinegar of cantharides, or other cantharidal
blister, of the size of a sixpenny piece, or of 2 or
8 spoonfuls of boiling water, by means of a bent
tabe of like diameter, is, however, more certain
and satisfactory.

VESICA'TOKIV. i%». CAKTBABiDar, Cak-
THABTDiirA, Cakthabidbs oakfeob. The blister-
ing principle of Spanish flies, discovered by M.
Bobiqnet.

Prep. 1, (P. Cod.) Exhaust powdered can-
tharides with concentrated alcohol by percolation ;
distil off the spirit from the filtered tinctnre, and
leave the residuum to deposit crystals ; these may
be purified by dissolving them in boiling alcohol,
digestion with animal charcoal, filtration whilst
hot, and crystallising by refrigeration.

8. (ZKierry.) Macerate cantharides (in coarse
powder) for several days in ether, in a closed dis-
placement apparatus; then, after the whole of
the soluble matter has been extracted by the
addition of fresh portions of ether, pour on suffi-
cient water to displace the retained ether ; next
distil off the ether, dissolve the remaining ex-
tract in boiling alcohol, filter while hot, and
kbandon the filtrate to spontaneous evaporation.
— JVod., -6% .

8. Digest the aqueous extract of cantharides
in hot alcohol, filter, evaporate to dryness, digest
the residuum in sulphuric ether, evaporate, and
slightly wash the resulting crystals with cold
alcohol.

Frxyp., Sfc. Micaceous plates resembling sper-
maceti; fusible; vaporisable; insoluble in water;
soluble in ether, oils, acetic acid, and hot alcohol ;
powerfnlly vesicant and poisonous. Its vapour,
•▼en at ordinary temperatures, irequentiy pro-
docea temporary blindness. The 1-lOOth part
of a gr., placed on a piece of paper, and applied
to the edge of the lower lip, caused small blisters
in 16 minutes, which, when rubbed with a little
simple cerate, extended over a large surface, and
covered both lips with blisters (Mobiqutf).

YEiZB.. The common name of various legu-
minous plants of the genera Vieia and Bnvm,
now much cultivated as green fodder for milch
cows and working stock. The seeds (tares) were
formerly reputed detersive and astringent. Those
of "the Canadian variety make good bread"
(XifkUejr).

▼SrSSnrABT KESICUTSB. The common
form of medicine for horses is that popularly
known as horse-balla. They are usually pro-
pared by mixing the dry ingradients, in the state
of powder, with a sufBcient quantity of treacle, or
syrup bottoms, to give the mass a proper con-
ristence for rolling into balls; adding, when
necessary, linseed meal, or any other simple
powder, to increase the bulk. The usual practice
among the veterinary dmggicta is to keep a com-

pound known in the trade as 'ball-mass' or
' common mass,' ready prepared to give form and'
bulk to more active ingredients. This is nsnally
made of about equal parts of linseed meal and
treacle, together with a little palm or lard,
thoroughly incorporated by kneading with the
hands ; and it is kept in a cool situation, tied
over to prevent it drying and hardening. For
use, the ball-masses are either rolled or moulded
into snuUl cylinders of about X\ to 1} ox. in
weight ; and in siie from 2 to 2| inches long, and
from about i to { of an inch in diameter ; and they
are wrapped in soft paper, which is administered
with them. Those for dogs are commonly formed
into large boluses or nut-like pieces. The com-
mon practice in some houses of adding a little
salt of tartar or acetate of potassa to ball-massea
kept in stock, for the purpose of preserving them
in a soft state, is not to be commended, since
these articles decompose many of the saline and
mineral compounds which are subsequently added
to them.

Medicines for neat cattle are always adminis-
tered in a liquid form, popularly called drenches.
A similar plan is adopted with small cattle, as
sheep and goats. For these, however, the quantity
should seldom exceed i pint. In all cases, drenchea
should be very slowly sidministered.

The following are a few useful horse- balls :

Al/rBBAiiVB Balls. 1. Levigated sulphide
of antimony, sulphur, and linseed meal, of each,
3 oz. i nitre, 4 oz. ; palm oil, q. s. to form a mass ;
for 18 balls. One to be taken every day, or every
other day.

2, (Bell^ Sulphide of antimony, nitre, sul-
phur, and ^thiops mineral, of each, 8 oz. ; soft
soap, 10 oz. ; oil of juniper, i oz.; for 12 balli.
As the last.

8. ( Wkite.) Sulphide of antimony, caraways,
and treacle, of each, i oz. ; for one ball. Aa
the last

COBDIAL Balm. 1. (Blatne.) Coriander seed,
caraway, and gentian, of each, 8 oz. ; ginger, 4 oz. ;
oil of aniseed, i oz. ; honey or palm oil, q. s. to
form a mass. Cordial, warming, and stomachic-
Dot*^ li oz.

2. {SiU.) Anise, caraway, and cumin seed, of
each, 4 lbs. ; ginger, 2 lbs. ; treacle, q. s. ; divide
into l}-oz. balls.— iVo(/., 21 lbs.

CouOK Balls. 1. (Blaine.) Ipecacuanha,
1 dr. ; camphor, 2 dr. ; honey, q. s. to form a balL
One night and morning.

8. (Braeif Clark.) Emetic tartar and benzoin,
of each, 8 dr.; squills, 4 dr. ; spermaceti and
balsam of copaiba, of each, 1 oz. ; elecampane
and sulphur, of each, 2 oz. ; syrup of poppies, q. s.
to mix ; for 8 balls. As the last.

DiUBBTio Balu. 1. (Braey Clark.) Nitre
and common turpentine, of each, 1 lb. ; Castile
soap, i lb. ; barley meal, 2^ lbs., or q. s. For
common-sized balls.

8. (Morttm.) Digitalis, 1 oz.; aloes, 8 os.t
liqnoric«, 18 oz.; honey or Barbadoea tar,
q. s. to mix; for 1-oz. balls. One, twice a day,
with care.

Phtsio Bails, PuBaiHO B., Cathabtio B.
1. Aloes and htid soap, of each, 6 oz.; salt;
of tartar and cayenne pepper, of each, 1 oz.
mdt together. For 8 balls.

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17B6

VIBEIO TEITICI— VIBURNUM

8. (Vet Coll.) a. (Commoa phjsio ball.)
Aloes, 8 oc.; treacle, 8 oz.; olive oil, loi.; melted
together.— i)oM, 1 to li oz.

b. (Stronger ball.) To each doee of the lart
add M croton oil, 4 to 8 drops.

OhM. The dote of the above !■ 1 ball, fasting
in the morning, preceded by a bran mash, on one
or two snccessive nights, and followed by g^tle
exercise until the ball begins to opemte,

WOBX Baiu. 1. Barbadoes aloes, 6 dr.;
calomel and (^nger, of each, 2 dr.] cdl of cloves,
18 drops ; treacle, q . s. for a ball.

8. {J. Bell S[ Co)) Barbadoes aloes, 6 to 8 dr. ;
powdered tin, ^thiops mineral, and ginger, of
each, 2 dr. ; oils of aniseed and savine, of each,
20 drops ; trescle, q. s. for a ball.

3. (Clater.) Sulphur and emetic tartar, of
each, 1 dr. ; linseed meal, 4 dr. ; palm oil, q. s. to
form a ball. One every morning, having pre-
pared the animal with a physic ball containing
1 dr. of calom el. See B A£U ; also Tnson's ' Vete-
rinary Pharmacopceia.'

VIBSIO TSITICI. ( TgUnehui tritiei, Baatian.)
Thb Ear Cooklis (or Pubpixs) Wobx. Al-
though this is not an insect it causes frequent
and serious injury to corn plants and grasses,
and shonid, it is considered, be treated of in this
report. Curtis describes it in 'I^arm Insects,'
and Toschenberg also in his ' Praktische InseLten
Knnde,' so that there nre eminent precedents for
this course.

The chief and most dangerons consequences of
the attack of this nematoid, or thread-worm, a
species of the order Nematoidsa, is the replace-
ment which it causes of the grains of com by a
black or dark brown substance known as 'ear
cockle ' or ' pnrples,' of a round shape. It is
commonly supposed that it is the grain that is
actnally converted into this dark mass of cellular
tissue; but it is in fact a foreign body, an excres-
cence, or gall, and contains what appears to be
a mass of small fibres. This is, as the micro-
scope reveals, a cluster of tiny thread-worms.

Com plants are also attacked by this, or, as Mr
Carruthers, the Consnlting Botanist of the Boyal
Agricultural Society, thinks, by another, species
of nematoid, in their stems, so that they are
seriously weakened, and in some instances pre-
vented from flowering (Dr Bastian found spe-
cimens of Pleciui tritiei between the lower part
of the sheaths of wheat-stalks at Broadmoor).

In the case of the ordinary attack in the ears
of corn not only is the crop reduced but the
sample is more or less spoilt, and, besides, there is
the great danger of the extensive reproduction of
nematodes from the galls being sown with the
seed-corn.

lAfe Hittory. The galls containing these
worms are sown with the seed-corn, or are car-
ried by some means into the fields. Upon being
moistened, either by rain or the natural damp-
ness of the earth, they become active and pene-
trato into the stems of the com plants. They
were formerly supposed to permeate the tissues
of the plants, as the worms of the trichina per-
meate the flesh of animals; but it is held by
Davaine, Bastian, and others, that the worms
•scend with the growth of the plants to the
flowers. Mr Carmthers believes that the worms

attack the flowers before their development is
perfect, and suggests that, as in other cases, tlie
gall is a simple excrescence caused by the abnor*
mal flow of sap, probably to heal the injory oc-
casioned to the plant.

After the gall is formed, and is yet soft or
green, the worms within it pair, and eggs are
laid in strings of five and six together, and worms
are hatohed from these. When the gall in
conrse of time becomes harder, or ripe, no more
eggs are laid, and when it is quite hud and dry,
the worms are apparently lifeless. Upon mois-
ture being applied they begin to show signs of
vitality, and wiiggle abont. They retain vitality
for a long time when the galls are kept dry,
Taschenbei^ says for many years. He also
shows that they may be exposed to a heat of 123"
F. withont being affected. It is well known
that the hardest frosts do not destroy them.
They will also lire for months in water. Those
who wish to study the history of these and other
nematoids are referred to Bauer's descriptions,
illustrated by most elaborate drawings, in the
Department of Botany, British Museum, Natural
History ; and Dr Bastian's paper on the Angpnil-
InlidiG, in part 2 of the ' Transactions of the Lin-
nean Society ' for 1866, gives admirable accoonta
and figures of them.

Prevention. Each gall may supply tens of
thounands of worms ready to prey upon the
young com plants. It is therefore most impor-
tant to keep the seed wheat free from galls. To
accomplish this careful screening or winnowing
is essential. Com intended for seed shonid be
' run down' as long as any of the black galls or
cockles remain in the samples. Even when com
is not intended for seed these should be elimi-
nated, as they may be the sources of disease to
human beings or animals.

All the UAV com, and ' chogs ' especially, shonid
be burnt, and not by any means given to the
chickens, nor allowed to g«t into the yard where
manure is made, as there would be the risk of the
galls being carried out to the corn-fields. In
thrashing corn affected the chaff had better be
destroyed, and the returns from the larger screens
put through the fine screens of the band win-
nower with the greatest care.

Another species of Vibrio is peculiar to oat
plants, which it injures by attacking their stems
and causing the main stem to die. New shoots
are thrown out, and these are in turn destroyed.
Much injury was occasioned to oat plants in 1884
and 1885 by these Vibrios in various parts of this
country. Mr Carmthers reported upon this in
December, 1886, to the Council of the Royal
Agricultural Society, and remarked that the
species was different from that which attacks
wheat plante, and was in his opinion peculiar to
oat plants. Dr Bastian recounts in the paper
alluded to above that he found several species of
nematoids lying between the inner sheaths of
vsrious kinds of grasses, among which was At-
tuea elatior (' Reports on Insects Injurious to
Crops,' by Chaa. Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

VIBUBHUll. 1^ Black Haw. The bark
of Viburnum pnmffolium. A sedative and tonio
to the uterine system ; has a good repntation for
preventing abortion. Is also astringent and

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VICTOEU WATBE-LILY— VINEGAR

1767

antitpMinodic, relieving most forms of cramp.
—Ihtu, of liqnid extract (U. S. P.). i to 1 dr.

VICTORIA WATXS-LILT (Fietoria regia,
Iiindl.). A native of Gnisna and Brazil. The
■leaves Bometimes measure 12 feet across, and the
expanded flowers about a foot in diameter. The
seeds are eaten by the Indians.

VIVSQAS. Sgn. Acstck, L. ; Vihaiobb,
Ft. IMInte acetic acid, more or less contaminated
with gum, sugar, and vegetable matter.

Prep. 1. Haxt tinbqab, Acbtth, Bbitish

.TTNXOAB (B. P.) ; AOBTUK BslTAHNICrK (Ph.

X. b, £.), L. This is the ordinary coloured vinegar
consumed in this country, and is correctly described
in the Ph. L. as "impure (dilute) acetic acid,
prepared by fermentation from an infusion of malt
(malt wort)."

In the manufacture of malt vihboab, a jnix-
tnre of malt and barley is mashed with hot water,
and the resulting wort fermented, as in the
common process of brewing. The liquor is then
run into barrels, placed endways, tied over with
coarse canvas, and arranged side by side in dark-
ened chambers, moderately heated by a stove, and
freely supplied with air. Here it remains till the
acetous fermentation is nearly complete, which
usually occupies several weeks, or even months.
The newly formed vinegar is next run off into two
large tuns, furnished with false bottoms, on which
some 'rape' (the pressed cake from making
domestic wines, or the green twigs or cuttings
from vines) is placed. One of these vessels is
wholly, and the other only about 3-4ths, filled.
The fermentation recommences, and the acetifica-
tion proceeds more rapidly in the latter than in
the former tun, and Uie liquor it contains con-
sequently matures the sooner. When fit for sale,
a portion of the vinegar is withdrawn from the
■mailer quantity, and its place supplied with a
like quantity from the full tun, and this in its
turn is refilled from the barrels before noticed.
This process is carried on with a number of tuna
at once, which are all worked in pairs.

Prop., ^0. The general properties of malt
vinegar are well known. Its pleasant and refresh-
ing odour is chiefly derived from acetic acid and
•cetic ether. Its strength is distinguished by the
makers as Nos. 18, 20, 22, and 24; the last of
which, also called ' proof vinegar,' is the strongest,
and usually contains about 4*6% of real or about
6% of glacial acetic acid. Its density varies
according to the quantity of foreign matter which
it contwns. Sp. gr. I'Ol? to 1019 (B. P.). This
vinegar usually contains a small quantity of sul-
phuric acid. The presence of 1-lOOOth part of
this acid is allowed by law.

Pur. " Brownish ; of a peculiar odour. Its
sp. gr. is 1*019. 1 fl. oz, of the acid is saturated
by 1 dr. of the crystals of carbonate of soda. If,
after 10 minims of solution of chloride of barium
have been added to the same quantity, more of the
chloride be poured into the filtered acid, nothing
further is thrown down. llie colour is not
changed by the addition of hydrosulphuric acid "
(Ph. L.).

2. WlHB TIKBaAB, TBBKOH T.J ACBTtV GtU^

UCTTM (Fb. E. ft D.), A. TlHi, li.; VmAiasB
D'OsLiAKB, Fr. This is prepared, in wine conn-
tries^ from grape-juice and inferior new wines.

worked up with wine-lees, by a nearly similar
process to thatadopted for malt vinegar. That pre-
pared from white wine (whitb-wihb TiMBaAB)
is the most esteemed. It is purer and pleasanter
than malt vinegar. Sp. gr. 1014 to 1-022 (Ph. E. j
1-016— PkiUipt). It usually contains from 6% to
6% of acetic add. " 100 parts of good Orleans
vinegar should require 10 parts of dry carbonate
of potaasa for saturation " (Soubeirm).

8. QbBKAH, OB QUICK MBTEOD OV HAXJOSQ

tutboab; Pboobsb or bam. This method is
baaed upon the fact that acetification is the mere
oxidation of alcohol in contact with organic matter.
Hence, by employing dilute alcohol, or liquors cou-
taining it, and by vastly enlarging the surface of
the liquid exposed to the air at a proper tempera-
ture, we may reduce the period occupied in acetifl.
cation from weeks to as many hours. In practice
this is effected by causing the dilute spirit, pre-
viously mixed with 1-lOOOth part of sugar or malt
extract, or the fermented and clarified malt wort,
to slowly trickle down through a mass of beech
shavings steeped in vinegar, and contained in a
vessel called a vinegar generator (Essigbilder), or
graduation vessel. This is an oaken tub, narrower
at the bottom than at the top, furnished with a loose
lid or cover, below which is a perforated shelf
(colander or false bottom), having a number of
small holes, which are loosely filled with pack-
thread about 6 inches long, and prevented from
falling through by a knot at the upper end. The
shelf is also perforated with four open glass tubes as
air- vents, each having its ends projecting above
and below the shelf. This arrangement is repeated
a second and a third time, or even ofteoer, accord-
ing to the size of the vessel. The tube or gradua-
tor at its lower part is pierced with a horizontal
row of eight equidistant round holes, to admit at-
mospheric air. One Inch above the bottom is a
syphon-formed discharge pipe, whose upper cur-
vature stands one inch below the level of the air-
holes in the side of the tub. The floors or
partitions of the tub or generator being covered
with birch twigs or beech chips to the depth of a
few inches, the alcoholic liquor (first heated to
between 75° and 83° F.) is introduced at the
upper part of the apparatus. This immediately
commences trickling slowly down through the
holes by means of the packthreads, diffuses itself
over the chips or twigs forming the respective
strata, slowly collects at the bottom of the tub,
and then runs oflT by the syphon-pipe. The air
enters by the circumferential holes, circulates
freely through the tub, and escapes by the glass
tubes. As the acetification proceeds, the tempera-
ture of the liquid rises to 100° or 105° F., and
remains stationary at that point while the action
goes on favourably. The alcoholic solution or wort
requires to be passed three or four times through
the cask before acetification is complete, which
is, in general, efiected in from 24 to 36 hours.

Obi, For the production of a superior vinegar
by this process, it is necessary that the spirit
employed be sufficiently pure not to contaminate
the product with its flavoui- or odour, and that the
malt wort should be fermented and treated with
all the care usually employed in the production
of beer. The best English manufacturers who
have adopted this process are in the habit of fil-

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1768

VINKOAR

tering or ckrifying Uieir fermented wash, and
«lso of storing it away for KTersl months before
they subject it to acetifieation in the graduator.
The most favonrable temperature for the pro-
cess is abont 90° F., and this sboold be preserved,
as mncb as possible, by artificial means. — Prod.
A malt wort of the sp. gr. 1-072, or, in " technical
language, weighing about 86 lbs. per barrel,
afforded a vinegar containing 6"4% of pure acetic
add. and a reaidnary extract of 10 lbs. for 36
.galls. The former of these would indicate 35
lbs. of sugar, or 13-7 lbs. per barrel of gravity ;
whilst the latter shows S-8 lbs. per barrel ; the two
noited being only 17'6 lbs. instead of 26 lbs., the
ori^nal weight. The loss, therefore, has been
8*5 lbs., or from a sp. gr. of 1-072 to less than
1-060" (Cre). Thus about one third of all the
«ztractive matter of the malt is lost or dissipated
during the processes of fermentation and acetifi-
cation. According to Knapp, a mixture of about
80 ^Is. of water, 9 galls, of spirit of from 44%
to 46% Tralles (18 or 20 n. p.), and 3 galls, of
vinegar containing 8"6% of Ttxi. acid, forming
together 92 galls., yields, on an average, an almost
equal quantity of vinegar, or about from 90 to
SI galls, of the above-stated strength.

4. Wood vnrBSAS. See FTBOuonBorB Acid.

5. OlHBB TASIXTIB8 Of TUTiaAB, of minor

importance, chiefly domestic, and commonly
'worked' as malt vinegar — Aim tirkoab, alx-
aABj AoBTDif OKSBViBLS. From strong pale
ale which has soured. — Abool tiitboab; Acs-
Tim BX TABTABO. From white argol or cream
■of tartar, 1 lb. ; dissolved in boiling water, 2
galls.; with the addition, when cold, of proof
spirit of whiskey, 8 pints. — Cbtbtax vhtbgab.
Pickling vinegar, discoloured with fresh-burnt
animal charcoal. — Cn>BB tikboab. From cider,
'worked' as malt vinegar. — Qbbkan hocbbhou)
vnrBOAB. From soft water, 7i galls. ; honey or
brown sugar, 2 lbs. ; cream of tartar, 2 oz. ; com
spirit, or whiskey, 1 gall. — GkxMXBBBBT tikb-
OAB. From bruised gooseberries and brown
sugar, of each, li lbs.; water, 1 gall. Other
fmits may be substituted for gooseberries. —
PiCKXiKS rnrBaAB. The strongest pale malt
vinegar. — Baisih vthboab. From the marc left
from making raisin wine, 1 ewt. to every 18 or
15 galls, of water, along with a little yeast. —
SvQAB tutboab. From brown sugar, 4 lbs. to
each gallon of water. — Wkisxbt vnrxaAB. From
whiskey, 1 pint ; sugar, 2 oc. ; yeast, a dessert-
spoonful.

Pmr., TaiU, mtd Jttay. These are, for the
most part, rather fully noticed under Acbtio
Acid, Aoidikbtbt, and above. The following
additional tests, Ac., may, however, be useful :—
1. Paper written on or smeared with pure vinegar
is not charred when strongly warmed before the
fire ; if it is, the sample examined contains fully
2% of (dl of vitriol. 2. A small porcelain capsule
or china cup, dipped into a solution of sugar in
80 times its weight of water, and then heated to
a tempeistore equal to that of boiling water,
is not materially discoloured when a drop of pure
vinegar is poured on it ; but a spot of an intensely
brown or black colour is formed if the sample
contains only l>S0Oth part of sulphuric acid ; if it
contains only 1-lOOOth part the spot is oliva-green;

and if a less quantity, then only of • pale grees
colour. 8. The heavy white precipitate griven with
chloride of barium (see above) shows the presence
of sulphuric add ; each grain, after being dried
and gently ignited, represents '344 gr. of dry ml-
phunc add. If the precipitate from 1000 gr. of
the vinegur exceeds 21 gr. it contains an illegal
quantity of this add. 4. If a solution of nitrate
of silver gives a doudy white predpitate hydro-
chloric acid is present. 6. If, after the additini
of 2 or 8 gr. of carbonate of potash, and evapora-
tiou of the sample to dryness, the residuum de6a-
g^tee when ignited, the sample under examina-
tion contains nitric acid. 6. If the vinegar be
blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen or hydrosnl-
phnret of ammonia, it contains either lead at
copper. If it gives a yellow precipitate with
ioduie of potassium or diromate of potash, the
metal is lead. If ferrocyanide of potassium gives
a bronze-brown coloured precipitate, or a little
olive oil, when agitated with some of the vin^ar,
be turned green, the metal is copper. 7. If •
small sample, gently evaporated to dryness, leaves
more than 1% of residuum, and this has a sweet
taste, it is undecomposed sugar. The presence ol
acrid substances, as capsicum, chillies, grains of
paradise, mustard seed, pellitory of Spain, pepper,
Ac., may be detected by neutralising the addity
of the vinegar with carbonate of soda, when
the acrid taste of the adulterant will be readily
perodved.

Vinegar, Antihyster'ic. Sy». AcRXUlc AXn-
BTBTBBiotnt, L. JPrep. Castor, 2 dr.; galba.
num, 4 dr. ; rue, 1 oi.; vinegar, 3 lbs.; macerate
and strain.

▼inegar, Aiomaf ie. £^*. Aoanni aboka-
Tioux, L. Prep. 1. Qlacial acetic add, 1 lb. ;
oil of cloves, l{ dr. ; oil of rosemary, 1 dr. ; oils
of bergamot, cinnamon, pimento, and lavender,
of each, i dr. ; neroli, 20 drops ; camphor, 2^01.;
rectified spirit, 2 fi. oz.; mix. Very fine.

2. (J2inHy«.) From glacial acetic add, strongly
scented with the oils of doves, lavender, nee-
mary, and CtUamtu aromalietu, to which the
usual qiumtity of camphor is added. Tlua is Ore
f ormnUk adopted at Apothecaries' Hall.

8. (Extemporaneous.) From acetate of potash
(dry), 1 dr.; oil of vitriol, 20 drops; oils of lemon
and cloves, of each, 3 drops.

▼inegar, Aromatio (for tick room*). Prop.
Camphor, 8 parts; oil of cassia, 1 part; oil of
pimento, 1 part; oil of bergamot, 1 part; oil of
cloves, 1 part; oil of lavender, 2 parts; acetie
add, 24 parts ; rectified spirit, 24 parts ; gladal
acetic add to 128 parts.

Obt. Aromatic vinegar is used as a pungent
and refreshing perfume, in funtness, Ac. For
this purpose it is generally dropped on a small
piece of sponge placed in a stoppered bottle or a
vinaigrette. It is highly comwive, and dioold
therefore be kept from contact with the akin and
clothes.

Tiaagar, Camp. Prep. Take of sliced garlic,
8 oz. ; Cayenne pepper, soy, and walnut kebehnp,
of each, 4 oz. ; 36 chopped anchovies ; vinegar, 1
galL ; powdered cochineal, i oz. ; macerate for a
month, strain, and bottle.

Vinegar, Oam'plMrated.

^aegar of Canthar'idea. Sgn. Buamcro

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YQIBOAE

1769

■vmaut-, AoirvK ourrKABiDn (B. P., Ph. L.,
E., and D.), L. Prop. 1. (Ph. L.) Cantha-
ridea, in powder, 8 oi. ; aoetic acid, 1 pint ; mace-
rate, witii a{^tation, for 8 days, then press and
■tndn.

8. (Ph. £.) Cantharides, 8 os. ; enphorbiam,
i DC ; acetic acid, 6 fl. oi. ; pyroli^neoiu acid, 16
4. M. ; macerate a week.

8. (Ph. D.) Spanish flies, 4 oz. ; strong aoetic
add, 4 fl. 01. ; commercial acetic acid (sp. gr.
I'OM), 16 fl. OS.; macerate, aa before, for 14
■days.

4. (B. P.) Cantharides, in powder, 8 parte;
glacial acetic add, 2 parts ; acetic add (£8% )> 18
parts, or a safficiencyj add the gladal acetic
add to 13 parte of acetic acid, and in this mix-
ture cUgest the cantharides for two hours at a
temperature of 200° F. ; when cold, place them
in a percolator, and when the liqtud ceases to
■drop, pour over the residuum the remaining 6
parte of acetic acid, and when the percolation is
finished, press and make the whole liquid up to
20 parte.

tF»t*, 4«. As a counter-irritant, and to raise
blisters. For the last purpose it is applied on a
{dace of lint, evaporation being prevented with a
^ece of oiled skin or thin sheet gntta percha.
The last is the best, and, indeed, the only efteo-
tire form, the others being too weak. " If the
acetic acid be strong, a blister will be as rapidly
raised without. the cantharides as with them"
(DrA. T. Thomtim).

Vinegar of Cap'sieum. Sj/». Aoirux oaf-
BiOB. Prep. Capsicum, 1 oz.j rinegar, 24 os.
Used as gai^le.

Vinegar «f Col'eUcnm. 8gn. Acbtuk ool-
OHIOI (Ph. L., E., and D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Dried corms of colchicum or meadow saffron, Si
dr. ; dilute acetic acid, 1 pint ; macerate for S
^ys, then press out the liquor, and, after defe-
cation, add to the strained liquid proof spirit, li
fl. ox.

a. (Ph. E.) Fresh colchicum bulbs (dried), I
■4M. } distilled vinegar, 16 fl. oz. { proof spirit, 1
<fl. oz.

8. (Ph. D.) Dried colchicum bulbs, 1 oz. ;
acetic add (1044), 4 fl. oz. ; distilled water, 18 fi.
ox. ; as before, but prolonging the maceration for
7 days.

Obe. Vinegar of colchicum is chiefly used in
gout. — Dote, 20 drops to 1 fl. dr. The Dublin
preparation is about three times aa strong as the
others, and the dose must therefore be propor-
tionately less.

^^negar, Cur'rie. Prep. From cnrris powder,
i lb. ; vinegar, 1 gall. ; infuse for a week. Used
as a flavouring. Other like vinegars may be
made in the same way.

Vinegar, Distilled. Byn. AomTM Dmo-
XATTO (Ph. L. and B., and Ph. D. 1826), L.
ttrtp. 1. (Ph. L.) Vinegar, 1 gall. ; distil in a
■•iid-hath 7 pints. Sp. gr. 1-0066.

2. (Ph. E.) Vinegar (praferably French), 8
parte J distil over with a gentie heat 7 parte ; and
dUnte the product, if necessary, with distilled
water, nntil the sp. gr. is 1*006.

Pmr., (f-e. '■ 1 fl. oz. is saturated by 67 gr. of
crystallised carbonate of soda" (Ph. L.). 100
gr. are saturated by 18 gr. of crystallised car-

bonate of soda. It contiuns about 4*6% of i«al
aoetic acid. If a pewter worm is used, a portion
of lead is dissolved, and the product becomes
cloudy and poisonous. Distilled vinegar is more
agreeable than pore dilute acetic acid of the same
strength.

ViJiegar of Foz'glove. Sj/n. Acbtuk di»i-
TAHfl (Ph. G,), L. Prep. Dried foxglove, 1 oz. ;
vinegar, 9 ox. (by weight) ; rectified spirit, 1 oz.
(by weight). Macerate for 8 days, press, and fil-
ter.— Dote, 80 minims.

Vinegar of Garlle. Syn. Acbtuk auu.
Prep. Fresh garlic, 1 oz.; distilled vineicar,
12 01.

Vinegar of Lav'ender. Sy». Aobtvh la-
TAHDUUB (P. Cod.), L. Prep. Digest 1 troy ox.
of dried lavender flowers with 12 oz. of vinegar
for 10 days. The vinegars of other flowers are
made in the same manner.

Vinegar of Lobelia, i^. Aoitux IiObklui,
L. Prep. Lobelia in moderately coarse powder,
4 troy oz. Diluted acetic acid, 2 pinte (o. m.).
Macerate for 7 days.

Vinegar, MarseUIes. 8g». VuraaAs ov ihi

FOtTB IHIBTE8, PBOPHTLAOTIO TINIOAB; AOB-
TITK CBOPHYI.AOII0TriC, A. ANTISBPTICnK, A.
TEIIUAOALB, A. QUATDOB PUBUM, L. ; VlHAISBB

DBS QUATBB TOLBDBB, Fr. Prep. Take of the
snmmite of rosemary and flowers of sage (dried),
of each, 4 oz, ; dried lavender flowers, 2 os. ;
doves, 1 dr. ; distilled vinegar, 1 gall.; digest for
7 days, press, and filter. Used as a corrector of
bad smells, and formerly as a prophylaetio
against the plague and other contagions dis-
eases. It is said to have been a favourite pre-
ventive witii Cardinal Wolsey, who always car-
ried some with him. The original formula also
contuned of garlic, i oz. ; fresh rue, H oz. ; and
camphor, dissolved in spirit, 1 oz.

Vinegar of Hns'tard. Sgn. Acbtdm snrAPlB
{Beral), L. Prep. Mustard, 1 oz. ; vinegar, 12
OS. ; distil 8 Oz. For outward use, as a counter-
irritant.

Vinegar of 0"pinm. Sj/n. Aobtitm opii (Ph.
B. and D.), L, Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Opium,
sliced, 4 oz. ; distilled vinegar, 16 fl. oz. ; mace-
rate for 7 days, press, and filter. — Dote, 6 to 80
drops.

2. (Ph. D.) Opium, in coarse powder, 1) ox. ;
dilute acetic add, 1 pint; macerate for 7 days.'—
2>ote, 10 or 12 to 60 drops.

Obt. These were intended to supersede the
old ' black drop,' which they dosely resemble in
thdr action.

Vinegar, BaspHberry. Syn. Aobtitk bttbi

tDMt, L.; YlKAiaBB FRAXBOIBB, Fr. iVsp.

1. Bruised ripe raspberries and white wine
vinegar, of each, 8 pinte ; macerate for 8 days,
press, strain, and to each pint add of white sugar,
1 lb, ; boil, skim, cool, and at once bottle. Some
persons add 8 fl. oz. of brandy to each pint.

2. (P. Cod.) French raspberries, picked from
their calices, 3 lbs. (1 lb.— Ph. Bor.); good
vinegar, 2 lbs. ; macerate in glass for a fortnight,
then strain, without pressure.

Obt. In a similar manner may be made chanj
vinegar, strawberry v., and the vinegars of aU
other like frnite.

Vinegar of Bae. Syn. Aoirnjt buui (Ed.

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1760

VINOUS FERMENTATION

Ph. 174A). Prep. Hue, 1 lb. troy; vinegar,

lg»H.

Yinegar of Sqnilli. Sg». Acvtuk BCiiiUi,
Aoarnx soiiutioum, L. JPrtp. 1. (B. P.)
Take of squills, recently dried and bmised, 2^ oz.;
dilate acetic acid, 1 plat ; macerate in a covered
Teasel for 7 days, then press oat the Uqnor, and
filter.

8. (Wholesale.) From squills, 7 lbs. ; distilled
vinegar, 6 galls.; macerate in the cold for 10
days, press, and 61ter. Expectorant and diuretic.
—Dote, i to li fl. dr.; in chronic pulmonsry
afTections, dropsies, &c.

Vinegar (Cu'Unaiy). Pnp. 1. Bucx pipfbb

ylSBOAB, CAFBB T., 0AP8I0UK T., CBLBBT-BBBD
T., OBILLIB T., 0BBB8-BBBD T.;eABUC T.,OIHeBB
T., BOB8EBADI8H V., ONIOK Y., BBS-BOSB V.,
SiTIIXB OBAIiaE'FEBIi Y., SEAXLOT Y., TBUFFLB

T., WHITB FBPFEB V., with several others of a
like kind, are made by steeping about an oz. of
the respective articles in a pint of good vinegar
for 14 days, and straining.

2. Ua8II> YINBaAB, BUBMBT Y., OBI.BBT Y.,
CHBBYII. T., BU>BB.TIOWBB Y., OBBBH-XIITT Y.,

UBBAOON T., with several others from like sub-
stances, are prepared from 2 to 3 oz. of the leaves
to each pint of vinegar; the whole being fre-
quently shaken for 14 days, then strained and
bottled. Tliey are used in cookery. The ciili-
naiy vin^^rg may also be prepared in the same
manuer as the ' culinary spirits' and 'tinctures,'
by simply substituting strong pickling vinegar for
fhe spirit.

Vinegan (Farftamed). Sff». Acbta odobi-
nBA, L. Prep. From the dried flowers, 1 to
2 oz., or the fresh flowers, 2 to 4 oz. ; strongest
distilled vinegar, 1 pint ; digest for a week, strain
with pressure, and repeat the process with fresh
flowers if necessary. They may also be made by
adding 15 to 20 drops, or q. a. of the respective
essential oils to the vinegar. In a similar way are
prepared the vinegars of clove gillyflowers, elder
flowers, lavender flowers (vinaigre distill^ de
lavande), musk roses, orange flowers (fresh),
Provence roses, red roses (vinaigre de rose; acetum
rosatum), rosemary flowers (vinaigre derosmarin;
acetum anthnsatum), tarragon flowers, &c. &c.
Another excellent plan is to add 1 fl. oz. of glacial
acetic acid to each pint of the respective perfumed
spirits. Tliis answers admirably for acetic ean de
Cologne and like perfumes.

Vinegars (Spiced) . The following are given by
the ' Mineral Water Trades Review : '

For French Beatu. Distilled or very pale
malt vinegar, 1 gall. ; white peppercorns, 4 oz. ;
bleached ginger (sliced), 2 oz. ; chillies, 1 oz.
Into i gall, of the vinegar place the whole of the
spices and allow to macerate for twelve hours ;
then simmer (do not boil) gently for one hour in
an enamelled pan, covering the top. To be used hot.

For Oherkiru. Oood malt vinegar, 1 gall. ;
black peppercorns, 6 oz. ; sliced ginger, 4 oz. ;
chillies, 1 oz. ; garlic, in slices, 1 oz. Boil the
■pices and garlic gently in half the vinegar for
naif an hour, strain throngh a sieve, nnd add the
rest of the vinegar to the spices and again strain.
To the remnant spices add 2 oz. of salt and 1 pint of
water, and boil for half an hour. After removing
from the fire add 1 pint of vinegar, and again

strain into the spiced vinegar, which when per-
fectly cold may be poured over the gherkins.

For Walnmtt (to be used hot). Oood malt
vinegar, 8 galls. ; black peppercorns, i lb. ; ginger,
unbleached, 6 oz. ; mnstartl seed, 1 lb. ; doves,
2 oz. ; mace, 2 oz. ; garlic, in slices, 2 oz. In 1
gall, of vinegar boil the whole of the spiees^
and having strsined, pour the hot liquor over the
walnuts, then boil the remaining gallon of vinegar
and pour over spices, &c. This pickle takes some
time to mature, but if properly prepared should be
ready for use in three months.

VllrOlIS FSRMEHTA'TIOS. Sg*. Axcohouo
FBBUBHTATION. The peculiar change by which
sugar, in solution, is converted into carbonic acid,
which is eliminated, and into alcohol, which re-
mains in solution in the fermented liqnor.

The presence of a ' ferment' is essential to exdte
the vinous fermentation, as a solution of abaolntely
pure sugar remains unaltered, even though ex-
posed to the conditions most favourable to ita
accession. In the juices of the sweet fruits, and
in those vegetable solutions that spontaAeonsly
run into a state of fermentation, the ferment is
supplied by nature, and is intimately associated
with the saccharine matter. In the juice of those
grapes which prodnce the more perfect wines, the
relat i ve proportions of the excdters of fermentation
and the sugar are so accurately apportioned, that
the whole of the former are decomposed, and
nearly the whole of the latter is converted into
alcohol ; so that the liquid (wine) is left in a
state but little liable to ftitare change. An infn.
sion of malt, however, in which the nitrogeniaed
matters (gluten, vegetable albumen, &c.) are
absent, or at least present in too small quantities
to vigorously excite the vinous fermentation,
undergoes a mixed species of decomposition, with
the formation of products widely difFerent from
those that result from the true vinous fermenta-
tion ; or, in other words, the liquid becomea
spoiled. But if a ferment (yeast) be added to this
infusion of malt under the above circumstances,
and in the proper proportion to the sugar present,
the true vinous fermentation speedily commences,
and the liquid becomes converted into beer. This
is what actually takes place in the process of
brewing, and the scientific brewer endeavours to
employ a proper quantity of ferment to decompose
the whole of the saccharine matter of his wort ;
but, at the same time, as equally endeavoors to
avoid the use of an excess.

The chief product of the vinous f ermentatioit
is alcohol, hot there are other substances simul-
taneously produced, and which remain associated
with the fermented liqoor. Among the principal
of these are oenanthic acid, oenanthic ether, foael
oil (oil of potato spirit, oil of grain), &c. ; none of
which exist previously to fermentation, and are
generally supposed to result from the action of the
nitrogenised matters of the solution on the sugar.
Under certain circnmstaDcas these eztraneons
products are formed in much larger quantities
than nnder others ; and as these substances injur*
the value of the alcohol with which they are as-
sociated, a knowledge of the peculiar circum-
stances &vonrable and unfavonrable to their pro-
duction is a desideratum to the brewer and
distiller.

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VINOUS FERMENTATION

1761

According to MM. Colin and Th^nard, Fr^my,
Boussean, and others, the essential condition of a
ferment, to be able to excite the pnre vinous fer-
mentation, is to be sufficiently acidulous to act on
<M>loured test-paper ; and this acidity shonld arise
from the presence of certain vegetable acids and
salts, capable of conversion into carbonic acid and
carbonates by their spontaneous decomposition.
Those acids and salts which are fonnd to pre-
«cist in fermentable fruits and liquors, as the
tartaric, citric, malic, and lactic acids, and their
salts shonld be chosen for this purpose; pre-
ference being given to the bitartrate of potassa,
on account of its presence in the grape. The ad-
dition of any of these substances to a saccharine
solution renders its fermentation both more active
and complete. The favourable influence of cream
of tartar on fermentation was first pointed out by
Th^nard and Colin, and the addition of a little of
this article has been adopted in practice, with
manifest advantage, by the manofacturers of
British wine.

There is good reason for supposing that each
variety of sugar which is susceptible of the alco-
holic fermentation is first converted into grape
•agar by contact with the ferment, and that this
variety of sugar is alone capable of yielding car-
bonic acid and alcohol.

The circumstances most favourable to this fer-
mentation are a certain degree of warmth, a suffi-
cient quantity of active ferment, and its due dis-
tribution through the liquor. The temperature of
from 68° to 77° F. is usually regarded as the most
propitious for the commencement and progress of
fermentation; but it has been ably shown by
Liebig that, at this temperature, the newly formed
alcohol slowly undergoes the ' acetous fermenta-
tion,' forming vinegar, by which the vinous
character of the liquor is lessened. This conver-
sion of alcohol into vinegar proceeds most rapidly
at a temperature of 95° F., and gradually becomes
more languid, until, at about 46° to 50° F. (8 to
10 C), it ceases altogether, while the tendency
of the nitrogenous substances to absorb oxygen at
thia low temperature is scarcely diminished in a
perceptible degree. " It is therefore evident that
if wort (or any other saccharine solution) is fer-
mented in wide, open, shallow vessels, as is done
in Bavaria, which afford free and unlimited access
to the atmospheric oxygen, and this in a situation
where the temperature does not exceed 46° to 60°
F., a separation of the nitrogenous constituents,
i. a. the exciters of acidification, talces plsce simul-
taneously on the surface, and within the whole body
of the liquid " (Liebig). By this method wine or
beer is obtained which is invariably far superior
in quality to that fermented in the usual manner.

See FSBMBSTATION.

The symptoms of a perfect fermentation of malt
wort, according to the usual English system with
top yeast {pberbefa), have been thus described by
s well-known practical writer on brewing : — 1. A
cream-like substance forms round the edges of
the gyle tun, which gradually extends itself, and
ultimately covers the whole surface of the liquor.
8. A fine curly or cauliflower head in a similar
way extends itself over the surface, and indicates
to the experienced brewer the probable quality of
the fermentation. 8. Uie 'stomach,' or 'vinous
TOL. u.

odour,' is next evolved, and continues to increase
with the attenuation of the wort. The peculiar
nature of this odour is also an indication of the
state of the fermentation. 4. The cauliflower
head changes, or rises to a fine ' rocky ' or ' yeasty '
head, and ultimately falls dovrn. 6. In this stage
the head assumes a peculiar yeasty appearance,
called by brewers ' close-yeasty,' and the gas i*
evolved in sufficient quantity to blow up little
bells or bubbles, which immediately burst, and
are followed by others, at intervals depending on
the activity and forwardness of the fermentation.
These bells should be bright and clear ; as, if
they appear opaque and dirty, there is something
the matter with the wort (Black).

It is often of the utmost importance to brewers,
wine merchants, sugar refiners, druggists, jcc, to
be able to lessen the activity of the vinous fermen-
tation, or to stop it altogether, or to prevent its
accession to syrups and other saccharine and
vegetable solutions. Whatever will still the
motion of the molecules of the nitrogenous matter
forming the ferment will render them i;ioperative
as exciters of fermentation. Among the simplest
means of effecting this object, and such as admit
of easy practical application, may be mentioned
exposure to either cold or heat. At a temperature
below about 60° F. the acetous fermentation
is suspended, and the alcoholic fermentation pro-
ceeds with diminished activity as the temperature
falls, until at about 38° F. it ceases altogether.
In like manner the rapid increase of the tempera-
ture of a fermenting liquid arrests its fermenta-
tion, and is preferable to the action of cold, as it
is of easier application, and perfectly precipitates
the ferment in an inert state. For this purpose
a heat of about 180° F. is sufficient ;' but even
that of boiling water may be employed with ad-
vantage. In practice fluids are commonly raised
to their boiling-point for this purpose, or they
are submitted to the heat of a warm bath (207i°
If\). In this way the fermentation of syrups and
vegetable solntions'and juices is commonly arrested
in the pharmaceutical laboratory.

Among substances that may be added to liquids
to arrest fermentation the most active are — the
volatile oil of mustard, coarsely powdered mustard
seed, or pure flour of mustard, sulphurous acid or
the fumes of bnming sulphur, sulphuric acid,
sulphite of lime, tincture of catechu, strong spirit,
strong acetic acid, chlorate of potassa, sugar of
milk, bruised horse-radish, garlic, and cloves, and
their essential oils, and all the other volatile oils
that contain snlpfaur, and most of the salts that
readily part with their oxygen. These substances
arrest fermentation by rendering the yeast in-
operative, and they possess this power nearly in
the order in which they stand above. In prac-
tice, mustard, the fumes of burning sulphur, sul-
phite of lime, and chlorate of potassa, are thoee
most adapted for beer, cider, wiues, syrups, &c. ;
but some of the others are occasionally used,
though less active. For arresting or preventing
the fermentation of the vegetable juices and
solutions, and the medicated syrups employed in
pharmacy, mustard seed, either alone or combined
with a little bruised cloves, may be safely used,
as the addition of acids or salts would lead to
the decomposition of their active principles.

Ill

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1782

VIOLET— VISION

Vat this reuon snch liquids should be kept in a
sufficiently low tempentnTe to prerent fermen-
tation ; and should they pass into that state it
should be preferably arrested by the application
of heat or cold, as abore explained. Sugar of milk
■• also very effective for certun syrups, if not all
of them.

To prerent, or rather to lessen, the production
of fusel oil, it has been proposed to add a certain
quantity of tartaric acid or bitartrate of potasaa
to the wort, or to arrest the fermentative process
somewhat before the liquid has reached its utmost
degree of attenuation. The best means of de-
priving the spirit of this and other substances of
a similar nature is to largely dilute it with water,
and to redistil it at a gentie heat. Agitation with
olive oil, decantation, dilution with a large quan-
tity of water, and recUstillation, have also been
recommended. An excellent method is filtration
through newly burnt and coarsely powdered char-
coal. This plan succeeds perfectly with mode-
rately diluted spirit. On the Continent, the
addition of about 10% of common vinegar, and a
very little sulphuric acid, followed by agitation,
repose for a few days, and redistillation, is a
favourite method. A solution of chloride of lime
is also employed for the same purpose, and in the
same way. In both these cases a species of ether
is formed, which possesses a very agreeable odour.
In the first, acetate of oxide of amy! (essence of
jargonelle) is produced ; and in the other, chloride
of smyl, which also possesses a pleasant ethereal
smell and taste. The affinity of the hydrated
oxide of amyl (fusel oil) for acetic acid is so
great that they readily unite without the inter-
vention of a mineral acid (Doebereiner). Thus
the oil of vitriol mentioned above, though always
used in practice, might be omitted vrithout any
disadvantage.

According to Messrs Bowerbank, the distillers
quoted by Dr Pereira, 500 galls, of corn-spirit
yield about 1 gall, of corn-spirit oil. See Aceti-
noATiOH, Alcohoi., BsEwiira, Dibtiuu.tiok,
Fbbmbittation, Fubsl Oil, Spibit, ViirBaAB,
ViBCOUB Fbbksntation, Ykast, &c.

VI'OLET. iSyn. Pvbplb violbt, Swbit v. ;
Viou (Ph. L. &, E.), li. " The recent petals of
Viola odorata, Linn." (Ph. L.). It is chiefly
nsed on account of its colour. See Syxup.

VIOLET DTE. Tiolei, like purple, is produced
by a mixture of red and blue colouring matter,
applied either together or in succession. The
' aniline colours ' are now almost exclusively used
for obtaining violet on silk and wool (see Akiuhb,
FVBPIJI, and Tab Coloubb). With the old dye-
stuffs, violet may thus be obtained: — A good
violet may be given to silk or wool by passing it
first through a solution of verdigris, then through
a decoction of logwood, and lastly through alum
water. A fast violet may be given by first dye-
ing the goods a crimson with cochineal, without
alum or tartar, and, after rinsing, passing them
through the indigo vat. Linens and cottons are
first galled with about 18% of gall-nuts, next
passed through a mixed mordant of alum, iron
liquor, and sulphate of copper, working them well,
then through a madder-bath made with an equal
weight of root, and, lastly, brightened with soap
or soda. Another good method is to pass cloth.

previously dyed Turkey red, tliroagh the bine
vat. Wool, silk, cotton, or linen, mordanted
with alum and dyed in a logwood-bath, or a mixed
bath of wrchil aiid Brazil, takes a pretty but Use
violet.

VIS'COnS RaXEBTATUnr. Bg*. Kvci-
i^AamouB nmcnTTATiOH, Muoons t. The pecu-
liar change by which sugar, in solutJon. is con-
verted into gummy mattras, and otiier products,
instead of into alcohoL

When the expressed juice of the beet is exposed
to a temperature of SV" to VOtf V. tot t con-
siderable time, the sugar it contains snffers this
peculiar kind of fermentation. Gases are evolved
which are rich in hydrogen, instead of being ex-
clusively carbonic acid; and when the sugar has,
for the most part, disappeared, mere traces of
alcohol are fonnd in the liquid, but, in place of
that substance, a quantity of lacUc acid, mannite,
and a mucilaginous substance resembling gum-
arabic, and said to be identical with gum in com-
position. By boiling yeast or the gluten of
wheat in water, dissolving sugar in the filtered
solution, and exposing it to a tolerably high
temperature, the viscous fermentation is set up,
and a large quantity of the gummy principle
generated, along with a ferment of a globular
texture, like that of yeast, but which is capable
of producing only the viscous fermentation in sac-
diarine solutions.

The peculiar doody, stringy, oily appearance
of wine and beer, called by the French ' graisse,'
and the English ' ropiness,' depends on the acces-
sion of the viscous fermentation. The mineral
acids and astringent substances, especially the
sulphuric and sulphurous acids, and tannin, pre-
cipitate the viscous ferment, and are, hence, the
best cures for this malady of fermented liquors.
It is the large amount of tannic acid in the red
wines and well-hopped beer which is the cause
of their never being attacked with 'graisse,'
or 'ropiness.' See VnioiTB Fsbkbhtatioit,
Wikbs, Ac.

VI"8I0V. The following means of preserving
and restoring the sight may be appropriately
inserted here:

For KUiB-siaHTXDiiBSB. Close the eyes and
press the fingers very gently, from the nose out-
ward, across the eyes. This flattens the pupil,
and thus lengthens or extends the angle of vision.
This should be done sevenl times a day, or at
least always after washing the face, until short-
eightedness is overcome.

For LOSS ov BIQHT BT ASB, Such as require
'''>''S''''7"*8f glasses, pass the fingers or towel from
the outer comers of the eyes inwardly, above and
below the eyeballs, pressing very gently against
them. This rounds them up, and preserves or
restores the sight.

It is said that many persons, by this last means,
have preserved their sight so as to read fine print
at 80 years of age ; others, whose sight has been
impaired by age, by carefully manipulating the
eyes with their fingers, from thai external angles
inwardly, have restored their sight, and been
able to dispense with glasses, and have since pre-
served it by a oontinnance of the practice. To be
successful, or safe, these practices must be applied
with great gentleness and caution.

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VITBIOL— VOLTAIC BLBCTEICITT

1768

The 'I«neet' remarka that "there i» good
Teuon to believe that chicory (the coffee of the
Londoners), from ita narcotic character, exerts an
iiqarioug effect on the nervons system. So con-
Tinced of this is Professor Beer, of Vienna, a
most celebrated ocolist, that he has ennmerated
chiconed coffee among the causes of amaurotic
blindness."

To strengthen the eyes, to relieve them when
swollen or congested, and to remove chronic
ophthalmia, purulent discharges, &c., nothing is
equal to frequently bathing them with water, at
first tepid, but afterwards lowered in temperature
to absolute coldness.

vrc'EIOL. A common name for sulphuric acid
and for several of its salts (see below).

Vitriol, Bine. Syn. Romak titbiol. Com-
mercial sulphate of copper.

Vitriol, Oreen. Commercial sulphate of iron.

Vitriol, White. Commercial sulphate of zinc.

VITTLE-VAYB. Ss». Vititbb. TheTamool
name of the odorous and fibrons roots of the
Andropoffon mwricatus sold by the perf nmen.

VOLTAIC ELKCTBICITT. Si/n. Qalyavio B.,
OALTAmBX, VoLTAiBK. That branch of elec-
trical science which has reference to thephenomena
attendant on the development of electricity by
chemical action. Electricity thus developed may
be made to show itself in the 'static' condition,
■o as to produce the effects of frictional elec-
tricity, but it is much more easily obtained in the
' dynamic ' condition — in other words, as a ' vol-
taic^ current' — when it is especially remarkable
for its chemical and magnetic effects. If a plate
of zinc and a plate of platinum be immersed in
dilute snlphnric acid, and connected outside the
liquid by a wire, a current of electricity will im-
mediately be set up, and will continue as long as
the conducting circuit is complete and the action
of the acid on the zinc goes on. The current of
' positive' electricity passes from the zinc, through
the liquid, to the platinum, and thence through
the wire to the zinc. The arrangement of two
dissimilar metals immersed in a liquid which acts
upon one of them is called a voltaic couple. By
uniting a number of couples together in regnlaj*
order, a voltaic pile or battery is formed.

The older forms of the voltaic battery, riz.

VOtTA'S FILB, CBtnKSHAlTK'B TBOVSH, and

WoiiiiASTOir'a battbbt, are now but little used.
They all consist of a series of couples of zinc and
copper, excited by an acid liquid, generally a mix-
ture of water with -^ of its bulk of sulphuric
add, and ^ of nitric acid.

(hie of the most useful forms of the voltaic
battery is that proposed by the late Professor
DanieU, and commonly known by his name. Its
peculiar advantages arise from its action con-
tinning without interruption for a long time;
hence the name of 'constant battery' Uiat has
been applied to it. The following figure will ex-
pUun the construction of each couple.

One of these couples is sufficient for electro-
typing ; six of them form a circle of considerable
power, and about twenty produce one sufficiently
strong for most experiments of demonstration and
research.

In arranging these, as well as other batteries,
when intensity, or travelling power, is desired, the

metallic commonieation is made between the
opposite metals (the line of one couple being

A. A copper nlinder, tiled with a ntunted lolntiou of svl-

pute of copper.

B, A smalltr porous cylinder (earthenware or membrane),

containing a mixture of 1 meaiiire of strong lalphniie

add, and about 8 meaanrea of water.
0. A rod of amalgamated linc, aupported in the smaller

cylinder by the eroM-piece i.
0. A shelf fiill ra small holea, for eupporting crntala of snl-

plute of copper, to keep up the etrength of the aolntioB.
0 and /. Screws and caps to connect the wires g and k with

the battery.
a. The negatire wire, eonneeted with the linc.
*. The positiTo wire, connected with the copper.

united with the oop}>er of another) ; but when
simple quantity without intensity is required, the
zinc of one battery is united wi^ the zinc of the
other, and the copper of the one with the copper
of the other — an effect which is equally attun-
able with a single battery of enlarged dimen-
sions.

Another useful apparatus is Gboyb'b batubT,
in which the positive metal consists of amalga-
mated zinc immersed in sulphuric acid, diluted
with ten times its bulk of water ; and the nega-
tive metal of platinum immersed in strong nitric
add. The two liquids are kept separate by the
use of porous vessels, as in ' Dauiell's battery.'
This is an extremely powerful arrangement, but
not so constant as Daniell's, owing to the reduc-
tion of the nitric add to lower oxides of nitrogen-
After this battery has been in action for about an
hour, copious r^ nitrons fumes are given ofl^
whidi cause great annoyance.

In place of platinum, compact charcoal or
coke, prepared by a rather troublesome process,
may be used, and the arrangement then consti-
tntes a Buitbeii'b battbby. Other substitutes for
the costly platinum have been proposed, as lead
coated with gold or platinum, and iron rendered
' passive ' by immersion in strong nitric add.
Callan has obtained very good results with amal-
gamated zinc and cast iron immersed in diluted
sulphuric acid, without the use of nitric acid
(Mathooth battbby).

In Sxbb'b battbbt, which is much used in
the arts, pairs of amalgamated zinc and platinised
silver (or platinised platinum) are immersed in
dilute sul]muric add (1 part acid to 7 parts
water). The plates of zinc are usually oent
double, and the platinised plates interposed
between the two surfaces formed by the bend.
See PLArnriBiira (p. 1337).

In every voltiuc combination the passage of the
electridty (>. e. the positive modification of the
force) in the liquid is from the active element to
the inactive element; in the case of a umple
zinc-and-copper conple, for instance, it is from
the zinc to the copper. If this simple fact be

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1764

VOLUMKTEIC ANALYSIS— WAFEES

borne in mind, it will decide in every cue the
question which conf naes so muiy, namely, which
is the positive, and which the negative end of a
hattei7? The positive is the end where the
electricity leaves the battery ; the negative where
it re-enters it. For further information con-
nected with the subject of voltaic electrici^, see
articles on Electbicitt, £lboiboi.ysib, Euo-

TJIOTTPB, B^TCHINS, kc.

YOLVJtXrrsiC AITALTSIS. Quantitative
chemical analysis by measure. This method of
analysis " consists in submitting the substance to
be estimated to certun characteristic reactions,
employing for such reactions liquids of known
strength, and from the quantity of the liquid em-
ployed determining the weight of the substance
to be estimated by means of the known laws of
equivalence," As an example of this method we
give the following from the Introduction in
Sutton's excellent ' Handbook of Volumetric
Analysis : ' — " Suppose that it is desirable to
know the quantity of pure silver contained in a
shilling. The coin is first dissolved in nitric acid,
by which means a bluish solution, containing
silver, copper, and probably other metals, is
obtained. It is a known fact that chlorine com-
bines with silver in the presence of other metals
to form chloride of silver, which is insoluble in
nitric acid. The proportions in which the combi-
nation takes place are 86*46 of chlorine to every
108 of silver ; consequently, if a standard solu-
tion of pure chloride of sodium is prepared by
dissolving 68'46 grains of the salt (i. e. 1 equiv.
sodium i^ 23, 1 eq. chlorine =35'4€= 1 eq. chloride
of sodium 68'46) in so much distilled water as
will make up exactly 1000 grains by measure,
every single grain of this solution will combine
with 0*108 grain of pure silver to form chlo-
ride of nlver, which precipitates to the bottom
of the vessel in which the mixture is made.
In the process of adding the salt solution to the
Mlver, drop by drop, a point is at last reached
when the precipitate ceases to form. Here the
process must stop. On looking carefully at the
graduated vessel from which the standard solu-
tion has been used, the operator sees at once the
number of grains which have been necessary
to produce the complete decomposition. For
example, suppose the quantity used was 620
grains ; all that is necessary to be done is to
multiply 0-108 grain by 620, which shows the
amount of pure silver present to be 66*16 grains."
For grains of course grammes may be substituted,
and it is convenient to reckon the number of cubic
centimetres of standard solutions used, it being
known how much each cubic centimetre is equiva-
lent to. The volumetric method is much less
troublesome than the ordinary method of analysis
(by separating the constituents of a mixture and
weighing them), and is admirably adapted for the
examination of substances used in arts and manu-
factures. Most of the processes described under
AcisusTBT and Ai,kaijkbtby are examples of
this method. See those articles, also Equita-

LBITTB, TiST SOLVIIOHB, &C.

WASS'S DS0P8. C!omponnd tinctore of
benxoin.

WATXS FAPKB. SeeWAnsa, in Cookery
(belov).

WA'FESS. Thin adhesive discs, used for
securing letters or sticking papers together.

Prep. 1. (Wavkbb, ViaVR w.) The finest
wheaten flour is mixed with water, either pure or
coloured, to a smooth pap or batter, which, after
being passed through a sieve, to remove dots or
lumps, is poured into the 'wafer-irons' (pre-
viously warmed and greased with butter or olive
oil), and in this state exposed to the heat of a
dear charcoal fire; the whole is then allowed to
cool, when the irons are opened, and the thin
cake, which has become hard and britUe, is cut
into wafers by means of sharp annular steel
punches made exdnsivdy for the purpose.

2. (Qblatiitb wafebs, Tbahspasxitt w.)
Oood gelatine or glue is dissolved, by the heat of
a water-bath, in just soffident water to form a
consistent mass on cooling; it is then poured,
whilst hot, upon the surface of a warm plate or
mirror glass, slightly oiled, and surrounded with
a border of card paper (laid flat) ; a umilar plate,
also, warmed and oiled, is next laid upon the gela-
tine, and the two pliktes pressed into as close
contact as is permitted by the card paper; when
quite cold the thin sheet of gelatine is removed,
and cut into wafers with punches, as before. 1 to
2 ox. of sugar is commonly added to each lb. of °
gelatine.

3. (MiDAiXlOir WA7BBS.) A sheet of metal
or glass, having designs sunk in it corresponding
to the raised part of seals, being provided, the
hollows are filled up with a mixture formed of
any appropriate coloured powder, made into a
past^ with gum water or size, leaving the flat
part clear; melted coloured glue is then poured
on the plate, and the process is otherwise con-
ducted as before. For use, the paper is wetted
where tlie wafer is to be applied.

Ob». Care must be taken that no poisonous
colours be employed. For gelatine wafers, trans-
parent colours only can be used. Those noticed
under LiQUxuBS and Staiitb (Confectioner's) are
appropriate. To these may be added plumbago,
sesquioxide of iron (crocus martis), smalts, levi-
gated vegetable charcoal, and vermilion.

Wafers (in Oookety). Prep. Make fine
flour, dried and sifted, into a smooth thin batter
with good milk, or a little cream -and- water; add
about as much white wine as will make it thick
enough for pancakes, sweeten it with a little loaf
sugar, and flavour it with powdered cinnamon.
When thus prepared, have the wafer-irons made
ready by being heated over a charcoal fire ; rub
them with a piece of linen cloth dipped in butter;
then pour a spoonful of the batter upon them,
and close them almost immediately; turn them
upon the fire, and pare the edges with a knife if
any of the batter oozes out. A short time will
bake them when the irons are perfectly heated.
The wafers must be curled round whilst warm
when they are for ornaments. ' Wafer paper ' is
prepared in a similar way to the above ; but
when intended to be kept for some time, the milk
most be omitted. Used by cooks, &c.; and
recentiy, as an envelope for nauseous medi-
dnes.

Waten, Sa Silva's. These nostrums were in-

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WAI-FA— WASH-BOTTLE

1766

trodnced to the public lome time ago, aa though
they were prepared from the f ormolsB of a cele-
brated phyaician whose name was affixed to them
(for an exposition of the Da Silva quackery,
with Dr Locock's letter on the snbject, see the
' Anat. of Quackery,' or the ' Med. Circ.,' ii, 106—
126). There are three varieties, which are said
to be prepared as follows :

1. Afsbibnt or AKTiBiuons WijrBBg. From
■agar and extract of liqaorioe (Spanish jnice),
equal parts; senna and jalap, of each, in fine
powder, about 4 dr. to every oz. of sugar em-
ployed; made into a mass with a concentrated
infusion of senna, and divided into 12-gr.
lozenges or squares with the comers rounded off.

2. Feiulb wajibs. From sugar, horehound
candy (or honey), and aperient wafer mass, equal
parts; beaten to a proper consistence with weak
gam water, to which a little orange-flower water
haa been added, and divided into 8-gr. tabelln,
as before.

S. PvLHOiriO 'WAPEBB. From lump sugar and
starch, of each in powder, 2 parts; powdered
gvan, 1 part ; made into a lozenge-mass with
vinegar of squills, oxymel of squills, and ipeca-
coanha wine, equal parts, gently evaporat^ to
1.6th their weight, with the addition of lactoca-
rium in the proportion of 20 to 80 gr. to every
oz. of the dry powders, the mass being divided
into half-inch squares, weighing about 74 gr.each
(when dry), as before.

WAI-FA, Flower-buds of Sapliore japoniea,
used by the Chinese for dyeing yellow, or rather
for rendering blue cottons and silks green.

WAL'NUT. The Jvglant regia, a tree of the
Nat. Ord. Juolandaceje. The sap yields sugar ;
the fruit is the walnut ; the kernels of the latter
are eaten and. pressed for their oil ; the peel or
hosks are used for ' rooting ' or dyeing brown ; the
nnripe fruit is pickled, and its luice is used as a
hair-dye ; the leaves are reputed diaphoretic and
antisyphilitic; and the wood is esteemed for cabinet
work.

WASBUBO'S FETEB DROPS. See Tinctvbb,
Wakbttbo'b Feveb.

WABS'S BED DBOP. A strong solntion of
emetic tartar in wine.

WABTS. Sf». ViBBirox, L. These chiefly
attack the hands, and may be removed by the daily
use of a little nitrate of silver, nitric acid, or
aromatic vinegar, as directed nnder CoBirs. The
first of the above applications produces a black
stain, and the second a yellow one ; both of which,
however, wear off after the lapse of some days.
Acetic acid scarcely discolours the skin. Erasmus
Wilson, the eminent snrgeon and talented author
of several works on the skin, mentions the case of
a gentleman who removed an entire crop of warts
from his knuckles and fingers by subjecting them
to a succession of sparks from one of the poles of an
electrical machine. " He was in the habit, as is
usual, of trying the amount of electric fluid
collected in his machine by placing his knnckle
near the brass knob, and receiving a spark. Ob-
serving that an odd sensation was produced when-
ever the spark struck a wart, he was tempted for
amusement to give them a round of dischargee.
When his attention was next directed to hu hands
he found, to his surprise and satisfaction, that all

the wart* had disappeared." Dr Peez, of Wiee-
baden, recommends the internal use of carbonate
of magnesia in cases of warts.

The papular eruption which covers the hands of
some persona, and which is occasionally called
' soft warts,' is best removed by the daily use of
Qoulord's lotion.

WASH. The fermented wort of the distiller.

WASH-BALLS. See Satonettbb.

WASH-BOTTLE. The principle of this very
common and indispensable laboratory utensil, by
which precipitates are washed, will be readily
understood by reference to No. 1 of the tngr*.
below.

The bottle being two thirds filled with distilled
water by blowing into the shorter tube, b, a small
jet of water is forced throngh the nozzle of
the longer tube, e. We give the following
directions for the construction of a wabh-bottiji,
from Mr Clowes' excellent little manual, entitled
' An Elementary Treatise on Practical Chemistry '
(J. and A. Churchill, New Bnrlington Street): —
" A thin, fiat-bottomed flask is chosen, of 16 or IS
ounces capacity ; the neck must not be less than an
inch in diameter. Procure a sound cork, which
is slightly too large to enter the neck, soften the
cork by placing it upon the floor and rolling it
backwards and forwards under the foot with
gentle pressure; when thus softened, the cork
must fit tightly into the flask. (A vulcanized
india-rubber stopper is much more durable for
this and most other chemical processes. It is per-
forated by a sharp, well-wetted cork bore, or by a
wetted round file.) Two pieces of glass tubing
rather longer than would be required for the
tubes a and b are then bent into the form shown
in Fig. 1. The ends of the tubes are, if necessary,
cnt off to the right length, and their sharp edges
rounded by holding them in the Bunsen flame, or
the tip of the blowpipe flame.

" Two parallel holes are then bored in the cork
by means of a round flle, or by a proper size cork-
borer ; the holes must he rather smaller than the
glass tubes, and must not run into one another, or
to the ontside of the cork. They are slightly en-
larged, if necessary, by the round file. Into
these holes the tubes a and b are then pushed with
a twisting motion ; if the holes have been made
of the proper size the tubes must enter somewhat
stiffly, but without requiring much pressure.
Upon the upper end of a is fitted a small piece of
india-rubber tubing, about an inch and a half
in length, and into the other end of this is a
finish^ short jet (e) made by drawing ont a
piece of glass tubing in the flame; its nozzle may
he constructed, if necessary, by holding it perfectly
dry in the flame for some time. The neck of the
bottle should then be bound round with twine,
like the handle of a cricket bat, or tightly covered
with a piece of flannel. This prevents the fingers
from being burnt when the bottle contains boiling
water."

We append below some varieties of washing
bottles. The round-bottomed are in more general
requisition than the flat-bottomed description;
although this latter presents the advantage of
standing more firmly, and, if boiling water be
required, of furnishing it more quickly than the
bottle with the round base.

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1766

Fio. 1.

WASHKBWOKiiN'S SCALL— WASHES
Fis. S.

Fio. S.

In gome laboratories earthenware bottles are in
nse. These are not so easily broken as those made
of glass, but, nnlike these latter, water cannot be
boiled in them, neither can we see whether they be
full or empty.

WASEESWOKAK'S SCAU.. See Pbobusib.

WASHES. The familiar name of lotions, more
especially of those employed as cosmetics. See
i^CELBS, Lotion, Milk or Bosis, Skiit Cob-
HBTI08, &c., and the following.

Washes, Hair. Frep. 1. From rosemary tops,
8 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; infused together in
a teapot or jug, either with or without the addition
of rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz. (or rum, 2 fl. oz.) to the
cold strained liquor.

2. Box leaves, a small handful ; boiUng water,
1 pint ; digest for an honr, simmer 10 minutes,
and strain. Both are used to improve the growth
ot and to strengthen the haii,

8. To clean the ' partings,' remove scnrf , £c.
a. (AirnpiTTBlBVirB.) From seaqnicarbonate of
ammonia, 1 oz. ; spirit of rosemary, i pint ; rose
or elder water, li pints.

b. (DETBBaBin BBBBiroB.) From honey, 2 oz. ;
borax, 1 oz. ; cochineal (bruised), i oz. ; camphor,
1 dr. i (dissolved in) rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. ;
soft water, f pint ; oil of rosemary, 20 drops.

c. (Vbqetabli BXTBAOT.) Take of salt of
tartar, loz.; rosemary water, 1 pint; burnt sugar,
q. s. to tinge it brown ; dissolve, filter, and add of
essence of musk, 10 drops.

4. To darken the hur. a. From pyrogallic
acid, i oz. ; distilled water, orange-flower water,
and rectified spirit, of each, li fl. oz.

b. (La Fobest'b oobkbtio lonoir or uqvid
' HAIB SYB.) Boil, for a few minutes, chloride of
ao^nm, 1 dr., and sulphate of iron, 2 dr., in red
wine, 1 lb. ; then add of verdigris, 1 dr. ; in 2 or
8 minutes remove it from the fire, and fnrther add
of powdered galls, 2 dr.; the next day filter.
For use, moisten the hair with the liquid ; in a
few minutes dry it with a cloth, and afterwards
wash the skin with water.

6. To prevent the hair falling off. a. (Akb-
BlOAir BEAHEOO LIQITII).) TUce of Carbonate
of ammonia, i oz. ; carbonate of potash, 1 oz. ;
water, 1 pint; dissolve, and add the solution to
a mixture of tincture of cantharides, 5 fl. oz. ;
rectified spirit, 1 pint ; good rum, 3 quarts. Used

to slirengthen the hair and to remove dandm£^
by moistening it with the mixture, rubbing so a«
to form a lather, and then wasUng wi& oold
water.

b. (Bum ot CoiiXnmA.) As the last, omit-
ting the potash, quadrupling the carbonate of
ammonia, and adding some perfume.

e. (Srcu. WiUo».) Eau de Cologne (strangeat),
8 fl. oz. ; tincture of cantharides, 1 fl. oz. ; oils of
rosemary and lavender, of each, i fl. dr.

d. (Db Loooce'b LOTION.) From expressed
oil of mace (nutmeg), 1 oz., liquefied, at a gentle
heat, with olive oil, i oz. ; and, when cold, formed
into an emulsion by agitation, with rose water,
) pint; spirit of rosemary, 2i fl. oz. ; stronger
liquor of ammonia, 1) fl. dr. For other formiJiB,
see Baldnbss, Haib Dtbs, liOTiON, &c.

Washes, Medldnal. See Lotion, &c.

Washes, Konth. Sgn. Tooth wabhss ; Coi.<
lutobia, L. Frep. 1, Take of camphor (cut
small), i oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 fi. oz. ; dissolve.
A few drops to be added to a wine-glassful of
water, to sweeten the breath and preserve the
teeth.

8. Chloride of lime, i oz. ; water, 2 flL ox. ;
agitate well together in a phial for i an honr,
filter, and add of rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. ; rose
or orange-flower water, 1 fi. oz. Used, highly
diluted with water, as the last, by smokers and
persons having a foul breath.

8. Mastic (m powder), 2 dr.; balsam of Fern,
i dr. ; gam, 2 dr. or q. s. ; orange-flower water,
6 fl. oz. ; tincture of myrrh, 2 fl. dr. ; for an emul-
sion. In loose teeth, &c,

4. Tannin, i dr. ; tincture of tolu, 8 CI. dr. ;
tincture of myrrh, 6 fl. dr. ; spirit of horseiadiah,
2 fl. oz. ; mix. In spongy gums, scurvy, &c. ;
dilnted with tepid water.

5. (Sioediattr.) Borax, |oz.; water and tinc-
ture of myrrh, of each, 1 fl. oz. ; honey of rosea,
2 oz. In tender or ulcerated gums.

6. Balsam of Peru, 2 dr.; camphor, i dr.;
essence of musk and liquor of ammonia, of eadi,
i fl. dr. ; tincture of niyrrh, 3 fl. dr. ; spirit of
horseradish, li fl. oz. To sweeten and perfnme
the breath ; a teaspoonful in i a wine-glassful of
tepid water to rinse the mouth with.

Washes for the Kose. 8g». Nabal doitchm,
CoLLiTHABiA. The following formuUe medicinally

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WASHma

1767

employed for the purpose of washing or rinung
out the nostrils are from the ' Fharmacoposia of
the Throat Hospital.'

In applying them it is directed that " not more
than twenty ounces of fluid should erer be used
for a nasal douche, and ten ounces are generally
sufficient. If an apparatus on the syphon prin-
ciple be applied, it should be placed only just
above the lerel of the patient's head, in order to
'avoid too great force of current. The tempera-
ture of the fluid should be about 90° F."

NaBAIi DoUOHI OI ALTTX. 8f». COLLU-

ITASIUK AixnaxiB, L. Fre^. Alum, 4 gr.;
water, 1 os. ; dissolve. — U*e. As a mild astoin-
£ent.

NABAIi DoVOHX 01 FBKXAHSAirATB OV FOTABH.
Syn. COLLUHABIUK POIASBJB PIKXAHOAirATIB,

li. Pretp. Solution of permanganate of potash
(B. P.), 6 minims; water to 1 os.; mix. — Ute.
Detergent.

Nabax DoiroHB os Qudtiitb. iSjya. Coixv-
KABIUK (fovsis, L. iVcp. Sulphate of quinine,
I gr. ; water, 1 os. Dissolve by the aid of a
l^tle heat.

The solution is occasionally useful in hay-fever.
It is generally sufficient to place a little in
the palm of the hand and draw it ap through
the nose.

NABAI. DOUOHB 01 SnifHOOABBOLATB 01

zisa. Syn. CoLLraABivx znroi auif hooas-
BOLATiB, L. Prep, Sulphocarbolate of zinc, 2
gr. } water, 1 oz. ; dissolve. — Vte. Anti-
septic.

Nasaii Douohb o> Tahtio Aoid. S^h.
CoiiLUiTABluii AOisi TAHITIOI, L. Prep. Tannic
acid, 8 gr.j water, 1 oz. ; dissolve. — Vte. Astrin-
gent.

Washes, Tooth. See above.

WASHUra (as applied in Chemistry). In the
chemical laboratory the washing of precipitates is
an operation of constant occurrence, and the
accurate result of the quantitative analysis in
which the process of precipitation is had recourse
to, essentially depends upon the manner in which
the washing has been carried out. In washing a
precipitate the object is, of course, to entirely free
it from all extraneous matter, so as to ensure, after
proper drying, its being weighed in an absolutely
pure and nncontaminated state. To arrive at a
correct knowledge as to when a precipitate has
been properly washed, the operator must never
trust to guess-work, but to ocular demonttration,
by testing a minute portion, such as a drop or so
of the washings, from time to time.

This may be done either by adding — ^1. A very
minute quantity of the proper precipitant to the
washings ; or — 2. By evaporating a drop of the
latter on a platinum knife, or a piece of platinum
foil ; when, if in the former case no turbidity is
caused and in the latter no fixed residue remain,
the precipitate may be pronounced perfectly
washed. The operator, however, instead of not
sufficiently washing his precipitate, is frequently
liable to fall into another dilemma, which consists
not so much in overwoshing it as in washing it
with an unsuitable liquid, or one in which the
precipitate is, to a greater or lesser extent,
Boluble.

It may not nnfrequently happen that the beat

available predpitant may be one in which the pre-
cipitate is soluUe to some small extent. Under
these circumstances, before throwing down the
precipitate, the liquid should, as far as practicable,
be removed by evaporation.

Many precipitates which are not altogether in-
soluble in water may, by the addition of some
other liquid to the water, be rendered much less
so. Thus the double chloride of platinum and
ammonium, which is incompletely thrown down
in water, is perfectly precipitated if alcohol be
added to the water, as are also chloride of lead
and sulphate of lime ; whilst the basic phosphate
of magnesium and ammonium may be rendered
inaolable in water by the addition of ammonia to
the water.

The precipitate having subsided to the bottom
of the fluid in which it was suspended, the super-
natant liquid may be removed from it either by
filtration or decantation. In some cases both pro-
cesses are had recourse to. To wash a precipitate
which has been separated by filtration, and which
in a moist condition more or less fills the paper
filter inserted in a proper funnel, the wash-
bottle described below is employed. In using this
apparatus the jet of water that is made to issue
from the bottle should be directed upon the sides
of the filter, and never in the centre, since this
would cause a splashing and a consequent loss of
the pre<npitate. The same contingency would be
liable to follow if the waters were propelled too
violently from the bottle. On no account must
the wash-water be allowed to reach to the top of
the filter. Another precaution to be guarded
against is the formation in the precipitate of
fissures or channels ; if these are not prevented,
the water will not permeate all the parts of the
precipitate, and it will be only very insufficiently
washed. When such channels form, it will be
best to stir up the precipitates with a glass rod
or a platinum spatula, taking care, however, to
avoid tearing or making a hole in the filter.

Precipitates that are washed by decantation
ought to consist of such substances as readily
subside from the liquid in which they are sus-
pended and are practically insoluble in water,
since a very much larger quantity of this men-
struum has to be employed than when filtration
is resorted to. The process is generally carried
out in deep vessels. The supernatant liquid
being removed, the vessel is filled np with water,
and the precipitate well stirred np with a glass
rod ; after it has again fallen down fresh watier is
added, and the process is continued until the
washings cease to show the presence of any solu-
ble matter. The several washings being collected,
are let stand some 12 or 24 hours ; after which
time, should no precipitate show itself, they are
thrown away. Should any deposit form in the
washing, it is carefully removed either by filtration
or decantation, and its amount being determined,
the result is added to that obtained from the bnlk
of the precipitate. Where the nature of the pre-
dpitate is in no way influenced by hot water, this
latter shonld always be used in washing precipi-
tates, as it greatly facilitates and expedites the
operation. Many precipitates require to stand a
long time before they entirely subside from the
fluid in which they are suspended. Most gela-

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1768

WASHING FLUIDS— WATCHFULNESS

■tinoaa, pnlveralent, and crystalline precipitate* are
of this nature. The separation of the precipitate
should not be attempted until after the liquid
containing the precipitate haa stood several
honrs.

WASHIKO nVlDB. Solutions of carbonate of
soda, rendered caustic with quicklime.

WASHIHO LIQUIDS. Various fluids are sold
Tinder this name ; they are employed by dyers,
cleaners, and laundresses. The addition of tor-
pentine to any of them will exercise a bleaching^
efTect on linen.

Pnp. 1. Carbonate of soda, dissolved in
water, and made caustic by shaking with slaked
lime.

2. Alcohol, 1 pint; spirits of turpentine, 1
pint i strongest solution of ammonia, 2 oz. ; mix.
Pat 3 or 4 table-spoonfuls to 1 pint of soft soap,
or 1 lb. of hard soap. The clothes should be
soaked overnight if possible before asing this
mixture, but if soaked an hour or two it will aid
mnch.

8. Washing fluid for fine linen, laces, Ac : —
Borax, 4 oz. ; water, 6 galls. For crinoline, or
any other stiff fabric, increase the quantity of
borax to 6 oz.

4. Nottingham washing liqnor : — Water, 1
gall. ; white soap, 3 oz. ; pearlash, 3 dr.

6. Hnll washing liquor : — Yellow soap, 1) oz. ;
water, 1 gall.; strongest solution of ammonia,
4oz.

6. Yorkshire wash : — Strongest solution of am-
monia, 1 oz. ; common water, 1 pint.

7. Silicate of soda or potash or water-glass is
in itself a good detergent. It is added to cheap
soaps to allow of the retention of large quantities
of water in the finished product. The retail
chemist should not attempt to manufacture the
article. It is purchased in casks, and is a thick,
viscid,, translucent mass, flowing very slowly.
When dissolved in hot water it forms a solution
which unites with certain kinds of soap very
readily (curd soap, yellow soap, and soaps con-
taining resin). Probably a useful washing liquor
conld be made from this substance.

WASHIBQ POWDEBS. See Fowdbbb.

WATCH'PULirESS. Sgn. SLEIFLBBBHliBB ;

AOBYFiriA, L. The common causes of watchful-
ness are thoughtfulness or grief, disordered
stomach or bowels, heavy and late suppers, and a
deficiency of outdoor exercise. The best treat-
ment, in ordinary cases, simply consists in an atten-
tion to these points. The method of producing
sleep recommended by a late celebrated hypnotist
consists in merely adopting an easy recumbent
position, inclining the head towards the chest,
shotting the eyes, and taking several deep inspi-
rations with the mouth clos^. Another method,
recommended by an eminent surgeon, and whi(&
appears infallible if persevered in with proper con-
fidence, and which is suitable either to the sitting
or recumbent posture, consists in tying a decanter
cork with a bright metallic top, a pencil case, or
any other bright object on the forehead, in such
a position that the eyes must be distorted or
strained to be capable of seeing it. By resolutely
gazing in this way for a short time, without
winking, with the mind fully absorbed in the
effort, the muscles of the eyes gradually relax, and

the experimenter falls asleep. Qazing in a ramilar
manner on any imaginary bright spot in the dark,
as at night, exerts a like effect. A tumblerful of
cold spring water, either with or without a few
grains of bicarbonate of potash in it, taken just
before lying down, will fi«quently succeed with
the dyspeptic and nervous, when all other means
faiL

The following valuable advice to those who snffer
from unnatural wakefulness is abridged from
the late Dr Tanner's valuable work on the ' Practice
of Medicine ' (' The Practice of Medicine,' by
Thomas Hawkes Tanner, M.D.;Benshaw, London),
At his starting-point, Dr Tanner enjoins the
practice of taking a proper amount of exercise
daily. A digestible ^et, such as is not liable to
cause acidity or flatulence, must also be adopted,
and tea and coffee must be abstained from in the
after part of the day. Early dinners and light
suppers are also recommended. The reading of
any thrilling work of flction previous to retiring
to rest is also prohibited. The patient is advised
to seek his bed at an early and regular hour, and
it is desirable to have his sleeping chamber well
ventilated, and if the weather be chilly the bed-
room fire should be lighted. Feather beds should
be abandoned for mattresses ; there should not be
too many blankets on the bed, the pillows should
be firm and high, and no eortains or hangings
should be allowed. Shoold the above means fail
to produce the required sleep, before going to
bed the patient is advised to try a tumbler of
p<Mrt-wine negus, or of mulled claret, or of
white-wine whey, the last thing. The aged are re-
commended (should the above methods be unsuc-
cessful) to imbibe a glass of spirit and water, which
is said to be all the more effective if drnnk when
in bed. In some cases, attended by a hot or dry
skin, a glass of cold water has been found useful.
Another remedy is the use of a bath, for about
three or five minutes, jnst before getting into
bed, at temperature varying from 90° to 96° F.

Bapid sponging of the body with tepid water is
also recommended, as also the nse of a warm foot-
bath, at a temperature of 100° F., or of a hot-
water bottle in the bed, or putting the feet in
cold water for a minute, and then vigorously
rubbing them.

For those whose sleeplessness is caosed by
their prosecuting literary work till a late hour, s
short brisk walk, just before retiring to bed, is
recommended.

If the wakefulness can be traced to any bodily
ailment, this, of course, must be removed by the
proper means. Constipation, which is not at all
an unfrequent cause of insomnia, must be com-
bated by the methods described under that article.
If there he headache it will be best removed by
applying a rag dipped in cold water to the acalp,
or a bladder containing ice.

Should the adoption of any of the above ang^
gestions fail, all kinds of mental labour and ex-
citement during the day must be greatly di-
minished, and physical exercise must replace
them. Sedatives should be had recourse to with
great caution, and under medical supervision only.
Because of the hazard attending their use, and of
the ready tendency their adoption has to degenerate
into a pernicious ineradicable habit, we have for-

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borne to specify the medicinal agents Dr Tanner
prescribes for sleeplessness, strongly recommend-
mg the patient, before he has recourse to them,
to exhaust the categoty of suggestions given by
Dr Tanner ; and ihoold these unhappily be found
to fitil, and he is drawn to soporifics, we again
reiterate, let him take them only nnder medical
anpervision.

Another method, adopted by professional hyp-
notists, consists in gently moving, in opposite
directions, a finger of each hand over the forehead
jost above the eyebrows. A soothing and drowsy
effect is said to be thereby produced, which ends
in tranquil slumber.

Dr Ainslie Hollis contributes some excellent
hints on the treatment of wakefulness to the
practitioner. He classifies the treatment under
two heads — first, the induction of natural sleep ;
and secondly, the production of narcosis of arti-
ficial rest. The application of mustard plasters
to the abdomen generally brings about the first
result, producing, according to Schuler, first dilata-
tiOD, and subsequently contraction of the vessels
of Vbe pia mater. Dr Preyer, of Jena, on the
supposition that sleep may be induced by the in-
troduction of the fatigue products of the body,
advocates the administration of a solution of lac-
tate of soda. When sleeplessness is the result of
brain exhaustion Dr Hollis advocates a tumbler of
hot claret negus. The alkalies and alkaline earths,
says the ' Boston Journal of Chemistry,' are useful
when acid dyspepsia is associated with the in-
somnia. In hot weather sprinkling the floor of
the sleeping apartment with water lessens the
irritant properties of the air, adding much to the
comfort of the sleepers ; possibly the quantity of
ozone is at the same time increased. When sleep
is broken by severe pain, opium or morphia is of
value, bringing not only relief, bnt producing
anismia of the cerebral vessels j when neuralgia is
the cause an injection of morphia under the skin,
near the branch of the affected nerve, will have
more effect than by administering it by the
month. Again, when wakefulness is due to defec-
tive cardiac power, digitalis may be useful.
Chloral hydrate is supposed to owe its hypnotic
effect to its power of diminishing the amount of
blood in the brain, and therefore it may be used
when sleeplessness arises from the pains of
muscular spasm. The bromides, although un-
doubtedly sedatives, possess very doubtful hyp-
notic properties. See Suffeb, &c.

WA'TEfi. HjO. /S^«. OxiDB OF htdbogbk,
Pbotozidb ofh. ; Aqui, If. J Eau, Fr. ; Wabbeb,
Oer.j O^up, Or. The ancients regarded water
as a simple substance, and as convertible into
Tarious mineral and organic products. Earth,
Mr, fire, and water were at one time conceived to
be the elementary principles or essences of matter
from whibh all form and substance derived their
existence. The true constitution of water was
not discovered until about the year 1781. when
Cavendish and James Watt, independently and
nearly simultaneously, showed it to be a compound
of hydrogen and oxygen. Five years, however,
before this time (1776), the celebrated Macquer,
assisted by Sigaud de la Fond, obtained pure
water by the combustion of hydrogen in the air.
It has since been satisfactorily demonstrated that

hydrogen and oxygen exist in water in the pro-
portion of 1 to 8 by weight, or 2 to 1 by volume ;
the sp. gr. of hydrogen being to that of oxygen aa
1 to 16. One cubic inch of perfectly pure water
at 62° F., and under an atmospheric pressure repre-
sented by 80 inches of the barometer, weighs
252'468 gr., by which it will be seen that it is
770 times heavier than atmospheric air. Its sp.
gr. is I'D, it being made the standard by which
the densities of all solid and liquid bodies are esti-
mated. The sp. gr. of frozen water (ice) is 0'917S,
water being I'O {Dufovr); that of aqueous vapour
(steam), 0'6252, air being in this case taken as
the unit. Water changes its volume with the
temperature; its greatest density is about 39^''
F. (4° C), and its sp. gr. decreases from that
point, either way. Water is nearly incompress-
ible. By subjecting water to a pressure of 706
atmospheres, Cailletet found the compressibility
to be at the rate of 0-0004461 for each atmo-
sphere. Water evaporates at all temperatures;
but at 212° F. (100^ C), under ordinary circum-
stances, this takes place so rapidly that it boils,
and is converted into vapour (steam), whose bulk
is nearly 1700 times greater than that of water.

Var. Of these the following are the prin-
cipal:

DiBTILLKD WATBB; AqUA SESTILLATA (B. P.,

Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Obtained by the distilla-
tion of common water through a block-tin worm,
rejecting the first and last portions that come
over. The still employed for this operation should
be nsed for no other purpose ; and when great
nicety is required, the distillation should be per-
formed in glass or earthenware vessels. It re-
mains clear on the addition of lime water, chlo-
ride of bariiun, nitrate of silver, oxalate of am-
monium, or hydrosulphuric acid. It is the only
kind of water that should be employed in chemi-
cal and pharmaceutical operations. When dis-
tilled water is not at hand, clean filtered rain
water is the only kind that can be successfully
substituted.

Natvbax waxbbb. In respect of wholesome-
nesa, palatability, and general fitness for drinking
and cooking, natural waters may be classified in
order of excellence as follows (' Rivers Pollution
Commissioners' Sixth Report ') :

■ 1. Spring water . . .IVery

2. Deep well water . . j palatable.

8. Uplandsnrf ace water \ Moderately
~ 4. Stored rain water . J palatable.

6. Surface water from'1

cultivated lands • tt j„

6. River water to which r * S? '
sewage gains access

7. Shallow well water .J

The average composition of the four classes of
unpolluted waters is given bj the same authorities
as follows. Their estimations are in parts per
100,000, but may be converted into grains per
gallon by multiplying by 7 and dividing by 10.

Raim watkb in the country contains, among
natural waters, the smallest amount of solid
matter in solution. From the columns headed
" Organic carbon " and " Organic nitrogen " it
will be seen that even rain collected with special
precautions, away from any Urge town, is by no
means free from organic matter. Rain water

W%otetome

Sutpieiout

Dangerout

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WATER

Total

aolid

in-

purilj.

Oinnic
carbon.

Or|^nie
nitro-
gen.

Am-
monia.

Nitrogen
aa

nitratea

and
nitritat.

1^1

is

Previona
aewage
or animal
ootttami-
natjon.

HudMK

Tempo-
rary.

Perma-
nent.

Total.

Bain water . . ,
Upland surface water
Deep well water . .
Spring water . . .

2-95

9-67

43-78

28-20

0-070
0-822

0-056

0-015
0-032
0018
0-018

0-029
0-002
0-012
0-001

0008
0-009
0-496
0-383

0-042
0042
0-522
0-896

42

10

474

3569

0-22
118
6-11
2-49

0-4

1-6

15-8

11-0

0-6
4-3

9-2
7-5

0-8
6-4

26-0
18-6

collected from roofs, and stored in imdergioand
tanks, is often very impure.

SuBFAOB WATBB8 form the main supply at
riven. If collected from high nncultiTated dis-
tricts they are usually unpolluted with animal
matter. The organic matter is usually peaty, is
sometimes very small, but is liable to considerable
variations with the season, and is occasionally
present in excessive quantities, discolouring the
water, and rendering it unpalatable. From their
softness these waters are admirably adapted for
manufacturing purposes. The amount of solid
matter in solution ranges from 2 gr. to 7 gr. per
gallon.

SuKFACB WATER from euUholed land con-
tains on an average less organic matter than up-
land surface water, but the pollu Uon, being derived
from manure and other objectionable matter, is
more harmful.

BlVBB WATIB consists of the above, aided by
springs, and most frequently the dnunage of
towns on its banks. The amount of solid matter
varies from 10 gr. to 80 gr. per gallon. In
Thames water there are on the average about
20 gr.

WeL£8, if siallov), are usually a most unde-
drable supply. Unless far from any house they
are contaminated by drainage, aud sometimes,
from proximity to cesspools, contain more animal
matter than ordinary town sewage. They are,
as a class, hard watws, the polluted ones exces-
sively so.

Wells of 100 feet deep and upwards are, as a
dass, very superior waters, the filtration and
oxidation of so great a depth of soil having re-
moved the greater part of the organic matter.
The hardness varies with the strata, but, as a class,
the deep wells are softer than the shallow.

Spbins wateb greatly resembles deep well
water, possessing all its good qualities in a higher
degree. Spring and deep well water are very
uniform in quality, and little affitcted by climatic
changes.

SsA WATBR. The characteristic of this variety
is its saltness. Its density is about 1-0274, aud
the average quantity of saline matter which it
contains is about 31/E,, of which about ff are
chloride of sodium, and the remainder chiefly
chloride of magnesium and sulphate of mag-
nesium.

The average proportion of organic carbon
and nitrogen in 23 samples of sea water was
0-278 carbon, 0-166 nitrogen, as compared with
Thames water averages of 0-203 parts carbon,
0-033 nitrogen, in 100,000 parts of water.

Analyit ofgea mater (British Channel), by Dr
Schweitzer, of Brighton :

1000 gr. contained—

Orains.

Water ....

963-746

Chloride of sodium

28-069

„ of potasainm .

0-786

„ of magnesium .

3-666

Bromide of magnesium .

0-029

Sulphate of magnesitmi .

2-296

„ of calcium

0-406

Carbonate of calcinm .

0-033

1000-
Pwr. Pure water is perfectly transparent,
odourless, and colourless, and evaporates with-
out residue, or even leaving a stain behind. The
purest natural water is that obtained by melting
snow or frozen rain that has fallen at some dis-
tance from any town. Absolutely pure water can
only be obtained by the imion of its gaseous con-
stituents ; but water sufficiently pure for all pur-
poses may be proctired by the careful distillation
of common water.

Among the methods adopted for improving tlie
quality of water are —

(a) For recUming the amount of organic and
tutpended matter, 1. Filtration tiirongh or agi-
tation with coarsely powdered, freshly burnt
charcoal, either animal or vegetable, but prefer-
ably the former. When in good condition »
filter of animal charcoal will not only remove soa-
pended matter in water, but will oonsideraUj
reduce the amount of organic matter, and also the
calcareous and gaseous impurities held in solu-
tion ; but it, however, loses its power of removing
lime in a week or two, and of abstracting the or-
ganic matter in about three to four months, and
then becomes foul, and requires to be recharged.
Spongy metallic iron is more energetic in its ac-
tion than charcoal, and remains serviceable for s
twelvemonth, 2, Free exposure to the action of
the air, by which the organic matters become
oxidised and insoluble, and speedily subside. This
may be easily elfected by agitating the water in
contact with fresh air, or by forcing air through
it by means of bellows. 3. The addition of a
little sulphuric acid has a like efiect ,- 16 or 20
drops are usually sufficient for a gallon. Una
addition may be advantageously made to water
intended for filtration through charcoal, by which
plan at least 2-3rda of the latter may he sated
(Lotoitt). 4, An ounce of powdered alum (dia-
solved), well agitated with a hogshead or moi«
of foul water, will purify it in the course of a few
hours, when the clear portion may be decanted.
When the water is very putrid about i dr. (or
even 1 dr.) per gall, may be employed; any alum
that may be left in solution may be preciintated
by the cautious addition of an equivalent propor*

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WATBE

1771

tion of carbonate of Bodiain. 6. A solution of ferric
sulphate acte in the game way aa alum ; a few
-dxopa are sufficient for a gallon. 6. Agitation
with about i% to 1% of finely powdered black
oxide of manganese baa a similar effect to the
last. 7. The addition of a little aqneons chlorine,
or chlorine gas, to foul water, cleanses it imme-
-diately. This method has the advantage of the
water being capable of being perfectly freed from
any excess of the precipitant by heat.

(i) Ibr reducing the amount of inorffouio
matter. 1. Distillation separates all non-vola-
tile matter, including organised bodies. It is
nsed to obtain a potable water from sea water.
The waste heat of the cook's galley is amply
snfBdent for this purpose. There are sevmil
patent contrivances for the distillation of water
on shipboard. 2. Hard water may be softened
by adding carbonate of soda to the water so long
as it turns milky. The precipitation of the
hardening ingredients, lime and magnesia, is
most rapid when the water is heated. The water
cannot be nsed for drinking purposes, from the
unpleasant flavour of the carbonate of soda.
When nsed on a hard water intended for wash-
ing, it effects a saving of soap eqnal to about fif-
teen times its own cost. Sea water can be made
fit for washing by this means. It removes both
the ' temporary ' hardness, due to carbonates of
calcium and magnesium, and the 'permanent,'
dne to the sulphates, chlorides, and nitrates, of
these metals. 3. Hard water may be both ae-
rated and softened by the addition of a few
grains of bicarbonate of potassium per gallon,
followed by half as much lime juice or tartaric
acid as is sufficient to saturate the alkali in the
carbonate thus added. 4. The ' temporary '
hardness may be nearly removed by ebullition,
or, as recommended by Professor Clarke, by mix-
ing the hard water with lime water, when the
calcium combines with the excess of carbonic
acid, which previously rendered the carbonate of
calcium solnble, and is precipitated as carbonate
(chalk), together with the carbonate originally
present. This method removes, at the same
time, much of the organic matter, and carries
down suspended matter. The water is often
made more palatable than before. The direc-
tions are — For every degree of hardness on
Clarke's scale each 1000^' gallons of water to be
softened requires 1 ounce of quicklime. Slake
the lime and work up to a thin cream with water
and pour into the cistern, which already contuns
at iMst 50 gallons of water to be softened. Then
add the remainder of the 1000 gallons in such a
way as to stir up and mix un^ormly with the
contents of the cistern. In about three hours the
milky water is clear enough for washing. After
twelve hours' rest the water is fit to cfrink. If
the exact hardness of the water is not known,
water may be added to the milk of lime till, on
adding a drop of nitrate of silver to a cnpfnl of
the cistern water, the brown tint indicative of an
excess of lime is replaced by a very faint yellow.
6. To save boilers from scaling, water intended
for steam purposes is sometimes treated with
lime to remove carbonates, and then the sulphate
of calcium (which forms a very tenacious scale)
is decomposiad with baric chloride (Haen's pro-

cess). The precipitated mineral matter may also
be prevented from forming a scale or fur by add-
ing orgamc substances, such as potatoes, sound
or otherwise, swedes, mangolds, or other vege-
table. Oak bark, spent tan, sawdust, and thdr
decoctions are efficacious on acconnt of the tannic
add they contain, but they attack the boiler-
plates at the same time. Zinc suspended in the
water is said to answer well. It has been recom-
mended to polish the inside of the boiler-plates
with black-lead or coat it with linseed oU and
dissolved india mbber. Nnmerons chemical pre-
parations, most of which do more harm than
good, are also sold. A recent plan is to snspend
a small bundle of fibrous material in the boiler;
upon this the solid matter tends to accumulate.

Teiie {Phgeieal). 1. To observe colour, stand
in tall colourless glass cylinder on white ground.
If very turbid allow to settle, and examine sedi-
ment by microscope for evidence of sewage con-
tamination (linen fibres, hairs, epithelium) and
for moving organisms. Slight turbidity is best
noted by filling a clean quart fiask, and holding it
towards the Ught with soma dark object as a
window-pane between. Taste aud odour are most
marked when the water is made lukewarm. 2.
For poisonous metals add one drop of strong
colourless ammonium sulphide to about 1000
grains of water in glass cylinder, and observe if
the liquid darkens. If the coloration or precipi-
tate ^sappears on adding acid, it is iron ; if it
remains, loul or copper is present, either of which
condemns the water. 3. For chlorine add a
couple of drops of nitric acid to a little of the
water, and a crystal or drop of solution of mtrate
of ulver. If the water turns very milky it is a
bad sign ; make, if possible, a comparative ex-
periment with water of known composition. 4.
The residuum, if any, of evaporation is impurity;
if it be organic matter, smoke and a pecnliar
odour will be evolved as the residue becomes dry
and charred. 6. Neither litmus, syrup of violets,
nor turmeric is discoloured or afFected when
moistened with pure water ; if the first two are
reddened, it indicates an acid ; if the litmus is
turned blue or the turmeric is turned brown, an
alkali is present. 6. If a precipitate is formedt
or a fur or crust deposited on the vessel during
ebullition, it indicates the presence of carbonates
of calcium, magnesium, or iron. 7. Caldum
salts produce a white precipitate with oxalate of
ammonium. 8. The liquid filtered off from 7, on
being treated with a solution of phosphate of
sodinm and ammonium (microcosmic salt), and
allowed to stand, gives a white predpitate if
magnesium is present. 9. Tincture or infusion
of galls turns water containing iron black.
When this takes place both before and after the
water has been boiled, the metal is present under
the form of sulphate ; but if it only occurs before
boiling, then ferrous carbonate may be sus-
pected, and it will be precipitated as a reddish
powder by exposure to air and heat. 10. Ferro-
cyanide of potassium gives a dark blue predpi-
tate in water containing a ferric salt; and a
white one, tnming blue by exposure to the Mr,
in water containing a ferrous salt. 11. If sul-
phuric acid be run into water and allowed to
cool, and a crystal of sulphate of iron dropped

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1772

WATER

into the water, a, dark brown clond round the
crystal indicates nitrates; the bleaching of in-
digo added to the hot mixture of eqnal parts
water and pure oil of vitriol also indicates the
presence of these salts. 12. Sulphuric acid or
sulphate is indicated by a soluble salt of barium
throwing down a white precipitate insoluble in
nitric acid.

WtUer, Quantitative Analytit of. The quan-
titative analysis of potable water is confined to
the following : total residue, hardness, temporary
and permanent, chlorine, ammonia, nitrates and
nitrites, and organic matter.

Of these, all but the first two are intended to
throw light on the organic contamination of the
water. Chlorine, ammonia, and nitrates and
nitrites are in tbemselres Innocuous substances,
but are estimated because they supplement the
■omewhat imperfect information obtained from
the organic matter itself. A sewage-polluted
supply being an agent in propngating zymotic
diseases, a knowledge of the source of the
organic matter in a water is of the highest
importance.

Before passing to the mode of estimating the
above items it may be desirable to explain the
object of each analysis, and the interpretation
which may be placed on the results.

Total tolid residue includes all the substance,
organic or mineral, dissolved in the water.
Everything beyond the two gases which enter
into the combination of the water being useless,
the ' residue ' of a water is sometimes called the
' total solid impurity.' The less residue left by a
vrater on evaporation the better, but a water need
not be objected to for drinking purposes till the
residue reaches 40 grains per gallon. For raising
steam a water should not contain more than 20
grains, and should be, if possible, much less.

2!i« AardHeit, or soap-wasting power of a water,
is chiefly determined on economic grounds.
Unless the hardness is very excessive, the hard-
ness or softness of the water does not appear to
materially affect the health of the consumer.
Hardness is caused by salts of lime and magnesia.
If the property of hardness be caused by the
presence of bicarbonates of the above substances,
the water is said to be ' temporarily ' hard, for by
boiling or adding lime as above described the
hardness may be reduced without affecting the
potability of the supply ; but when the hardness
is due to calcium or magnesium sulphates it is
called 'permanent' hardness, for it is not then
practicable to remove the hardening ingredients
without adding some more objectionable sub-
stance. The average hardness of the four classes
of pure water is shown in the analysis given
above. Thames water has a total hardness of
16°. Loch Katrine water, as supplied to Qlasgow,
O70 on Clarke's scale.

Chlorine. Except in places near the sea, or in
salt-bearing strata, an unpolluted water does not
contain more thsn the merest trace of chlorine.
Sewage, however, contains a large quantity of
chlorine as sodic chloride (common salt), derived
from the salt used in cooking, &c. Hence a
mixture of sewage with water becomes known by
the quantity of chlorine present. It is not safe
to drink a water containing such an excessive

quantity of chlorine as A grains per gallon. The
chlorine in Ullswater and Thames water is 07
and I'l grains per gallon respectively. Sewage
has about 8 grains on the average.

Ammonia. This determination acquires signi-
ficance because it is one of the early substance*
produced by the decomposition of animal matter.
It therefore indicates, when present in large
quantities, recent contamination by sewage. Raiu
always contains a small amount of ammonia, and
deep wells occasionally show ammonia derived
from the reduction of nitrates by the oxygen-
seeking organic matter. The above inferences
must, ther^ore, be applied with caution.

Nitraiet and Nitrite* result from the oxida-
tion of animal matter. Vegetable snbetancea,
under like conditions, yield none or but mere
traces of these compounds. The presence of
nitrates is a most unfavourable sign in a shallow
well or river water, because the condition* to
which these waters are subjected are so variable
that there is a constant liability of the purifying
processes diminishing, and allowing the sewage,
now only represented by innoxious nitrates, to
appear in its dangerous, unoxidised condition.

Dr Frankland takes the sum of the nitrogen
existing in the water as ammonia and as nitrites
and nitrates, as a sort of measnre of the minimum
amount of animal or sewage.matter destroyed.
The amount due to sewage or animal matter ia
considered to be all over 0-032 part per 100,000
(or 0'022 gr. per gallon), which is the average of
' inorganic nitrogen ' natural to unpolluted rain
water. Dr Frankland also expresses this ' previous
sewage or animal contamination' in terms of
London sewage containing 10 parts of nitrogen
in 100,000 parts of liquid, by multiplying the
above-named corrected sum by 10,000. Thos a
water containing 1 part per 100,000 (0-7 gr. per
gall.) of 'inorganic nitrogen' would have »
' previous sewage or animu contamination ' of
9680 parts per 100,000, for. it would have re-
quired 100.000 (f*^* = 9680 part* of
^10

London sewage to produce an amount of nitrogen
equal to that found by analysis. A water which
contains over 20,000 parts of previous sewage
contamination (1-5 grams of inorganic nitrogen)
is said to be dangerous. All other waters con-
taining more inorganic nitrogen than in rain are
said to be ' doubtful,' except springs and deep
well waters containing less than 10,000 parts of
previous sewage contamination per 100,000, and
such shallow wells and running water which
from their source may be taken to be free friMn
sewage.

Organic Matter. There is no method by which
the actual weight of organic matter can be deter-
mined, still less is it possible to say how much is
likely to be actually injurious organic matter, but
there are several means of measuring the propor-
tionate amount of organic contamination.

Dr Frankland determines the amount of carbon
and nitrogen in the organic matter. The smaller
the amount of these elements, the better the water;
and the less the amount of nitrogen, especially in
proportion to organic carbon, the less chance of
diitmal matter. Agood drinking waterwillnothAve

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1778

more than 0-2 part in 100,000 (0*14 gr. per gall.)
of carbon, or 0*03 part of organic nitrogen in
100,000 parts (0-02 gr. per gaU.) of the water.
The amonnt of putrescent matter may be esti-
mated by the amonnt of oxygen consumed in de-
•troying it Dr THdy ('Chem. Soc. Jonm.,'
January, 1879) considers, speaking generally,
-waters requiring 0-05 part per 100,000 (0-036 gr.
per gall.) to be of great organic purity ; 0-15 part
(0*1 gr. per gaU.), waters of medium purity;
waters of doubtful purity, from 0-15 to 0-21 pit
per 100,000 (0- 15 gr. per gaU.). Impure waters,
all above 0-16 gr. per gall.

The proportion of albumlnoos snbstancea pre-
sent is measured by Mr Wanklyn by the amount
of ammonia set free by alkaline permanganate.
A water containing over 0-16 part per million
albuminoid ammonia condemns a water absolutely
('Wanklyn's Water Analysis,' 4th edit., p. 54);
0*10 part per million with little free ammonia, or
0*05 part albuminoid ammonia with much free am-
monia, is ' suspicious.' A water with less than
0*06 part albuminoid ammonia belongs to the
class of rery pure waters.

Of course the above data are not hard and fast
lines, but serve as aids to a judgment which may
be modified by other circumstances connected with
the analysis, and the source of the water.

Method! of Atialj/tit : Total Solid Sttidtte.
1000 grains are evaporated to dryness in a pla-
tinnm dish over a water- bath, and residue dried in
an oven at 212° F. for an hour, or until the
weight is constant. The increase in weight of the
platinnm vessel multiplied by 70 gives the
number of grains of total solid residue per
{^Uon.

Mardnesi is determined by a solution of soap,
of which 320 grain-measures will soften a water of
16°^ of hardness. Each degree of hardness repre-
sents an amount of soap-destroying matter equiva-
lent to 1 grain of chalk per gallon. 1000 measured
gruns of the water are measured into a narrow-
mouthed six or eight ounce stoppered bottle, then
well shaken, and the air sucked out by means of a
piece of glass tube. The standard soap solution
is now run in, 10 grains at a time, shaking well
between each addition until there is foi-med over
the whole surface a lather, which, when the bottle
is placed npon its side, shall last just five minutes.
The number of grain-measures nsed will indicate
the hardness of the water by reference to Table
A. Should, however, the permanent lather not be
formed before 320 measures of soap solution have
been added, a second trial must be made, in which
only 600 grain-measures of the water are taken,
to which a like amonnt of recently boiled distilled
water is added. The degree of hardness now ob-
tained must be multiplied by 2. With very hard
waters it is necessary to dilute still further, say
250 grains to 750 of distilled, and multiplying the
result by 4. If the number of soap measures does
not correspond with any degree on the table, ob-
serve which number it falls between. The degree
corresponding to the lower of these soap volumes
will be the whole number in the answer; the
fraction will be the difference between the ob-
served namber of measures and the next lower on
the table, divided by the difference (given in column
-3) between the figure above and below it. Thos

if 14 measures were used the hardness wonld be
6-2°, 13-6 measures being equivalent to 6 degrees,

and the fraction being -liri^=-t =-2.
^ 13-6-11-6 20
The hardness of the water in the natural state
is the ' total hardness.' By boiling for an honr
and making up loss by evaporation with boiled
distilled water and again determining the hard-
ness, the ' permanent hardness ' is found. That
which has been removed by the boiling is the tem-
porary hardness.

Tablb a.

Soap Tett Jfeaturet corrttpondiug to one thou-
sand meatures of water of each degree of
hardnea.

of haidneu. i

oaptettmeasiues. Diff^rense.

0

14

18

1

82

22

2

54

22

8

76

20

4.

96

20

6

116

20

6

186

20

7 .

156

19

8

176

19

9

194

19

10

213

18

11

231

18

12 .

249

18

IS

267

18

14

286

18

15

808

17

16

320

—

The standard water of 16° of hardness is thus
made : — Pure carbonate of calcium (Iceland spar)
is weighed out into a porcelain or platinnm dish
in the proportion of 16 gr. for a gallon of solution.
It is dissolved in weak hydrochloric acid, and the
whole cautiously evaporated to dryness over a
water-bath, then re-dissolved in water, and again
evaporated to drive off any excess of acid. The
dish is covered with a glass during the operation
to prevent loss by spirting. The resulting neu-
tral chloride of calcium is dissolved in a gallon of
pore distilled water if 16 gr. were weighed out,
or a proportionate quantity in other cases. The
soap solution can be made.by dissolving good curd
soap in weak methylated spirit in the proportion
of 1 oz. of soap to the g^lon. A potash soap
made as follows is, however, less liable to change :
— 150 gr. of lead plaster (Emplastrum Plumbi —
B. P.) and 40 gr. of dry potassium carbonate are
rubbed together in a mortar and repeatedly ex-
tracted with small portions of methylated spirit,
tritnrating the mass meanwhile, till about a pint
of spirit has been nsed; filter and add an equal
bulk of recently boiled distilled water. Which-
ever method is followed, the clear solution has now
to be standardised by the ' water of 16° of hard-
ness.' 1000 gr. of the water of 16° of hardness
are placed into a bottle, and this soap solution is
run in from a burette until a permanent lather is
formed. The soap solution must be fortified hg
strong soap solution or diluted with alcohol tiU
320 measures prodnce a lather permanent for five
minutes in 1000 grain-measures of water of 16°
of hardness.

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WATEK

Chlorine. To 1000 gr. of the water add a drop
or two of neatral cbromate of sodium, so as to
tinge the water yellow ; run in Btnndard nitrate
of Nlver till the liquid acquires a very funt red
tinge, showing that all the chlorine has been pre-
cipitated and that red silver chromate is beginning
to be formed. The number of grains of standard
nlution divided by 100 will give the grains of
chlorine in 1 gall, of the water.

The standard solution is prepared by dissolving
pure nitrate of silver in the proportion of 47*90
gr. to 1 gall, of distilled water.

Ammonia estimations are always carried oat as
described in the account of Messrs Wanklyn and
Chapman's process.

Nitratet and Nitrites. These substances can be
most expeditiously estimated by the indigo pro-
cess as follows : — 200 grain-measures of the water
are placed in a flask, and a little of a standard
solution of indigo added thereto ; twice the volume
of pure sulphuric acid is then suddenly poured in
from a measuring cylinder, andt he whole shaken.
The temperature rises immediately to abont 270°
F., and the blue colour will probably be imme-
diately discharged ; more indigo, therefore, must
be rapidly run in till a brown-green tint shows
itself. This gives the trial estimation, but the
maximum amount of indigo is only nsed up when
all the indigo is added previous to the addition of
acid ; hence a second experiment is now started,
and an amount equal to that previously used run
in at once, and on it is poured exactly twice as
much sulphuric acid as there is water and indigo
in solution. The second result will be somewhat
higher than the first. If the solutions below
mentioned be used, the amount of indigo required
by the 200 gr. of water divided by the number of
gr^s of indigo required to bleach 200 c.c of
standard nitre represents the grains per gallon of
nitrogen as nitrates and nitrites. The standard-
ising of the indigo with the nitrate solution is
performed exactly as for an actual water. The re-
qnisitesare — 1. A solution of pure potassium nitrate
of known strength, say 14'442 gr. of nitre (equi-
valent to 2 gr. of nitrogen or 9 gr. of nitric acid)
in a gallon of distilled water. 2. A solution of
indigo made by dissolving soluble indigo carmine
in ^stilled water in such a proportion that 200
gr. is about equal to 200 gr. of nitre solution. 3.
Strong pure oil of vitriol ; it must be free from
nitrous compounds, not become turbid when
diluted, and its sp. gr. not be less than 1*84. It is
important to maintain the same proportion of
acid, and not to allow the temperature to fall
below 250° F. throughout the experiment.

Messrs Wanklyn and Chapman's alnminiam
method is also a very convenient process. 2000
gr. of the water are placed in a retort, and half as
moch of a solution of 10% soda added. The soda
solution is made from sodium soda, and the
absence of nitrates is secured by boiling the liquid
with a piece of aluminium. Half the contents of
the retort are distilled over, and the residue cooled.
A piece of aluminium-foil of about 6 square inches
area is tied to a piece of clean glass rod and sunk
in the liquid. The neck of the retort is guarded
by a tube containing fragments of glass moistened
with hydrochloric acid ; it is sloped, so that any
liquid spurted into the neck will flow back into

the retort. After resting several honrs the neck
of the retort is washed down with pure distilled
water, the contents of the tube are transferred to
the retort, and the contents distilled over, down
to about an ounce in 2 or 3 oz. water placed aa a
receiver. The contents of the receiver are made
up to 200 gr., and the ammonia is estimated in one
half by Nessler's test as below described.

An exceedingly acctirate eudiometric method
has also been devised by Dr Frankland based on
Crum's observation that a highly concentrated
solution of nitrates, when vigorously agitated
with mercury and an excess of concentrated pone
snlpboric acid, yields all its nitrogen from the
nitrates and nitrites as nitric oxide, a compound
occupying twice the volume of the nitrogen a»
nitrates. The weight of gas is easily calculated
from the volume measured (' Journal Chem. Soc/
March, 1868).

Organic Contamination : meant of asHmating.
Messrs Wanklyn and Chapman's method is moet
generally employed. It depends on the conver-
sion of the nitrogen of the organic matter into
ammoma, and the employment of ITessler's teit
to estimate this ammonia.

Neaslet'i Tett. 500 gr. of iodide of potas-
sium are dissolved in a small qnantity of hot
distilled water, and to this is gradually added
a cold saturated solution of mercuric chloride
till the precipitate produced ceases to be dis-
solved upon stirring. To render this alkaline
add 2000 gr. of potassic hydrate, and dilnte the
volume to 10,000 gr. measures. A little more
saturated mercuric chloride is added, and the
whole allowed to settle, and the clear liquid de-
canted off. The test should have a slightly yel-
lowish tint. If colourless it is not sensitive^ and
more mercuric chloride must be added.

Standard Ammonia Solution. Dissolve 27*164
gr. of pure sulphate of ammonium in 1 gall, of
distilled water. For use dilnte 100 gr. to 1000
gr. It will then contain 1 gr. of ammonia in
100,000 of water.

In order io estimate ammonia several liz-
ounce tall glass cylinders, free from colour, are
graduated at 1000 gr. One of these is filled up
to the graduation mark with the ammonia to be
estimated, and abont SO gr. of Nessler's reagent
added from a pipette. The coloration produced
is noted, a second cylinder is filled nearly to the
mark vrith distilled water, and what is thought
sufScient ammonia to produce a similar colour to
the first run in, and the whole made up to 1000
gr., and 30 gr. of Nessler added; if after standing
five minutes the colour in the second is the same
as in the water examined, the quantity of am-
monia they contain will be equal ; but if this is
not the case a second trial must be made, umng
more or less standard ammonia as the intensity
of colour is greater or less tlian the first. After
a little experience more than two trials are rarely
necessary.

Examination, (a) Free Ammonia. 7000 gr.
(a dec! -gallon) of the water to be analyaed is
placed in a tubulated retort, and to it is added half
an ounce of a supersaturated solution of carbon-
ate of soda, made by dissolving ignited carbonate
of soda in water free from ammonia. The con-
tents are distilled over in two portions of 1000

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1775

gr. each, and the leoond Nemlerited : if it oon-
taina no ammonia, the diitillation may be stopped ;
if it does, the distillation most be continued and
teeted in portions of 600 gr. till the ammonia no
longer can be detected. If there is mach am-
monia in the cylinder of the second 1000 gr. the
first will probably oontun too much to b<9 con-
veniently estimated, and therefore an aliquot part
diluted to 1000 gr. with distilled water free from
ammonia should be used. The sum of the am-
monia in these difCerent portions, multiplied by
10, givea grains per gallon.

(i) AU^minoid Ammonia. To the retort, after
all the free ammonia has been driven off, 1 oz. of
• aolntion of hydrate and permanganate of potas-
num of a strength of 2000 gr. of hydrate of
potassium and 80 gr. of permanganate to 10,000
gr. of water is added, and the distillation con-
tinued until no more ammonia comes over, col-
lecting the distillate in portions of 1000 c.c as
before. The sum is the albuminoid ammonia
derived from the nitrogenous organic matter.

It is, of course, essential that the utmost care
be taken to remove by rinsing or distilling all
traces of ammonia from the apparatus employed.
Water which has been distilled till free from am-
monia should alone be used in estimations and
preparations of solutions, and the alkaline per-
manganate should be boiled for a short time when
made to expel ammonia.

< Oaeygen ' Proetn. This is a nsefnl process
when comparing waters of similar origin. It is
probably a more reliable measure of t^epuimeent
matter present than the total organic contamina-
tion. It is essential that the oxidising agent,
potassium permanganate, be added in excess and
allowed to stand three hours. The following
method is very delicate {vida Dr Tidy on " Potable
Waters," ' Chem. Soo. Joum.,' January, 1879).

Cleanse with sulphuric acid and with tap-
water two flasks, and place in one 600 septems
{■is S'^-) °^ ^^° water, in the other an equal
quantity of distilled water. Add to each 20 sep-
tems (140 gr.) of sulphuric acid (1 part pure
acid to 3 parts of distiued water) and 20 septems
of potassium permanganate, and allow to rest for
S hours. Then add to each flask a couple of drops
of an aqueous solution of potassium iodide (1 in
10), when iodine is liberated equivalent to the
amount of permanganate unacted on by the
waters. Observe the amount of a sodium hyposnl-

Ehite solution (6-4 gr. in 7000 gr.) which must
e added to each to remove this free iodine (judg-
ing of the exact point by adding towards the end
of the experiment a few drops of starch).

The strength of the potassium permanganate
solution is 2 gr. of the salt in 7000 gr- to ^ gall. ;
therefore the 20 septems wiU contun 0-04 gr.
permanganate, equivalent to 0K)1 of available
oxygen. The experiment (a), with the amount
of hyposulphite used up for the blank distilled
water, shows the amount of hyposulphite equiva-
lent to 20 septems, or 0*01 gr. of oxygen. There-
fore the amount of oxygen nnconsumed in the

water (b) to be examined was — x 0-01, and the
MDOont (o) actually need op was — — x OrO\ for

600 septems (^ gall.). Then the oxygen con-
sumed per gallon would be . It is

necessary to perform this standardising of hypo-
sulphite with every series of experiments, on
account of its tend^cy to ciiange. Dr Tidy re-
commends that in addition to the three hours'
experiment one of a single hour dnration be
executed. The higher the proportion of oxygen
consumed in one hour to the oxygen consumed in
three hours, the worse the water.

Nitrites, sulphuretted hydrogen, and ferrous
salts interfere with this teat, and there appears to
be a different ratio between the oxygen consumed
and the amount of organic matter, according to
the amount of oxidation that has already taken
place. The organic matter of deep wells is pro-
portionately least acted upon.

ComAutiion Ifetkodt. The 'Frankland and
Armstrong process ' consists in burning with
oxide of copper (* vacuo the residue left on eva-
porating the water, and collecting and measuring
in a suitable gas apparatus the carbonic add,
nitrogen, and nitric oxide proceeding from the
organic matter. From these estimations are cal-
culated the organic carbon and nitrogen.

This method, though forming the most accurate
means of measuring organic contamination, is not
in general use in consequence of the difficulties
attending Dr Frankland's method of analysis.
Professor Dittmarand Drs DuprS and Hake have
lately introdnced processes by which the same
results may be obtained without necessitating the
use of expensive gas apparatus.

JDittmar'i Carbon Prooeu. Concentrate a suit-
ablequantity (say 10,000 gr.) ina pear-shaped flask,
and, after adding some saturated solution of sul-
phurous acid to expel carbonates and nitrates,
evaporate to dryness in a glass dish on a water-
bath. Transfer the residue from the dish to a
porcelain or platinum boat, and introduce it into
the tail end of a combustion tube, filled three
fourths of its length with oxide of copper, and
having a roll of silver gauze in the front part of
the tube. Previous to the boat being put in, this
tube is heated to redness, and a stream of air
freed from carbonic acid passed through it till the
gas which comes out no longer renders clear baryta
water turbid. The combustion tube has attached
in front a small V-shaped tube charged with
chronuc acid dissolved in 60% sulphuric acid. To
it is permanently fixed a small tube filled with
calcium chloride, and in front of all is a small
weighed U-tube, the first three fourths of which
is filled with soda lime, and the other fourth with
calcium chloride. On turning the gas on gradu-
ally from the front to the tail the residue is at
last reached, and burnt in the stream of pure air.
The carlx>nic acid given off, after being freed from
sulphurous anhy^de by passing through the
chromic acid solution, and of moisture by the
calcium chloride, passes into the soda lime tube
and is absorbed. The increase in weight multi-
plied by -fi gives the amount of carbon and the
amount of water taken.

Dittmar'i Nitrogn Proeeu. An amonnt of
water, about haU that taken for the carbon, is
evaporated in a similar way. The residue is trans-
ferred to a large copper or silver boat, and mixed

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WATERS

with about fifty gruns of soda made from pure
sodium, or with- a mixture of soda and baryta, and
burnt in a stream of hydrogen in a short combus-
tion tube, which is cjosed in front by a nitrogen
absorption bulb chargsd with exceedingly weak
addnlated water. The amount of ammonia given
off is estimated by the Nessher test as described
under 'Ammonia.' Subtracting the amoant of
inorganic ammonia, the residue mul^p^ifid by ^
yields the quantity of organic nitrogen 4^ that
volume of water. ^■*>.„

A few blank experiments must be made to ob
aerve and allow correction for the amount of ex'
perimental error.

Carbon Method of Drt Dnpri and JBake
{' Chem. Soc. Journ.,' March, 1879). This method
appears to be very accurate, but it necessitates a
number of minute precautions, which cannot here
be particularised. A residue is obtained by evapo-
rating the water either in the ordinary hemispheri-
cal glass dish, or in an exceedingly thin silver one,
which after being ignited is supported in a plati-
num hemisphere of convenient size. At the close
of the evaporation this dish is crumpled up with-
out being handled and introdnced into a combus-
tion tube, similar to that described under Ditt-
mai's process. The carbonic acid is absorbed in
clear barium hydrate solution, and the precipi-
tated barium carbonate is, with suitable precau-
tions to prevent access of impure air, collected
on a filter and washed. It is dried and weighed.
The result divided by 19'4 gives the weight of
organic carbon. As another method of estimating
the carbon the authors propose to compare the
turbidity produced by the carbonic add evolved
from the combustion of the residue in solutions
of baaic acetate of lead with that produced by
known quantity of carbonic acid.

Pret. The preservation of nun water in a state
of purity necessitates the greatest care in con-
structing the tanks, especially if the latter are under
ground. Of eight samples of stored rain water
examined by thelliverCommissioners only one was
fit for domestic use ; the others were aU polluted
by animal matter. Storage room sufficient to hold
120 days' supply will be fonnd sufficient for the
driest district. The small cisterns for service
water should not be placed in positions where it
can receive the emanation of water-closets or
sleeping apnrtmenta. They should be frequently
cleaned out. The best are made of enamelled
slate or properly painted iron. Wherever possible
a water service should be on the constant supply
system.

For wells the chief precaution necessary is to
keep out surfsce and drainage water by main-
taining the walls waterproof for a considerable
depth. Ou shipboard water is preserved in iron
tanks, or in casks well charred on the inside.
Water cannot be safely kept in copper or leaden
vessels, and it receives a calcareous impregnation
by contact with lime, mortar, slate, or stone con-
taining lime. The addition of i% to 1% of finely
powdered binoxide of manganese materially
promotes preservation, especially at sea, where
the motion of the vessel and the subsequent agita-
tion of the water increases the points of contact.
Water never putrefies in iron vessels, or when some
fragments of metallic iron are immersed in it.

Distilled water should be preserved in glisi
bottles or carboys. See LonoH, Sfisitb, Watib,

DiSTILLBD EtB WATKB, PSBVUXXD WlTKB, and

the articles below.

Water, Soda. Each bottle of this liqnid shoold
contain at least 16 grains of carbonate of sodium,
but that of the shops is usually nothing else bat
water highly charged with carbonic, anhydride.
Not a particle of soda enters into its compositioii,
on which account it cannot be substituted for the
preparation of the Pharmacopcsias.

To produce a superior article of soda irater,
th>-fosse8sion of a powerful aSratingand bottling
macmB^ is absolutely necessary. The water em-
ployed mRst also be of the purest quality, the car-
bonic anhyif^de well washed with water, and the
corks so pre^ilvd that they will not impart their
peculiar flavour OP the beverage. See PowdeM,
Solution, Wikb^. and Lead nr Axkathd
Watbr

Water, Tar. See fkrunon op Tab.

Water-glass. StronX solutions of both aodinm
and potassium silicate site sold under this name.
The solutions are very ^fcid, transpsrant, and
soluble in water. The sod* "1' contains abont
10% caustic soda and 205&s\ii»- Surgeons m
both preparations to impregri^te bandages, for
mounting fractured limbs, in pSff* °* starch i in
very dilute solution it is antisepW*';*'"!*'"?'''^"'
as injection for gonorrhoea, cysdf** leucorrhffis,
and uterine ulceration.

WATSB8. Sgn. Abokatio w*"B«. Ow»I-

FBBOUB W., PeBFUMBO W.; AQI
AQU2 . DSBTILLATS (Ph. S. & D.

water charged, by solution or distil
volatile, odorous, and aromatic principl

Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) o. 2 gaUs. of
pat into the still along with the vegetabli
(brnised if necessary), but only 1 gall. '
over. In the Ph. L. 1886, 7 fl. oz. of pn
were added before distillation.

b. Take of the essential oil of the plant, 2 _^
dr. ; powdered silex, 2 dr. ; triturate them dili-
gently together, and then with distilled water,
gal\., gradually added; lastly (after briskly
agitating the whole for some time), strsin the
solution.

2. (Ph. B.) As 1, o, but adding of rectified
spirit, 8 fl. oz., before distillation.

3. (Ph. D.) From the respective essences,
1 fl. oz.; distilled water, 2 quarts; sgitated
well together, and then filtered through psper.

The following are the AqCA dBHUM'*™
the British Colleges, with some others, "«
qnantities referring to a product of 1 g^'>
to be prepared as above when not otherwise
directed.

As OBtlOA WaTEB ; AQUA AjrOIUOB (P. CodO.
L. Bruised seed, 1 lb. ; water, q. s. ! distil 4 lbs.

AinsBBD Watbb ; Aqua akibi (P. Cod.), !"■
From seeds, as aqua AirCBLiOB. ^

Bam Watbb; Aqua lauats (P. Cod.),l*
Fresh tops, 12 lbs. ,

Bbboakot Watbb ; Aqua bbboakh (w- "•
1746), L. Bergamot peel, 6 os.

Bittkb Almond Wathe; Aqua a"®?^
aka&s, a. amtodalabuh akababtm(p. «»j
L. Bitter almond cake (from which the oil»«
been expressed), 6 lbs. ; macerate for Si h""'*

(Ph. L),

L. Pnre

iation, with

awn

rit

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WATERS

1777

and filter the distilled prodact throngh paper
previously wetted with pare distilled water.
Poisououa. — J)ote, 10 to 60 drops, as a sabetitnte
for hydrocyanic acid.

Black Mustakd-bbsd Waxes ; Aqua butapib
KISBX (Quibourt), L. Mix 1 part of ground
black mustard seed with 8 parts of water ; mace-
rate for 12 hours, and distil 4 parts, by means of
ateam conducted by a tube from a boUer to the
bottom of the still. Filter through moistened
paper to separate the oil. Used externally as a
mbelkcient.

BoKASB Watbb ; Aqua BOBAenru (P. Ciod.),
L. Fresh leaves, 12 lbs.

Wateb o» Botot j Eau ds BOTOX, Fr. The
following is Winkler's formula: — Thictniv of
cedar wood, 600 grms. ; tincture of myrrh, 125
grms.; tincture of rhatany, 125 grms.; oil of
peppermint, 5 drops. It is employed as a tooth
and mouth wash.

Cauphob Watbb ; Aqva oaxphobx (B. P.),
MiBiUBA 0., L. Enclose i oz. of camphor, broken
into pieces, in a muslin bag, and attach this to
one end of a glass rod, to keep it at the bottom of
a bottle containing 1 gall, of ^stilled water.
Macerate for two days, ^en pour oS the solution
as required.

Cabawat Watbb ,- Aqua oabui (B. P., Ph. L.
& D.), L. Caraway, bruised, 1 part ; water, 20
parts ; distU 10 parts.

Caboabiixa Watbb ; Aqtta oobtiois oab-
CABiXLX (P. Cod.), L. Cascarilla, bruised, 3 lbs.

Cassia Wateb; Aqva oasbix (Ph. E.), L.
Cassia, bruised, 1^ lbs.

Castob Watbb ; Aqua cabtobsi, Ij. Castor,
4oz.

CHAKoini.x Watbb ; Aqua AirrEBHisia (Ph.
G.), L. Dried chamomile flowers, 2 lbs. ; water,
q. s. ; distil 20 lbs.

Chbbbt-laubel Watbb ; Aqua laubo-cebasi
{B. p.. Ph. E. & D.), L. JPrep. (B. P.) Fresh
leaves of cherry laurel, 16 parts ; water, 60 parts ;
chop the leaves, crush them in a mortar, and
macerate them in the water for 24 hours ; distil
20 parts of the liquid, shake the product, filter
through paper ; adjust the strength of the fimshed
product, either by addition of hydrocyanic acid,
or by diluting with water so that 810 gr. of it
shall correspond, on testing with silver nitrate, to
0*1% of real hydrocyanic acid. — Dote, 10 to 60
drops, as a substitute for hydrocyanic acid. It is
commonly imitated in trade by dissolving 75
drops (minims) of the oil of bitter almonds
in 2i fl. oz. of rectified spirit, agitating the
mixture with warm distilled water, 1 gall., and
filtering.

Cexobopobh Watbb ; Aqua ohlobobobmi (B.
P.), L. Chloroform, 1 part; water, 200 parts.
Slwke tin dissolved.

CmrAXOir Watbb ; Aqua onnrAxoxi (B. P.,
Fh. L., E.,&D.),L. JPrap. 1. Cinnamon, bruised,
18 oz., or oil, 2 fl. dr.

2. (B. P.) Cinnamon, braised, 1 part; water,
16 parts ; distil 8 parts.

Clove Watbb ; Aqua oabtophtlli (P. Cod.),
L. Cloves, bruised, 8 lbs.

CoBiAHSEB Wateb ; Aqua cobiansbi, L, As
ajtsbuoa wateb.

DiKL Waxbb; Aqua asbtsi (B. P., Ph. L. &
Toil. n.

E.), L. Prtp. 1. Braised seed, li lbs., or essential
oil, 2 fl. dr.

2. (B. P.) Bruised fruit, 1 part; water, 20
parts ; distil 10 parts.

Distilled Wateb ; Aqua dbstillata (B. P.),
L. Take of water, 10 galls. ; distil from a copper
state, connected with a block-tin worm ; rgect
the first i gall., and preserve the next 8 gaUs. It
should remain clear on the addition of either
lime water, chloride of barium, nitrate of silver,
oxalate of ammonia, or hydrosalpharic acid (sul'
phnretted hydrogen).

Eldeb-ilowbb Wateb ; Aqua sakbuoi (B.
P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Frap. 1. Fresh elder
flowers, 10 lbs.

2. (B. P.) Fresh elder flowers, separated
from the stalks, 1 part ; water, 2 parts ; distil 1
I>art.

EuoALTFTUs Watbb ; Aqua buoaltpti, L. Dry
leaves, 1 x>art; add sufftdent water to yield 4
parts of product.

FEinrEL Watbb ; Aqua KBincuLi (B. P., Ph.
L., E., & D.), L. As DILL watbb.

HoKBT Watbb ; Aqua kellis, L. 01. caryo-
phylli, 2} dr. ; ol. bergamot, 10 dr. ; ol. lavandnla
aug., 2idr.; moschi,4gr. ; ol. santal. flav., 16
minims ; spt. vini rectificat., 82 oz. ; aq. roses, 8
oz. ; aq. fior. aurantii, 8 oz. ; mellis opt. ang., 2
oz. Alaeerate the whole for at least 3 weeks,
agitating occasionally. Allow to setUe, decant^
and filter if necessary.

^YB80P Waibb ; Aqua htsbopi (P. Cod.), L.
Fresh tops, 12 lbs.

Htstbbio Watbb; Aqua etbtbbioa, L.
Compound of spirit of b^ony, omitting th«
bryony.

Juhifbb Wateb ; Aqua baoojb fumPBBi (P.
Cod.), L. Berries, bruised, 8 lbs.

Lavbhdbb Wateb ; Aqua LATABDUXis (P.
Cod.), L. Flowering tops, 3 lbs.

Lbxon-peel Wateb ; Aqua Lncomg (E.
1817), L. Fresh lemon peel, 2 lbs. ; water, q. s. ;
distil 10 lbs.

Lettuob Wateb ; Aqua lactuoj: (P. Cod.),
L, Fresh lettuces, bruised, 12 lbs.

Lilt Wateb ; Aqua liliobuk oohtallabiux
(Ph. Bruns.), L. Flowers of lily of the valley, 1
lb. ; water, 4 lbs. ; distil 2 lbs.

LiKB-TBBB FLOWBB WaTBB ; AQUA TILIiB, L.

From lime flowers, as helilot watbb.

Melilot Wateb ; Aqua meliloti (P. Cod.), L.
Dried flowers, 8 lbs.

Mnrr Watbb, SpEABmnr w. ; Aqua KBNTHiB
▼ntiDis (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. JVep. 1.
Dried herb, 2 lbs.; or fresh herb, 4 lbs.; or essen-
tial oil, 2 fl. dr.

2. (B. P.) English oil of spearmint, H dr. ;
water, H galls.; distil 1 gaU.

Mtbtle-elowbb Watbb ; Aqua kybti, L.
Myrtle flowers, 3 lbs. ; water, q, s. ; distil 1 galL

Opiuh Watbb; Aquaopii (Ph. O.), L. Opium,
sliced and dried, 1 oz. Put into a glass retort
with 10 oz. of water, and distil 5 oz.

Obaksb-floweb Watbb ; Aqua AUBAKrn
blobis (B. p., Ph. L.), A. flobuk aueaktu, L.
" Water distilled from the flowers of Oitrus biga-
radio, Bisso, and Citnu auraniivm, DC." (Ph.
L.). Orange flowers, 10 lbs. ; proof spirit, 7 fl. oz.
(Ph. L. 1886).

lis

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1778

WATERS

Obahob-fesi, Watbb; Aqua oobtiois au-
BAXTII (Ph. L. 1746), L. Rind of oranges, 5 oz.

Orisakuk Watbb j Aqua obisahi (P. Cod.),
L. Dried flowen, 8 lb«.

PAB8I.BT-8BED WatBB ; AQVA PBTBOSBLIVI
(P. Cod.), L. From parsley seed, as AirsBLIOA

WATBB.

Pbaoh Wateb ; Aqua fbbsicx (F. Cod.), L.
Fresh leaves, chopped small, 12 lbs. ; ai CHBBBT-

LAUBXIi WATEB.

Pbaoh-lxat Watxb; Aqua vkbsiom (P. Cod.),
L. Fresh peach leaves, cut small, 2 lbs. ; water,
4 lbs. ; distil gentW 8 Ibt.

PKKirrHOTAI, WATEB; AQUA PUIJMn (Ph. L.
& E.), A. KENTH^S FULBOII (Ph. D.), L. As KIHT
WATBB (above).

PbPPBBXINT WaTBB; AQUAlal(TH.X PIFEBITS

^B. p., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. As mirr watbb
(oioM).

PiMBirro Watbb ; Aqua fimeittji (B. P., Ph.
L., E., & D.), L. Prep, 1. Pimento, bmised, 1
lb.; or oil, 2 fl. dr.

2. (B. P.) Pimento, braised, 1 part ; water, 28
parts (nearly) ; distil one half.

Plahtain-leap Watbb; Aqua PLAVTAOiirig
(P. Cod.), L. From fresh plantain leaves, as
ibttuob water.

Raspbxsby Watbb. Fresh raspberries, 6 lbs.

Rbd Aitt Watbb ; Aqua fobuicabuv, L. Dis-
tilled from red ants with water, q. s.

Rhodium Watbb ; Aqua bhodii, L. Rho-
dium wood, 1 part ; water, 8 parts ; macerate, and
distil 4 parts.

RoBB Watbb ; Aqua bob* (B. P., Ph. L., E.,
k D.), L. Damask or hundred-leaved rose, 10
lbs. (Ph. L. k E.). Otto, 40 drops (Ph. D.).
Fresh cabbage-rose petals, 1 part ; water, 2 parts ;
distil 1 part (B. P.).

Rosbvabt Watbb ; Aqua boskabini, A.
AHTHOB, L. Rosemary, in flower, 1 lb. ; infuse
24 hours ; distil 1 gall.

Rub Watbb ; Aqua butjb, L. Fresh rue, 1
lb. ; macerate 24 hours ; distil 1 gall.

Saob Wateb ; Aqua baltijb (P. Cod.), L. As

IiATENDBS WATBB {above).

Sabbatbab Watbb; Aqua lioni babsafbab
(P. Cod.), L. Sassafras chips, 8 lbs.

Sabbaebab Watbb ; Aqua babbaebab (P. Cod.),
L. From sassafras, as vbulot wateb.

SCUBVT-OBABB WaTBB ; AQUA OOOHLBABLS

(P. Cod.), L. Fresh scurvy-grass, 8 lbs.

SPBABvnn Wateb. See Hint Watbb.

Spibiiuoub Watebs. Ifany of the distilled
spirits were formerly termed waters.

Spbucb Fib Wateb ; Aqua abietib (P. Cod.),
L. Bruised buds of spruce flr, 2 lbs.

Stihxihg Qoosbpoot Wateb ; Aqua oheho-
FOOli YAXYABIJE, L. Stinking gooiefoot, 1 lb. ;
water, 6 lbs. ; distil 3 lbs. — Doie, 1 to 2 oz.; in
hysteria.

Stbawbebbt Watbb ; Aqua FBAOASUt, L.
Strawberries, 3 lbs. ; water, q. 8. ; &til 8 lbs.

TAK8T Wateb ; Aqua tahaobti (P. Cod.), L.
Flowering tops, 6 lbs.

Ththb Watbb; Aqua thxki (P. Cod.), L.
As the last.

Yalbbiait Watbb ; Aqua taiiKbiaita, A.
BASiois y. (P. Cod.), L. Root, braised, 8 lbs.

Vabilla Waxbb; Aqua TAinLi.x, L. Va-

nilla, coarsely powdered, 1 lb. ; salt, 6 lbs. ; water,
2^ galls. ; macerate for 24 hoan in a covered
vessel, then distil 1 gall.

Violet Watbb ; Aqua viol«, L. Violets, 1
part ; water, 4 parts ; after 6 hours distil 2 parts.
WOBicwooD Watbb; Aqua ABsnnHiiri (P.
Cod.), L. Wormwood tops, 4 lbs.

Ueet, ^c. Distilled waters are mostly em-
ployed as vehicles or perfumes. A few, as
bitter almond, cherry-laurel, and peach water,
are poisonous in doses lai^r than a few drops.
The dose of the aromatic or carminative waters,
as those of dill, caraway, peppermint, pennyroyal,
Ac, is a wine-glassful ad libitum.

Concluding Eemarie. In the preparation of
distilled waters for medical purposes the atmost
care should be taken to prevent contamination
from contact with either copper, lead, or zinc,
since these metals are gradually oxidised and dis-
solved by them. In preparing them from the
essential oils^ siHca, in impalpable powder, is the
best substance that can be employed to promote
the division and diffusion of the oil, as directed
in the Ph. L, Magnesia and sugar, formerly
used for the purpose, are objectionable ; as the
first not only decomposes a portion of the oil, but
the water is apt to dissolve a little of it, and is
heuce rendered unfit to be used ns a solvent for
metallic salts, more especially for corrosive sub-
limate and nitrate of silver ; whilst the other
causes the water to ferment and acetify.

In the distillation of waters intended for per-
fumery the utmost care is requisite to produce a
highly fragrant Hrticle. The still should be fur-
nished with a high and narrow neck, and tho
heat of steam, or a salt-water hath, should alone
be employed. The first 2 or 3 fl. oz. of the run-
nings should be rejected, except when spirit is
used, and the remainder collected until the pro-
per quantity be obtained, when the whole pro-
duct should be mixed together, as distilled
waters progressively decrease in strength the
longer the process is continned. When a very
superior article is desired, the waters may be re-
distilled by a gentle heat, the flrst two thirds
only being preserved. The herbaceous odour of
recently distilled waters is removed by keeping
them for some months, loosely covered, in a cold
cellar.

When distilled waters have been carefully
prepared, so that none of the liquor in the still
has 'spirted' over into the condenung worm,
they keep well, and are not liable to change ; but
when the reverse is the case, they frequently be-
come ropy and viscid. The best remedy for this
is to redistil them. Waters which have acquired
a burnt smell in the ' stilling ' lose it by freez-
ing. Distilled waters may be prevented from
turning sour by adding a litUe calcined magnesia
to them, and those which have begun to spoil
may be recovered by adding 1 gr. each of borax
and alum to the pint. The doctoring is not,
however, to be recommended, and should never
be adopted for those used in medicine. A drop
of solution of terchloride of gold added to these
waters shows whether they contain any uncom-
bined essential <^, by forming, in that case, a
fine metallic film on the surface. After distilled
waters have acquired their full odour, they

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WATERS

1W9

thoold be carefully preserved in well-gtopped
Iwttles. Some honses Veep a sepxiate still for
each of the more delicate perfamed waters, as it
is extremely difScolt to remove any odour that
adheres to the body of the still and worm. The
addition of the small qoantity of spirit ordered
in tke 1%. E. and Ph. L. 1886, in the preparation
of their waters, in no way tends to promote their
praservation.

In genera], the dmggist draws off 2 galls., or
more, of water from the quantities of the herbs,
harks, seeds, or flowers, cndered in the Pharma-
copoeias ; hence the inferior quality of the waters
of the shops. They do, however, very well for
vehicles. The perfumers, on the contrary, use an
excess of flowers, or at least reserve only the first
and stronger portion of the water that distils
over, the remainder being collected and nsed for
a second distillation of fresh flowers.

The most beautiful distilled waters are those
prepared in the south of France, and which are
imported into England under the French names.
Thus ean de rose, eau de fleurs d'oranges, Ac,
are immensely superior to the best English rose
or orange-flower water, Ac. The water that dis-
tils over in the preparation of the essential oils is
usually of the strongest and finest class. See
Ebssbox, Oils (YoUtile), Spibtcb (Perfumed),
Vbobtables, &c.

'VATSSS (Sye). Sj/n. CoiXYSiA, L. Frep.
1. From distilled vinegar, 1 fl. oz. ; distilled
water, ) pint. Half a fi. oz. of rectified spirit, or
1 fl. oz. of brandy, is often added. In simple
chronic ophthalmia, blear eyes, &c.; also to re-
move particles of lime from the eyes.

2. Sugar of lead, 10 gr. ; pure vinegar, i tea-
spoonful; distilled water, i pint. In ophthalmia, as
soon as active inflammation ceases; also as the last.

8. Wine of opium, 2 fl. dr. ; sulphate of zinc,
20 gr. ; distilled water, i pint. Astringent and
anodyne ; in painful ophthalmia and extreme
irritability.

4. Opium, 16 gr. ; Ixnling water, 8 fl. oz. ; when
cold, add of solution of acetate of ammonia, 2i fl.
oz., and filter. As the last.

5. Sulphate of zinc, 20 gr. ; distilled water, i
pint ; dissolve. An excellent astringent water in
chronic ophthalmia, weak and irritable eyes, Ae.

6. Snlphate of copper, 10 gr. ; camphor mix-
tore (julep), i pint; dissolve. In the purulent
ophthalmia or infants.

7. Camphor julep, 5 fl. oz. ; solution of acetate
of ammonia and rose-water, of each, 2i fl. oz. j
mix. For weak or swollen eyes, partienlarly
after ophthalmia.

8. Chloride of barium, 80 gr. j distilled water,
i jdnt. In the ophthalmia of acrofnlons and sy-
philitic habits.

9. {Bate" I.) From bine vitriol, 16 gr.; cam-
phor, 4 gr. ; hot water, i pint; agitate in a
corked bottle, and, when cold, make it np to 4
pints, and filter. In purulent ophthalmia and
blear eyes.

10. (OmUariFi.) From solution of diaoetate
of lead, 16 drops; distilled water, i pint; mix.
As No. 2.

11. {Krimer.) Hydrochloric acid, 20 drops;
mucilage, 1 dr. ; water, 2 fl. oz. To remove par-
ticles at iron or lime from the eye.

12. (MartlMFt 'Kn srom.') Nitrate of
silver, 2 gr.; dilate nitric add, 2 drops; pure
soft or distilled water, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve ; add
powdered gum, 15 gr. ; agitate nntil dissolved,
and the next day decant the clear portion.

18. (P. Cod.) Extract of oi^am, 4 gr. ; rose-
water, 1 fl. OS.; dissolve. In paii^hl oph-
thalmia.

WATZSS (nn'eral). Bfn. Bkum WAxns;
Aqua MnniBAiaa, L. Our space will not per-
mit a description of these in^vidnally. The
tables given on pages 1780-1, exhibiting their
composition, will, however, enable the reader,
with a little attention, to produce artiflcial
waters more closely resembling the natural ones
than can be done by adopting any of the nume-
rous formnln published for the purpose. The
'aSrated waters' are charged with 6 or 6 times
their volnme of carbomc acid gas, by means of
the apparatus employed by the soda-water mann-
factnrers. On the small scale the gas is often
produced by the reaction of the ingredients on
each other, in which case, on the introduction of
the latter, the bottie must be instantiy closed
and inverted. Distilled water, or filtered rain
water, should alone be employed in thmr compo-
sition ; and for the chalybeated and sulphuretted
waters it should be first boiled, and sJlowed to
cool out of contact with the air.

In addition to the tables it may be remarked
that traces of iodine have been found in the
water of Cheltenham (old well), traces of 'bro-
mine in the water of Epsom, and traces of both
bromine and iodine in that of Leamington (royal
pomp). Manganese has been found in the
waten of Tunbridge, Carlsbad, Spa, Vrrmoat,
Marienbad, Saidschfits, &c. Traces of phos-
phoric and fluoric acid have also been found in
some mineral waters. It is the opinion of many
high authorities that the medicinal virtues m
these waters depend more on the minute quanti-
ties of the above substances, and the high state
of dilution in which they are held, than on their
more abundant saline ingredients.

SUTTLBKIirTABT TaBLB OP MlHHBAIi

Watbbb.
Bisbx-Bassit. In 16 oz.
Chloride of sodium .... 16*620 gr.
Bicarbonate of Ume .... 1-278 „
Bicarbonate of magnesia . . . 0*042 „
Bicarbonate of protoxide of iron . 0O37 „.
Bicarbonate of protoxide of man-
ganese traces

Bicarbonate of ammonia . . . 0-060 „

Snlphate of lime .... 1*666 „

Sulphate of potash .... 0*017 „

Phosphate of lime .... 0*021 „

Araeniate of iron .... traces

Chloride of magnednm . . . 0*007 „

Chloride of potassium . . . 1*268 „

Bromide of sodium .... traces

Silica 0*914 „

Alumina 0*006 „

Nitrates traces

Free carbonic aeid

22*098 gr.
. 0-299 „

(J—IWI.)

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1780

WATERS (MINEaAI.)

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WATERS (HINEKAL)

1781

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1782

WATEBS

Axavasisa Bsj^itbth.

Caibonnte of soda .

. 9 66)

p«uu.

„ of magneBia

. 8-39

j>

„ of lime .

. 0-45

M

Chloride of sodium .

. 3-57

ft

Sulphate of gods

. 2-80

>»

Oxide of iron .
Alumina .

•}o-16

»

SiUca

. (W)6
19-59

»

Carbonic acid

. 4704

The above are the contents of 16

OS. Temp.

70° F. (JBM).

Inl6oz.

Sulphate of soda .

.

. 46-61 gr.

Sulphate of magnesia .

. 89-56 „

Chloride of sodium

. 61-10 „

Chloride of magnesium

. 80^26 „

Bromide of magnesium

. 0-87 „

Sulphate of potash

. 1-62 „

Sulphate of lime .

. 10-84 „

Car )onate of time

. Oil „

Carbonate of magnesia

. 116,,

SiUca ....

. 0-88,,

190-26 gr.

Carbonic acid

,

. 6-82 ci.

(Liebig.)

TOBPiiiTz. In 16 oz. Temp. 14° P.

Sulphate of potash .... 0098 gr,

Sulphate of soda .... 0-290 „

Carbonate of soda .... 2*685 „

Phosphate of soda .... 0014 „

Fluoride of silicon .... 0-351 „

Chloride of sodium .... 0-483 „

Carbonate of lime .... 0-330 „

Carbonate of strontia . . . 0-027 .,

Carbonate of magnesia . . . 0-088 „

Carbonate of protoxide of iron , . 0-019 „

Carbonate of protoxide of manganese . 0-021 „

Sulphate of alumina .... 0-020 „

SiUca 0-443 „

Crenic acid 0-034 „

4-804 gr.
(JTolf.)
VlOHT (Orand Grille).

Temp. 106° F. In a litre.

Carbonic acid 0-908

Bicarbonate of soda .... 4*888
Bicarbonate of potash .... 0-352
Bicarbonate of magnesia .... 0*303
Bicarbonate of strontia .... 0*003
Bicarbonate of lime .... 0*434

Bicarbonate of protoxide of iron . . 0*004
Bicarbonate of protoxide of manganese . a trace

Sulphate of soda 0*291

Phosphate of soda 0*130

Aneniate of soda 0*002

Borate of soda a trace

Chloride of sodium 0*634

Silica 0*070

Organic matter, bitominons . , .a trace

Grms. 7*914

WooDHAU. (I*ncasbire).
Iodine and bromine, with chlorides of calcioiii,
magnesium, potassium ; more than i gr. of bro-
mide of sodium and i gr. of iodide of sodium.

190 gr. in 20 oi. Strongly impregnated with
carbonic acid.

WATERS (Perfumed'). Syn. Aqvs ooami-
niLB, L. The simple distilled iraters of the
perfumer have been already noticed (see p. 1777).
They may be prepared from any substance whicJi
imparts its fragrance to water by distiUatian.
The compound waters (eaux) employed as per-
fumes consist of very pure rectified spirit, hold-
ing in solution essential oils or other odaroms
matter, and resemble the esprits, essences, and
spirits before noticed. They differ from extiaHi
in being mostly colourless, or nearly so, and in
being generally prepared by distillation, or bj
the addition of the pnro essential oils or essences
to csrefully rectified and perfectly scentleaa
spirit ; whereas the oxtraits are mostly and pre-
ferably prepared by macerating the flowers, &C.,
in the spirit, or by dig^ting the spirit with the
oils, in the manner noticed under Sfibits (Per-
fumed). Extraits are preferred to eaux and
esprits as the basis of good perfumery, when the
colour is not objectionable.

The following are a few additional formnla
andremarlcs:

Ahobl Watbb, PoBTtraAli W. Prom orange-
flower and rose water, of each, 1 pint; myrtle
water, # innt; essence of ambergrris, i fi. os. ;
essence of musk, i fl. oz. ; shake them well to-
gether for some hours, then fllter the mixture
through paper.

Kau D'Asas, Pr.; Aqpa mtkw. h. From
myrtle flowers, 8t Ibs-j water, 2 galls.; distil a
gallon. A pleasant perfume.

Eati D'AiraE BoxjiLtiu, Fr. Prom rose-water
and orange-flower water, of each, 8 pints; tien^
loin, i lb. ; storax, J lb. ; cinnamon, 1 o«. ; cloves,
I oz. ; 8 fresh-emptied musk bags ; digest ia •
securely covered vessel, at nearly the Ixnling heet,
for 2 hours, then sllow it to cool ; strain aS the
clear, press the romunder, and fllter for use-
Very fragrant.

Bau s'Ahgb DibtiuJ^b, Fr. From benxoin,
4 oz. ; storax, 8 oz. ; doves, ) oz.; calamns and
cinnamon, of each, i oz.; coriander seeds, 1 dr.
(all bruised); water, 8 quarts; distil 2 quarts.
Eau d'HUge distill^ et musqn^ is made by add-
ing a little essence of mnsk to the distilled pro-
duct. Both are highly frsgrant.

Eau SB Lavakde, Latbitdbs Watkb. See
SrauTB (Perfumed).

Eau db Naphbb, Eau lb Nafbi^ F^.; Aqtta
HAPHJi, L. This article is distilled in Langne-
doc from the leaves of the bigarade, or bitter
orange tree, but the preparation sold in England
under this name is often prepared as follows : —
Orange flowers, 7 lbs. ; fresh yellow peel of the
bigarade or Seville orange, i lb. ; water, 2 galls. ;
macerate 24 hours, and distil 1 galL In many
cases ordinal^ orange-flower water ia sold for eaa
de naphe.

BoBB-wATBB. From otto of roses, 3 dr.;
rectified spirit (warm), 1 pint ; dissolve, add of
hot water, 10 galls. ; mix in a 12-galhm carboy,
cork, and well agitate the whole until quite oold.

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WATBE-BEASH -WATBE-CLOSET.

1788

Thii makes the ordinary rose-water of the shop*,
and U really excellent, bat it is better for distil-
lation. See Watbub (Distilled).

UkPABAT.T.HLBTI WAXBK; EaU nrOOMTASABLB,

Fr, From oil of lemon, 4 dr. ; oil of bergamot,
2| dr. ; oil of cedrat, 2 dr. j rectified spirit, 3i
pints ; Hnngary water, i pint j mix, and ^til
all but 9 01. (Ouibimrt).

WAT£B-BKASH. See Pybosis.
_ WATSE-CLOaST. There are a number of con-
ditions necessary to be observed in the construc-
tion and arrangement of the water-closet if we
wish to prevent its becoming a nuisance and a
source of danger to the health of the inmates of a
dwelling-hoase. 1. As regards situation there can
be no doubt that, upon strict sanitary principles,
the closet, instead of forming part of the house,
should, whilst within easy access to it, be entirely
detached. Owing to various causes, however, this
isolation is frequently impossible.

Under such circumstances, the closet, whilst
formiug part of the dwelling, should be built out
from it, so as to hare as little connection as
possible with the rooms, corridors, &o. To (till
further accomplish this end the approach to the
closet should be through a small vestibule or
passage connecting the closet with the corridor,
and opening into the latter by means of a door.
Where there are more than one closet, they
should be built upon the plan just proposed, and
one over the other. The basement of a house is
a particularly objectionable locality for a water-
closet, since the warm house acts as an aspirator,
and thus draws any fetid and poisonous gases
there may be in the closet into the house, and
causes them to be diffused thronghont it. The
water-closet should, therefore, always be placed
in the higher parts of a building. 8. As regards
construction, &c., it would be impossible for us to
attempt to canvass the merits or the reverse of
the numerous designs, patents, &c., that relate to
this part of oar subject. We shall indicate,
therefore, only the more important desiderata,
which are— That the pan should be nearly cone-
shaped, and not round, like a half-circle. It is
mostly made of earthenware, sometimes of metal,
and occasionally of enamelled iron. The prefer-
able substance is earthenware: the pan should
always be ventilated, and there should likewise
he a sufficient flow and force of water to sweep
evetything out of it and thoroughly cleanse it.

The cistern supplying the closet should be kept
solely for this purpose, and not, as is sometimes
the case, be taken from the house cistern, as this
latter practice may lead to the contamination of
the drinking water, owing to the gases rising from
the closet.

_ The bottom of the pan is attached to the soil-
pipe which discbarges into the drain. The soil-
pipe is mostly trapped by means of a syphon
valve ; and it is important that the points of junc-
tion between the pipe and the syphon valve,
and the pipe and the main drain, should be
thoroughly secure and air-tight. Furthermore it
is imperative, if we wish to prevent an influx
into the pan of the gases and foul air which rise
through the syphon as the water runs oft, that the
soil-pipe should be ventilated. This may be
effected by attaching a small pipe having connec-

tion with the outer air to the discharge-pipe just
below the syphon, and carrying it up to the top
of the house., Another advantage arising from
ventilating the soil-pipe, besides the prevention of
the escape of sewer gas into the house, is that
there is no danger of its corrosion (if it be of
lead) by the action of the pent-up sulphuretted
vapours. The seat, which is mostly of wood,
should he so arranged as to be easily moveable,
and thus allow of easy inspection of the different
parts should they get out of order.

The seat as well as the closet should always be
ventilated. A good and simple method for the
ventilation of the latter is to carry a tube from
the top of the closet into the outer air. " If the
closet is in a bad situation, it should be heated by
a gas jet " {Partet).

The lid attached to the seat should have a hole
cut in it, so as to allow of the handle being pulled
up when the pan is covered, which, strange to say,
in perhaps ninety-nine cases out of every hundred
it never is, after being used. Of course, in the
absence of the ventilation of the pan and soil-
pipe, the result of keeping the seat covered over
would only be to fill the pan with malodorous
and more or less dangerous gases, which would
escape into the closet when the lid was again
raised.

3. Preeautioni. The use of unduly large pieces
of paper, such as cause stoppage and obstruction
in the discharge-pipe, should be particularly
avoided. Any defect or impediment in the work-
ing of the closet should be remedied at once. As
a general rule, servants are veiy careless in all
matters connected with the water-closet ; so much
so that the masters of many houses are themselves
compelled to exercise supervision over it.

During very hot weather, or the prevalence of
an infectious disease in a dwelling-house or in the
neighbourhood of the house, some disinfectant
should be added to the water that supplies the
closet. A substance that will very satisfactorily
answer this purpose is the commercial sulphate of
iron known as green vitriol. A pound of it
should be put into the tank when filled with
water.

The same disregard of sanitary obligations so
frequently shown in the construction, site, &c., of
water-closets is more obvious in the case of privies.
The Public Health Act not only renders unlawful
the erection or rebuilding of any dwelling-house
without " a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet,
or privy, and an ash-pit, furnished with proper
doors and coverings;" but also requires that,
" if a house within the district of a local authority
appears to such authority by the report of their
surveyor or inspector of nuisances to be without
a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy and
ash-pit, famished with proper doors and coverings,
the local authority shall, by written notice, require
the owner or occupier of the house within a
reasonable time therein specified to provide a suffi-
cient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy and an
ash-pit furnished as aforesaid, or either of them,
as the case may require."

Although in many large towns and cities a more
or less effectual supervision may be exercised by
the sanitary inspector in the above direction,
every one's experience of the usual outdoor privy

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1784

WATER-COLOUR CAKES— WATERPROOFING

of a small Engluh cotmtry town or Tillage will
suggest to him the extreme toleration prevailirg
amongst the ssnitary anthorities in many pio-
Tincial and mral districts in this particnlar. Ven-
talation is as essential for the privy as the water-
closet ; so also is the thorongh bspping of the
exit-pipe from the pan, as well as the cleansing
and flnshing of this latter by water directly after
it has been used. Yet how rarely do we find not
only all, bnt even one of these conditions ful-
filled in the arrangement of the ordinary privy ;
bnt instead an untrapped, immoveable pan (and
in some cases even this is wanting), covered with
filth, and no contrivance of any kind for a con-
stant water supply !

No wonder, therefore, that the atmosphere of
an ordinal? privy shonld be so fool and noisome
as it invariably is.

The following specification for a nsefnl descrip-
tion of privy is pnblished by Messrs Knight and
Co., 90, Fleet Street, London :

Speeiflcation. The privy and dustbin to be
built of 41-inch brickwork, in well-ground mortar
of approved quality. Two rows of 4|-inch and
8-inch bond timber to be built in at bade of privy
for securing ventilating shafts. The ventilating
shafts to be 7 by 4} inches, inside measurement,
of best red deal boards, 1 inch thick, closely put
together with strong white-lead paint, and well
nailed and carefully seamed to the 4i-inch and
8-inch bond timber. These shafts to have coats
of boiled tar, both inside and out.

The lid of refuse-Inn to be of best 1-inch red
deal boards, with two strong ledges or battens
across them, to be hung with three strong band-
hinges to the sides of the ventilating shafts, and
the makiog-up piece between the same. A cir-
cular oriflce to be made in centre of lid, between
the battens, 10 inches wide. The lid to have two
coats of boiled tar, both inside and out. A 4]-
inch and 3-inch frame of red deal to be securely
fixed on top of theldnstbin as a seat for the lid.
A lid over the privy seat to be hinged on at the
back, with a cUld's seat over centre of large one.
The larger seat to be provided with an earthen-
ware circular rim beneath. The earth compart-
ment to be without lid, and provided with a pint
scoop for each occupant to throw in a pint of the
stored dry earth or dry ashes through the seat
into the galvanised iron pail, the contents of which
must be scattered over the garden or put in the
dnstbin before the pail becomes fnll. A loose
toot-block may be furnished where there are young
children (the earth-closet is described under
Sbwaoe, Rsmotaii op).

The dustbin may be placed at side of the privy
if required. The floor of dnstbin to be at the
ground level, slightly inclined outwards, and
paved with brick. See Sewaob, Removal Airo
Disposal of ; DKAXiTB, Tanzb, Cebbfools.

WATXB-COIiOTJS CAKES. These are prepared
from any of the ordinary pigments that work well
in water, made into a stiff and perfectly smooth
paste with gum water or isinglass size, or a mix-
ture of the two, and then compressed in polished
steel moulds and dried. See PAnrmia, and the
respective pigments.

WATEBCBESS. The Natturtimm ojffieinaU, a
well-known plant of the Nat. Ord. CBXroDKBJt.

It is alterative and antiscorbatac, and was formerly
used in medicine, bat now chiefly as a salad, or s
refreshing relish at breakfast.

WATER-GAS. By forcing steam throngh fira-
clay, or iron retorts filled vrith red-hot charooal
or coke, the steam is decomposed into a mixtnze
of hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and carbonic anhy-
dride (possibly a small quantity of marsh-gas is
also present).

To this mixture, after it has been pnrifled, the
name of ' water-gas,' owing to the source firom
whence it has been derived, has been given.

According to some chemists the purified gaa
(obtained 1^ passing the crude gaseous product
sometimes over lime, sometimes over crystaUued
carbonate of soda) consists solely of hydrogen
gas. Longlois's analysis, however, has led to the
conclusion that it is a compound of hydrogen and
carbonic onde gases. Water-gas, obtained aa
above, possesses no illuminating power. His is
imparted to it by impregnating the gas with the
vapour of certain hydrocarbons, a plan suggested
by Jobbard, of Brussels, in 1888. Another bat
less usual method, orig^ating with Oengembre
and Oillard, is to place on the burners which con-
sume the gas small platinum cylinders. When
these become white-hot a strong and brilliant
light is produced. See PLATnnrx Oab.

WATEB-FOX. See (Pox) Chicxek-pox.

WATEBTBOOHBG. aoth is 'waterproofed^
as follows :

1. Moisten the cloth on the wrong side, first
with a weak solution of isinglass, and, when diy,
with an infusion of nut-galls.

2. As the last, bnt substitute a solution of
soap for isinglass, and another of alnm for
galls.

3. (Hancock's Patent.) By spreading the
liquid juice of the caoutchouc tree upon the inner
surface of the goods, and allowing them to dry
in the air. Absolutely chimerical.

4. (Potter's Patent.) The cloth is first imboed
on the wrong side with a solution of isinglaa^
alum, and soap, by means of a brush ; when dry,
it is brushed on the same side against the grain,
and then gone over with a brash dipped in water.
Impervious to water, but not to air.

6. (Sievier's Patent.) By applying first a soln-
tion of India rubber in oil of turpentine, and after-
wards another indio-mbber varnish, rendered very
dry by the use of driers. On this, wool or other
matenal of which the fabric is made, cnt into
proper lengths, is spread, and the whole passed
through a press, whereby the surface aoqniies a
nap or pile.

6. A simple method of rendering cloth water-
proof, without being airproof , is to spread it on
any smooth surface, and to rub the wrong side
with a lump of beeswax (perf ectiy pare and free
from grease) until it presents a ught, bnt even,
white or greyish appearance; a hot iron is then
to be passed over it^ and, the cloth being bmahed
whilst warm, the process is complete. When the
operation has been skilfully performed a candle
may be blown out through the cloth, if oooiMb
and yet a piece of the same, placed across an in-
verted hat, may have several glassfnls of watSr
poured into the hollow formed by it, without any
of the liqoid passing throngh. Preasore or £tic-

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WATEBPEOOF LIQUID— WAX

178ft

tion win alone make it do to. "We have shown
this to nnmerona cloth mannfactnrers, water-
proofen, tailors, and others, several of whom
have adopted the method very extensively and
with perfect snccess " (Cooley).

1. Abont the year 1862 a patent was taken
oat by Dr Stenhonse for employing paraffin as a
means of rendering leather waterproof, as well as
the various textile and felted fabrics; and in
Ang^t, 1864, an additional patent was granted
to him for an extension of and improvement on
the previous one, which consisted chiefly in com-
biiiing the paraffin with various proportions of
drying oils. It having been found that paraffin
alone, especially when applied to fabrics, became
to a considerable extent detached from the fibre of
the cloth after a short time, owing to its great
tendency to crystallise. The presence, however,
of even a small quantity of drying oil causes the
paraffin to adhere much more &rmly to the texture
of the cloth, from the oU gradually becoming
converted into a tenacious resin by absorption of
oxygen.

In the application of paraffin for waterproofing
purposes it is first melted along with the requisite
quantity of drying oil and cast into blocks. This
composition can then be applied to fabrics by
nibbing them over with a block of it, either cold
or gently warmed, or the mixture may be melted
and laid on with a brush, the complete impreg-
nation being effected by subsequently passing it
between hot rollers. When this paraffin mixture
has been applied to cloth such as that employed
for blinds or tents, it renders it very repellent to
water, although still pervious to air.

Cloth paraffined in this manner forms an ex-
cellent basis for such articles as capes, tarpaulins,
&c., which require to be rendered quite impervious
by subsequently coating them with drying oil,
the paraffin in a great measure preventing the
well-known ii\jurious effect of drying oil on the
fibre of the cloth. The paraffin mixture can also
be advantageously applied to the various kinds of
leather. One of the most convenient ways of
effecting this is to coat the skins or manufactured
articles, such as boots, shoes, harness, pump-
buckets, kc, with the melted composition, and
then to gently heat the articles until it is entirely
absorbed. When leather is impregnated with the
mixture, it is not only rendered perfectly water-
proof, but also stronger and more durable. The
beneficial effects of this process are pecuUarly
observable in the case of boots and shoes, which
it renders very firm without destroying their
elasticity. It therefore not only makes them ex-
ceedingly durable, but possesses an advantage
over wdinary dubbing in not interfering with the
polish of these articles, wUch, on the whole, it
nther improves.

The superiority of paraffin over most other
materials for some kinds of waterproofing cou-
rists in its comparative cheapness, in being
easily applied, and in not materially altering the
colour of fabrics, which in the case of light
shades and white cloth is of very considerable
importance.

8. A waterproof packing cloth which does not
break may be made by covering the fabric with
the following varnish: — 3 lbs. of soft (potash)

soap is dissolved in water and mixed with an
aqueous solution of sulphate of iron. The washed
and dried soap is dissolved in 3 lbs. of linseed oil,
in wluch i lb. of caoutchouc has been previoosly
dissolved.

WATESFSOOF LIQins. Prep. 1. India
rubber, in fragments, 1 oz.; boiled oil, 1 pint;
dissolve by heat, carefully applied, then stir in of
hot boiled oil, 1 pint, and remove the vessel from
the fire.

2. Boiled oil, 1 pint j beeswax and yellow resin,
of each, 2 ox. ; melt them together.

8. Salad oil, 1 pint ; mutton suet, ^ lb. ; white
wax and spermaceti, of each, 1 oz. ; as the last.
For • ladies' work.'

4. Bisulphide of carbon, 2 oz. ; gutta percba, \
oz. ; asphaltnm, 2 oz. ; brown amber, i oz. ; linseed
oil, 1 oz. ; mix. Dissolve the gutta percha in the
bisulphide of carbon, the asphalte and amber in
the oil, and mix well.

Ob*. The above are nsed for boots, shoes, har-
ness, leather straps, leather trunks, &c., applied
warm before the fire.

WAX. Sy*. Bbxswax, Yellow w.; Cbka
(Ph. L.), Cbba jlata (B. p.. Ph. K. & D.), L.
The sulratance which forms the cells of bees ; ob-
tained by melting the comb in water, after the
honey has been removed, straining the liquid
mass, remelting the defecated portion, and cast-
ing it into cakes.

Pure beeswax has a pleasant ceraceons odour,
a pale yellowish-brown colour, and the sp. gr.
-960 to -965. It is brittle at 32°, softens and
becomes plastic at 88° or 90°, and melts at 164'^
to 166° F. " It becomes kneadable at about 86°,
and its behaviour while worked between finger and
thumb is characteristic. A piece tfae size of a pea
being worked in the hand till tough with the
warmth, then placed upon the thumb, and fonably
stroked down with the forefinger, curls up,
following the finger, and is marked bv it with
longitudinal streaks " (JB. S. Proctor). It is
very frequenUy adulterated with farina, resin,
and mutton suet or stearin. Dr Kormandy
(' Chem. Central.,' 1872, No. 29) met with a
sample containing 28% of effloresced sulphate of
soda. The first may be detected by oil of tur-
pentine, which dissolves . only the wax ; the
second, by its solubility in cold alcohol, and by
its terebmthinate taste; the third and fourth,
even when forming less than %% of the wax,
may be detected by it affording sebacic acid on
distillation. When greasy matter is present ia
any considerable quantity, it may also be detected
by the suspected sample having an unctuous feel
and a disagreeable taste. A spurious beeswax
met with in the American markets is described
in ' New Remedies ' for 1877, and is said to have
been a very clever imitation externally of the
genuine substance, which it closely resembled in
appearance, colour, fracture, bitterness, pliability,
and odour. Upon analysis it was found to be
composed of 60 parts of paraffin and 40 parts of
yellow resin covered with a thin coating of tmo
beeswax. The specific quantity of the counter-
feit article was identical with that of many sam-
ples of genuine beeswax. Saline matter may bO'
detected by the loss of weight when a weighed
quantity of the wax is boiled in water. Heavy

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1786

WAX

snbctanees, ai chalk, pluter of Paiij, white-lead,
oxide of zinc, tc., may alio be thus separated,
ainee they Rubside, owing to their niperior
gravity, to the bottom of the TeaaeL The rough
mealy fracture of pure wax ia rendered finer
grained, smoother, and doller by the addition of
lard or spermaceti, and becomea sparkling and
more granular by the addition of resin (Proctor).

Wax, Bleached. See Wax, WRm (belom).

Wax, Camanba ("Ph. Journal,' toL vi, Srd
aeries, p. 746). The leaves of the camaaba tree
{Oopenica eeriftra), a Sonth American palm,
have lately become a very important source for
the supply of large quantities of vegetable wax.
Camauba wax is extensively nsed in the mann-
factnre of candles. Mr Consul Morgan, in a
paper laid before Parliament in 1876, on the
trade and commerce of Brazil, states " that the
exportation of this wax is calculated at 871,400
kilos.; exceeding in value reis 1,600,000, or
£162,50a"

Wax, EtcUng. See 'Bxcxaa Obovitd and

VABinSH.

Was, Faeti"tioiu. ^. Cbra vlata mo-
SITIA, L. A spurious compound, sold by the far-
riers* druggists for veterinary purposes.

Prep. 1. From yellow resin, 16 lbs.; hard
mutton suet or stearin, 8 lbs. ; palm oil, H Iba. ;
melted together.

2. As Ust, but substituting turmeric, 1 lb., tor
the palm oil.

3. Best anuotta, 6 oz., or q. s. ; water, 1 gall. ;
boil; add of hard mutton suet or stearin, 36
Iba.; yellow resin, 70 lbs. ; again boil, with con-
stant agitation, until perfectly mixed and of a
proper colour, and, as soon as it begins to
tkii^en, pour it out into basins to oool. When
cold, rub each cake over with a little potato
•tarch.

Wax, Gilder's. See Oiu>nr&.

Wax, Hod'elling. Prep. Take of beeswax,
lead plaster, olive oil, and yellow resin, eqnal
parts; whiting, q. a. to form a paste; mix well,
and roll it into sticks. Colours msy be added at
wiU.

Wax, Seflnad. Crude wax, especially that im-
ported, is generally loaded with dirt, bees, and
other foreign matter. To free it from these sub-
stances it -undergoes the operation of ' refining.'
This is done by melting the wax along with
about 4% or 5% of water in a bright copper or
stoneware boiler, preferably heated by steam,
and after the whole is perfectly liquid, and has
boiled for some minutes, withdrawing the beat,
and sprinkling over its surface a little oil at
vitriol, in the proportion of about 6 or 6 fl. oi. to
every cwt. of wax. This operation should be
conducted with great care and circumspection ;
as, when done carelessly, the melted wax froths
np, and boils over the sides of the pan. The acid
should also be well scattered over the whole sur-
face. The melted wax is next covered over, and
left for some hours to settle, or until it becomes
sufficiently cool to be drawn off for ' moulding.'
It is then very gently skimmed with a hot ladle,
baled or decanted into hot tin 'jacks,' and by
means of these ponred into basins, where it is
1^ to cool. Oreat care must be taken not to
disturb the sediment. When no more dear wax

can be drawn off, the remainder in the mellaiig-
pan is allowed to cool, and the cake, or ' foot,' as
It is called, is taken out, and the impnritiea
(mostly bees) scraped from ite under anrfaoe.
The scraped cake is nsnally reserved for a second
operation; but if required, it may be at once
remelted, and strained through canvas into a
mould.

Much of the foreign wax has a pale, dirfy
colour, which renders it, no matter however pore,
objectionable to the retail purchaser. Such wax
undergoes the operation of ' colouring ' as well a>
'refining.' A small quantity of tiie best loU
annotta, cnt into slices (i lb., more or leas, to
wax, 1 cwt., depending on the paleness of the
latter), is put into a dean boiler with about a
gallon of water, and boiled for some time, or
until it is perfectly dissolved, when a few ladle-
fnls of the melted wax are added, and the boiling
continued until the wax has taken up all the
colour, or until the water is mostly ev^nrated.
The portion of wax thus treated bais now a deap
orange colour, and is added, in quantity aa re-
quired, to the remainder of the melted wax in
the larger boiler, until the proper shade of coloor
is produced when cold ; the whole being wtU
mixed, and a sample of it cooled now and then,
to ascertain when enough has been added. Tha
copper is next brought to a boil, and treated
with oil of vitriol, Ac., as before. Some penosia
add palm oil (bright) to the wax, until it gets
snfftcient colour, but this plan is olgeetionabla
from the qnanti^ required for the purpose being
often so lu^e as to injure the quality of the pro-
duct ; besides which Uie colour produced is infe-
rior, and less traospaient and permanent than
that given by annotta.

Another method of refining cmde wax. and
which produces a very bright article, is to melt it
in a large earthen or stoneware vessel, heated by
steam or a salt-water bath, then to cautiously add
to it about 1% of concentrated nitric acid, and to
continue the bailing until nitrons fumes oeaaa to
be evolved, after which the whole is allowed to
settle, and is treated as before.

Ob*. The great art in the above prticesa ia to
produce a wax which shall at once be ' bright,* or
semi-translucent in thin places, and good coloaitA.
The former is best ensured by allowing the melted
mass to settle well, and by carefully skimming
and decanting the clear portion without disturb-
ing the sediment. It should not be poured into
the moulds too warm, as in that case it is apt to
' separate,' and the resulting cakes to be ' streaky,'
or of different shades of colour, i^nin, it stuNud
be allowed to oool very slowly. When coolad
rapidly, especially if a current of air fall upon its
sar&ce, it is apt to crack, and to form cakea toll
of fissures. Some persons, who aro very nice
about their wax. have the oikes polished with a
stiff brush when quite cold and bud. It is abso-
lutely necessary that the 'jacks ' or cans, ladles,
and skimmers, used in the above process, be kept
pretty hot, as without this precaution the wax
cools, and accumulates upon them in such quan-
tity as to render them inconvenient, and oftan
quite useless, without bong constantly scraped
oot.

Wax, Beal'ing-. Prep. 1. (Kbs-) o. Takaof

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WEATHEB

1787

shelUtc (yery pale), 4 oz. ; cantdoaaly melt it in
a bright copper pan over a clear charcoal fire,
and when fused, add of Venice turpentine, li
oz.; mix, and further add of vermilion, 8 oz. ;
remove the pan from the Are, cool a little, weigh
it into pieces, and roll them into cironlar sUoks
on a warm marble slab by means of a polished
wooden block ; or it may he poured into monldg
whilst in a state of fusion. Some persons polish
the sticks with a rag until quite cold, — b. From
shellac, 3 lbs. ; Venice turpentine, 1^ lbs, ; finest
cinnabar, 2 lbs, ; mix as before. Both the above
are ' fine,'^-o. As the last, bnt using half less of
vermilion. Inferior. — d. Resin, 4 lbs. ; shellac,
i lbs. ; Venice turpentine and red-lead, of each,
1| Ibe, ; as before. Common.

2. (Black.) a. From shellac, 60 parts;
finest ivory-black, reduced to an impalpable
powder, SO parts ; Venice turpentine, 20 parts ;
Fine. — b. Resin, 6 lbs, ; shellac and Venice
turpentine, of each, 2 lbs. ; lampblack, q, s. In-
ferior.

3. (Gois-COLOUBBD.) By stirring gold-
coloured mica spangles or talc, or aurum musi-
vam, into the melted resins just before they begin
to cool. Fine.

4. (Masblbd.) By mixing two or three dif-
ferent coloured kinds just as they begin to grow
solid.

6. (Son.) a. (Red.) Take of beeswax, 8
parts; olive oil, 6 parts; melt, and add of Venice
turpentine, 15 parts; red-lead, to colour. — b.
(Green.) As the last, but substituting powdered
verdigris for red-lead. Both are used for sealing
official documents kept in tin boxes; also as a
cement.

6. (BoiTU WAX.) a. (Black.) From black
resin, 61 lbs. ; beeswax, i lb. ; finely powdered
ivory-black, ll lbs. ; melted together. — b. (Bed.)
As the last, but substitute Venetian red or red-
lead for ivory-black.

Obt. All the above forms for ' fine ' wax pro-
dace ' superfine ' by employing the best qualities
of the ingredients; and 'extra superfine,' or
'scented,' by adding 1% of balsam of Peru or
liquid storax to the ingredients when considerably
cooled. The 'variegated' and 'fancy coloured
kinds ' are commonly scented with a little essence
of musk or ambergris, or any of the more fra-
grant essential oils. The stddition of a little
camphor, or spirit of wine, makes sealing-wax
bum easier. Sealing-wax containing resin, or too
much turpentine, runs into thin drops at the fiame
of a candle.

Tax, Testing of. Mr Barnard S. Proctor gives
the following as a convenient mode of working
when it is desired to operate on several samples
at once : — A little fragment of pure wax is placed
between two slips of glass, such as are used for
mounting microscopic objects, and heated till the
wax is fused ; a small india-rubber band is then
placed round the slips to hold them together.
Fragments of commercial cake (white wax),
spermaceti, and cerasin are mounted in the same
way, and then the four samples are arranged
vertically round the inside of a small beaker con-
taining warm water ; a bung placed in the centre
serves to steady the glass slips by pressing them
against the sides of the beaker. A thermometer

is immersed in the water, and heat g^radually ap-
plied by means of a Bunsen flame of very small
dimensions kept an inch or two below the bottom
of the beaker. All the samples are thus kept
conveniently under observation while the ther-
mometer gradually rises, and the melting-points
noted and read off as the different films, one
after the other, become transparent; and then
the congealing points are noted in the same
manner, as the films become dull after the beaker
is removed from the source of heat. The follow-
ing figures give the best results which the author
obtained in a couple of experiments of this de-
scription : — Spermaceti melts at 112° F., congeals
at 109°; white wax (commercial cake) melts
St WP, and congeals at 128°; pare beeswax
melts at 160°, congeals at 142°; and cerasin
melts at 160°, and congeals at 146°. These
results are fairly concordant when the experiment
is repeated, but are not quite so accurate as when
the wax is rubbed on to the bulb of the thermo-
meter itself, and the latter placed in a test-tube
which plunges into the warm water. In this
method of proceeding pure beeswax is found to
melt at 146° F., and to congeal at 143°. The
Food and Drugs Act requires pure beeswax to
have a spedflc gravity = 0-96 to 0-97, and to
melt at 146° F., congealing a few degrees lower.

Wax, White. Sgn. Bleaches wax; Cbxa
ALBA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Frep. From
pure beeswax, by exposing it in thin flakes to the
action of the sun, wind, and rain, frequently
changing the surface thus exposed, by remelting
it, and reducing it again to thin flakes. Used in
making candles, and in white ointments, pom-
mades, &c., for the sake of its colour. Block
white wax (ceba alba ik xassib) is the above
when cast into blocks ; the best foreign is always
in this form. Virgin wax (cake whitb wax ;
CEBA alba in oppib) should be the last made
into round flat cakes ; but this is seldom the case,
the mixture sold under the name generally con-
taining from l-8rd to half its weight of sper-
maceti. The 'white wax' supplied by certain
wholesale druggists to their customers is often
totally unfit for the purposes to which it is ap-
plied. Spermaceti is constantly added to the
white wax of commerce to improve its colour.
Mr B. S. Proctor states that wholesale houses of
the highest reputation supply an article as white
cake wax which is in many cases half spermaceti,
and in some as much as two thirds spermaceti to
one of wax (see articles on "Adulteration of
Wax," and " Substitutes for Wax," in ' Chemist
and Druggist,' vol. iv, 1863).

W£ATHES, XiTects of, on Health, The
'Medical Press and Circular' says: — "We are
in the midst of a severe winter (1878), and as
hygiene is the order of the day, we cannot be too
particular in impressing upon the public certain
facts which are too often disregarded. Few are
aware of the killing powers of intense cold and
great heat, even in this comparatively temperate
climate. Those who have been in the habit, as
we have, of watching the returns of the Registrar-
General, well know how quickly the death-rate
rises during even a short continuance of cold
weather. Now that the increase in the mortality
affects chiefly the young and the old, as well as

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1788

WEATHER PLANT— WEIGHT

those who are either infFering- from, or are pre-
disposed to, affections of the chest and throat, in-
dicates the class of people who should be espe-
ciallT careful to protect themselves against the
inclemency of the weather. With reg^ard to
children, the system of 'hardening' them, by
allowing them to go thinly clad, and expoung
them to all sorts of weather, is a delusion from
which the minds of some parents are even now
not altogether free. It is thought that if their
chest is kept warm, there is no need of caring
about their arms and legs. But that is a great
mistake. In proportion as the upper and lower
extremities are well clothed will the circulation
he kept up and determined to the surface of those
parts ; and in proportion to the quickness and
equable distribution of the circulation will be the
protection against those internal congestions
which are but the first stage of the most fatal
diseases of infancy and childhood. The same
observation holds good with respect to grown-up
people who are predisposed to pulmonaty com-
plaints. There is no exaggeration in saying that
the mortality from these and other affections
would be considerably diminished were people to
avoid that ' catching cold ' of which they so often
and so lightly speak ; and it is a matter of sur-
prise to us that this fact, of which most of us are
aware, does not lead to more precautions being
taken by those who are anxious about either their
own health or that of others. To take care that
the body is thoroughly ?rann and well clothed
just before going out in very wet or very cold
weather — to keep up the circmation and warmth
of the body rather by exercise of some kind than
by sitting over great fires or in over-heated rooms
—to be sure that the temperature of the sleeping
apartments is not ever so many degrees below
that of the sitting-room, — these are three golden
maxims, attention to which would prevent thou-
sands from catching that ' chill ' or • cold ' to the
results of which so many valuable lives have been
prematurely sacrificed."

WEATHER PLAET. The Kew 'BuUetin of
Miscellaneous Information,' 1890, contains a re-
port made by Dr Oliver, of University College, on
a series of experiments carried out in the Jodrell
Laboratory of the Royal Gardens last autumn on
Herr Joseph Nowack's renowned weather plant,
of whose marvellous properties as a forecaster of
weather, earthquakes, and fire-damp we heard so
much towards the close of the summer of 1888.
The proprietor attended at Kew Qardens in person,
and superintended the experiments, he himself
preparing the forecasts, and Dr Oliver and Mr
Weiss making a close inspection of the movements
of the plants and noting the actual weather ex-
perienced from day to day, so as to check the
correctness or otherwise of the predictions. The
idant is the well-known tropical legume, Abnu
preeaiorius, a shrubby climber, originally a native
of the East Indies, but now scattered to tbe
Mauritius, West Indies, and other tropical coun-
tries. Dr Oliver enters minutely into a descrip-
tion of the ingenious devices by which Herr
Nowack professed to be able to ascertain what
would occur at some future date, the weather
forty-eight hours hence, and earthquakes and
fire-damp days or weeks hence anywhere up to a

distance of many hundreds of miles; also an ex-
planation of the mode of fixing on the day to
which the forecasts referred (for it was fbond in
practice not to be limited strictly to forty-eight
hours) ; if the results were not favourable the
final determination of the day for which the fore-
cast was made out was only made after the event.
In this way leas than one half the forecasts were
two days i^ead, the others being one, three, four,
&c., days. The dates for some cf them were
altered twice, so that every opportunity was
afforded to select the most suitable day to agree
with the forecasts. But, notwithstanding these
unexampled fadlities, Herr Nowack made a very
poor show of what it was possible to attun in the
matter of forecasting anything. There were nn-
merons changes in the weather during October,
but although there were over 140 predictions, Dr
Oliver states that only one change was anticipated
by Heir Nowack. The predictions of earth-
quakes, uM^wittar (fire-damp in coal mines),
and the positions of areas of high and of low baro-
meter within the limits of the Meteorological
Of&ce Daily Weather Charts (the last-mentioned
idea having occurred to Herr Kowack since his
arrival in England) were submitted to Mr R. H.
Scott, and were found to be as unsuccessful as the
weather forecasts. Of nine earthquake predic-
tions one was correct and eight failures ; of nine
tMagwetter two were correct, two nearly so, and
five failures. Between fifty and sixty buometrie
charts were drawn up, and on placing them side
by side with those prepared from the facts at the
Meteorological OfBce " no accordance was found
between the successive pairs of maps." The result
of the inquiry, therefore, has been to show that
the plant is not to be relied on as a substitute tor
the ordinary systems of weather prediction.

WSIQET. The quantity of a body determined
by means of a balance, and expressed in terms
having reference to some known standud; the
measure of the force of gravity, from which the
relative qoantity of a body is inferrad. The re-
lation between the weight and volume of a body,
compared to a given standard taken as xaalbj
constitutes its specific gravity.

For the purpose of weighing, a balance or lever
is required, which, when accurately suspended in
a state of equilibrium, will be alfected, in pre-
cisely an equal manner, by like weights applied
to its extremities. Hence the construction of
such an instrument is not more difficult than its
application is important in chemical and philo-
sophical research. Oertling, the most celebrated
maker of the chemical b^ance, constructs this
important instrument in seven different varieties^
more or less elaborate. The largest of these, with
a 16-inch beam, will cany 2 lbs. in each pan, and
yet turn with -^ of a gr. A balance with aims
of unequal length or weight will weigh as accu-
rately as another of the same workmanship with
equal arms, provided the substance weighed be
removed and standard weights placed in the same
scale until the equilibrium be again restored,
when the weights so employed, bring ezaetiy in
the same condition as the substance previously
occupying the scale, will, of course, indicate ite
proper weight. A knowledge of this tact is
useful, as it enables any one to wdgh correctly

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WEIGHT

1789

-trith oneqnal scalei, or with .any nupended

Small weights may he made of thin leaf hiaas,
or, preferably, of platinum foiL Qoantitiea below
the f^ of a g^f . may he either estimated by the
poaition of the index, or shown by actually connt-
ing rings of wire, the -ralne of which has been
previonsly determined. The readiest way to snb-
divide small weights consists in weighing a cer-
tain quantity of very fine wire, and afterwards
catting it into sach parts, by measure, as are
desired ; or the wire may be wrapped dose round
two pins, and then cut asunder with a knife. By
tlus means it will be divided into a great number
of equal lengths, or small rings. An elaborate
essay on the Bai^aitob, in Watt's ' Diet of Che-
mistry,' gives minute directions for weighing,
with rules for the elimination of errors. See
BAJUiroa.

The following tables represent the values of
the wMghts legally employed in this country for
the sale of gold, silver, and articles made thereof,
as well as platinum, diamonds, and other precious

metals and stones ; also for drugs when sold hy
retail (see WBiaHT8 Avs Mbasurbs Acs, 1878,
and Msabitbbb) :

1. 2V<^ Weight.

Qntins.

FemiTvcdghti.

24

480
5760

1

20

240

Oonees.

(H.

1

12

Pound,
lb. or n>.

*^* The standard of the above measure is 1
onhio inch of distilled water, which, at 62° F. and
80 inches of the barometer, weighs 252^458 troy
grains.

The carat used in weighing diamonds is 8}
grains (nearly). Troy weight is employed in
weighing gold, jewelry, Ac, and, under a some-
what modified form, in prescribing and dispensing
medicines (see betoto).

2. Apothecaries Weight.
(Modified Troy Weight.)

Qnint

Senivles
9

Dnchms.
3

Oonees.
3

Pounds,
lb

Eqninlent in

French

grammes.

EqniT. in

minima or

measuced

dropa.

Erairalent in
cubic inches.

Kqairalent in

Aroirdnpois

weight.

1-

20^

60-

480^

6760-

•06

1-

3-

24^

288^

•01666
•3333

!•

8^
96^

•002083
•0416
•1250
1-
12^

•0001736
•008472
•0104166
•0888883
1-

•06476
1295
3-885
31-08
872^96

1^09

21^94

65^82

626^62

6319-64

•003961056

•07922109

•28766829

1-90130686

22-81667609

1- gt-

SO- „

60^ „

1 02. 42^6 „

13 „ 726 „

%* Apothecaries' weight is employed in prescribing and
Fh. L., K, and U. S. But in the hist Ph. D. and the new Brit,
avoirdupois weight.

medicines according to the
?h. it has been superseded by

Ttojr. JwoiriufoU.

1 tb is equivalent to 0^8228671h.

lo«. „ „ r097148oz.

WEIQHTS, FOBXIGK.

Siiuuy Weight*. (Syet^me usnel

) French.

French
grain.

Scrapie.

Gros.

Omee.

Line.

KJlo-
gnunme.

Equivalent

in grammea

mitriqoe.

Bound nnmber
of the Codex
ingrammei.

Eqaivalent in A.Toirdap(ds
weight.

U.

M. gr.

1^

...

...

...

•*.

•0542

•06

...

... 0^837

24^

1-

••«

•*■

...

1-80

130

... 20-1

72-

3^

1-

•••

...

8-906

4,-

... 60-284

57fr

2*

8^

1-

81^26

a2-

...

1 46-

9216-

S84^

128-

16-

i-

600^

500^

1

li 61-

18482-

768-

266^

32^

2-

1-

1000-

1000-

2

3i 13-

%* The old French grain is equal to ^820 of an imperial troy gn^; hence 1 troy grain is equal
to V21 old French grains. The gros, once, and other multiples of the grain, are, of course,
proportionate. The new French grain (of 1812) is equal to -0542 gramme, or •8366228 gr. troy,
it is said, in some works, to he equal to ^878 gr. troy, or, in round numbers, -9, but this is mudi
too high.

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ITOO

WEIGHTS AND MEASOEES ACT, 1878

CoiniHBVTAL MBSionru. Wbiohts in Trog Grain*.
(From Dr Cbrutiaon's ' Dispensatory.')

1

Scruple coniiitiag of

Country.

Ponnd.

Onnee.

Dndnn. i

Gnia.

1

1

MntA-gn.

SO med. gn.

French . . . ., 5670-6

470-60

69-10

19-7

0-890

Spanish .

6326-3

448-49

56-14

18-47

0-769

Tuscan .

6240-3

486-67

54-68

18-19

■ •*

0-758

Roman .

6236-0

436-26

54-58

18-17

■ ••

0-767

Austrian

6495-1

641-26

67-66

22-5

1127

German

' 6624-8

460-40

57-65

...

19-18

0-960

Russian

' 6624-8

460-40

57-66

...

19-18

0-960

Prussian

6416-1

451-26

66-40

18-80

0-940

Dntcb .

6695-8

474-64

69-33

19-78

0-988

Belgian.

5695-8

474-64

59-33

19-78

0-988

Swedish.

' 6500-2

468-84

57-29

19-09

0-964

Piedmontese

1 4744-7

396-39

49-45

16-48

0-824

Venetian

. 4^1-4

888-46

48-65

...

1618

0«09

WSiaETS AHB HEASUSES ACT, 1878. On
the 1st of January, 1879, there came into force
an Act to consolidate throughout the United
Kingdom the law relating to weights and mea-
sures. Legislation on this subject had been
long rendered necessary from the extreme incon-
Temence and friction to commerce of all kinds
arising from the adherence to local standards of
weight or measurements ; and from the divergent
values in different parts of the kingdom, and in
places more or less contiguous to each other, of
weights and measures often bearing the same
name. Thus, previous to the passing of the
above Act, there were twelve different markets in
this country in which when com was sold by the
bushel, the weight of the bushel varied in each ;
and six different localities in which the same
thing occurred when vended by the quarter and
the load. In some places a score of grain would
imply 20 lbs., but often less, whilst in others it
was not an infrequent transaction for wheat to be
sold by one measure, delivered by another, and
eventually paid for by weight. And the same
perplexing and arbitrary conditdons attached to
the sale of numberless other commodities.

We give below the most important sections of
the Weights and Measures Act of 1878 :

Law op Wbio-hts aitd Mxabubib.
Vni/ormitg of WeighU and Meatnre*.

The same weights and measures shall be used
throughout the United Kingdom.

Standard! of Measure and Weight,

The bronze bar and the platinum weight, more
particnlarly described in the Hrst part of the First
Schedule of this Act, and at the passing of this
Act, deposited in the Standards Departments of
the Board of Trade, in the custody of the Warden
of the Standards, shall continue to be the imperial
■tandard of measure and weight, and the said
bronze bar shall continue to be the imperial
standard for determining the imperial standard
yard for the United Kingdom, and the said pla-
tinum weight shall continue to be the imperial

standard for determining the imperial standard
ponnd for the United Kingdom.

Imperial Meamret of Length.

The stnught Une or distance between the
centres of the two gold plugs or pins (as men-
tioned in the First Schedule to this Act — see
further on), in the bronze bar by this Act de-
clared to be the imperial standard for determin-
ing the imperial standard yard, measured when
the bar is at the temperature of sixty-two degrees
of Fahrenheit's thermometer, and when it is sup-
ported on bronze rollers placed under it in such a
manner as best to avoid flexure of the bar, and to
facilitate its free expansion and contraction from
variations of temperature, shall be the legal stan-
dard measure of length, and shall be called the
imperial standard yard, and shall be the only
unit or standard measure of extension from which
all measures of extension, whether linear, super-
ficial, or solid, shall be ascertained.

One third part of the imperial standard yard
shall be a foot, and the twelfth part of such foot
shall be an inch, and the rod, pole, or perch in
length shall contain five such yards and a half,
and the chtun shall contain twenty-two such yards,
and the furlong two hundred and twenty such
yards, and the mile one thousand seven hundred
and sixty such yards.

The rood of land shall contun one thousand
two hundred and ten square yards according to
the imperial standard yard, and the acre of land
shall contfun four thousand eight hundred and
forty such square yards, being one hundred and
sixty square rods, poles, or perches.

Imperial Meaeuree of Weight and CapaeHu.

The weight t* vaeuo of the platinum weight
(mentioned in the First Schedule to this Act),
and by this Act declared to be the imperial
standard for determining the imperial standard
ponnd, shall be the legal standard measure of
weight, and of measure having reference to
weight, and shall be called the imperial standard
ponnd, and shall be the only nnit or staadaid

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WEiaHTS ▲ND UKASUBES ACT, 1878

17V1

meaiore of weight from which oil other weights
and all measares having reference to weight shall
he ascertained.

One sixteenth part of the imperial standard
poond shall he an ounce, and one sixteenth part
of such onnce shall he a diam, and one seven thou-
sandth part of the imperial standard pound shall
he a grain.

A stone shall consist of fourteen imperial stan-
dard pounds, and a hundredweight shall consist
of eight such stones, and a ton shall consist of
twenty such hundredweights.

Four hundred and eighty grains shall he an
ounce troy.

All the foregoing weights except the ounce troy
shall be deemed to he avoirdupois weights.

The unit or standard measure of capacity from
which all other measures of capacity, as well as
for liquids as for dry goods, shall be derived,
shall be the gallon containing ten imperial stan-
dard pounds weight of distilled water weighed in
air against brass weights, with the water and air
at the temperature of sixty-two degrees of Fah-
renheifs thermometer, and with the barometer at
thirty inches.

The quart shall he one fourth part of the
gallon, uid the pint shall be one eighth part of
the gallon.

Two gallons shall be a peck, and eight gallons
shall be a bushel, and eight such bnshels shall be
a quarter, and thirty-six such bushels shall be a
chaldron.

A bushel for the sale of any of the following
articles, namely, lime, flsh, potatoes, fruit, or any
other goods and things which before (the passing
of the Weights and Measures Act, 1885, that is
to say) the ninth day of September, one thousand
eight hundred and thirty- five, were commonly
sold by heaped measure, shall he a hollow cylin-
der having a plane base, the internal diameter of
which shall be double the internal depth ; and
every measure used for the sale of any of the
above-mentioned articles which is a multiple of a
bushel, or is a half bushel or a peck, shall be made
of the same shape and proportion as the above-
mentioned bushel.

In using an imperial measure of capacity, the
same shall not be heaped, but either shall be
stricken with a round stick or roller, straight,
and of the same diameter from end to end, or if
the article sold cannot from its size or shape be
conveniently stricken, shall be filled in all parts
as nearly to the level of the brim as the size and
shape of the article will admit.

Ifefrie EquivaUntt of Imperial Weightt and

Mtaruret.
The table in the Third Schedule to this Act
shall be deemed to set forth the equivalents of
imperial weights and measures and of the weights
and measures therein expressed in terms of the
metric system, and such table may be lawfully
used for computing and expressing, in weights
and measures, weights and measures of the metric
system.

Ute of Imperial Weight* and Meatmres.
Every contract, bargain, sale, or dealing, made
or had in the United Kingdom for any work,
goods, wares, or merchandise, or other thing

which has been or is to he done, sold, delivered,
carried, or agreed for by weight or measure, shall
be deemed to be made and had according to one
of the imperial weights or measures ascertained
by this Act, or to some multiple or part thereof,
and if not so made or had shall be void ; and all
tolls and dnties charged or collected according
to wdght or measure shall be charged and col-
lected according to one of the imperial weights
or measures ascertained by this Act, or to some
multiple or part thereof.

Such contract, bargain, sale, dealing, and col-
lection of tolls and dnties as is in this section
mentioned is in this Act referred to under the
term ' trade.'

No local or customary measures, nor the use
of the heaped measure, shall he lawful.

Any person who sells by any denomination of
weight or measure other than one of the imperial
weights or measures, or some multiple or part
thereof, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding
forty shillings for every such sale.

All articles sold by weight shall ha sold by
avoirdupois weight; except that —

(1) Qold and silver, and articles made thereof,

including gold and silver thread, lace,
or fringe, also platinum, diamonds, and
other precious metals or stones, may be
sold by the ounce troy or by any decimal
parts of such ounce ; and all contracts,
bargains, sales, and dealings in relation
thereto shall be deemed to be made and
had by such weiglit, and when so made
or had shall be valid ; and

(2) Drugs, when sold by retail, maybe sold by

apothecaries' weight.

Every person who acta in contravention of this
section shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five
pounds.

A contract or dealing shall not be invalid or
open to objection on the ground that the weights
or measures expressed or referred to therein are
weights or measures of the metric system, or on
the ground that decimal subdivisions of imperial
weights and measures, whether metric or other-
wise, are used in such contract or dealing.

Nothing in this Act shall prevent the sale, or
subject a person to a fine under this Act for the
sale, of an article in any vessel, where such vessel
is not represented as conUuning any amount of
imperial measure, nor subject a person to a fine
under this Act for the possession of a vessel
where it is shown that such vessel is not used nor
intended for use as a measure.

Any person who prints, and any clerk of a
market or other person who makes, any return,
price list, price current, or any journal or other
paper containing price list or price current, in
wUch the denomination of weights and measures
quoted or referred to denotes or implies a greater
or less weight or measure than is denoted or im-
plied by the same denomination of the imperial
weights and measures under this Act, shall be
liable to a fine not exceeding ten shillings
for every copy of every such return, price list,
price current, journal, or other paper which he
publishes.

Every person who uses or has in his possession
for ose for trade a weight or measure which is

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1792

WEIGHTS AITD MEASURES ACT, 1878

not of the denomination of some Board of Trade
standard, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding
five pounds, or in the case of a second offence ten
pounds, and the wdght or measnre shall be liable
to be forfeited.

Vf^utt Weigiti a»d Maasurai.

Every person who nses or has in his possession
for nse for trade any weight, measnre, scale,
balance, steelyard, or weighing machine which
is false or nnjnst, shall be liable to a fine not ex-
ceeding five }>onnds, or in the case of a second
offence ten poonds, and any contract, bargain,
sale, or dealing made by the same shall be void,
and the weight, measure, scale, balance, or steel-
yard shall be liable to be forfeited.

Where any fraud is wilfully committed in the
using of any weight, measnre, scale, balance, steel-
yard, or weighing machine, the person committing
■nch fraud, and every person party to the f rand,
■hall be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds,
or in the case of a second ofience ten pounds, and
the weight, measure, scale, balance, or steelyard
shall be liable to be forfeited.

A person shall not wilfully or knowingly make
or sell, or cause to be made or sold, any false or
unjust weight, measure, scale, balance, or weigh-
ing machine.

Every person who acts in contravention of
this section shall be liable to a fine not exceed-
ing ten pounds, or in the case of a second offence
fifty pounds.

xiaoxLLAirsoug.

Every inquisition which, in pursuance of any
Act hereby repealed, has been taken for ascer-
tuning the amount of contracts to be performed
or rents to be paid in grain or malt, or in any
other commodity or thing, or with reference to
the measure or weight of any grain, malt, or other
commodil^ or thing, and the amount of any toll
rate or duty payable according to any weight or
measure in use before the passing of the said
Act, and has been enrolled of record in Her Ma-
jesty's Court of Exchequer, shall continue in force,
and may be given in evidence in any legal pro-
ceeding, and the amount ascertained by such
inquisition shall,- when converted into imperial
weights and measures, continue to be the rule of
payment in regard to all such contracts, rents,
tolls, rates, or duties.

Standardt and Definitiom.

Nothing in this Act shall affect the validity of
the models of gas holders verified and deposited in
the Standards Department of the Board of Trade,
in pursuance of the Act of the session of the
twenty-second and twenty- third years of the reign
of Her present Majesty, chapter sixty-six, in-
tituled ' An Act for regulating measures used in
sales of gas,' and of the Acts amending the same,
and the provisions of this Act with respect to
Board of Trade standards shall apply to such
models ; and the provinons of this Act with re-
spect to defining Uie amount of error to be tole-
rated in local standards when verified or reveri-
fied, shall apply to defining the amount of error
to be tolerated in such copies of the said models
of gas holders as are provided by any justices,
councU, commissioners, or other local authority
in pursuance of the said Acts.

Nothing in this Act shall extend to proUUt,
defeat, injure, or lessen the rights granted by
charter to the master, wardens, and eatamamikg
of the mystery of the Founders of the City A
London.

Nothing in this Act shall prohibit, defeat,
injure, or lessen the rights of the m^or and ooib-
monalty and citizens of the City of London, or of
the Lord Mayor of the City of London for the
time being, with respect to the stamping or seal-
ing of weights and measures, or wiUi respect to
the gauging of wine or oil, or other gaogeaUe
liquors.

tXSUOtXlOK aw ACT TO 800TLABS.

This Act shall apply to Scotland with the fdl>
lowing modifications :

In the application of this Act to Scotland the
expression ' rents and tolls ' includes all stipendl^
feu duties, customs, casualties, and other dpmanda
whatsoever, payable in grain, malt, or meal, or any
other commodity or thing.

The fair's prices of all grain in every oonnty
shall be struck by the imperial quarter, and all
other returns of the prices of grain sh^ be set
forth by the same, without reference to any other
measure whatsoever.

APFUOAXION O* ACT TO IBXLAHS.

This Act shall apply to Ireland with the follow-
ing modifications :

In Ireland every contract, bargain, wkla, or
dealing —

For any quantity of com, gnin, pulses, pota^
toes, hay, straw, flax, roots, carcasses of beet or
mutton, butter, wool, or dead pigs, sold, delivered,
or agreed for:

Or for any quantity of any other commodity
sold, delivered, or agreed for by weight (not
being a commodity which may by law be sold by
the troy ounce or by apothecaries' weight), shall
be made or had by one of the following denomi-
nations of imperial weight, namely, tiie ounce
avoirdupois ; the imperial pound of sixteen onnces ;
the stone of fonrteisn pounds ; the quarter him-
dred of twenty-eight pounds ; the half handled
of fifty-six pounds ; the hundredweight of one
hundred and twelve pounds ; or the ton of twen^
hundredweight ; and not by any local or enstom-
ary denomination of weight whatsoever, other-
wise such contract, bargain, sale, or dealing shall
be void:

Provided always, that nothing in the present
section shall be deemed to prevent the use in any
contract, bargain, sale, or dealing of the denomi-
nation of the quarter, half, or o&er aliquot part
of the ounce, pound, or other denomination afta»-
sud, or shall be deemed to extend to any oom-
tract, bargain, sale, or dealing relating to stand-
ing or growing crops.

In Ireland every article add by weight shall,
if weighed, be weighed in AiU net standing
beam; and for the purposes of every oontiact,
bargain, sale, or dealing, the weight so aaoer-
tinned shall be deemed the true weight of the
article, and no deduction or allowance for tret or
beamage, or on any other aeconnt, or under any
other name whatsoever, the weight of any sack,
vessel, or other covering in which such article
may be contained alone excepted shaU be tBlaimed

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WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES ACT, 1878

1793

or made by any porchaaer on any pretext wliat-
erer under a penalty not exceeding Are poonds.

FIBST SCHEDULE.
Fast I. — Ikpbbial SiAsroASDa.

The following standards were conitmcted
under the direction of the CommiasionerB of Her
Majerty'a Treasniy, after the destrnction of the
former imperial standards in the flre at the
Houses of Parliament.

The imperial standard for determining the
length of the imperial standard yard is a solid
square bar, thirty-eight inches long, and one inch
square in transverse section, the bar being of
bronze or gun-metal ; near to each end a cylin-
drical hole is sunk (the distance between the
centres of the two holes being thirty -six inches)
to the depth of half an inch; at the bottom of
this hole is inserted in a smaller hole a gold ping
or pin, about one tenth of an inch in diameter,
and upon the surface of this pin there are cnt
three fine lines at intervals of about the one
hundredth part of an inch transverse to the axis
of the bar, and two lines at nearly the same in-
terval parallel to the axis of the bar ; the mea-
sure of length of the imperial standard yard is
given by the interval between the middle trans-
versal line at one end and the middle transversal

SECOND SCHEDULE.
DBHOicnrATioira op SiAiroABDa o> Afothb-

OABIXB' WBiaHT AVD MXASUBI.

1. Apothecariatf Waigkt.

Weigbt in gnini in terms

DcBomijutiim.

of the Imperial Standard
Pound, which contain! VUUU

Ounces. 10 ounces

. ■ 4800 grains.

8 „

. . 3840

6 „

2880 „

4 „

. . 1920 „

a „

. . 960 „

1 ounce

480 „

Drachms. 4 drachmi

or 1

half ai

240 ..

ounce

2 drachms

120 „

l*drachm

60 „

Scruples. 2 scruples

40 „

1* «

or hal

fa. 30 „

dxachn

1 .

1 semple

20 „

* «

10 „

6 grains

6 „

6 „ .

6 ..

4 ., .

4 „

8 „ .

8 „

2 „ .

2 „

1 grain .

1 grain.

* .. .

0-5 ..

TOL. II.

2. Apoiieearie^ liacuure.

Denomination.

A fluid ounce and the
multiples thereof from
1 to 40 fluid ounces

Half a fluid ounce . .

A fluid drachm and the
multiples thereof from
1 to 16 fluid drachms .

Half a fluid drachm . ,

A minim and the multi-
ples thereof from 1 to
60 minims . .. .

Containing the followinj;

weight of distilled water.

Temperature ■= 62° ¥.

Barometer = SO inches.

Imperial Founds 7000 gr.

One fluid ounce con-
tains 437-5 grains
weight, or ^ im-
perial gallon.

One fluid drachm
equals \ fluid ounce.

One minim equals ^
fluid drachm.

line at the other end, the part of each line which
is employed being the point midway between the
longitudinal lines ; and the said points are in this
Act referred to as the centres of the said gold
plugs or pins ; and such bar is marked ' Copper
16 02., tin 2t OS., zinc 1 oz. Mr Baily's metal.
No. 1 standard yard at 62-30° Fahrenheit. Cast
in 1845. Troughton and Simms, London.'

The imperial standard for determining the
weight of the imperial standard pound is of pla-
tinum, the form being that of a cylinder nearly
1"85 inches in height and 1-15 inches in diameter,
with a groove or channel round it, whose middle
is about 0-34 inch below the top of the cylinder,
for^ insertion of the points of the ivory fork by
which it is to be lifted; the edges are carefully
rounded off, and such standard pound is marked
' P.S. 1844, 1 lb.'

_ The following new and additional denomina-
tions of standards of apothecaries' weights and
measures were created under the Weights and
Measures Act, by an order in Conncil, dated the
14th August, 1879 (published in the ' London
Gazette^,' August 15th, 1879).

THIED SCHEDULE.
Past I. — Mbtbio EqurvAiKHTS.
_ Table of the values of the principal denomina-
tions of measures and weights on the metric
system, expressed by means of denominations of
imperial measures and weights, and of the values
of the principal denominations of measures and
weight of the imperial system, expressed by means
of metric weights and measures.

Mecmtres of Surface.

Uetric Denomiuationi and
Valuea.

Hectare, >'. e. 100 ares

Decare, i. e. 10 ares

Are

Centiare, *.«. -^ are

.Square
Uetrea .

10,000

1000

100

1

£;uiralents in Im-
perial Denominations.

Acres.

II

-3

a
■0

&

2280-8326

11960 3326

11960333

119-6033

1-1960

113

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1794

WEIGHTS AND MEASUBES ACT

Ifeiutiret of Length.

Hstrie Snomiiutioiu and TiIum.

EqahaleiiU in Imparlil DenonuutioDi.

. -

UatiM.

HUea.

TudB.

Feet

■s 1

Myriametre

10,000

1 or

376
10,936

0
0

11-9
11-9

Kilometre

1000

1093

1

1079

Hectometre

100

109

1

1079

Decametre

10

10

2

9-7079

Metre

1

1

0

8-S70S

Decime<3«

A

• **

• •■

8-9371

Centimetre

t4ti

• >■

*••

0-3937

Millimetre

■nren

...

•"

00394

Meature* of Copoetfy.

Uetrie Denominatiani end Yilue*.

EqninlenU in Imperial Oenonunationa.

Cable
Uetiei.

Qnarteia.

Bnibeb.

Fecki.

GsUoM.

Qnaita.

i 1

Kilolitre, i.e. 1000 Utres
HectoUtre, ». «. 100 Utre« .
Decalitre, •. e. 10 litres .

Litre

DeciUtre,>.a. t^Utre .
Centilitre, t. s. ^ litre

1

■At

looooo

3

2
3

• ••

2
3
1

0
0
0

0
0
0

0-77

0O77

1-6077

1-76077

0-176077,

0K)176077

JTeightt.

Metric SenominationB and Talnea.

Onuna.

XqniralesU in Imperial fienominatiaoa.

Cwt.

Stosea.

Foundi.

Onncaa,

Millier .
Quintal
Myriagram

Kilogram

Hectogram

Decagram

Gram .

Decigram

Centigram

Milligram

1,000,000

100,000

10.000

1,000

100
10

1

•A

T5TJ
TTSOTS

19
1

6
10

8
2

(or 15482-3487 grs.)

15-04

6-304
11-8304

4-3830

8-4383

6-6438

0-66438

0-066438

0-0056438

0-00056438

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WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT
Meanre* cf Le»gth.

1796

EqniTilenti In Metric Hswnns.

MiUinetie.

Dadmetra.

Metre.

KUometie.

Inch

Foot, or 12 incbea

Yard, or 3 feet, or 36 inches .

Fathom, or 2 yards, or 6 feet

Pole, or 5i yards .

Chain, or 4 poles, or 22 yards

Furlong, 40 poles, or 220 yards

MUe, 8 furlongs, or 1760 yards

= 25-39954

• ••

= 3-04794

• ••

= 0-30479
= 0-91428

- 1-82877

- 5-02911
= 20-11644

- 201-16437
-1609-31493

= 0-20116
= 1-60981

Meaturat of Surfaet,

Imperial Heasnies.

Eqninlents in Metric Mearaiaa.

Sgnare
Decunetres.

8f oare Metres.

Ares.

Hecttres.

Square inch

Square foot, or 144 square inches .
Square yard, or 9 square feet, or 1296

square inches

Pole or perch, or 30i square yards .
Rood, or 40 perches, or 1210 square yards
Acre, or 4 roods, or 4840 square yards .
Square mile, or 640 acres

- 0-06461
= 9-28997

-83-60971

= 0-092900

- 0-836097
-25-291989

-10-116776

= 0-40467
=268-98945

Meaiwre* qf Capacity .

Eqairalenta in Metric Measures.

Inperial Meunres.

Decilitres.

Utres.

Decalitre!.

HcetoUtres.

Gill

Fint,or4giUs .

Quart, or 2 pints .

Gallon, or 4 quarts

Peck, or 2 gsjlons .

Bushel, or 8 gallons, or 4 pecks

Quarter, or 8 bushels .

= 1-41983
= 5-67932

• ••

= 0-14198
= 0-56798
= 1-18587

- 4-64346

- 9-08692

= 0-90869
- 3-63477

- 2-90781

OiUrie Meature.

Imperial Meassns.

EqmTalenta in Metric Measons.

Cubic
Centimetres.

CnUe
Decimetres.

Cnbie
Metres.

Cninc inch

Cubic foot, or 1728 cubic inches

Cnbic yard, or 27 cubic feet

16-88618

• ••

28-31681

0-76461

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1796 METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES AND EQUIVALENTS— WET

Weiffhtt.

Imperial Veighti.

EqaiTalenta in Metric Veighto.

Qniu.

Dectgnmi.

Kilogimms.

Uillier or
MeoricToiB.

Grain

Dram

Ounce avoirdupoU, or 16 drams, or 487*5

gnUDB

Pound, or 16 ounces, or 266 drams, or

7000 grains ....
Handredweight, or 112 lbs. .

Ton,or20cwt

Onnce troy, or 480 gnuns

- 0-06479896
= 1-77186

» 28-34954

=453-69265

- 31-io«496

' ^88496
= 45-35927

> 3-11086

= 0-45369
= 60-80238
-1016-04764

a-0160S

UBETUI REFESEVCB TABLE Ot METBIC WEIGHTS AND XEASUBX8 AND EQUITALEHT8.

Iiength,

Unit of Ueunremnit.

1 inch ....
1 centimetre (i^ metre)
1 yard ....
1 metre (39-87 inches) .
Ifoot .

1 kilometre (1000 metres)
1 mile ....

Approxinute Equiralent.

21 centimetres
0-4 inch
1 metre .

1 gramme .....
1 centigramme ....
1 milligramme ....

1 grain

1 kilogramme (1000 grammes)

1 pound avoirdnpois

1 ounce avoirdupois (4371 grains) .

1 onnce troy or apothecary (480 grains)

I yard . ■ .
30 centimetres
f mile .

II kilometres

151 g^ins

between ^ and f grain

A grain

0-064 gramme

21 pounds avoirdupoiB

1 kilogramme

281 grammes .

31 grammes .

Aecant«
Eqainleat.

1 cnbio centimetre .

1 cubic centimetre (Ice.)

1 cnbic inch ....

1 litre (1000 cubic centimetres)

1 gallon

1 fluid ounce ....

1 hectare (10,000 square metres)
1 acre

Bulk.

0*06 cubic inch

17 minims

161 cubic centimetres

35 fluid ounces

41 litres

281 cubic cisntimetres

Surface.

21 acres
f hectare

2-539
0-393
0-914
1-093
80-479
0-621
1-609

16-432
0-164
0^)16
0-064
2-204
0-453
28-348
31-103

0-061
16-932
16-386
35-276

4-5S6
28-348

2-471
0-404

WELD. 8tfn. WoAS. The Bettda ImUola,
Linn., an herbaceous annual employed by the
dyers. A decoction of the stems and leares gives
• rich yellow to goods mordanted with alum,
tartar, or muriate of tin. See Tbllow Pia-

HBBTg.

WELSH RAEE'BIT (vulg. rabbit). JPrep.
Cut slices of bread, toast and bntter them ; then
ODver them with slices of rich cheese, spread a
little mustard over the cheese, put the bread in a

cheese-toaster before the fire, and in a short time
serve it up very hot.

VES. The popular name of pulpy, encysted,
and fleshy tumours of the face and neck.

WET (to keep out firom Onn Locka). In giving
hints to sportsmen going to Norway, Mr Lock, in
bis book on ' Sport in Norway,' gives some capital
advice on this subject, which would be equally
serviceable in wet weather in England. Sports-
men will do well, he says, to remove the locks

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WHEAT— WHISKY

1797

from their rifle and gnn, oil them with a little
Bangoon oil, lay them on the hob of the fireplace
until they ar&-qnite hot, and then wipe them as
dry sspasSi^le with a little cotton waste, so that
tlimM'iHll be no soperflnoos oil left to clog the
w^ks. While the locks are getting hot get a
little beeswax and melt it in a cap, and with the
tip of a penknife carefolly pay, as though yoa
were nsing pntty to place in apane of glass, though
more sparingly, the wooden ledges where the
lock-plates rest when in their places, in snch a
manner that none of the wax gets into the places
hollowed out to receive the works of the lock.
When the warm locks are put back in their
places, and screwed up tight, the wax will adhere
to the edge of the lock-plates and the wood
wherein they bed, and effectually render them
impervious to wet. The sportsman can after-
wards, when stalking, push his rifle through wet
• grass, and use his fowling-piece when the water,
after a shower, drops from the trees upon him
as be forces his way between the wet branches,
withont fear of the wet making its way into the
locks.

WHEAT. Sgn. Tamavra, L. The ripe seed
or fruit of several varieties of Syiticum xmlgare,
Linn., of which the principal are Triticwn
attimtm, or spring wheat ; Triticum hybenmm, or
winter wheat ; and Triiictim turgidum, or turgid
wheat, the last two of which include several red
•nd white sob-varieties. Of all the cereal grains
wheat appears to be that best adapted for bread-
corn, not merely on account of its highly nutri-
tious character, bat also on account of the power
it possesses, from its richness in gluten, of form-
ing a light and agreeable loaf by the process of
fermentation.

AccorcUng to Sir H. Davy, good English wheat
contains of gluten, 19%; starch, 77%; aolable
matter, 4% to 5%.

The average weight of good wheat per bushel
is from 58 to 60 lbs. ; and its average yield of
flour is fully 12| lbs. for every 14 lbs. The
weight of the straw is said to be about double that
of the grain. The produce per acre varies from
12 to 60, or even 64 bushels an acre. See Fxont,
Stabob, &c.

Buckwheat. <Sry». Fasoftbuk, L. The seed
of Fagopyrum uculenium, a plant of the Nat. Ord.
PoiiSeoiiA.CEiB. It makes excellent cakes, crum-
pets, and gruel. In North America, buckwheat
cakes, or rather fritters, are in general use at
breakfast, eaten with molasses. In England,
buckwheat is cultivated as food for pheasants.

Wheat, Indian. SeeMAizB.

Wheat, Steeps for. Quicklime, sulphate of
zinc or white vitriol, sulphate of copper or blue
vitriol, and arsenious acid or white arsenic, are
the substances chiefly employed for this purpose.
About 5 lbs. of the first (slaked and made into a
milk with water), 1^ lbs. of the second, 1 lb. of the
third, and 3 or 4 oz. of the last, are regarded as
sufficient for each sack of seed. The method of
applying them is either to dissolve or mix them
with just sufiicient water to cover the seed, which
is then to be soaked in the mixture for a few
hours, or a less quantity of water is employed, and
the more concentrated solution is, at intervals
well sprinkled, by means of a 'watering pot,'

over the seed wheat spread upon the bam floor,
the aciaon being promoted by occasional stirring.

Obi. The first two substances above named
have been separately proved to be amply sufficient
to destroy the ' smut ' in seed wheat, and are per-
fectly harmless in their effects, which renders
them greatly preferable to arsenic, or even to
sulphate of copper. Nearly all the numerous
advertised 'anU-smnts,' or nostrums to prevent
the smut ia wheat, contain one or other of the
last three of the above substances.

WH£Y. Sgn. Skbuh lactib, L.; Prtit
lAiT, Fr. The liquid portion of milk after the
curd has been separated. It consists chiefly of
water, holding in aoluUon 3% or 4% of sugar of
milk. A pound of milk mixed with a table-
spoonful of proof spirit allowed to become sour,
and the whey Altered from the sediment, yields, in
the course m a few weeks, a good vinegar (whey
vinegar), free from lactic acid {Scheele).
Skimmed milk may be used.

Whey, Al'um. Syn. Sebum LAOTiBAXUMlKi.-
TVM, li. Prup, Take of powdered alum, 1 dr. ;
hot milk, 1 pint; simmer a few seconds, let it
repose for a short time, and strain the whey from
the coagulum. Used in diarrhoea, &c. ; a wine-
glassful after every motion. Acid whey (Bebvh
IjLOTIB aoidvh) may be prepared in a similar
manner by substituting \ dr. of tartaric or citric
acid for the alum. Orange whey and lemon
whey are prepared from the juice of the respective
fruits, with a little of the yellow peel to impart
flavour.

WHIT FOWSES. Frep. 1. Prom whey
gently evaporated to dryness, and powdered
along with about one third of its weight of lump
sugar.

2. Sugar, 7 oz.; sugar of milk, 2 oz.; gum-
arabic, 1 oz. (all in fine powder) ; mix well. 1 oz.
dissolved in 1^ pints of water forms extempora-
neous whey.

WHIS'KT. Dilate alcohol obtuned from the
fermented wort of malt or grain. That from
the former is the most esteemed. The inferior
qualities of this spirit are prepared from barley,
oats, or rye, a small portion only of which u
malted, or from potatoes mashed with a portion
of barley malt, the resulting wash being care-
lessly fermented and distilled, and purposely suf-
fered to bum, to impart the peculiar empyren-
matic or smoky flavour so much relished by the
lower orders of whisky drinkers. The malt
whisky, sold as such, of the principal Scotch and
Irish distillers is fully equal in quality to liondon
gin, from which it merely differs in flavour.
The peculiar flavour of whisky may be imitated
by adding a few drops each of pure creosote and
purified f nsel oil to 2 or 3 gallons of good London,
gin; and the imitation will be still more perfect if
the liquor be kept for some months before drink-
ing it.

We are indebted to ' Land and Water ' for the
following interesting particulars relating to Irish
whisky :

" Oenuine unadulterated Irish whisky has, of
late years, l>ecome a great desideratum as a whole-
some and agreeable beverage, and in the article
produced by the large and successful company
whose premises and business I am abont to de-

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1798

WHISKY

tcribe, the coninming public have every goarantee
of its excellence and purity, aa f ar as can be in-
Bored by the use of the very best materials, great
skill and care in the manufacturing processes,
and the valuable and extenuve buildings in which
the spirit is stored until it attains the maturity
and mellowness which age alone can confer.

" No blending process of new whiskies can ef-
fect this, no distiller who has not veiy extensive
bonded warehouses is to he trusted. Acre after
acre of cellars, vault after vault, corridor after
corridor, each and all dim, damp, and dark, and
g^uarded by the exciseman's talismanic padlock —
all these are necessary for the soundness of the
distillery. For to secure age and quality, the ef-
fect of several years' storage in these vaults is
required. If you wish to see such store-rooms to
perfection, go to Cork, which may be considered
the capital of the Irish whisky trade. Even
Dublin, with its Jamiesons, its Powers, and its
Boes, must bow down before it.

" But what is most singular of all, one com-
pany represents that important branch of mann-
fiictnre, and have therefore a good right to thrir
title of ' Cork Distilleries Company.' A little over
a quarter of a century ago there were five distil-
leries in Cork — Wise's, Hewetf s, Daly's, Mur-
phy's, and Waters'. In 1867, however, an amal-
gamation took place, and the present company
was started, and the work of the five distilleries
was concentrated into three — the North Mall,
still known as Wise's (that proprietor wisely al-
lowing himself to be bought oat, after having
made one of the largest private fortunes in Ire-
land) ; the Midleton, situated at a pretty village
of that name, about ten miles from Cork, and the
Watercourse, in the north-western suburb of the
city. The three distilleries are capable of pro-
ducing 1,000,000 gallons each per annum, which
represents an annual duty of one million and a
half pounds sterling. Their paid-up capital is a
quarter of a million, and a very large rest fund.
"Their works and property are insured for over
three quarters of a million sterling, and they And
employment for about 1000 men.

" The Brewing Prooett. I shall have occasion
to describe each of these three distilleries during
the course of this paper, but it would perhaps be
as well to run hurriedly through the several pro-
cesses of whisky distillation. It may be divided
roughly into browing and distilling. Malt and
barley are, of course, the ingredients used.
Barley as it comes from the market is distin-
guished by the appellation 'green.' This is either
steeped and converted into malt, or kiln-dried and
ground. It is then removed to the mash-tuns,
where water is added, and the whole mixed by
revolving machinery. After some hours' steep-
ing, the water has soaked all the desired proper-
tics from the grain, and is known as wort. This
is led away or pumped by a complicated series of
pipes to the top of the manufactory, where it un-
dergoes a cooling process. When of the desired
temperature it is conducted to the fermenting
vats — vast wooden vessels of imposing appear-
ance ranged in rows. The brewing processes end
with this fermentation.

" The IHetilUng Procetm. When this is done,
which generally takes five days, the fermented

liquor is conducted to the 'wash' charger,
and from thence pnmped to the intermediate
charger, where it is heated before undergoing
the first process of distillation, which now takes
place. The still is a vast copper vessel, shaped
exactly like an inverted funnel, with the pipe
leading to the roof. The ' wash ' or liquor froon
the charger is conducted into this vesseL Be-
neath it are two furnaces, which soon raise the
temperature of the vessel to boiling-point. When
evaporation commences the steam (which is the
spirit, and is technically known as ' low wines ')
is conducted up the copper pipe into a refrige-
rator, known as the ' worm. This worm is, in
reality, a continuation of the pipe of the stall
twisted into regular coils in and about a vessel
filled with the coldest water obtainable. By this
means the steam is converted into liquor. This
liquor passes into the close safe, a glass veseel
somewhat like an aquarinm tank. The distiller
stands by and watches the running liquor, and his
practised eye and educated palate immediately
detect any fault in the distillation. He is not
allowed to open his tank, however, except by
notice in the presence of the excise officer, one or
more of whom are always present in every dii-
tillery. Through this tank it runs into 'low
wines ' receiver, a large tank placed below, and
from these it agun passes to 'feints chargers'
m route to the ' low wines still,' where the second
distillation takes place. I forgot to say that the
refuse liquor left after the first distillation is
much valued by farmers for its milk-producing
qualities, and is bought up by them for cow-food.
'The refuse liquor from .the second distillation,
however, is only water, and the refuse liquor from
the third and final distillation is water ajso.

" The second distillation is like the first — the
same process of ' worm ' cooling, conducting, and
charging is carried on. The third still is known
as the spirit still. The spirit is now considered
perfect, and is led off to the large vats in the
spirit stores, where it is reduced to desired
strength, racked off into casks, and removed to
bonded warehouses for maturity. Such are the
processes carried ofa here — such are the processes
carried on by all honest distillers daring the last
century ; but modem science has discovered that
many very common — tasteless, I grant, but easily
flavoured — vegetables will yield ardent spirits,
and there are not wanting those who will take
advantage of the discovery.

" Within a Diatillery. But the distillery it-
self, who can describe it — its story upon story of
granaries — its kilns floored with perforated tile*
— its steeping vats and its low-roofed malting
sheds — its roaring mills — its terrible and myste-
rious tanks — its inextricable machinery — its in-
numerable rafters and false roofs — its ladders
perched up in inaccessible places — its bewildering
passages — and far away, above all, its immeoae
chimneys, towering up to the sky P But this is
not all — the bonded warehouses have to be gone
through. The excise officer has to be called, and
the sealed lock has to be broken, and you enter
into the vast cool place. Black as night is every-
thing around you ; the lamps which the attend-
ants hold are utterly incapable of dissipating the
darkness, and only cast a strong orange glare

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WHISKY

1799

upon the faces of the men who hold them. To
show one the dimensions of the phice a man is sent
to the opposite end. Away he goes, only trace-
able by the lamp he bears, and before he waves it
to show that the opposite end of the vault is
leached, it has become a scarcely discernible
glimmer. As we become more nsed to the dark-
ness we see straight passages leading in every
direction, and lined on every side by barrels piled
almost to the ceiling.

" Tie North UaU. The fli»t of the Cork dis-
blleriee I visited was the one at North Mall, for-
merly, and, in fact, still known as Wise's. It is
in a western suburb of the town, out among the
meadows. The Lee winds its silvery coarse be-
tween tall alders close by it, and a branch stream
is made to do much of the work of the immense
manufactory. On approaching it, it has a pic-
turesque effect. It lies underneath a tall bank,
over which the road to Sunday's Well leads.
iJooking down from this road the whole of its
vast dimensions can be taken in at a glance. The
extensive yard, where one would imagine enough
coal was stored to supply the whole city, is being
raised from the adjoining fields. I was looking
over an old history of Cork, published by a cer-
tain Dr Smith, over a century ago, and I find
that formerly on this spot a Franciscan monas-
tery stood. Such discipline was preserved here
that it was called the Mirror of Ireland, and
their sacerdotal character was so great that they
had the power of curing sore eyes. The only re-
mains of this ancient edifice now visible is a carved
stone built into the wall of the great bonded
warehouses in the Sunday's Well Road. It was
here that the noted water oozed out of the red-
stone rock. Whether it is ever now used in making
the agreeable beverage manufactured from the
old whisky stored below I did not ascertain.
These old Franciscan fathers had, doubtless, a
good cellar of their own ; but what would they
have said of the vast, well-flUed vaults which
now are found upon perhaps the identical spot ?
But, large as these are, they are not large enough
for the requirements of the distillery, and other
extensive premises have been secured in Ldtrim
Street, which are now used as bonded ware-
hooses.

" The whisky produced at this distillery is, if
possible, still better now than it was in Wise's
time ; the same distiller who worked the concern
for him for twenty years is still there, and none
but the very finest description of malt and barley
(a large proportion of the former) is used. Its
production, as well as those of the other two dis-
tilleries of the company, gained a first-class medal
last year at Philadelphia, and the jurors described
it as ' very fine, full fiavour, and good spirit.' As
a natural consequence, there is a demand for this
whisky all over the world, and there are very few
large towns in either hemisphere where it is not
represented by an agent.

" 2%« ' Watereouru.' By-the-bye, these lie on
onr way to the celebrated Watercourse Distillery,
the second of those used by this great firm. Enter-
ing through the broad portals, long ranges of old-
fashioned buildings spread out on every side.
Here is the mill, gaunt and square and solid ;
those jealously guarded doors to the right are the

bonded warehonses ; the buildings across the yard
are devoted to the coopers' and smiths' work,
which in all three distilleries is done on the pre-
mises.

" That tall black and white bnilding &r away
on the opposite side is the gr^n store ; this, nearer
to you, with the irregular roofs, the complicated
piping and open-walled structures running away
overhead, is the distillery proper. This distillery
is about of equal size to that at North Mall. It
has an older and more venerable appearance. It
turns out as good and extensive work, and, like it,
is not satisfied with the extensive storing facilities
at its command, but must needs go abroad to an
old unused distillery, further in the suburbs,
where it hides most of its rich and treasured
productions. A picturesque old place is this ; the
ruins of the old works are still standing, and their
architecture is such that it only requires a mantle
of ivy to transform it into a remnant of feudal
savagery.

" Tit HidU/on IHitilUry. The company have
handsome and extensive offices on Morrison's
Island, in the centre of the city, and close to the
water's edge. Here the directors sit day after
day, and the scores of clerks attend to the in-
terests of 4000 customers. But I cannot linger
here, for I have another distillery to visit. Another,
the brightest of all, far out in the beautiful
country, at the town of Midleton, situate at the
north-east extremity of Cork's magical harbour.
Approaching the distillery from the town, it has
somewhat the appearance of a fortress. A massive
stone gateway bars the entrance, and heavy walls
encompass it. But when once admittance is
gained the sternness of the approach vanishes.
Great buildings loom aloft, but they have all a
bright look ; trees are on every side, and hand-
some garden plots, and clinging ivy, relieve the
monotony of the high square structures. Here, I
believe, is the largest still in the world — certainly
the largest in Ireland. No work was in progress
at the time of my visit, save the work of repairs
and the storage of coal. Here, as at North Mall,
water gives considerable aid in driving the ma-
chinery, a canal having been raised after con-
siderable engineering difficulties and much ex-
pense. The vast works of Midleton Distillery
cover over eight acres. It was a hot July day
when I paid my visit, not at all the day to attempt
remarkable pedestrian feats. Will it be forgiven
me, therefore, if I forsook Irish whisky for Irish
hospitality ? Under the very shadow of the tall
manufactory, yet altogether hidden from it, there
is a luring lawn, a cool shrubbery, and an elegant
villa radiant with flowers. Is it not more pleasant
to lounge through conservatories than to climb
staircases, to drink iced claret cnp than to sip
raw spirit, or to examine the points of a horse
than to note the intricacies of machinery P Be-
yond the garden and the tennis court and the con-
servatory is a grotto, so cunningly placed that
none but the initiated can find it ; the air there is
deliciously cool, a luxuriant growth of honeysuckle
and dog-rose and fern surrounds you, and at your
feet is a spring of as pure water as ever mortal
tasted. With pleasant society, and chat and
gossip to while away the time, will it be deemed
strange that I stayed there nntil it was impoaaiUe

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1800

WHITB ABSENIC— WHITE PIGMENTS

to see more of the distiller;, and that it would
onl; he possible to catch my last train by a hard
and almost breakneck gallop ?" See Glir, Sfixits,
and UsQUXBAUSE.

WHITE AS'SEinC. See ABBEHiors Acn>.

WHITEBAIT. . The Clupea oatulut {Clmpea
alba, Yarrell), a very small and delicate fish, com-
mon in the brackish waters of the Thames from
April to September. When fried in oil it is
esteemed a great luxnry by epicures.

WHITE COPFEB. See GxBMAir Siltbb and

FACETOVe.

WHITE EELliEBOBE. Syn. VlBATBinC;
YzBATBi ALBi SASiz, L. "The rhizome of
Verairum album, Linn., or white hellebore." A
powerful acrid cathartic, emetic, and stemntatory.
It is now seldom exhibited internally, and its ex-
ternal nse over a large or ulcerated surface is
not nnaccompanied with danger. — Dote, i to 2 gr.
of the powder made into a pill ; in gout, mania,
Ac. ; or 1 to 8 gr., carefully triturated with 12 or
16 gr. of liquorice powder, as an errhine, in
amaurosis, &c.

WHITE-LEAD. Sifn. FiNB WHITB, Flakb
w., Casbokate ov I.SAS, Cssrss, Hasistibt

01 LSAD ; CBBUBSA, PlDlCBI CABBOKAS (B. P.,

Ph. E. A, D.), L. R-ep. 1. By suspending rolls
of thin sheet lead over malt liquor or pyrolig-
neons acid in close vessels, the evaporation from
the acid being kept up by the vessels being placed
in a heap of dung or a steam-hath. This is the
Dutch method.

2. A new process consists in passing carbonic
acid gas into an intimate mixture of litharge with
about 1% of lead acetate and Trater.

S. Another new process is to grind together for
some hours a mixture of common salt, litharge,
and water, and then to pass carbonic acid gas
into the creamy liquid until it is neutral.

4. Quite lately a process for manufacturing
' white-lead ' has been patented, the product of
which is not poisonous, but analysis shows it to
have the composition of the sulphate, not the car-
bonate.

Oht. Commercial carbonate of lead, however
prepared, is not the pure carbonate of lead, but
always contains a certain proportion of hydrate.
The usual composition of white-lead is repre-
sented by the formula Pb(OH)5.2Pb.CO,. It is
generally largely adulterated with native sul-
phate of l>aryta ('heavy spar'), and sometimes
with chalk. The former may be detected by its
insolubility in dilute nitric acid, and the latter by
the nitric solution gelding a white precipitate
with dilute sulphuric acid, or a solution of oxalic
acid or oxalate of ammonia, after having been
treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, or a hydro-
sulphuret, to throw down the lead. " Pure car-
bonate of lead does not lose weight at a tempera-
ture of 212° F, ; 68 gr. are entirely dissolved in
150 minims of acetic acid diluted ?rith 1 fl. oz. of
distilled water ; and the solution is not entirely
precipitated by a solution of 60 gr. of phosphate
of soda " (Ph. E.). The solution in nitric acid
should not yield a precipitate when treated with
a solution of sulphate of soda. Used as a supe-
rior white punt, and, in medicine, as an external
astringent, refrigerant, and desiccant. It is very
poisonous.

The particles of carbonate of lead ptepaied by
precipitation, or by any of the quick praeewet,
are in a somewhat crystalline and semi-tranalu-
cent condition, and hence do not cover so well as
that just noticed. The following are some of the
varieties of ' white-lead ' found in commerce:

1. (DUTOE WETTB-LBAS.) o. (Finest.) From
flake white, 1 cwt. j cawk, 3 cwt. — 6. (Ordinary.)
Flake white, 1 cwt.; cawk, 7 cwt. These form
the best white-lead of the shops.

2. (EvouBH WEITX-I.EAD.) Flake white
lowered with chalk. Covers badly, and the colour
is inferior to the preceding.

3. (Fbbhcb weitb-lbad ; Blabo db piokb,
Fr.) From litharge dissolved in vinegar, and
then thrown down by a current of carbmie acid
gas from coke. Does not cover so well as flake
white.

4. (Qbacx'8 whiib-i.bab.) Made from sheet
lead, with the refuse water of the starch-makers,
soured brewer's grain, &c.

5. (HAUBXTBaVVEITB, Haicbubo veitb-uus.)
From flake white, 1 cwt. ; cawk, 2 cwt. Also sold
for best Dutch white-lead.

6. (VbHKTIAS WHITB, Vefbtiait WHlrB"

LBAD ; Cbbusa Vbmbta, L.) From flake white,
or pure white-lead and cawk, equal part*. (Se»
b»low.)
White Precip'itate of Lead. <S^. Mdiia-

TXntB FAIKTEB'S WHITB, StTLFEATB OP UtAJk

From an acetic or nitric solntion of litharge, pre-
cipitated by adding dilute sulphuric acid, and
the white powder washed and dried. The dear
liquid decanted from the precipitate is poured on
fresh litharge, when a second solution takes
place ; and this may be repeated for any number
of times. Used in miniature painting, being a
beautiful and durable white.

White, Wilkinson's. From litharge ground
with sea water until it ceases to whiten, and then
washed and dried.

White, Zinc (Hnbbnck's). A hydrated oxide of
line. It possesses the advantage of being inno-
cuous in nse, and not being blackened by sulphu-
retted hydrogen, like white-lead.

Whi"ting. Another name for ground chalk,
but prepared more carelessly, in horse-mills.

WHITE FIG'HEHTS. Sgn. Piokbvia aiaa,
L. The following list embraces the more impor-
tant white pigments of commerce.

White, Alum. Syn. Baitii^'b whitb. Take
of powdered Boman ainm, 2 lbs. ; honey, 1 lb. ;
mix, dry, powder, calcine in a shallow dish to
whiteness, cool, wash, and dry. A beautifiil and
permanent white, both in oil and water.

White, Chinese. Sgn. Zinc weitx. See
above. Often adulterated with chalk, kaolin, or
starch.

White, Crenmits. Green white-lead.

White, Derbyshire. From cawk or heavy spar,
by grinding and elutriation.

White, Flake. The flner kinds of white-lead
are so called.

White, Kin'eral. Precipitated carbonate of lead.

White, Hewcastle. White-lead made with
molasses vinegar.

White, Nottingham. White-lead made with
alegar (sour ale). Permanent white is now com-
monly sold for it.

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WHITE SWELLING— WILLOW

1801

WUte, FearL Syn. Fisd'b Spabise weitb.
TrUnitrate of bismuth.

WMta, Fer'nianent. Artificial salphato of
baiyta, prepared by precipitating chloride of
tianum with dilate snlphurio acid, or a solution
of Olanbei's salts. A good fast white, unchanged
by inlphurous fnmes. Used to mark jars and
iMttlM for containing acids or alkalies, as it is
affected by very few substances ; also to adulte-
nte white-lead.

White, Spaniih. 8t/n. Blako s'ESFAaiiB,
BliAiro D« Tboyis, Fr. The softest and purest
white chalk, elutriated, made into baUs, and well
dried. Used as a cheap white point.

WHITS BWSLL'HrO. Sgn. Htsbabthbub,
L. A variety of indolent, malignant, scrofulons
tumours, attacking the knee, ankle, wrist, and
elbow, especially the first.

WHITES (Sharp). i>n|p. 1. From wheaten
flonr and powdered alnm, equal parts, ground
together.

2. (Stuff; Baxbx'b btttfp.) From alnm,
ground to the coarseness of common salt, 1 lb. ;
common salt, 3 lbs.; mix together. Both the
above are nsed by bakers for the purpose of
clandestinely introducing alum into their bread.

WHITEWASH. Whiting is made into a milk
with water, and a small quantity of melted size
or dissolved glue added. It is applied to waUs or
onlings with a broad, flat brush, worked in a uni-
form direction. Should the surface have been
previously whitewashed, it is requisite first to re-
move the dirt by washing it with a brush and
abundance of clean water.

" LiHB-WABElNO is, from the cleansing action
of the quicklime, much the more effectual mode
of purification, but is less frequently had recourse
to, from the general ignorance respecting the
proper mode of preparing the lime-wash. If glue
is employed, it is destroyed by the corrosive action
of the lime, and, in consequence, the latter easily
rubs off the walls when dry. This is the case also
if the lime be employed, as is often absurdly
recommended, simply slaked in water, and nsed
without ally fixing material. Lime-wash is pre-
pared bv placing some freshly burned quicklime
in a pail, and ponring on sufficient water to cover
it ; ' boiled oU ' (linseed) should then be imme-
diately added, in the proportion of a pint to a
gallon of the wash. For coarser work, any com-
mon refuse fat may be nsed instead of the boiled
(nL The whole should then be thinned with water
to the required consistency, and applied with a
brash. Care should be taken not to leave the
brush in the lime-wash for any length of time, as
it destroys the bristles" (IF. £. Tsgetmeier).
For conservatory roofs, &c., by adding a small
quantity of potassium bichromate solution to the
whitewash and size just before use the size is
rendered insoluble on exposure to light, and the
work is more permanent, and will resist the weather
for a long time (Ed.).

WHI"TIHa. See Whiti Plan ektb.

WHITIira. The Cfadut merlangut, Linn., a
member of the cod family of fishes. It is a very
light and nutritious fish, and well adapted to dys-
peptics and invalids ; but it has too little flavour
to De a favourite with gourmands.

WHIT'lOW. Sg*. Whixloi; Pabontohu,

L. A painful inflammation, tending to suppura-
tion and abscess at the ends of the fingers, and
mostly under or about the nails. Emollient
poultices are useful in this aifection; extreme
tension and pain may be relieved by an incision,
so as to allow the exit of the pus or matter from
under the nul. The treatment must also be
directed to establish the general health, as with-
out this local remedies often fail.

WHITWOSTH BOTTLE. A remedy much nsed
as a liniment in the neighbourhood of Whitworth,
Lancashire. — Prep. Camphor, 6 parts; oil of
origanum, 6 parts ; anchusa root, I part ; methy-
lated spirit, 80 parts.

WHOOFDra-COUGH. Sgn. OHnr-couGH,
Hoopnro-c, Kis-c. ; Pbbtttbbib, L. A convul-
sive, strangling cough, characterised by peculiar
sonorous or whooping inspirations, from which
its popular name is taken. It comes on in fits,
which are usually terminated by vomiting. It
is infections, chiefly attacks children, and, like
the smallpox, only occurs once during life.

The treatment of whooping-cough consists
chiefly in obviating irritation, and in exciting
nausea and occasional vomiting. From the first,
aperients and sedatives (hemlock or henbane), in
small doses, may be g^ven ; for the second inten-
tion an extremely weak sweetened solution of
tartarised antimony, or a mixture containing
squills or ipecacuanha, may be administered in
small doses every hour or two, according to the
effect produced. In full habits blisters and
leeches may be resorted to; and in all cases
opiate and stimulating embrocations may be ap-
plied to the chest and spine with advantage.
Whenever the head is affected the use of nar-
cotics is contra-indicated. The hot bath is often
serviceable. Other medicinal agents employed
in pertussis are alom, bromide of ammonium,
sulphate of zinc, belladonna, tincture of myrrh,
carbolic acid, and lobelia. Abundance of home-
made lemonade, not too sweet, is an excellent
thing for children with whooping-cough. See

A17TIHONIAI.8, BBAVQETS, MIXTVKB, OxTXKL,

Sybcp, Winjsb, Ac.

WHOSTLSBEBSY (Bear's). S^n. Vtm ubbi
TOLIA (B. P.), UvA rasi (Ph. L., E., & D.), L.
The leaf of Arctotiap^lot uva-urri, trailing ar-
butus, or bearbeny. Astringent. — Dote, 10 to
80 gr. of the powder, thrice daily. See Dbcoo-

TION and EXIBAOT.

WIK'AHA. 8yn. Wacaea dbb Indb, Fr.
Prep. (Quibourt.) Roasted chocolate nuts
(ground), 2 oz. ; powdered cinnamon, 2 dr. ; pow-
dered vanilla, i dr. ; ambergris, 3 gr. ; musk, 1^
gr. ; sugar, 6 oz. ; well mixed together. A tea-
spoonful is boUed with i pint of milk or arrow-
root^ a stimulating diet for convalescents.

WILD CHESST. The Prunut VirgMaHO, a
beantiful tree growing wild in the western Statea
of America. The inner bark (wild cherry bark) is
officinal in the Ph. U. S., and is a valuable seda-
tive tonic. It is specially adapted for the alleviai
tion of the distressing cough which is so har-
assing to patients with pulmonary disease. Bee

ISTFUSIOIf^

WILDTIBE SASH. StrophmUu volatumi.
WILLOW. Syn. Saxix, L. The barks o{
BcUix alba or white willow, SaUx fragUi* ov

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WINDOWS— WINE

cntck willow, &nd StUix eaprea at great ronnd-
leaved willow (willow babeb ; Salicib oob-
Ticia— Ph. E.), were officinal in the Ph. D. 1826 ;
and, with that of Salix MuatalUana and other
species, are rich in salicin, and hence possess
Considerable febrifuge power. — Dote, i to 1 dr.,
either in powder or made into a decoction ; as a
snbstitnte for Peruvian bark, in agues, hectics,
debility, dyspepsia, <tc.

WHT'SOWS. A prismatic or crystalline ap-
pearance may be imparted to windows by several
expedients.

1. Mix a hot solution of sulphate of magnesia
(Epsom salt) with a clear solution of gum-arabic,
and lay it on hot. For a margin, or for figures,
wipe off the part you wish to remun clear with
a wet towel as soon as the surface has become
cold and hard. The effect is very pretty, and
may be varied by substituting oxalic acid, red or
yellow pmssiate of potash, or any other salt (not
efflorescent), for the sulphate of magnesia. Sul-
phate of copper gives a very beautiful ciystalliaa-
tion of a blue colour.

2. Evenly cover the snrface of the glass with
a layer of thin gum water, and sprinkle any of
the saline crystals before noticed over it whilst
wet. The gum water may be tinged of any colour
to vary the effect.

A blinded appearance more or less resembling
ground glass may be given as follows :

1. By evenly dabbing the surface with a piece
of soft glazier's putty.

2. A coating of stained rice jelly, laid on with
a painter's brush (sash tool), and afterwards
dabbed with a duster brush applied endways.

8. Tissue paper, either white or oolomed,
applied by means of clear gum water or soms
pale varnish. The pattern may be lined with a
pencil, and, when the whole is somewhat dry,
bat not hard, the lines may be cut through, and
the pattern stripped ofF with the flat point of a
knife.

4. The surface of the glass being coated wiili
mucilage or any pale Tarnish, as before, coarsely
powdered glass or quartz, reduced to a uniform
state of grain by a sieve, may be sprinkled over
it ; when dry, the loose portion should be removed
with a soft brush.

WISE. Syn. Vnnjlf, L,; Vnf, Pr. Hie fer-
mented juice of the grape. The general charac-
ters and quality of wine are principally influenced
by climate, soil, and aspect, the nature and ma-
turity of the grape, and the method of condnet-
ing the fermentation. The sp. gr. of the ' most'
varies from 1-068 to 1-28S, from which the pro-
portion of saccharine matter and the ultimate
alcoholic richness of the wine resulting from its
fermentation may be inferred. That of Bheniah
grapes seldom exceeds 1*095 to 1-100. Want of
space compels us to confine our remarks chiel^
to the properties, uses, and management of grajie-
juice lUFter it has passed through the stage of
fermentation, or, in reality, become wine.

Officinal Wine. The only wine ordered by the
British Colleges is sherry (whitb winb ; TorutL
XgRionn— B. P., Ph. L. ; vikitm albux — Ft.
E. ; TuruM HiBPAiriotrx — Ph. D.) ; but several
other wines are employed in medicine, as tonics,
stimulants, antispasmodics, and restoratives, ac-
cording to the circumstances of the case or the

I. Table of t\» Qtuintity of Alcohol in Wine. By Dr Chsibtison.

Nune, ke.

Aleoholar-TnT

PraofipSrit

per cent.

pereesL

bj weight.

by Tohuac.

14-97

31-31

16-80

34-91

17-10

37-27

14-97

31-31

13-98

30-84

15-37

33-59

1617

35-12

14-78

81-30

16-90

37-06

16-90

87-06

14-09

30-86

13-84

30-81

15-46

33-66

16-14

34-71

12-96

28-30

12-63

27-60

7-72

16-95

7-78

17-06

7-61

16-74

8-99

18-96

9-31

22-35

12-86

2817

8-40

18-44

6-90

1519

735

1616

(Weakest
Mean of 7 samples
Strongest
White

'Weakest

Mean of 13 wines, excluding those very long kept in cask

Sherry .• Strongest

Mean of 9 wines long kept in cask in the East Indies
^ Madre da Xeres

Madeira (long kept in cask in the East Indies) | ^^f^* "

Tenerifte (long in cask at Calcutta)

Cercial

Lisbon (dry)

Shiraz

Amontillado

Claret (a first growth of 1811)

ChAteau-Latour (ditto 1825)

Bosan (second growth of 1825)

Ordinary Claret (Vin Ordinaire)

Bivesaltes

Malmsey . .....••,.,.

Budesheimer. Ist quality

>, Inferior .........

Hambacher. Superior quality . . . . . , • .

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1808

II. QmtiUU^ of Aleohol (sp. gr. -826 at 60° F.) in 100 parU of Wine by volume.

Alcohol of -82S conbuns 92-6% of real or anhydroni alcohol ; or^ in the language of the Excise,
is ahoat 62i% o.p., and in ronnd niunbers may he said to he of about twice the strength of
brandy or rnm as asually sold.

TSimta of Winn.

Alcoholic
content.

Anthorit;.

Nunes ofWInes.

AlcohoUe
content.

Anthority.

Alhft Flora.

17-26

Brande.

Lnnel . . . .

16-62

Brande.

BarsM . . . .

18-86

do.

Madeira (average)

22-27

do.

Bnoellas . . . .

18-49

do.

Ditto (do.)

21-20

Prout.

Bnrgnndy (sTerage) .

14-67

do.

Malaga . . . .

17-26

Brande.

Ditto . . . .

12-16

Prout.

Ditto . . . .

18-94

do.

Calcavella (avenge) .

18-69

Brande.

Malmsey Madeira

16-40

do.

Cape Madeira (do.) .

20-61

do.

Marsala (average)

26-09

do.

Cape Muschat .

18-26

do.

Ditto (do.)

18-40

Prout.

Champagne (average)

12-61

do.

Nice , . . . .

14-63

Brande.

Ditto . . , .

12-20

Fontenelle.

Orange (average)

11-26

do.

Claret (arerage).

1610

Brande.

Port (do.)

20-64

Prout.

Colares . . . .

19-76

do.

Ditto (do.)

22-96

Brande.

Constantia (White) .

19-76

do.

Raisin (do.)

26-41

do.

IMtto (Bed) .

18-92

do.

Ditto (do.)

16-90

Prout.

Ditto (average)

14-60

Prout.

Red Madeira (do.) .

20-36

Brande.

CdteBdtie

12-32

Brande.

Boussillon (do.) .

18-13

do.

Currant . . . .

20-66

do.

Sauteme . . . .

14-22

do.

Elder . . . .

8-79

do.

Sluraz . . . .

16-62

do.

Frontignac (Bivesalte)

12-79

do.

Sherry (average)
Ditto (do.) .

19-17

do.

Gooseberry

11-84

do.

23-80

Prout.

Grape (English)

1811

do.

Syracuse . . . .

2000

do.

Hermitage (Bed)

12-32

do.

Ditto . . . .

16-28

Brande.

Ditto (White) .
Hock (average) .
Laehryma Christi

17-48

do.

Teneriffe . . . .

19-79

do.

12-08

do.

Tent

13-30

do.

19-70

do.

Tokay . . . .

9-88

do.

Lisbon . . . .

18-94

do.

Vidonia . . . .

19-25

do.

Lissa (average) .

26-41

do.

^inde Grave .

13-94

do.

IKtto (do.)

16-90

Prout.

Zante

1706

do.

taste of the patient. In pharmacy, the less ex-
pensive Cape or marsala, or even raisin wine, is
usually substituted for sherry in the preparation
of the medicated wines of the Pharmacopceias.

Varietiet, Chturaeteriitiet, S(e, The preceding
Tables will convey much useful information on
this subject in a condensed form.

Compontion. The constituents of wine are —
alcohol, which is one of its principal ingredients,
and on which its power of producing intoxication
depends ; sugar, which has escaped the process of
fermentation, and which is most abundant in the
sweet wines, as tokay, tent, frontignac, &c. ; ex-
tractive, derived chiefly from the husk of the
grape, and is extracted from it by the newly
formed alcohol; tartar, or bitartrate of potassa,
which constitntes the most important portion of
the saline matter of wine; odoriferous matter,
imparting the characteristic vinous odour, de-
pending chiefly upon the presence of ogiianthic
acid and ether ; and bouquet, arising from essential
<ril or amy! compounds, probably existing under
the form of ethers. Besides these, small qnanti-
tiei of tannin, gum, acetic and malic acid, acetic
ether, lime, &e., are found in trine. The speciflc
gravity of wine depends on the richness and
ripeness of the grapes used in its manufacture,
the nature of the fermentation, and its age. It
varies from about -970 to 1-041.

I'urity. The most frequent species of fraud in
the wine trade is the mixing of wines of inferior
quality with those of a superior grade. In many
cases the inferior kinds of foreign wines are
flavoured and substituted for the more expensive
ones. This is commonly practised with Cape
wine, which, after having a slight 'nuttiness'
communicated to it by bitter almonds or peach
kernels, a lusdousness or fulnens by honey, and
additional strength by a little plain spirit or pale
brandy, is made to undergo the operation of
' fretting in,' and is then sold for ' sherry.'
Formerly it was a common practice of ignorant
wine dealers to add a little litharge or acetate of
lead to their inferior wines to correct their acidity;
hut it is believed that this highly poisonoas sub-
stance is now never employed in this country,
' salt of tartar ' being made to perform the same
dnty. The lead which is frequently detected in
bottled wine, and which often causes serious in-
disposition, may be generally traced to shot being
carelessly lert in the bottles, and not to wilfid
fraud. Sbeny is commonly coloured in Spain
by the addition of ' most' boiled down to l-6th of
its original volume; and in England, by burnt
brown sugar, or spirit colouring. Amontillado
(a very nutty wine) is frequently added to sherries
deficient in flavour. Various other ingredients,
as the essential oil of almonds, bitter almonds ia

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snbstance, cherry-laarel leaves, cherry-laurel
water, &c., are aUo employed for a like purpoee.
In Portugal the juice of elderberries ii very
commonly added to port wine to increase its
colour, and extract of rbatany for the doable pur-
pose of improving its colour and imparting an
astringent taste. In England beetroot. Brazil-
wood, the juices of elderberries and bilberries,
the pressed cake of elder wine, extract of logwood,
&c., are frequently added to port to deepen its
colour ; and oak sawdust, kino, alum, and extract
of rhatany, to increase its astringency. But the
most common adulterant of port wine, both in
Portugal and this country, is ' jerupiga,' or ' geru-
piga,' a compound of elder juice, brown sugar,
grape juice, and crude Portuguese brandy. That
imported here contains about 46% of proof spirit,
and is allowed by the Custom-house authorities
to be mixed with port wine in bond. A facti-
tious bouquet is also commonly given to wine by
the addition of sweet-briar, orris root, clary,
orange flowers, elder flowers, esprit de petit grain,

&C.

Tetti. These, for the most part, are applicable
to all fermented liquors :

1. Richness in alcohol. This may be found
by any of the methods noticed under AIiCOHOLO-

XSTBY, POBTEB, and TlHCTUBB.

2. Sacchakinb and sxtsactiyi vattxb.
The sp. gr. corresponding to the alcoholic strength,
last found, is deducted from the real sp. gr. of
the sample ; the difference divided by -0025, or
multiplied by 400, gives the weight of solid mat-
ter (chiefly sugar) in oz. per gallon (nearly).

8. Nabcotics. These may be detected in the
manner already noticed.

4. Lias. The presence of lead or litharge in
wine may be readily detected by sulphuretted
hydrogen, or a solution of any alkaline sulphy-
diate, which will, in that case, produce a black
precipitate. See Wikb Tbbtb.

6. PoTASSA or Soda improperly present. A
portion of the wine is evaporated nearly to dry-
ness, and then agitated with rectified spirit; the
filtered tincture, holding in solution acetate of
potassa, is then divided into two portions, one of
which is tested for acetic acid, and the other for
the alkali.

6. Axuu. A portion of the wine is evaporated
to dryness and ignited; the residuum is then
treated with a small quantity of hydrochloric
acid, the mixture evaporated to dryness, again
treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, and tested
with liquor of potassa. If a white bulky preci-
pitate forms, which is soluble in an excess of
caustic potassa, and which is reprecipitated by a
solution of sal-ammoniac, the sample examined
oontuned alum.

7. Oil op tiibiol. a. A drop or two of the
suspected wine may be poured upon a piece of
paper, which most then be dried before the fire.
Pure wine at most only stains the paper, but
one containing sulphuric acid causes it to become
charred and rotten. The effect is more marked
on paper which has been previously smeared with
starch paste.

b. According to M. Lassaigne, pure red wine
leaves, by spontaneous evaporation, a violet or
purple stain on paper; whilst that to which sul-

phurio acid has been added, even in quantity
only equal to ttAitj *<> -nftnr P«^. •«'«■ » P™*^
stain in drying.

8. Sfubioub coLOTTBiNa XATTBB. a. Genuine
red wine yields greenish-grey precipitates with
sugar of lead, and greenish ones with potaraa;
but those coloured with elderberries, bilberries,
litmus, logwood, and mulberries, give deep blue
or violet precipitates, and those coloured with
Brazil-wood, red sanders-wood, or red beet, give
red ones.

4. Pure red wine is perfectly decoloured by
agitation with fresh hydrate of lime.

c. Dissolve a piece of caustic potash in a small
quantity of the liquid to be experimented upon.
If no deposit is formed, and the wiue assumes a
greenish shade, there is no artificial coloration.
A violet-coloured deposit indicates the presence
of elderberries or mulberries, a red one indicates
the presence of beetroot for Brazil-wood, red
violet that of logwood. If the deposit is blue
violet, privet berries have been employed ; and if
of a pale violet the coloration is due to litmus.

d. For the detection of the principal colouring
matters employed in the sophuticstion of wines,
M. Chancel proceeds as follows : — He takes 10 c.c.
of wine, and adds 3 c.c. of a dilute solution of
subacetate of lead, allowing the mixture to sub-
side for a few minutes to make sure that the
precipitation is complete. If this is not the ease
a slight excess of the reagent is added.

After stirring and heating for a few moments
it is thrown on a very small filter, the filtrate
collected in a test-tube, and the precipitate
washed three or four times in hot water. If the
filtrate is coloured magenta is present, and may
be sought for by the aid of the spectroscope.
But if the wine contains a mere trace of this
colour, it is retained in the precipitate, and is
sought for in the manner directed below. To'
discover the colouring matter which may be con-
tained in the lead precipitate, it is treated
upon the filter with a few c.c. of a solution of
carbonate of potassa (2 parts of the dry salt to
100 parts of water), taking care to repass Ue
same toluiio» several times through the precipi-
tate. Any magenta present is thus extracted,
along with cfirminamic (ammoniacal cochineal)
and sulphindigotic acid. The colouring matters
of logwood and of alkanet remain undissolved.

With a genuine wine the alkaline liquid takes
a very faint yellow or greenish-yellow taut. For
the detection of magenta the filtrate is mixed
with a few drops of acetic acid, and it is then
shaken up witli amylic alcohol. The magenta
dissolves in this alcohol with a fine rose tant, and
its presence is proved by spectroscopic examina-
tion. Carminamic and sulphindigotic acids re-
main in the aqneons solution, and are decanted
off. A couple of drops of sulphuric add are
added, and the mixture is again shaken up with
amylic alcohol, which now dissolves the ammo-
niacal cochineal. It may be detected by the
spectroscope. The sulphindigotic acid remains
undissolved in the amylic alcohol, and may be
found in the blue aqueous residual liquor by
means of the spectroscope. Logwood is mart
conveniently sought for in a fresh portion of the
wine by digestion with a little precipitated csi-

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1805

1)onate of lime, ad^ng a few drops of lime-water,
«iid filtering. In a natural wine the dltrate has
a faint greenish -yellow colour, bat if logwood is
present it takes a fine red shade, and the absorp-
tion bands of logwood may be detected with the
apectroscope. On treating the lead precipitate
above mentioned with an alkaline salphide,
washing with boiling water, and then treating
with alcohol, the colouring matter of alkanet, if
present, is dissolved, and may be detected by
apectroscopic examination ("Comptea Bendas,"
February 19th, 1877; ' Chem. News,' xmv, 106).

«. {l)r Dvpri.) The colouring matter of pure
red wine does not pass through the dialyser.
The dialysate from pnre wine is therefore colour-
less, or shows but a slight purplish coloration,
«uch as water would assume on the addition
of a small quantity of the wine. A yellow or
brownish-yellow diidysate indicates an adultera-
tion with logwood. Brazil-wood, or cochineal, the
•colouring matters of which may he identified by
the chemical and optical tests employed for this
purpose. The ammoniacal solution of the colour^
ing matter of cochineal yields three well-marked
absorption bands.

_f. For the detection in wine of f uchsine only,
the following methods are given by M. £. Jac-
quemin:— (1) A small quantity of gun-cotton is
heated for a few minutes in 10 — 20 c.c. of the
wine, and then washed with the water. The
nature of the coloration (if any) imparted to the
<otton is now identified by means of solution of
ammonia, which decolonrises rosaniUne, but turns
archil violet. (2) 100 c.c. of the wine are boiled
to expel the alcohol, and then boiled for some
time with white Berlin wool, previously moist-
ened with water. The colour imparted to the
wool by fuchsine is retained after washing, and
may be distinguished from archil by ammonia.
(3) 100—200 c.c. of the wine are boiled to expel
the alcohol, then allowed to cool, mixed with
ammonia in excess, and shaken with ether. By
immersing white wool in the ethereal solution,
and evaporating the latter, the wool acquires the
' characteristic colour of fuchsine.

9. AsTUiciAL VLAVODBiKa. This can only
be detected by a discriminating and sengitive
palate.

10. Abtitioial BOiTQUBT. The substances
added for this purpose may often be readily
detected by a comparison of the sample with

^another of known parity.

Uiet. The uses of wine as a beverage are too
well known to require description. As a medi-
cine, port wine is most esteemed as an astringent
and tonic ; and sherry and Madeira as stimulants
and restoratives, in diseases where the acidity
of the former would be objectionable; cham-
pagne is reputed diuretic and excitant, but its
effects are not of long duration ; and the Rhenish
wines are regarded as refrigerant, diuretic, and
slightly aperient. Claret, Rhenish, and Moselle
wines are said to be the most wholesome. In
pharmaei/, wine is used as a menstruum.

MAHAaEUEIlT 0> WTSS.

Age. The sparkling wines are in their prime
in from 18 to 30 months after the vintage, de-
pending on the cellaring and climate. Weak
-nines, of inferior growths, should be drunk

within 12 or 15 months, and be preserved in a
very cool cellar. Sound, well-fermented, fnll-
bo<Ued still wines are improved by age, within
reasonable limits, provided they be well preserved
from the air, and stored in a cool place, having a
pretty uniform temperature. See MaluraHon
Ibelow).

Sotiling. The secret of bottling wine with
success consists in the simple exercise of care and
cleanliness. The bottles should be all sound, clean,
and dry, and perfectly free from the least musti-
ness or other odour. The corks should be of the
best quality, and immediately before being placed
in the bottles should be compressed by means of
a ' cork-squeezer.' For superior or very delicate
wines, the corks are usually prepared by placing
them in a copper or tub, covering them with
weights to keep them down, and then pouring
over them boiling water holding a little pearlash
in solution. In this state they are allowed to re>
main for 24 hours, when they are well stirred
about in the liquor, drained, and re-immersed for
a second 24 hoars in hot water, after which they
are well washed and soaked in several successive
portions of clean and warm rain water, drained,
dried out of contact with dust, put into paper
bags, and hung up in a dry place for use. The
wine should be clear and brilliant, and if it be
not so, it must undergo the process of ' fining '
before being bottled. In fact, it is a common
practice with some persons to perform this opera-
tion whether the wine require it or not; as, if it
has been mixed and doctored, it " amalgamates
and ameliorates the various flavours." The bottles,
corks, and wine being ready, a fine clear day
should be preferably chosen for the bottling, and
the utmost cleanliness and care should be exercised
during the process. Oreat caution should also be
observed to avoid shaking the cask so as to dis-
turb the ' bottoms.' The remaining portion that
cannot be drawn off clear should be passed
through the ' wine-bag,' and, when bottled, should
be set apart as inferior to the rest. The coopers,
to prevent breakage and loss, place each bottle,
before corking it, in a small bucket, having a
bottom made of soft cork, and which is strapped
on the knee of the bottler. They thus seldom
break a bottle, though they 'fix>g in' the corks
very hard. When l£e process is complete the
bottles of wine are stored in a cool cellar, and on
no account upright, or in damp straw, but on
their sides, in sweet, dry sawdust or sand.

Souquet. See Flavouring and Ferfuming.

Brandying. Brandy is frequently added to
weak or vapid wines, to increase their strength
or to promote their preservation. In Portugal,
one third of brandy is commonly added to port
before shipping it for England, as without this
addition it generally passes into the acetous fer-
mentation during the voyage. A little good
brandy is also usually added to sherry before it
leaves Spain. By the regulation of the Customs
of England, 10% of brandy may be added to wines
in bond, and the increased quantity is only charged
the usnal dui^ on wine. The addition of brandy
to wine injures its proper flavour, and hence it
is chiefly made to port, sherry, and other wines
whose fiavonr is so strong as not to be easily in-
I jured. Even when brandy is added to wines of

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WINE

the latter description, they require to be kept for
■ome lime to recover their nstaral flavonr. To
promote thi< object, the wine-doctor« employ the
process called ' fretting in/ by which they effect
the same change in three or four weeks as
would otherwise require some months at the very
least.

CMaring. A wine-oellar should be dry at
bottom, and either covered with good hard gravel,
or be paved with flags. Its gratings or windows
should open towards the north, and it should be
rank sufficiently below the surface to ensure an
equable temperature. It should also be suffi-
ciently removed from an; public thoroughfare, so
M not to suffer vibration from the passing of
cairiages. Should it not be in a position to main-
tain a regular temperature, arrangements should
be made to apply artificial heat in winter, and
proper ventilation in summer.

Colouring. Wines are as commonly doctored
in their colour as their flavour. A fawn-yellow
and golden-sherry yellow are given by means of
tincture or infusion of saffron, turmeric, or saf-
flower, followed by a little spirit colouring, to
prevent the colour being too lively. All shades
of amber and fawn, to deep brown and brandy
colour, are given by burnt sugar. Cochine^
(either alone or with a little alum) gives a pink
colour; beetroot and red senders give a red
colour ; the extracts of rhatany and logwood, and
the juice of elderberries, bilberries, Ac, give a
port-wine colour.

CruHing. To make port wine form a crust on
the inside of the bottles, a spoonful of powdered
catechu, or half a spoonful of finely powdered
cream of tartar, is sidded to each bottle before
corking it, after which the whole is well agi-
tated. It is also a common practice to put the
cnut on the bottle before putting the wine into
it, by employing a hot saturated solution of red
twtar, thickened with gum and some powdered
tartar.

J)eaceiification. This is effected by the cautions
addition of either salt of tartar or carbonate of
soda. Wine so treated soon gets insipid by ex-
posure and Bge ; and, without care, the colour of
red wines is thus frequently spoiled.

Dtacidificaiion. See Detartaruaium (heUne).

DteanHng. This only refers to small quanti-
ties of wine ready for consumption. In decanting
wine care must be taken not to shake or disturb
the crust when moving it about or drawing the
cork, particularly of port wine. Never decant
wine without a wine-strainer, with some clean
fine cambric in it, to prevent the crust and bits
of cork going into the decanter. In decanting
port wine do not drain it too close, as there are
generally two thirds of a wine-glassful of thick
dregs in each bottle, which ought to be rejected.
In white wine there is not much settling ; but it
should nevertheless be poured off very slowly, the
bottle being raised gradually.

DeeoUmring. The colour of wine is precipi-
tated by age and by exposure to the light. It is
also artificially removed hy the action of skimmed
milk, lime water, milk of lime, and fresh-burnt
charcoal. Wine merchants avail themselves of
this property for the purpose of whitening wines
that nave acquired a brown colour from the cask.

or which are esteemed pale, and also for turning
' pricked ' red or dark-coloured wines into white
wines, in which a small degree of acidity is not so
much perceived. In this way brown sheny is
commonly converted into pale or gold-coloured
sherry. For the latter purpose 2 to 3 pints of
skimmed milk are usually snlBeient ; bat to de-
colour red wine 2 to 3 quarts or more will be
required, according to the nature and intensity
of the colour, or the shades of paleness desired.
Charcoal is seldom used, as it removes the fla-
vour as well as colour; but a little milk of
lime may sometimes be advantageously snfasti-
tuted for milk when the wine has much acidity,
more particularly for red wines, which may even
be rendered quite colourless by it.

Delartarizatio*. Khenish wines, even of the
most propitious growths, and in the best con-
dition, besides their tartar, contain a certun
quantity of free tartaric acid, on the presence
of which many of their leading properties de-
pend. The excess of tartar is gradnially deposited
during the first years of the vatting, the sides of
the vessels becoming more and more encrusted
with it; but, owing to the continual addition of
new wine and other causes, the liquid often gains
such an excess of free tartaric acid as to acquire
the faculty of redissolving the deposited tartar,
which thus again disappears aftera certain period.
The taste and flavour of the wine are thus ex-
alted, but the excess of acid makes the wine less
agreeable in use, and probably less wholesome.
Amateurs and manufacturers should therefore
welcome a means of taking away the free tartaric
acid without altering, in any respect, the quali^
of the wine. This is pure neutral tartrate of
potash. When this salt, in concentrated solution,
is added to such a fluid as the above, the free acid
combines with the neutral salt, and separates from
the liquid under the form of the sparingly soluble
bitartrate of potash. " If to 100 parts of a wine
which contains 1 part of free tartuic acid we add
li parts of neutral tartrate of potash, there will
separate, 'on repose at IVf — 76' F., 2 parts of
crystallised tartar, and the|wine will then contain
only i part of tartar dissolved, in which there is
only -2 part of the original free acid, '8 part of
the original free acid having been withdrawn
from the wine" (Liebig's 'Annalen'). 'Ais
method is psrticnlarly applicable to recent must,
and to wines which do not contain much free
acetic acid; but when this last is the case so
much acetate of potash is formed as occasionally
to vitiate the taste of the liquor.

Fining. Wine is clarified in a umilar manner
to beer. White wines are usually fined by isin-
glass in the proportion of about 1\ oz. (dinoIv«d
in li pints of water, and thinned with soma of
the wine) to the hogshead. Red wines are gene-
rally fined with the whites of eggs, in the pro-
portion of 16 to 80 to the pipe. Sometunea
hartshorn shavings, or pale sweet glue, is substi-
tuted for isinglan.

Flatneu. This is removed by the additioa of
a little new brisk wine of the same kind, or by
rousing in 2 or 3 lbs. of honey, or by adding 5 or
6 lbs. of bruised sultana nuuns and S or 4 quarts
of good brandy, per hogshead. By this tzeat-
ment the wine will usually be reooveied in aboot

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1807

a fortnight, except in very cold weather. Shoold
it he wanted sooner, a table-spoonfal or two of
^east may be added, and the cask removed to a
warmer sitnation.

Flavourinff, Varions ingredients ere added to
inferior wines to give them the flavour of others
more expensive, and to British wines to make
them resemble those imported. Sabstances are
also added in a similar manner to communicate
the aroma of the high-flavoured grape wines.
Among the first are bitter almonds, almond cake,
or the essential oil of almonds, or, preferably, its
alcoholic solution, which are used to impart a
' sheny ' or ' nutty ' taste to weak-flavoured
wines, as poor sherry, white Cape, and malt, raisin,
parsnip, and other similar British wines ; rhatany,
kino, oak sawdust and bark, alnm, &c., to convey
astringency ; and tincture of the seeds of raisins,
to impart a ' port wine ' flavour. Among the sub-
stances employed to communicate the bouquet
of the finer wines may be mentioned orris root,
eau de flenrs d'oranges, neroli, essence de petit
grain, ambergris, vanilla, violet petals, essence
ot cedrat, sweet-briar, clary, and elder flowers,
quinces, cherry-laurel water, Ac. By the skil-
fal, though fraudulent, use of the above flavour-
ing substances and perfumes the experienced
wine-brewer manages to produce, in the dark
cellars of London, from white Cape, currant,
gooseberry, raisin, rhubarb, parsnip, and malt
wine, very excellent imitations of foregn wine,
and which pass current among the majority of
English wine-drinkers as the choicest produc-
tions of the grape, 'gennine as imported.' A
grain or two of ambergris, well rubbed down with
sugar, and added to a hogshead of claret, gives it
a flavour and bouquet much esteemed by some
connoisseurs.

Fretting in. See Stotaling in {below).

Improving. This is the cant term of the wine
trade, under which all the adulteration and
' doctoring ' of wine is carried on. A poor sheny
is improved by the addition of a little almond
flavour, honey, and spirit; a port deficient in
body and astringency, by the addition of some red
tartar (dissolved in boiling water), some rhatany,
kino, or catechu, and a little honey or foots, and
brandy. See Miaiing [belovi).

Intentible FermmUaiion. See Maturation
{below).

Inrvpidity. See FlaineM {above).

Maturation. The natural maturation or ' ripen-
ing ' of wine and beer by age depends upon the
slow conversion of the sugar which escaped de-
composition in the 'gyle ton,' or fermenting
vessel, into alcohol. This conversion proceeds
most perfectly in vessels which entirely exclude
the air, as in the case of wine in bottles; as when
ur is present, and the temperature sufficiently
high, it is accompanied by slow acetification.
TMs is the case of wine in casks, the porosity of
the wood allowing the very gradiul permeation
of the air. Hence the superiority of bottled
wine over draught vrine, or that wluch has ma-
tured in wood. Good wine, or well-fermented
beer, is vastly improved by age when properly
preserved; but inferior liquor, or even superior
liquor, when preserved in improper vessels or
situations, becomes acidulous, from the conversion

of its alcohol into vinegar. Tartness or addii^
is consequently very generally, though vrrongly,
regarded by tiie ignorant as a sign of age in
liquor. The peculiar change by which fermented
liquors become mature or ripe by age is termed
the ' insensible fermentation.' It is the alcoholic
fermentation impeded by the presence of the
already formed spirit in the liquor, and by
the lowness of the tempetature. See Ripening
(JMovo).

Mixing. Few wines are sold without admix-
ture. It is found that the intoxicating proper-
ties of wine are increased by mixing them with
other wines of a different age and growth. In
many cases the flavour is at the same time im-
proved. Thus a thin port is improved by the
addition of a similar wine having a full body, or
by a little Malaga, TenerifFe, or rich sherry; and
an inferior old sberry may be improved I^ ad-
mixture with a little full-bodied wine of the last
vintage. In this consists the great art of ' cellar
management,' and to such an extent is this car-
ried, both abroad and in England, that it may be
confidently asserted that few mnes ever reach
the consumer in an unmixed or natural state.

Muttineu. This may generally be removed by
violently agitating the wine for some time with a
little of the sweetest olive oil or almond oil. The
cause of the bad taste is the presence of an
essential oil, which the fixed oil seizes on, and
rises with to the surface, when it may be skimmed
off ; or the liquor under it mny be drawn off. A
little coarsely powdered fresh-burnt charcoal, or
even some slices of bread toasted black, will fre-
quently have a like effect. A little bruised mus-
tard seed is also occasionally nsed for the same
purpose.

Perfuming. This is chiefly performed on
British wines for family nse. For its application
to foreign wines, see Flavouring (above). Wines
may be perfumed by the simple addition of any
odorous substances previously well mixed with a
littie of the wine, or dissolved in a few fluid
ounces of rectified spirit.

Sacking. This should be performed in oaA
weather, and preferably early in the spring. A
clean syphon, well managed, answers better for
this purpose than a cock or faucet. The bot-
toms, or foul portion, may be strained through
a wine-bag, and added to some other inferior
wine.

_ Ripening. To promote the maturation or
ripening of wine, varions plans are adopted by
the growers and dealers. One of the safest ways
of hastening this, especially for strong wines, is
not to rack them imtil they have stood fifteen or
eighteen months upon the lees; or, whether
'crude' or 'racked,' keeping them at a tempera-
ture ranging between 60 and 60° F., in a cellar
free from dnugfats and not too dry. Another
method is to remove the corks or bungs, and to
substitute bladder tied or fastened air-tight over
the openings. Bottled wine, treated in this way,
ripens very quickly in a temperate situation.
Some dealers add a little dilute sulphuric add to
the coarser wines for the same purpose ; but a
small quantity of concentrated acetic acid or tar-
taric acid would be preferable, since these acids
are found in all wines. Four or five drops ot tha

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1808

WINE

former, added to a bottle of tome kinda of nev
-wine, immediately give it the appearance of
being two or three yean old.

JBopinett, Vueidiljf ; Oraitte. This ariies from
the wine containing too little tannin or astringent
matter to precipitate the glnten, albnmen, or
other azotised substance occasioning the malady.
Snch wine cannot be clarified in the ordinary
way, became it is incapable of cansing the coagn-
labon or precipitation of the finings. The re-
medy is to supply the principle in which it is
defident. H. FVuifois, of Nantes, prescribes the
bmised berries of the mountain ash (1 lb. to the
barrel) for this purpose. A little catechu, kino,
or, better still, rhatany, or the bmised footstalks
of the grape, may also be conveniently and ad-
vantageously used in the same way. For pale
white wines, which are the ones chiefly attacked
1)y the malady, nothing equals a little pure tannin
or tannic acid dissolved in proof spirit. See VlB-

OOirg FSBKBHTATIOH, MaXT LiQVOBS, &C.

SongherUng. See Flavonring (above).

Second Fermentation ; La Pontie. Inordinate
fermentation, either primary or secondary, in
wine or any other fermented liquor, may be
readily checked by sulphuration, or by the addi-
tion of mustard seed or sulphite of lime ; 1 oc. of
brimstone, } to 1 lb. of bruised mustard seed, and
about 4 to 8 oz. of sulphite of lime, are fully
cnfficient for a hogshead. This substance seldom
fails of arresting the fermentation. In addition
to the above remedies, a little sulphuric acid is
sometimes employed, and the use of black oxide
of manganese, or chlorate of potash, has been
proposed on theoretical grounds.

Souring. This is either occasioned by the wine
having been imperfectly fermented, or from its
having been kept in too warm a cellar, where it
has been exposed to draughts of lur or to con-
tinual vibrations, occasioned by the passage of
loaded vehicles through the adjoining thorough-
fare. The remedy commonly recommended in
books for this purpose is to saturate the acid with
chalk, milk of lime, or caldned oyster-shells;
bnt such additions, made in sufficient quantity to
effect this object, destroy the character of the
wine, and render it sickly and vapid. The best
and only safe remedy is a little neutral tartrate
of potash, cautiously added ; or it may be mixed
with a considerable portion of full-bodied new
wine of its class, adding at the same time a little
brandy, and in two or three weeks fining it down,
when it should be either at once put into bottles,
or consumed as soon as possible. See Jieacet\fiea-
Hon and Detartarization (above).

SparJcUng, Creaming, and BrigTenen. These
properties are conveyed to wine by racking it
Into closed vessels before the fermentation is
complete, and while there still remains a con-
siderable portion of nndecomposed sugar. Wine
of this description, which has lost its briskness,
may he restored by adding to each bottle a few
grains of white lump sugar or sugar-candy. This
is the way in which champagne is treated in
France. The bottles are afterwards inverted, by
which means any sediment that forms falls into
the necks, when the corks are partially with-
drawn, and the sediment is immediately expelled
by the elastic force of the compressed carbonic

acid. If the wine remains mnddy, a litUe adfai-
tion of sugar and finings are added, and the
bottles are agun placed in a vertical podtiaii,
and, after two or three months, the sediment b
discluuged as before.

Sweating in. The technical terms * sweating
in ' and ' fretting in ' are applied to the partial
production of a second fermentation, for the par-
pose of mellowing down the flavour of foreign
ingredients (chiefly brandy) added to wine. Tot
this purpose 4 or 5 lbs. of sugar or honey, with •
little crude tartar (dissolved), are oommonlr
added per hogshead ; and when the wine is wanted
in haste, a spoonfnl or two of yeast, or a few
bmised vine leaves, are also mixed in, the caak
being placed in a moderately warm ntoatian
until tJie new fermentation is established, whoi
it ia removed to the wine cellar, and, after a few
days, 'fined down.'

Tatte of Caik. The remedies for this malady
are the same as those for mustiness.

%* For further information connected with
the nature and management of wines, and other
fermented liquors, see Bbbwino, FntXBSTATloa',
llAXT LiQtrOKS, PORTKB, SVGAS, Stkttp, VnToim

FBUnifTATiON, Viscous F., Wort, Ysast, Ac,
and belov.

Wine, British. The various proccsacs in Britaih
wine-making depend upon the same principles,
and resemble those employed for foreign wine.

The PBiriT should be preferably gathered in
fine weather, and not until mature, as evinced by
its flavour ; for if it be employed whilst unripe
the resulting wine will be harsh, disagieesUe^
and unwholesome, and a larger quantity of sugar
and spirit will be required to render it palatable.
The common practice of employing unripe goose-
berries for the manuf actore of British champagne
arises from a total ignorance of the scientifie
principles of wine-making. On the other hand,
if ordinary British fruit be employed in too ripe
a state, the wine is apt to be inferior, and de-
ficient in the flavour of the frnit.

The fruit, being gathered, at once nndergoes
the operation of picking or garbling, for the par-
pose of removing the stalks and unripe or damaged
portions. It is next placed in a tub, and is weD
bmised, to facilitate the solvent action of the
water. Kaisins are commonly permitted to soak
about twenty-four hours previously to bruising
them, but they may be advantageonsly bruised or
minced in the dry state. The bruised fruit is then
put into a vat or vessel with a guard placed over
the tap-hole, to keep back the husks and seeds of
the fruit when the must, juice, or extract is drawn
off. The water is now added, and the whole is
allowed to macerate for thirty to forty hoars, more
or less, during which time the magma is fr«-
quently roused up with a suitable wooden stirrer.
The liquid portion is next drawn off, and the
residuary pulp is placed in hair bags, and nnder^
goes the operation ofpressing, to expel the fluid
which it oontwns. The sogar, tartar (in raj
fine powder or in solution), &c., are now added to
the mixed liquors, and the whole is well stirred or
' rummaged ' up for some time. The temperatore
being suitable, the vinous fermentation soon com-
mences, when the liquor is frequenUy skimmed
(if necessary), and well 'roused' np, and.

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WINE

1809

after 3 or 4 days of this treatment, it ia mn into
caaks, which should be qnite filled, and left

Surging at the bung-hole. In abont a week the
arouring ingredients, in the state of coarse
powder, are commonly added, and well stirred
in ; and in abont another week, depending upon
the state of the fermentation, and the attenaa-
tion of the must, the brandr or spirit is added,
and the cask is filled up and bnnged down close.
In four or five weeks more the cask is again
filled up, and, after some weeks (the longer the
better), it is ' p^^ged ' or ' spiled,' to ascertain if
it be fiiie or transparent; if so, it undergoes the
operation of racking ; bnt if, on the contrary, it
■till continues mnddy, it mast be either again
banged up, and allowed to repose for a few weeks
longer, or it must pass through the process of
fbiing. Its fnture treatment is similar to that
already noticed under Fobbisn Wnii (see
above).

The must of many of the strong-fiaroured
fruits, as black currants, mulberries, &c., is im-
proved by being boiled before being made into
wine. The fiavoor and bouqnet of the more deli-
cate fruits are either greatly diminished or utterly
dissipated by boiling.

&«neral Formula for the Freparation of

BSITIBH WIHBS :

1. From ripe saccharine fruits. Take of the
ripe fruit, 4 to 6 lbs. ; clear soft water, 1 gall, ;
sugar, 3 to 6 lbs. ; cream of tartar (dissolved in
boiling water), 1^ oz. ; brandy, 2% to 3% flavour-
ing, as required. If the Aill proportions of fruit
and sugar are used, the product will be good
withoilt the brandy, but better with it ; H lbs. of
raisins may be substituted for each pound of sugar.

In the above way are made the following
wines : — Qooseberry wine (' British champagne');
currant wine (red, white, or black) ; mixed fruit
wine (cnrrants and gooseberries, or black, red,
and white currants, ripe black-heart cherries, and
raspberries, equal parts), a good family wine;
cherry wine; Colepress's wine (from apples and
molberries, equal parts) ; elder wine ; strawberry
wine; raspberry wine; mulberry wine" (when
flavoured, makes ' British port ') ; whortleberry
wine (bilberry wine), makes a good factitious
' port ; ' blackberry wine ; damson wine (makes
good factitious 'port'); morella wine; apricot
wine ; apple wine ; grape wine, tc.

2. From dry saccharine fruit (as ntisins). Take
of the dried fruit, 4i to 7i lbs. ; clear soft water,
1 galL; cream of tartar (dissolved), 1 oz, ; brandy,
li% to 4% . Should the dried fruit employed be
at all deficient in saccharine matter, 2 to 3 lbs.
of it may be omitted, and half that quantity of
sugar, or two thirds of rusins added. In the
above way are made date wine, fig wine, raisin
wine, Ac.

8. From loiDUiiOua, ABTBnrexKT, or masoslt
BIFB muiiB, or those which are deflcient in
oaccharine matter. Take of the picked fruit, 2^
to 3) lbs. ; sugar, Si to 6i lbs. ; cream of tartar
(dissolved), k oz. ; water, 1 gaU. ; brandy 2% to
6%.

In the above way are made g^oceeberry wine
(' British champagne *) ; bullace wine (which
makes an excellent 'fiictitioa* port'); damson
wine, &c.
TOX. n.

4. From voonTAJLKB, nATss, ourrnrGS, &c.
By infusing them in water, in the proportion of
3 to 6 lbs. to the gall., or q. s. to give a proper
flavour, or to form a good saccharine liquor ; and
adding 2^ to 4 lbs. of sugar to each gall, of the
strained liquor. 1) lbs. of raisins may be substi-
tuted for each lb. of sugar.

In the above way are made grape wine (from
the pressed cake of grapes) ; English grape wine;
rhubarb wine ('Batii ctuunpague,' 'patent c'),
from garden rhubarb ; celery wine, &c.

5. From baoohabihb bootb and btbkb oi
FUSTS. Take of the bruised, rasped, or sliced
vegetable, 4 to 6 lbs. ; boiling water, 1 gaU. ;
infHise until cold, press out the liquor, and to
each gall, add of sugar, 3 to 4 lbs.; cream of
tartar, 1 oz. ; brandy, 8% to 5% . For some
roots and stems the water must not be very hot^
as they are thus rendered troublesome to press.

In the above way are made beetroot wine
(' British Boussillon ) ; parsnip wine (' British
malmsey ') ; turnip wine, &c.

6. From vlowsbb, bfiobb, asokatkh, Ac.
These are prepared by simply infusing a sufficient
quantity of the bruised ingredient for a few days
in any simple wine (as that from sugar, honey,
raisins, &c.) after the active fermentation is
complete, or, at all events, a few weeks before
raclang them.

In the above way are made clary wine
(' muBcadel'), from flowers, 1 quart to the gall. ;
cowslip wine (flowers), 2 quarts to the gall. ;
elder-flower wine (' Frontignac '), flowera of
white-berried elder, f pint, and lemon juice, 8 fl.
oz. to the gall. ; ginger wine (li oz. of ^nger to
the gall.) ; orange wine (1 dozen sliced oranges
per gall.) ; lemon wine (juice of 12 and rinds of
6 lemons to the gall.) ; spruce wine (i oz. of
essence of spruce per gall.) ; juniper wine (ber-
ries, } pint per gall.) ; peach wine (4 or 5 sliced,
and the stones broken, to the gall.) ; apricot wine
(as peach wine, or with more fruit) ; quince wine
(12 to the gall.) ; rose clove gillyflower, carna-
tion, lavender, violet, primrose, and other flower
wines (distilled water, H pints, or flowers, 1 pint
to the gall.); balm wine (balm tops, 4 oz. per
gall.), 4c

7. From baoohabinb jvicsb, or urptrsioirB, or
from fermented liquors. Take of the juice or
liquor, 1 gall. ; honey or sugar, 2 to 3 lbs. (or nu-
sins, 3 to 5 lbs.) ; cream of tartar, li oz. ; brandy,
2% to4%.

In this way are made English grape wine;
mixed fruit wine ; pine-apple wine ; cider wine ;
elder wine ; birch wine (from the sap, at the end
of February or beginning of March) ; sycamore
wine (from the sap) ; malt wine (' English
Madeira'), from strong wort; and the wines of
any of the saccharine juices of ripe fruit.

8. From bikflb BAooRABnrB xattbb. Take
of sugar, 8 to 4 lbs.; cream of tartar, i oz.;
water, 1 gall. ; honey, 1 lb. ; brandy, 2% to 4% .
A handful of grape leaves or cuttings, bruised, or
a pint of good malt wort, or mild ale may be sub-
stituted for the honey. Chiefly used as the basis
for other wines, as it has little flavour of its own,
hat makes a good ' British champagne.'

0&>. In idl the preceding f ormnlte Imnp sugar
ia intended when the wines are required very pale,

111

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1810

WINE

and good Miucovado sugar when thii is not the
case. Some of the preceding wines are vastly im-
proved by substituting good cider, peny, or pale
ale or malt wort, for the whole or a portion of
the water. Good porter may also be advantage-
onely used in this way for some of the deep-
coloured red wines. When expense is no object,
and very strong wines are wanted, the expressed
juices of the ripe fruits, with the addition of 8 or
4 lbs. of sugar per gall., may be substituted for
the fruit in substance, and the water.

Examples of BsiUBH imitahoks of rosBiair
wmts:

AxBKiOAK EONBT WIKB. From good honey,
21 Iba. ; cider, 12 galls. ; ferment, then add of
mm, 6 pints; brandy, 2 quarts; red or white
tartar (dissolved), 6 oz. ; bitter almonds and
cloves, of each (bruised), i oz,; powdered cap-
sicum, 8 dr. This is also called ' mead wine.' With
the addition of 3 oz. of unbleached Jamaica ginger
(finely grated), it forms the best American ginger
wine.

Bbitibh BTTxetrKDT. By adding a little lemon
juice, and a ' streak ' of orris or orange-flower
water, to ' British port,' the ingenious wine-brewer
converts it into 'British Burgundy.' It is also
made by mixing together equ^ parts of ' British
port ' and claret.

Bbitish oapb. 1. (White.) Baisin wine
well attenuated by fermentation, either alone or
worked up with a little cider and pale malt wort.

2. (Red.) British white cape, sound rough
cider, and mulberry wine, equal parts ; well mixed
and fined down.

BmiiSB CBAXPkatTB. 1. From stoned raisins,
7 lbs. ; loaf sugar, 21 lbs. ; water, 9 galls. ; crys-
tallised tartaric acid, 1 oz. ; cream of tartar, i
oz. ; Narbonne honey, 1 lb.; sweet yeast, i pint;
ferment, skimming nequently, and, when the fer-
mentation is nearly over, add of coarsely powdered
orris root, 1 dr. ; eau de fleurs d'oranges, i pint ;
and lemon juice, 1 pint ; in 3 months fine it down
with isinglass, i oz. ; in 1 month more, if not
sparkling, again fine it down, and in another
fortnight bottle it, observing to put a piece of
double-refined white sugar, the size of a pea,
into each bottle ; lastly, wire down the corks, and
cover them with tin-foil, after the manner of
champagne.

2. As the preceding, but substituting 82 lbs. of
double-refined sugar for the sugar and raisins
therein ordered, with the addition of 8 galls, of
rich pale-coloured brandy.

3. From amber haity champagne gooseberries,
English grape juice, or the stalks of garden rhu-
barb, and lump sugar ; with a little sweet-briar,
orris, or orange-flower water, to impart a slight
bouquet. The last forms what is know as ' patent '
or ' Bath champagne.'

4. (Fink.) To either of the preceding add red
cnrrant juice, q. 8. to colour ; or 1 oz. of coarsely
powdered cochineal to each 10 or 12 galls, at the
time of racking.

Ohi. It is notorious that two bottles of wine
out of every three sold for ' genuine champagne '
in England is of British manufacture. " We
have ourselves seen sparkling gooseberry, rhu-
barb, and white sugar wines, sold for imported
champagne, at 7«. 6d. per bottle, and the fraud

has passed undetected, even by habitnal wine
drinkers" {Cooley).

Bbixish glabbt. 1. Bich old cider or perry
and port wine, equal parts.

2. To each gall, of the last add of cream of
tartar (genuine), 3 dr., with the jnioe of 1
lemon. Sometimes i pint of French brandy ii
also added.

Obs. If these mixtures are well fined down,
and not bottled for at least a month or 6 weeks,
they closely resemble good ' Bordeaux.' A mix-
ture of 4 parts of raisin wine, with 1 part each
of raspberry and barberry or damson wine, also
forms, when so treated, an excellent factitious
' claret.'

Bbitibh otpbub. From the jtuce of white elder-
berries, 1 quart, and Lisbon sugar, 4 lbs., to water,

1 gall. ; together with i dr. each of bruised ginger
and cloves. When racked, add minced raisins and
brandy, of each, 2 oz.

Bbitibh rook, Bbitibh bis hook. From
cream of tartar, li oz. ; tartaric acid, i oz. (both
in extremely fine powder); juices of the purple
plum, ripe apples, and red beet, of each (warmed),
6 pints ; lemon juice, 1 pint; with white sugar, Z^
lbs. per gall.

Bbhibe kasbiba. From very strong pale
malt wort, 86 galls. ; sugar-candy, 28 lbs. ; and
cream of tartar, 8 oz. ; fermented with yeast,

2 lbs. ; adding, when the fermentation is nearly
finished, raisin wine, 2} galls. ; brandy and sherry
wine, of each, 2 galls. ; mm and brandy, of each,
8 pints ; after 6 or 9 months, fine it down, and in
another month bottle it. See Bbitibh bebbbt
(belota). •

Bbitibh kaucbbt. From sliced or grated
parsnips, 4 lbs. ; boiling water, 1 gall. ; when
cold, press out the liquor, and to each gallon
add of cream of tartar, i oz., and good Musco-
vado sugar, 8 lbs. ; ferment, rack, and add of
brandy, 3% to 5% . Good Malaga raisins may be
substituted for the sugar.

Bbitibh bbd xobbi^lb. The last, coloured
with clarified elderberry juice.

Bbitibh BPABKLiKa xobbllb. From rich
cider apples (carefully peeled and garbled),
pressed with l-4th of their weight of white
magnum-bonnm plums (previously stoned), and
the jnice fermented with 2^ lbs. of double-refined
sngar per gall., as champagne.

Bbitibh mrscABBL. As 'British sparkling
Moselle,' with some infusion of clary, or of the
musk plant, to fiavour it.

Bbitibb post, LoHBOir p., Sottthahptoit p.
1. From red cape, 2 galls. ; damson or elder wine,

1 gall. ; brandy, i pint ; powdered kino, i oz.

5. Strong old cider, 6 galls. ; elderberry juice,
4 galls. ; sloe jnice, 3 galls.; sngar, 28 lbs. ; pow-
dered extract of rhatany, 1 lb.; at the time
of racking add brandy, i galL ; good port wine,

2 galls.

8. Goodport, 12galls.; rectifiedspirit,6galls.;
French brandy, 3 ^Is. ; strong rough cider, 42

Sails. ; mix in a well-sulphured cask (' Publican's
mde').

4. Port wine, 8 galls. ; brandy, 6 galls. ; sloe
jnice, 4 g^Us. ; strong rough cider, 46 galls. ; as
the last ('Licensed Victualler's Companion').

6. Cider,24galls.; juice of elderberries, 6 galls.;

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WrtTES

18U

aloe jnice, 4, gaUx. ; rectified spirit, 3 galls.;
bran^, 1) galls. ; powdered rhatany, 7 lbs. ; isin-
glass, 4 oz., dissolved in a gallon of the cider ; bnng
it down; in three months it will be flt to bottle,
but should not be drank until the next year ; if a
rougher flavour is required the quantity of rhatany
may be increased, or alum, 5 or 6 oz. (dissolved),
may be added.

Bbitish beebby. 1. From cape or raisin
wine, slightly flavoured with a very little bitter
almond cake, or, what is more convenient, a little
of the essential oil dissolved in alcohol (essence of
bitter almonds). A mere 'streak' or 'thread'
of sweet-briar, eau de fleurs d'oranges, orris, is
occasionally added by way of bouquet ; bat care
must be taken not to overdo it.

2. To each gallon of strong rusin mnst be
added, when racking, 1 Seville orange and 3 or 4
bitter almonds, both sliced. By omitting the
almonds, and adding 1 green citron to each 8 or 3
galls., this forms ' British madeira.'

3. Very strong pale malt wort, 36 galls. ; finest
Muscovado sugar, 1 cwt. ; yeast, 1 pint ; fer-
ment ; on the third day add of raisins, stoned,
14 lbs., and in another week add, of rectified spirit,
1 gall. ; rum, i gall. ; and bitter almonds, grated,
1^ oz. ; bung down for 4 months, then draw it
off into another cask, add of brandy, 1 gall., and
in 3 months bottle it,

4. Teneriffe, slightly flaronred with cherry-
laurel or bitter almonds, forms an excellent
' British sherry,' either alone or diluted with an
equal quantity of cape or raisin wine, or good
perry.

Bbitish tokat. To good cider, 18 galls.,
add of elderberry juice, \ gall. ; honey, 28 lbs. ;
sngar, 14 lbs. ; i«d argol (powdered), ( lb. ; crys-
tallised tartaric acid, 3 oz.; mix, boU, ferment,
and, when the active fermentation is complete,
add of brandy, 1 gall., and suspend in the liquor,
from the bung-hole, a mixture of cassia and
ginger, of each, i oz. ; cloves and capsicum, of
each, i oz. ; the whole braised and loosely en-
closed in a coarse mnslin bag. It will be ripe in
12 months.

06*. Some of the preceding f ormulee, by skilful
management, produce very good imitations of
some of the imported wines; but (prejudice aside)
many of the British fruit wines possess an equally
agreeable flavour, and are frequently more whole-
some. All British wines require to be kept at
least a year to ' mellow.' Much of the superiority
of foreign wines arises from their age.

WHTES (Colinary). Syn. Whtbb pos kit-
OESir USB. These are prepared in a similar
manner to the ukdicatkd wiites noticed below.

Vine, Basil. Prep. From green basil leaves,
4 or 6 oz. ; sherry, cape, or raisin wine, 1 pint;
digest for 10 days, press, and strain. Used to
give a turtle flavour to soups and gravies. In a
similar way may be made the wines of celery
leaves, celery seed, sage, shallots, and the varioos
green and dried herbs used in cookery.

Wine, Cayenne. Prep. From capsicum or
cayenne, 1 oz. ; cape, 1 pint; steep for a fort-
night, and strain.

Obt. In a similar way may be made currie
(powder), ragout (spice), and several other rimUar
wines used in the kitchen.

wiltJsB (Kedicated). £iy«. iHFBBaNATES
wnrBS; VvsK KBDicATA, L. The medicated
wines of pharmacy are prepared by cold mace-
ration, in well-closed vessels, in precisely the same
way as the tinctures. In tiie Ph. L. of 1824 a
diluted spirit Was substituted for wine, without
altering the name of the preparation; but the
nse of wine (sherry) was restored in that of 1836.
The droggista commonly nse cape or raisin wine
as a menstruum, from its being cheaper than
sherry, and perhaps scarcely less power as a
solvent. The ' rinam ' of the Ph. U. S. was for-
merly Teneriffe. Dr B. Lane's process for pre-
paring medicated wines by fermentation is
noticed at the end of the alphabetical list given
below.

" Medicated wines should be kept in stoppered
glass vessels, and be frequently shaken during
maceration" (Ph. L.).

The following are the principal medicated
wines at present in use :

Wine of Acetate of Iron. Sg*. YnrtrK vbbbi
AOETATia (5otti«tran), L. Prap. Acetate of
iron, 82 gr. ; white wine, 16 OZ.

Wine, Alkaline Sinretic. Syn. yvsjne. ax-
KALiFTTM DII7BBTICTJM {SjidmtkanC), L. Prep.
Ashes of broom, 12 oz. ; Rhenish wine, 4 pints. —
Dote, 3 oz. twice a day.

Wine of Al'oes. Syn. Vnnjx aloes (B. P^,

TiNOTUBA BAOBAt, TlHOT. EIEBX-FIOBff, L.

Prep. 1. (B. p.) Socotrine aloes, li oz. ; gri°ger>
in coarse powder, 80 gr. ; cardamom seeds, bruised,
80 gr. ; sherry, 40 oz. ; digest seven days, strain,
and make it op to 40. — Hote, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Powdered Socotrine or hepatic
aloes, 2 oz.; powdered canella,' \ oz.; sherry, 1
quart ; macerate for 14 days, and filter. In the
Ph. E. cardamoms and ginger, of each, 1^ dr., are
substituted for canella. — liote. As a purgative,
i to 2 fl. oz. ; as a stomachic, 1 to 2 fi. dr.

Wine of Aloes (Al'kaline'). Syn. Ynnnc Alois
ALKALiinnr, L. Prep. {Dr A. T. Thornton^
Carbonate of soda, 3 oz. ; myrrh and extract of
aloes, of each, 6 dr. ; sesquicarbonate of am-
monia, 4} dr. ; sherry, 24 fl. oz. (say 1^ pints) ;
macerate as before. In dyspepsia, chlorosis,
&c. — Dole. As the last.

Wine, Antimo"nial. Sy». Tabtab BICBTIO

wnni, WllfE OB EOTASSIO-TABTBATB OP ANTI-
HONT; VnflTH AirrmOKII POTAeSIO-TABTBATia

(Ph. L.), V. A]fTiMOiriAi,E (B. p.. Ph. E.), L.
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Tartarated antimony, 2 gr. ;
sherry, 1 oz. — Do*e, 10 to 60 minims. (In con-
sequence of the insolubility of the twtarated
antimony in the sherry. Squire recommends it to
be dissolved in about ten times its weight of hot
water, and that the wine be added to the solu-
tion.)

2. (Ph. L. k E.) Potasrio-tartrate of anti-
mony, 40 gr.; sherry, 1 pint; dissolve. Each
fl. oz. contains 2 gr. of emetic tartar. — Dote. As
a diaphoretic and expectorant, 10 to 30 drops,
frequentiy ; as a nauseant, 1 to 2 fi. dr. ; as an
emetic, 2 to 4 fl. dr. The corresponding com-
pound of the Ph. D. is ANmcoini tabtabizati
UQUOB. See Sortmoir ov Potassio-tabtbatb
OF Antiicomt.

Wine, Antiscorbutic. Syn. Vnnoi antiboob-
BUTIOUM (P. Cod.), L. Prep. Fresh horse-

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WINES

ndiBh root, 3 oz. ; icnrry-graas, H oz.; water-
cress leaves, H oz. ; buckbean, 1} oz. ; mnstard
seed, 1} oz. J chloride of ammonium, 6i dr.;
wine, 6 pints ; compotwd spirit of icarTy-grass,
lioz.

Wine, Aromatic. Syn. Vhttk asohaticttk
(P. Cod.), L. Frep. Aromatic species, 1 oz. ;
Tnlnerary tinctare, 1 oz.j red wine, 10 oz. For
outward use. li. Bicord sometimes adds from

1 to 6 per cent, of tannin.

Wine of Baik. Sgn. YnrcK cixchons (P.
Cod.), L. Yellow bark, 3 oz. ; proof spirit, 6 oz.
(b; weight). Macerate 24 hours, and add red
wine, 6 pints. Macerate for 10 days, shaking it
occasionally ; strain with expression, and filter.

Wina of Bark (Compoond). Sgn. YiiriTK
OlxoHOirji OOKPOBITVK (P. Cod.), L. Frep.
Yellow bark, 1 oz. ; bitter orange peel, 44 gr. ;
chamomiles, 44 gr. ; alcohol ('864)> 1 oz. (by
weight) ; white wine, 9 oz. (by weight). Mace-
rate for 10 days.

Wine of Bark, Knriated. Sgn. ViHinc cnr-
oeoKjE kubiatux, L. Frep. Ammonio-citrate
of iron, i oz. ; ivine of pale Peruvian bark, 5
pints (made with double the quantity of bark
contained in the yellow) ; dissolve the ammonio-
citrate in twice its weight of distilled water, and
add to the wine.

Wine of Beef and Iron (' Pharmaceutical Era').
Frep. Extract of beef, 2 tr. oz. ; phosphate of
iron (soluble scale), 4^ tr. oz. ; tincture of orange,

2 fl. oz. ; essence ol lemon, ^ fl. oz. ; syrup (simple),
26 fl. oz.; alcohol, 21 fl. oz.; hot water, q. s. ;
wine (native), to make 128 fl. oz. Dissolve the
extract of beef and the phosphate of iron, each
separately, in about 8 oz. or more of hot water.
Mix the solutions, and when cold add the wine,
tincture of orange, and essence of lemon, and
filter. To the filtrate add the syrup and alcohol,
previously mixed. — Dose, i to 2 oz.

Wine of Beef, Iron, and Cinchona. 8jfn. VnrTTK
CABiriB, VEBBi, BT ciiroHoii.fi, L. Frep. Ex-
tract of beef, 2S6 gr. ; citrate of iron and am-
monium, 64 gr. ; enlphate of quinine, 16 gr. ;
sulphate of cinchonine, 8 gr. ; citric add, 6 gr. ;
water, i fl. oz. ; simple elixir, 4 fl. oz. ; angelica
wine, enough to make 16 fl. oz. Dissolve the
phosphate of iron in ^ fl. oz. of boiling water,
add to the hot solution the citric acid and the
sulphates of quinine and cinchonine, and, when
they are dissolved, pour the hot solution upon the
extract of beef contained in a mortar or other
snitable vessel. Triturate the liquid and the ex-
tract until tbey form a smooth mixture; then
gradually add, while stirring, the simple elixir,
and transfer the mixture to a graduated vessel,
using enough angelica wine to rinse the mortar
and to make the product measure 16 fl. oz. Allow
the mixture to stand during a few hows, then
filter.— i>OM, I to 2 oz.

WineofBnchu. Syn. Ynrtniliuciav (Srandet),
L. Frep. Buchu leaves, 2) oc. ; white wine, 1
pint.

Wine, Camphorated. Sgn. Vnruii cakfho-
BATirx (Ph. G.), L. Frep. Camphor and gum
acacia, in powder, of each, i oz. Mix accurately
and gradually. Add 24 oz. (by weight) of white
wine.

Wine of Catoaidlla. Sgn. Vnrxm oisoi-

BlU-s (Bemardecat), L. Prep. Cascarilla, I
oz. ; Malaga wine, 1 pint. — 2)o«e, 1 os., twice a
day in consumption.

Wine of Catechu. Syn. Vnrux oatbceit
{Soubeiran), L. Frep. Tincture of catechu, 1
part ; red wine, 12} parts. Mix, and after a few
days filter.

Wine of Centaury (Componnd). SyH. Vnnric
cssTAxran coitpobituk, Hoptmah'b klixix vis.
CBBAXB, L. Frep. Centaury, orange peel, ex-
tract of blessed thistle, gentian, myrrh, casca-
rilla, of each, 1 dr. ; sherry, 2 pints.

Wine, Chalyb'eate. See Wixb ov Iboh.

Wine (rf Cinnamon. Sgn. "Vitruu cnnrAXOHl
(Serai), L. Frep. Cinnamon, 1 oz. ; alicant
wine, 16 oz. ; macerate and filter. Sugar is
sometimes added.

Wine of Citrate of Iron. Sg». Ynixnc fbbbi
ciTBATis (B. P.), L. Frep. Dissolve 160 gr. of
dtiate of iron and ammonia in 1 pint of orange
wine; let the solution remain for 3 days in a
closed vessel, shaking occasionally ; then filter.

Wine, Coca. Sgn. ViinrM OOCA, L. Prrp.
Coca leaves, 3 oz. ; brandy, 1) oz. ; sherry, 24
oz. ; tokay wine, 6 oz. ; macerate for about a
week, press, and to the liqnor add 8 gr. of citric
acid ; set aside for a few days more, and filter.

Wine of Col'chicnm. 5ys. WnrB op coi-

OHICUH BOOT ; Vliroil OOLOBIOI (B. P.), VlSTM

BADicis coLCHloi (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1.
(B. p.) Colchicum corms, dried and sliced, 4
parts; sherry, 20 parts; macerate 7 days, and
strain. — Dote, 20 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried corms of meadow saffron
(sliced), 8 oz.; sherry wine, 1 quart; macerate
7 days, and strain (press strongly the residuum
and filter the mixed liquor — Ph. E.). A power-
ful sedative and purgative. — liote,i to 1 fl. dr.;
in gout, acute rheumatism, and other painful
and inflammatory and nervous affections.

Oif. The celebrated BAr H£DlciirAl,K of M.
Husson (aqua xedioikaus Hussokh) resembles,
in composition and action, the above preparation
in every point except its strength, which, we
believe, is much above that of uie wine of the ^
British Colleges. ,

Wine of Colchlenm Seed. ;Sy». Vnrux bkximb ,
coroBioi, V. BxxiinrK o., L. Frep. (Ph. U. S. ,
and J)r Willianu.) Seeds of meadow saffron
(preferably ground in a coffee-mill), 2 oz. ; sherryu
16 fl. oz. ; macerate for 14 days. — Don, 1 to 1|[
fl. dr.; in gont, Ac.

WineofColocTnth. 8gn. YTenm oaLocrirtBt!_
DIB (Van Hone), L. Frep. Colocyntb, 2 oz.(i
white wine, 24 oz.; macerate for 8 days, anj
filter.

Wine of Elecampane. I^fn. Ynnm tsxtlm, U
As wine of wormwood.

Wine, Emet'ic. See AxmcoiriAL Wnrx, Wcq
OF Ipioacuakha, &c.

Wine of Ergot. Sgn. Ynrux XBOOTiB (Phi
U. S.), L. Prep. Fluid extract of ergot (Ph. W
S.), 2 oz. (o. m.) ; white wine, 14 oz. (o. ro.) ; mil
uid filter.

Wine of Tezglove. Sgn. Vnrux dioitalii
(Ph. Port.), L. Prep. Dried foxglove, 1 oz.
good white wine, 82 oz. ; macerate for 4 days, ani
strain.

Wine of Cton'tian. iSyii. BnrxB wnra, Toxil

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WINES

1818

W.J VnnTM AJIASA, v. ailTTIANX (Ph. E.),
L. Prep. (Ph. £.) Gentian, in coane powder,
i oz. ; yellow bark (do.), 1 oz. ; dried orange peel,
2 dr.; canella, in coarse powder, 1 dr.; proof
■pint, 41 fl. oz. ; digest for 24 hourv, then add of
sherry, 1 pint and 16 fl. oz., and further digest for
7 days. Tonic and stomachic. — Bote, i to } fi. oz.

Wineof Hedge-hyiBop. Syn. Vinvk asATiOLS
(Jfieflu>»H), L. Frtp. Hedge-hyssop, 2 dr. ; white
wine, 16 dr. ; digest at a gentle heat for 4 hours,
and strain. — ]>nt, 1 oz. ; ireqoently in hypochon-
driasis.

Wine of Hellebore. See Wnrs ov Whitb

HSLLBBOBS.

Wine of Holly. Syit. YnruK ilioib (£o«n«as),
L. JVep. Powdered holly leaves, 2 dr.; white
wine, 6 oz. ; infuse for 12 hours.

Wine of Iodide of Iron. Syn. Yiimc fhbsi
losisi (Ptsrjtiin), L. Frep. Iodide of iron, 4 dr. ;
Bordeaux wine, 1 pint.

Wine of Ipecacnanlui. Syn. Ekbtio Wnri;

VlNUM IPECACUAHHJB, L. JV«p. 1. (B. P.) Ipe-

cacnauha, 1 part; acetic acid, 1 part; distilled
water, a sufficiency; sherry, 20 parts; macerate
the ipecacuanha in the acid 24 hours, transfer
to a percolator, and pass water through to pro-
dnce 1 plat. Evaporate to dryness, dissolve resi-
due in the sheny, and filter. — I>on, 10 to 40
minims as an ezpectorant, 3 to 6 dr. as an
emetic.

2. Ipecacuanha root, bruised, i\ oz. ; sherry,

1 quart ; macerate for 7 days (14 days, and strtun
with expression — Ph. D.). This is a mild and
excellent preparation. — Tiott. As a diaphoretic
«nd expectorant, 10 to 40 drops, in coughs, diar-
rhoea, dysentery, dyspepsia, &c. ; as an emetic,

2 fl. dr. to 1 fl. oz., in divided doses ; as an emetic
for infants and young children, \ teaspoonful
«Tery 10 or 15 minutes until it operates.

Wine of I'rou. Syn. Chaxtbeatb wnm, Stebl
W.; ViinrH isbei (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep.
1. (B. p.) Fine iron wire (No. 85), 1 oz. ; sherry,
20 oz. ; digest 30 days with frequent agitation.
The bottle to be corked, but the wire not wholly
immersed. — X)ote, 1 to 4 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Iron wire, 1 oz. ; sherry, 1 quart ;
digest, ?rith frequent agitation, for 30 days, and
■train. Each t). oz. contains less than \\ gr. of
metallic iron.

8. Ammonio-tartrate of iron {AUrin't), H dr.;
sherry, 1 pint ; dissolve. Frequently substituted
for the last, especially when the preparation is
required in a hurry. — Dote, 1 to 6 fl. dr. ; as a
mild chalybeate.

Obt. The formula for wins op ntON was modi-
fled in the Ph. L. 1824, omitted in that of 1836,
Mid restored, in its original character, in that
of 1851.

Wine of Uqnmrice. Syn. YlxiTV aLTOTBBH izs,
L.; Fui,usB'8SW££TTiiroTUBs. iV«p. Liquorice
(Italian juice), 1 oz. ; cochineal, 2 scruples ;
canary wine, 2 pints. Sometimes 1 dr. of saffron
is added.

Wine of Xalate of lion. Iron wire steeped in
cider.

Wine of Kea'dow 8af firon. See Won ov Col-
OHioinc.

Wine of 0"piiim. £^. SiSBHHAX'g uqvid
lAVDAmrxt: Vixuii ora (B. P., Ph. L., B., &

D.), TrSOTTTRk THXBAIOAf , LATTBAITOX UQUTDTm

STDBUHAKt, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Extract of
opium, 1 oz. ; cinnamon bark, 75 gr. ; cloves,
75 gr. ; sherry wine, 20 oz. ; macerate for 7 dayi,
and filter. — Dote, 10 to 40 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Extract of opium (Ph. L.), 2| oz. ;
cinnamon and cloves, of each, bruised, 2i dr.;
sherry, 1 quart ; macerate for 7 days (14 days —
Ph. D.), and Alter. In the Ph. E., opium, 8 oz. ;
and in the Ph. D., opium, in coarse powder, 8 oz.,
are ordered, instead of extract of opium. The
Dublin College also omits the aromatios.

3. (Wholesale.) From extract of opium, 11 oi. ;
oil of cassia, 25 drops ; oil of cloves, 20 drops ;
wine, 1 gall, (or rectified spirit, li pints ; water,
61 pints ; colouring, q. s.) ; digest, with agita-
iaon, until dissolved. Milder than the tinctnre. —
Dote, 10 to 40 drops; as an anodyne and hyp-
notic.

Wine of Opiom (Fermented). Syn. Roubssait'b
LAUOAifuic, Blaoe sbof ; Vnnrx ofii tesmbk-
TATIONB FABATnX, Odtca itioba, L. Prep.
(P. Cod.) Upinm, 4 oz. ; boiling water, 6 lbs.;
dissolve ; add of honey, 1 lb. j yeast, 2 dr. ; keep
it at 86° F. for a month, or until the fermentation
is complete ; then press, filter, distil off 16 oz.,
and evaporate the residuum to 10 oz. ; distil the
16 oz. of spirit obtained above until 12 oz. have
passed over, and from this, by a third distillation,
obtain 41 oz., which add to the evaporated solu-
tion (10 oz.), and filter. About four times as
strong as tincture of opium. See Dbof, Black.

Wine of Orange. Syn. Visvu AXTBAHTn (B.
P.), L. Prep. Made in Britain by the fermen-
tation of a saccharine solution, to which the
fresh peel of the bitter orange has been added.
Contains 12% of alcohol, and is but slightly acid
to test-paper.

Wine of Pepsin. Syn. VlHUX fbpsiki (Ph.
G.), L. Prep. 1. Remove by hard scraping, by
means of a bone knife, the pepsin from the
mucous membrane of a previously washed, freshly
killed pig's or ox's fourth stomach, and mix 10
dr. of it with 6 dr. (by weight) of glycerin diluted
with 5 dr. of water; put into a large flask and
shake up vigorously with 181 oz. (by weight) of
white wine, and i dr. (by weight) of hydrochlorio
acid. Macerate for 3 days at 68° F., frequently
shaking, and filter.

2. Two stomachs are sufllcient for a pint of the
wine; open these and wash slightly, then scrape
off the mucous surface and macerate for 2 days
in a mixture of hydrochloric acid, 1 dr. ; water, 6
oz. ; and glycerin, 2 oz. ; then add 12 oz. of sherry
and 1 oz. rectiBed spirit; macerate for 5 or 6
days. Most of the wine can be poured off per-
fectly bright, and the rest may be filtered in the
ordinary manner.

Wine of Fotas'sio-tartrate of Antimony. See
WiHB, AVTmoNiAX (idove).

Wine of Qalnine. Syn. YnnTK QxraHtB (B.
P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Sulphate of quinina,
20 gr. ; citric acid, 30 gr. ; orange wine, 20 oz. ;
dissolve the citric acid and then the sulphate of
quinina in the wine ; digest 3 days and filter. —
Dote, 1 to 1 oz.

2. (Magendie.) Sulphate of quinine, 14 gr. ;
sherry, 1 quart; agitate frequently for some time.
" The gnlpbate of quinine requires to be dissolved

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1814

WINE-STONE— WIREWOEM

in a little dilute snlphnric acid before it is added
to tbe wine " (2>r Bayei). — Vota, 1 wine-glaisfol,
as a tonic and Btomachic.

Wine of Qainine, Aromatic. Syn. Ynmi QriKLX

ASOKATIOUK, L. ; DB COIXIBB'B ABOKATIO QUI-

HnrB vim. Prep. Disulphate of quinine, 18
gr. ; citric acid, 16 gr. ; sonnd orange wine, 1
bottle (84 fl. oz.).

Wine of Khn'baTb. Sg%. Ynrux bhbi (B.
P., Ph. E. & D.), TnrcTUiiA bhbi tinoba, L.
frtp. 1. (B. P.) Bhubarb in coane powder, li
parts; canella bark, ^ part; sherry, 20 parts;
macerate 7 days, filter, and make np to 20 parts.
—Dole, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Bhubarb, in coarse powder, 6 oz. ;
canella, in coarse powder, 2 dr. ; proof spirit, 6 fl.
oz. : sherry, 1} pints ; macerate for 7 days, press,
and filter.

3. (Ph. D.) Rhubarb, 3 oz.; canella, 2 dr.;
■herry, 1 qnart; macerate 14 days. Weaker than
the last. — Doit. As a stomachic, 1 to 3 fl. dr. ;
as a pnigative, 1 to 1 fl. oz., or more. It does not
keep weU.

Wine of Sanapaiilla. Sgn. TtiriTX babsa-
PABIXLB (Serai), L. Prep. Alcoholic extract
of sarsaparilla, 1 oz. ; white wine, 16 oz.

Wine of Senna. Sgn. Vimni bbxhji (Ph.
Swed.). Prep. Senna, 4 oz.; coriander seed, 2
dr. ; fennel s^, 2 dr. ; sherry, 2| lbs. Digest for
8 days, add stoned raisins, 31 oz. Macerate for
84 hours, and strain with expression.

Wine of Squills. Sgn. Vnrux soimt (P. Cod.),
L. Prep. Dried squills, 3 oz. ; Malaga wine, 2i
pinfB. Macerate for 10 days.

Wine of Sqnilla, Bitter. Sym. Vurrx bciixi-
TiOTJV AHAsuK (P. Cod.), L. Prep. Pale Pera-
Tian bark, 6 oz. ; winter's bark, 6 oz. ; lemon
peel, 6 oz. ; swallowwort, li oz.; angelica root,
li oz. ; squill, li oz. ; wormwood, 3 oz. ; balm, 8
oz. ; juniper berries, li oz.; mace, H oz.; white
wine, 2i galls. ; proof spirit, 1 pint. Macerate
for 10 days.

Wine of Sqnills, Compound. iSya. VnirxBollJJi
OOKSOBITUM (Sichter), L. Prep. Dried squills,

1 oz. ; orange peel, 8 dr. ; juniper berries, 2 dr. ;
white wine, 2i pints. Digest for 8 days, filter,
and add 2 oz. of oz3rmel of squills.

Wine of Stramonium. Syn. YnruK btba-
xovii (Ph. Bat), L. Prep. Stramonium seeds,

2 oz. ; Malaga wine, 8 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 oz.
Digest and filter.

Wine of Tobac'co. Sgn. Ynnnf tabaoi (Ph.
E.),L. Prep. (Ph.E.) Tobacco, 8i oz. ; sherry,
1 quart ; digest 7 days, strain, with strong pres-
sure, and filter. A powerful sedative and diuretic.
—Don, 10 to 80 drops ; in dropsy, lead colic,
ilens, &c.

Wine of White Hellebore. Sgn. Yinvm tbbatbi
^Fh. L.), Tikotuba tbbatbi ALBif, L. Prep.
(Ph. L.) White hellebore, sliced, 8 oz. ; sherry
wine, 1 quart ; digest for 7 days, press, and filter.
— Dole, 10 drops, gradually increased to 26
or 30; as a substitute for colchicum, in gout
and rheumatism, Ac. It is less manageable
than wine of colchicum, and is now seldom em-
ployed.

Wine of White Hellebore (Opiated). i^».

MoOBE'B BAU KiDIOINAXB; YlKUX TBBATBI

OEiAicx, L. Prep. From wine of white helle-

bore, 3 fl. dr. ; tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr. — Doie.
As the last.

Wine of Wormwood. Sfyn. Yacx ABSiHTEn
(P. Cod.), L. Prep, Dried wormwood leaves, 8
oz. ; white wine, 6 pints ; proof spirit, 6 oz. Ma-
cerate the leaves in the spirit, in 24 hours add the
wine, macerate for 10 days, and strun.

Wines, Kedlcated (Sr B. Lane's). Sgn. Ynr-

0T7B I88BBCE8; EsBBHTLX TIlTOgiB, LiQUOBES

TnroBl, L. Prep. From an infusion or solution
of the drug, of about 3 or 4 times the usual
strength, fermented with a little yeast, and about
3 or 4 lbs. of sugar per gall. ; the fermented liquor
being afterwards set in a cool cellar imtil fit for
bottling. Compounds of OAxrKBA, oabcartt.t.a,

OBHTIAir, OFirV, BEVBABB, SENNA, and TAI«-

RIAV, have been thus prepared. That of opium is
made of only twice the strength of the common
tincture.

wmis-STOHE. Cbiidb tabtab op absol.

WINE TESTS. Prep. 1. {Sakntmann't.)
From quicklime, 1 oz. ; fiowers of sulphur, li
oz. ; mix, and heat them in a covered crucible for
6 or 6 minutes ; put 2 dr. of the product and an
equal weight of tartaric acid (separately pow-
dered) into a stoppered bottle, with a pint of
water, and shake them well ; let the liquid settle,
pour off the clear portion, and add of tartaric
acid, H dr.

2. (Dr Pari^i.) From sulphide of calcium
and cream of tartar, of each (in powder), i oz.;
hot water, 1 pint ; agitate, Ac, as before ; decant
the cold clear liquid into 1-oz. phials, and add 20
drops of hydrochloric acid to each of them.

Ohi. The above tests will throw down the
least quantity of lead from wines, as a very sen-
sible black precipitate. As iron might be acci-
dentally contuned in the wine, the hydrochloric
acid is added to the last test, to prevent the pre-
cipitation of that metal.

WIN'TEB-QBEEH (American). Sgn. Pip-

BIBBBWA; ChIHAPHILA (Ph. L. & E.), PXBOLA

(Ph. D.), L. The herb of Chimaphila vmbellata.
It is astringent, diuretic, tonic, and stomachic;
and has been successfully administered in loss of
appetite, dyspepsia, dropsy, chronic affections of
the nrinary organs, scrofula, &c. It must not be
confounded with* ordinary wintei^green (box
berry, chequer b., partridge b., moantiun tea),
which is the OattUheria procumleui, a plant be-
longing to the Urioaeea, whilst the former plant
belongs to a genus of the Pyrolaceee. See Db*
OOOIION, EXTBAOT, and Oixs (Essential).

WIKSWOBX. Dr Spencer Cobbold, F.R.S.,
made the following communication on this sub-
ject to Dr Tuson: — "Dear Professor Tnson, —
Ton asked me about the remedies for wirewona.
Although a great deal has been sud on the sub-
ject, yet it is not easy to advise. I believe the
belt plan is to ' catch-'em-alive ' by means of
sliced potatoes, turnips, or carrots laid in rows,
women and children being employed every morn-
ing to pick up the slices, and brush ofF the larvae
into ajar (the slices being replaced). Mr Hogg
(the Ettrick Shepherd) found lettuce leaves rery
serviceable when laid as a bait in a similar way.
Pheasants are very destructive to them. As
agriculturists do not Uke the trouble And expense
of this baiting method (1^ tax the best if peise-

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WITCH MBAIr- WOODS

1816

vered in) some hare recommended deep plongh-
ing, &c. The following extract taken from the
' Jonmal of the Agricnltnral Society of Victoria,'
bean on the question at issue. Trusting it may
be found usefnl, believe me, yours faitbfnlly, T.

SFBirOBlt COBBOLS."

"Stnudy for Wirewcrm. — Having seen in
your issue of the 24th ult. that ' B.' would be
glad if any one. oonid give any information as to
a remedy for the ravages of the wireworm, which
plays such havoc in our com fields during the
early part of the growth of our cereal crops, I
beg to offer a few observations on the subject. I
have for years paid particular notice as to any
remedy or preventive, and it is with regard to the
latter that I shall chiefly confine my remarks, as
there is positively no known remedy when once
the insects have attacked the crop. Some per-
sons recommend the application of lime or salt,
but it is a well-known fact that if either of these
is applied in such quantity as to destroy the worm,
it will likewise destroy vegetation, and conse-
quently the crop will be entirdy lost; and not
alone this crop, but the soil will be poisoned to
such an extent as to iignre succeeding crops.
What I have found most successful is deep
ploughing, not what is ordinarily called deep
ploughing, 7 or 8 inches, but to the depth of at
least 10 or 12, where the soil will admit of it.
The wireworm lives not more than 4 inches below
the surface, and by burying it 10 or 12 inches it
is found that it cannot again make its way to the
surface, and consequently can do no iqjnry to
surface-rooted plants, such as the grain crops.
The operation of ploughing should be performed
as follows : a strong skim coulter is attached to
the beam of an ordinary strong plough, which is
drawn by three horses. The skim coulter pares
oS the surface, which is buried underneath the
sod turned over by the mould-board. Or it is
sometimes performed in a different way. A small
plough, drawn by one horse, precedes the ordi-
nary plough, skimming off the surface exactly
the same as the akim coulter. So much for a
preventive. As to remedy, what I have found
most efiectiial is heavy rolling, using, if possible,
such a roller as that called the Crosakill, which
crushes the insects, killing some, and preventing
others doing much damage until the crop ia
sufficiently far advanced aa not to be affected
by the insect— John Thomas, 82, Capel Street,
DubUn."

WITCH HEAIi. iS^ Vboitablb 8U£FHUB,
Ltcoiodiuu. The spores of £]/eopodi«m elava-
Aim, or club-moss.

WOAS. St/n. Dybb'b woad; Pabtbl, Fr.
The laatis Unctoria. To prepare them for the
dyer, the leaves are partially dried and ground to
a paste, which is made into balls ; these are placed
in heaps, and occasionally sprinkled with water,
to promote the fermentation ; when this is finished,
the woad ia allowed to fall down into lumps, which
are afterwards reground and made into cakes for
sale. On mixing the prepared woad with boiling
water, and, after standing for some hours in a
closed vessel, adding about l-20th its weight of
newly slaked lime, digesting in a gentle warmth,
and stirring the whole together every 3 or 4
boon, a new fermentation begins ; a blue froth

rises to the sniface, and the liquor, though it
appears itself of a reddish colour, dyes woollens
of a green, which, like the green from indigo,
changes in the air to a blue. This is said to be
one of the nicest processes in the art of dyeing,
and does not well succeed on the small scale.
Woad is now mostly used in combination with
indigo. 60 lbs. of woad are reckoned equal to
1 lb. of indigo.

WOLTRAH. See Tuugstbh.

WOUS'BABIi. See Acokitb.

WOOD is polished by carefully rubbing down
the grain with fine glass paper, or pumice-stone,
and then rubbing it, first with finely-powdered
pumice-stone and water, and afterwa^s with
tripoli and linseed oil, until a proper surface is
obtained. For common purposes, glass paper,
followed by a metal burnisher, is employed.

Wood is stained by the application of any of
the ordinary liquid dyes employed for wool or
cotton. They sink deeper into the wood when
they are applied hot. When the surface is pro-
perly strained and dried, it is commonly cleaned
with a rag dipped in oil of turpentine or boiled
oil, after which it is either varnished or polished
with beeswax. Musical instruments, articles of
the toilette, &c., are usually treated in this way.

Wood is preserved by any agents which de-
stroy the tendency to putrefaction of the matter
within its pores, or which enables it to resist the
attacks of insects, or renders it unsuited to the
growth of minute fungi. See Dst-kot.

WOOS-AFPLS {F»ro*ia eltphantum, Corr). A
large Indian tree, the wood is used for house
building, agricultural implements, &c.

WOOO BAFH'IHA. See Sfisit (Fyroxylic).

WOOD OIL. See Baxsak, GiTBOuir.

WOODS. List of some of those most used, and
the purposes to which they are applied.

Acacia or Locust Wood. From India, the Wert
Indies, and tropical regions of Africa. A dark
coloured wood resembling mahogany.

African Oak. Formerly used in shipbuilding,
but its use has died out. It is a hard wood of a
dark red colour.

Almond Wood. From the North of Africa and
parts of Europe and Asia bordering on the Mediter-
ranean. Is a very hard, dense wood like lignum
vitm. Used for teeth and bearings of cog-
wheels.

Aloes Wood, Calambak, or Qreen Sandal-wood.
From tropical countries.

Amboyna Wood. Sometimes called Kaibooca
wood, from the Moluccas. It has the appearance
of being the burr of a large tree, used in inlaying
and veneering.

Bird's-eye Xaple. From Prince Edward's
Island. Used chieBy for picture frames.

Black Birch. North America. Used for cabi-
net-making and household furniture.

Black Walnut. Used for fret-sawing, and all
kinds of cabinet work.

Botany Bay Wood or Beefwood. From Botany
Bay, Is a dense, hard, heavy wood of a black
colour. Chiefly used for ornamental turning.

Box. From Turkey. Used by turners tor
fancy articles, lathe chucks, &e.

Butternut. From United States. Used for
cabinet work.

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1816

WOODY FIBRE— WOOL

CunpIiOT Wood. Uaed for boxea for preaerving'
fnn, Slc, from the attacks of moths.

Canary Wood. From South America; s
straight grained wood of yellow colour, used by
turners and cabinet makers.

Cane Wood. From Southern Africa; is veiT
hard, and of a close, fine texture; colour, a rich
reddish brown. Used for ornamental turning.

Coeabola Wood. A hard and resinous wood of
a red colour, chiefly used for inlaying.

Cocus Wood. From the West Indies ; is a hard
wood, and of a black colour when cut, and ex-
posed to the action of the air ; used in turnery.

Coral Wood. From tropical countries ; is a hard
and close-grained wood of a yellow colour when
first cut, but changes to a rich coral red. Used
in turning and fancy cabinet work.

Coromandel Wood. From Southern India and
Ceylon ; colour, a rich hazel-brown streaked with
black. Used in cabinet work.

Xbony (Black). Africa, East Indies, and the
Hanritius ; used by turners and cabinet makers.

fustic. A wood used for dyeing, and for turn-
ing and inlaying. Colour, a greenish yellow.

Oreenheart. From the West Indies and Brazil ;
is a coarse and heavy wood used in shipbuilding ;
is of a brownish-green colour when first cut, but
darkens on exposure to the air.

Hickory. From the United States ; is a tough
and elastic wood used for shafts of carriages,
spokes of wheels, &c.

Hornbeam. An American wood ; very strong
and tough, colour white, hard, and close-grained.
Used for teeth of cog-wheels, &c., for skittle-
pins. The English hornbeam is a different
species.

Irotthark. From Australia. A species of the
Suealyptui, used formerly in shipbuilding.

Ironwood. From South America, East and
West Indies ; is very hard and straight grained.
Frequently used for making ramrods, colour red-
dish brown.

Jarrak. From Australia. Used in Anstralia
for railway work, &c.

Eingwood. From Brazil ; is a hard and durable
wood. Used for turning and small cabinet work.
Sometimes called violet wood through being beau-
tifully streaked in tints of violet.

Lancewood. From the West Indies. A very
tough wood. Used for shafts of carriages in ge-
neral. A good wood for bending when steamed.

Lignum Vita. From Central America; is a
kind of box-tree ; is heavy, hard, and close grained.
The medicinal resin called guaiacum is obtained
from it. Used for sheaves of pulleys, &c.

Logwood. From South America; is the heavy,
red beartwood of a tree used for dyeing. Some-
times called campeachy wood.

■ahogany. From the West Indies and Central
America. Used by joiners, cabinet-makers, and
turners.

Hettle Tree. From Southern Europe. A close
grained wood used by musical instrument makers.

Olive Wood. Of a close, fine grain. Used for
fretwork, carved work, and ornamental cabinet
work.

Partridge-wood. From Brazil ; very hard and
heavy, close grain. Used for walking-sticks and
liaudles of umbrellas and parasols.

Fomegraiiata Wood. Is of a brownish-gieen
colour, and used chiefly by musical instrument
makers.

Purple Heart. The wood of Copaifera Martii,
Hayne, var. pub\flora. A large timber tree of
British Quiana, where the wood, which is of a
heantiful purple colour when freshly cut, is used
for structural purposes on account of its great
strength and durability.

Bed Satinwood. From the Bast Indies ; is »
hard wood used for marquetry ; colour, a beauti-
ful reddish purple, with veins aJid markings of a
darker tint.

Bosetta Wood. From the East Indies ; is of a
bright, reddish' orange colour, marked with veins
and streaks of a darker tint; used for ornamental
cabinet work, but is rather scaroe.

Boiewood. Bio Janeiro, East Indies, and
Canary Islands. Usedf or ornamental furniture,
and by turners.

Sandal-wood. From the East Indies ; is a highly
scented wood, like cedar. Used for ornamental
boxes for furs, gloves, &c.

Satinwood. From the East Indies ; is of a soft
and lustrous appearance, with a yellowish tint.
Used for marquetry and inlaying.

Service Wood. Has a hard and close grain.
Uaed for making and handling joiners' tools.

Teak. From the East Indies ; is a very hard
and durable wood. Used chiefly in shipbuilding.

Tulip Wood. From Brazil; resembling rose-
wood, of a reddish colour striped with darker
shades. Used for marquetry.

West Indian Ebony. Furnished by Btya
ebenut ?, A. DC, a small tree of Jamaica. It
takes a beautiful polish, and is used for making
walking-sticks, inlaying, &c. Cocus wood, used
for making flutes and flageolets, is supposed to
be produced by this plant.

Whitewood. From North America. Used for
oriUnarv cabinet work and fret-sawing.

WOODT PIBBE. See Lighin.

WOODT NIOHT'SHASE. Bittbb-bwsbt, So-
lanum dulcamara.

WOOL. Sgn. Lana, L. Wool is a fine, soft,
elastic variety of hair, cellolated in its structure,
its filaments are cylindrical, like those of silk ;
but the surface is covered with thin scales or epi-
dermic cells. In the finer qualities, these fila-
ments vary in thickness from y^,^ to x^tns °^ "^
inch; and under a good microscope distinctly
exhibit, at intervals of about -g^ of an inch, a
series of serrated rings, imbricated towards each
other, " like the joints of equisetum, or, rather,
like the scaly zones of a serpent's skin." These
appearances render it almost impossible to mis-
take wool for silk, linen, or cotton. From experi-
ments made by different competent authorities, it
is found that wool is one of the worst conductors
of heat known. This property renders woollen
fabrics particularly adapted for clothing in cold,
damp, and changeable climates, since it enables
them to maintain the surface of the body at a
proper and equitble temperature. Wool, some-
times, however, proves too irritative for highly
sensitive skins, and, moreover, disturbs the elec-
tricity of the cutaneous surface, on friction, even
more than silk. On these accounts there are
persons who find it onpleasant to wear woollen

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WOOBARA— WOBMS

1817

gannenta, of any dearription, next the tikin; in
which cases all the advantages that can be de-
rived from their ose may be obtained by wearing
them outside one of linen or cotton. According
to Erasmns Wilson, this method " is preferable
in warm weather, since the linen absorbs the
perspiration, while the woollen garment pre-
serves the warmth of the body, and prevents the
inconvenience resnlting from its evaporation."
See Yi^Aimsiu

IdaHtif. 1. By the microscope. (See aiove.)

2. Its fibres, when inflamed, shrivel np, and
bum with difficulty, and evolve the peculiar
and characteristic odonr of hair when similarly
treated, leaving a bulky chareoal ; whereas cotton
and linen bum rapidly, leave no charcoal, and
evolve little or no (xloar. Silk acta in nearly the
same manner as wooL

8. Nitric acid, picric acid, and gaseous chlorine,
stain the fibres of wool and silk yellow. Dr J.
J. Pohl recommends an aqueons or alcoholic solu-
tion of picric acid as well adapted for a test.
After immersion of a small portion of the fabric
or yam for from 5 to 10 minutes in the solution, it
is to be taken out and washed in warm water. The
linen and cotton in it will then appear white, but
the wool, silk, or other animal fibre, will retain
its yellow colour. In stuffs, cloths, flannel, te.,
the mixed threads may be readily observed by
means of a pocket lens, and their relative num-
bers may be ascertained by means of a ' thread
counter.' This test acts best with white, but is
also applicable to many other colours. For dark
colours nitric acid is preferable.

4. A square inch of the fabric or a small por-
tion of the yam is boiled for a short time in a
solution of caustic soda or potassa, and then
withdrawn and washed. If it be of pnre wool, it
will be dissolved, and wholly disappear; if any
threads or fibres are left undissolved, they con-
sist of either cotton or linen ; of these, such as
have acquired a dark yellow tinge, are linen,
whilst those which have retained their whiteness,
or which are only slightly discoloured, are cotton.
The relative proportion of the adulteration may
be ascertained as before. See Cottok, Linbn,
and Silk.

Wool and woollen goods exhibit a greater affinity
for colouring matter than either cotton or linen,
and in many cases this exceeds even that of silk.
The most difficult dye to impart to wool is a rich,
deep, and permanent black. See DTSlire, Mob-

J>ANT8,ftc.

Woollen goods are cleaned and scoured in the
manner noticed under BLXAOEnra and Soovsino.

Wool, Spanish. Bonge-crepons.

Wool, S^tic. Dr Erie, of Isny, prepares this
by boiling the finest carded wool for half an hour
or an hour in a eolation containing 4% of soda,
then thoroughly washes it out in cold spring
water, wrings it, and dries it. The wool is thus
effectually purified, and is now capable of im-
bibing fluids unirormly. It is then to be dipped
two or three times in fluid chloride of iron diluted
with one third of water, expressed and dried in
* draught of air, but not in the suu or by the aid
of hi^ heat; Anally, it is carded out. Thus
prepared, it is of a beautifnl yellowish-brown
colour, and feds like ordinary dry cotton wool.

As it is highly hygroscopic, it must he kept
dry, and when required to be transported, must
be packed in caoutchouc or bladder. Charpie
may be prepared in a similar manner, but on
account of its coarser texture, is not so effective
as cotton wool, presenting a less surface for pro-
ducing coagulation. When the wool is pUued on
a bleeding wound, it induces moderate contrac-
tion of the tissue, coagulation of the blood that
has escaped, and subsequently coagulation of the
blood that is contained within the injured vessels,
and thus arrests the ha:morrhage. The coagu-
lating power of the chloride of iron is clearly
exalted by the extension of its surface that is in
this way affected. The application of the pre-
pared wool is not particularly painful, whilst by
sucking np the superfluous discharge, and pre-
venting its decomposition, it seems to operate
f aTourably on the j^rooeM qf the wound (' Lancet ').

Wool Work, Woollen Shawls, Ac., to CI«UL
Boil a large piece of soap in rain-water. Put it
into an earthenware pan and add a teacnpfnl of
ox-gall, which any butcher will supply. Put in
the work to be cleaned, and rub it briskly, as you
would a pocket handkerchief, lifting it up and
down. Wash in two waters, if very dirty ; then
rinse quickly in cold water, lay a cloth over it,
and fold it tightly. Iron it immediately on the
wrong side with hot, heavy irons.

WOOBA'BA. 5ya. Oubabi, WoubaIiI, L. A
deadly poison employed in Guiana, obtained from
the Strgchtiot toxifera. See Upas.

WOOTZ. The Indian name of steel; applied
in this country to the steel imported from Bengal.

WOSM BABK. I^n. Cabbase-tbeb babk,
or GBorFBBTA ihbbmib, L. The bark of Andira
inennit (Oeoffi'teya i. of some botanists). A
powerful astringent, purgative, anthelmintic, and
narcotic. — Don, 10 to 30 gr. In larger doses, or
if cold water be drunk during its action, it is apt
to occasion sickness, vomiting, and delirium. The
remedy for this is copious draughts of warm
water.

WOBK-BEEB. 8gn. Sexbn oovtba, bbkbh-
ours, L. The broken peduncles, mixed with the
calyces and flower-buds, of several species of
Artmina imported from the Levant. — Dote, 10
to 30 gr., in powder ; as a vermifuge. See Sav-
TOUiir.

WOBIIS (Intes'tinal). Sgn. Vbbmks, Irtxb-
TIMAXIA (Ouvier), EniozOA (Sadolphi), L. The
principal parasites which are generated and
nourished in the human intestinal canal are — the
Aearit Umibrieoidaa, Gmelin, or long round-worm,
found in the small intestines, and which is gene-
rally of the thickness of a goose-quill, and varies
in length from 10 to IS inches ; Atcarit eemt-
eularit, Gmelin, maw, or throad-worms, which is
thread-like in appearance, varies from 1^ to 6
lines in length, and confines itself chiefly to the
rectum ; Tricoeephalut Aominit, Gmelin, or long
thread-worm, varying from li to 2 inches in
length, and found cUefiy in the cecum ; Ttuua
toliunt, Gmelin, or common tapeworm, having a
flattened riband-like appearance, varying in length
from 3 or 4 to 16 or 20 feet, and occupying the
small intestines ; Bothriocephabu latut, or broad
tapeworm, a variety seldom found in this country,
but common in Switzerland and the north of

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1818

WORM TEA— WORT

Eorope ; and TtutiametKocamellata, uiotber large
species, described by KQchenmeister.

Caiues. A debilitated state of tbe digestive
organs, improper food, sedentary habits, impure
ur, bad wat«r, and, apparently, an occasional
hereditary tendency to worms.

Sj/mp. Griping pains, especially about the
navel j acid eructations ; slimy stools ; occasional
nansea and vomiting, without any manifest cause ;
heat and itching abont the anns ; tenesmus ;
emaciation ; disturbed dreams j grinding of the
teeth during sleep; pallor of countenance; dis-
colouration round the eyes ; f everishness ; head-
ache; vertigo, &c. In many cases these sym-
ptoms are often highly aggravated, and mistaken
for primary diseases. The only absolutely positive
evidence of the existence of worms is, however,
Uieir being seen in the fraces.

Treat. In common cases, an occasional mo-
derately strong dose of calomel overnight, followed
by a smart purgative the next morning, is an
excellent remedy, where the use of mercurials is
not contra-indicated. Cowhage, made into an
electuary with honey or treacle, is also an excel-
lent vermifuge. Oil of turpentine is useful
against nearly every variety of worms, and, when
taken in sufficient doses to reach the rectum, is
almost specific in ascarides (thread-worms). When
this is inconvenient, an occasional enema of oil of
turpentine is even more effective. Enemas of
aloes are also very useful in such cases. Scam-
mony, under the form of basilic powder, has long
been employed to expel worms in children. Aloes,
castor-oil, worm-seed, tin-fillings, and sulphur,
are likewise popular remedies. Cabbage-tree
bark is a powerful anthelmintic; but its use
requires caution. Host of the quack ve^mifnges
contain either aloes or gamboge, or calomel and
jalap. The substances which have been most
highly extolled for the destruction or expulsion
of tapeworm (tmnia)are kousso,oil of turpentine,
male fern, pomegranate, and tin-filings. The
first two are those on which the most dependence
may be placed. Madame Nouffer's celebrated
' Swiss remedy ' for tapeworm, for which Louis
XTI gave 18,000 francs, consisting of 2 or 3 dr.
of powdered male fern, taken in i pint of water,
in the morning, fasting, followed in two hours by
a bolus made of calomel and scammony, of each,
10 gr. ; gamboge, 6 or 7 gr. ' Swain's vermi-
fage' is prepared from worm-seed, 2 oz.; vale-
rian, rhubarb, pink-root, and white agaric, of
each, H oz. ; boiled in water, q. s. to yield 3
quarts of decoction, to which 30 drops of oil of
tansy, and 45 drops of oil of cloves, dissolved in a
quart of rectified spirit, are added. All purga-
tives may be regarded as vermifuges. Besides
our efibrts to destroy and expel the worms, the
tone of the primes vis should be raised by the
use of stomachics and tonics, by which the ten-
dency to their equivocal generation will be either
removed or lessened. See Ascabib Lukbbi-

COZDEB, DscOCTIOir, ElTBXA, PlLLB, PlTSirr

MSDICDTBB, YEBKiBTiaBS, &c. ; and also the
several vermifuges under their respective names.
Obt. Parasitic worms as existing in animals
are so remarkably prevalent and so widely diffused
that probably no creature can be said to be secure
•gainst their attack. Among domestic animals,

sheep often snffer to a most series extent from
these parasites, and more especially from the ne-
matoid known as Stronggltu bronekialU. In
some yean Iambs are lost by hundreds from the
complications of disease which attend upon the
presence of these worms within tbe windpipe and
the bronchial tubes. Their existence is marked
by great wasting of the body, hurried breathing,
and distressing cough. After a time diarrhoea
sets in, which qnickly carries off the animal. It
has been found that lambe fed on clover, and
other allied plants, which had been pastured the
year previously with sheep, snffer the most, and
are &r more likely to be affected than those
which are differently managed. Remedial mea-
sures too often prove ineffectual, especially when
structural disease of the lungs has followed as a
consequence. Tbe exhibition of oil of turpentine
in doses of abont half an ounce, mixed with an
equal quantity of linseed oil, is sometimes found
to be beneficial ; bnt it must be conjoined with a
com diet, the free use of salt, and also sulphate
of iron mixed with the manger food, tincture of
assafoetida, and the essential oil of savin, in small
doses, are remedies greatly extolled by some per-
sons. The inhalation of diluted chlorine gas or
of sulphurous acid gas is often exceedingly bene-
ficial ; bnt remedies of this kind ought always to
be confided to the superintending care of the
veterinary surgeon.

WOBH TEA. A preparation sold in the shops
of the United States, and much used, consisting,
according to Brande, of spigelia or pink-root,
savin, senna, and manna.

WOBWOOS. Sy»- ABsntTEitrx (Ph. L. &
E.), L. The fiowering herb of Artentiiia abtitt-
thium, a well-known plant, indigenous to this
country, and largely cultivated for medicinal
purposes. It is a bitter tonic and stomachic, and
also anthelmintic. — Dote, 20 to 40 gr. of the
dried herb, either in powder or made into a tea or
infusion; in dyspepsia, dropsy, scurvy, sym-
pathetic epilepsy, &c. See Absinthihb and Ab-

BINTRIC AOID.

WOBT. The technical name for the ferment-
able infusion of malted grain.

The strength of worts is ascertained by means
of an instrument termed a eaccharometer.
"Brewers, distillers, and tbe excise, sometimes
denote by the term ' gravity' the excess of wdght
of 1000 parts of a liquid by volume above the
weight of a like volume of distilled water, so that
if the specific gravity be 1045, 1070, 1090, &c..
the gravity is said to be 46, 70, or 90; at others,
they thereby denote the weight of saccharine
matter in a barrel (36 galls.) of wort; and again,
they denote the excess in weight of a barrel of
wort over a barrel of water equal to 36 galls., or
360 lbs. This and the first statement are iden-
tical, only 1000 is the standard in the first case,
and 360 in the second" (Ure). The but is that
commonly adopted by the brewers.

Accor^g to Dr Ure, the solid dry extract of
malt, or 'saccharine,' has the specific gravity
1-264, and the specific volume ■7911; "that is,
10 lbs. of it will occupy the volume of 7*911 lbs,
of water. The mean sp. gr., by computation of
a solution of that extract in its own weight of
water, is 1*116; bnt by experiment, the sp. gr. of

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WOUND— WRITINQ FLUIDS

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that solution is 1'216, showing connderable con-
densation of Tolnme in the act of combination
with water." The qnantity of solid saccharine
or sngar in a wort may be determined in the
manner mentioned under Stsuf.

" AeoorcUng to the compilers of the tables ac-
com^ying Field's alcoholometer, 1-8 lb. of sac-
charine is decomposed for the production of 1%
of proof spirit ; but according to our experiments,
the proportion of saccliarine named is rather
below the true equivalent" (Coolej/).

The rapid cooling of worts is an important
object with the brewer and distiller. On the
large scale, the old system in which shallow
coders are employed, with all its numerous in-
oonreniences and accidents, is now for the most
part abandoned, being supplanted by the method
introduced by Hr Yandall nearly forty years ago.
This consists in the use of a ' refrigerator,' which
is an apparatus so constructed that any hot liquid
may be cooled by about its own volume of oold
water in a very short space of time. The prin-
ciple is that of passing the two fluids through
very shallow and very long passages, in opposite
directions, being essentiaUy that of a ' Liebig's
condenser' on a gigantic scale. The apparatus
may consist of zigzag passages, flattened tubes or
convoluted curves, ot any convenient shape, so
that they possess little capacity in one direction,
but great breadth and length. A refrigerator,
having the passages for the fluids l-8th of an
inch thick, is said to require a run of about 80
feet. The success of this method is such as to
leave nothing more to desire. See BsswiHa,
FbBKENTATION, HAIiT, &c.

WOUHD. 8j/». VuuTOB, L. A solution of
continuity in any of the soft parts of the body,
arising from external violence.

Wounds are distinguished by surgeons into

OOHTUSES WOTTBDa, IITCIgBS W., LAOBBATID W.,

voisovxo w., ptrHOTUBEB TV., Ac. ; terms which
explain themselves. Sword-cuts are incised
wounds i gun-shot wounds lacerated and oontnsed
ones. Slight wounds, and, indeed, all those not
demanding material surgical assistance, after
dirt and foreign substances ^ve been removed,
may be treated in the manner noticed under
CxniB and Abbasionb.

WOmm BAI'SAX. See Tcronmx at Bbm-
zonr.

'VSIT"Dra, executed in the or<Unary tanno-
gaUic ink, and which has been rendered illegible
^y *8^> ^"^7 be restored by carefully moistening
it, by means of a feather, with an infusion of
galls, or a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium
slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, ob-
serving to apply the liquid so as to prevent the
ink spreading.

TUTIHG ITiVlDB. A term commonly ap-
plied, of late years, to easy-flowing inks, adapted
for metallic pens, in contradistinction to the old
tanno-gallic compounds at one time ezclosively
employed for writing.

Prep. 1. Dissolve pure basic or soluble Prus-
sian blue in pure distilled water, and dilute the
resulting solution with pure water until the de-
sired shade of colour is obtained. Very perma-
nent and beautiful. It is not affected by the
addition of alcohol, bnt ia immediately precipi-

tated by saline matter. The piecipitate, how-
ever, stUl possesses the property of dissolving in
pure water.

2. From the soluble ferrocyanide of potassium
and iron, dissolved in pure water. Resembles
the last, but it is precipitated from its solution
by alcohoL

8. Powdered Prussian blue, 1 oz.; concen-
trated hydrochloric acid, l^ fl. oz. ; mix in a
matrass or glass bottle, and, after 22 or 30
hours, dilute the mass with a sufficient quantity
of water.

4. Dissolve snlphindylato of potasaa or am-
monia in hot water, and, when cold, decant th«
clear portion. It is an- intense blue, and dries
nearly black ; is perfectly incorrosive, and very
permanent' and easy flowing. . .j

5. (Sorming.) Ferchloride of iron, 4 parts;
water, 750 puts; dissidve, add of cyanide ot
potassium, 4 parts, dissolved in a little water;
collect the precipitate, wash it with several
effusions of pure water, allow it to drain until
it weighs about 200 parts, then add of oxalio
acid, 1 part j and promote solution by agitating
the botde or vessel containing it.

6. (Jfoir.) Pure Prussian blue, 6 parts;
oxalic acid, 1 part; triturate with a little water
to a perfectly smooth paste, then dilute the mass
with a proper quantity of soft water. The pro-
duct resembles Stephen's 'patent- blue ink.'

7- {Sev. J, B. Seade — patented), a. A solu-
tion of his patent soluble Prussian blue in distilled
water. Bine.

h. I^repared by adding to good gall ink a strong
solution of his soluble Prussian blue. This addi-
tion " makes the ink, which was previously proof
against alkalies, equally proof against acids, and
forms a writing fluid which cannot bo erased from
paper by any common method of fraudulent
obliteration without the destruction of the paper."
This ink writes greenish-blue, but afterward*
tnms intensely black. Stephen's 'patent ink,'
which does the same, is a similar compound.

8. {Prof. Sunge—csaouio nrx.) Logwood,
in fine chips, i lb. ; boiling water, 8 pints; digest
for 12 hours, then simmer the liqnid down gently
to 1 quart, carefully observing to avoid dust,
grease, and smoke; when cold, decant the decoc-
tion, and add to it of yellow chromate of potash,
20 gr. ; dissolve by agitation, after which it will
be fit for ose. Cheap and good. It resists the
action of all ordinary destructive agents better
than the tanno-gallic inks; it may be washed
after use with a wet sponge, or steep^ for twenty-
four hours in water, or even tested with dilute
acids, and yet preserve iU original blackness. It
is perfectly liquid, it scarcely thickens by age,
and neither deposits a sediment nor corrodes steel
pens.

9. ( Ure.) From vanadate of ammonia decom-
posed with inf nsion of galls. It is of a perfectly
black hue, flows freely from the pen, is rendered
blue by acids, is unaffected by dilute alkaline
solutions, and resiste the action of chlorine.

Obt. The preceding formula, under proper
management, produce excellent products, all of
which are extremely mobile, and most of them of
a more or less beautiful colour. The blue ones,
when concentrated, dry ot a blue-black, whilst

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ITLOIDIN— TBAST

two or three of the others, though at fint pale,
rapidly pass into a deep black when ezpoaed to
the air. Care miut be taken in all caaes that the
ingredients be pure. The Prussian blue, except
when directly prepared for the purpose, should
be washed in dilute hydrochloric acid before at-
tempting its solution by means of oxalic acid.
Unless these precaations are attended to, success
ia unlikely. A little gum may be added, if re-
quired, to prevent the fluid spreading on the
paper; but in most cases the addition is no im-
provement. Host of the blue fluids may be used
as ' indelible ink ' to mark linen, and will be
found very permanent, provided the part be first
moistened with alum water, and dried.

ZTLOIS'IH. When starch is immersed in
concentrated nitric acid (sp. gr. 1*46 to 1'60),
it is converted, without disengagement of gas,
into a colourless, tremulous jelly, which, when
treated with an excess of water, yields a white,
curdy, insoluble substance, which after being
edulcorated with pure water, until every trace of
acid is removed, ia xyloidin. Paper, sugar, gum,
mannite, and several other substances, treated in
the same manner, become in great part changed
to xyloidin or analogous compounds.

Obt, Pure xyloidin differs but slightly from
pyroxylin, or pure gun-cotton.

XYTJOii, A hydrocarbon homologous to
benzol, found in wood-tar and ooal-gaa naphtha.
Usefnl as a solvent for Canada balsam in the
mounting of objects for the microscope.

TAWS. <S^«. FsAKBCBSiA, L. A peculiar
disease of the skin, common in the Antilles and
some parts of Africa. It is characterised by
mulberty-like excrescences, which discbarge a
watery humour. The treatment chiefly consists
in alleviatiog urgent symptoms (if any), and the
adoplaon of a temperate diet and regimen, nntil
the eruptions, having run their course, begin to
dry, when tonics and alteratives, as cinchona
bark, quinine, and sarsaparilla, with occasional
■mall doses of mercurials, generally prove advan-
tageous. The master (or principal) yaw, which
frequently remains troublesome after the others
have disappeared, may be dressed with the oint-
ment of red oxide of mercury, or of nitrate of
mercury, diluted with an equal weight of lard.

The yaws is not a dangerous, although a very
disgusting disease. It is contagious by contact,
and, like the smallpox, only occus once during
life.

TXA8T. Sgn. Babx, Fbbvsht, Zinnini;
FsBiCBiniTK, L. Teast, which consists almost
entirely of minute vegetable cells, termed Torula
oerevisuB, is either the froth or the deposit of fer-
menting worts, according to the character of the
fermentation.

The top yeast, or superficial ferment, which
covers the surface of fermenting worts, is called
' oherhefe' by the Germans; and the bottom
yeast, or the ferment of deposit, is termed
'unlerhefe.' The first is the common yeast of
the English brewer ; the other, tliat used in Ba-
varia for the fermentation of worts from below
(untergilhruDg). Both varieties yield their own
kind nnder proper conditions. Wort fermented

with top yeast, at from 46° to 50° F, yield boUi
varieties, and each of these fnrnuhes its own
kind, nearly pure, by a second fermentation. See
BBBWiira, FsBMBHTATIOn, &c

Fret. 1. Ordinary beer yeast may be kept
fresh and fit for use for several monUis, by
placing it in a close canvas bag, and gently and
gradually squeeiing out the moisture in a screw
press until the remaining matter acquires the
consistence of clay or soft cheese, in which state
it must be preserved in close vessels, or wr^ped
in waxed doth. This is the method genially
adopted for the best Flanders and German yeast.

2. Whisk the yeast nntil it forms a nnifbrra
liquid mass, and then lay it with a clean and
■oJt punter's brush evenly and thinly on flat
dishes, or any convenient surface, on which it
can be exposed to the sun or air; tliis operatiaa
must be repeated as soon as the first coat ia suf-
ficiently soUd, and so on, nntil the layers acqnire
a proper thickness, when it must be detadied
and preserved as before. If rendered quite dry,
its power of exciting fermentation will be d^
stroyed.

3. By employing strips of clean new lUnnd
(well washed), as above, and, when sufficiently
dry, rolling tliese up, and covering them with
waxed cloth or paper, or placing them in tin
canisters or boxes. For use, a few inches of one
of the strips is cut off, and soaked in Inkewarm
water, when the harm leaves the flannel, and
mixes with the water, which may then be atined
up with the flour.

Teait, Artifi"ci»l. " Altitongh the oonTerrion
of a small into a large quantity of yeast is a veiy
easy thing, yet to produce that substance from
the b^inning is very difficult" (Sertelimi).
Both cases are met in the formnls below.

Pr»p. 1. {Without a fermeiU—:Fowna.)
Wheat flour is to be mixed with water into a
thick paste, which is to be slightly covered, in a
moderately warm place ; about the third day it
begins to emit a little gas, and to exhale a dis-
agreeable sour odour ; about the sixth or seventh
day the smell changes, much gas is evolved,
accompanied by a distinct and agreeable vinons
odour, and it is then in a state to excite either to
vinous or panaiy fermentation, and may be
either at once employed for that purpose or
formed into small and very thin cakes, dried in
the air, and preserved for future use. Wort fer-
mented with it In the ordinary way yields a large
quantity of yeast, of excellent quality, which is
found at the bottom of the vessel. " This is a
revival of a method which, although Mr Fownea
seems to regard it as new, is to be found in the
'Chemistry' of Boerhaave" ('Lancet'). It ia,
indeed, a mere modification of the mode of pre-
paring leaven, as practised from the most remote
ages of antiquity ; but ia not the leas valuable on
that account.

2. ( With a ferment.') a. Take of bean flour,
i lb.; water, 6 quarts; boil for } an hour, pour
the decoction into any suitable vessel, add of
wheat floor, 8} lbs. ; stir the whole well together,
and, when the temperature reaches 66° F., add .
of beer yeast, 8 quarts; mix well, and in 84
hours after the commencement of the fermenta-
tion add of barley or bean floor, 7 Ibs.j make a

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TELLQW DYB8— TJILLOW PIGMENTS

1821

uniform dough by tborongh kneading, form it
into Bmall cakes, aa above, and then preserve
these in a dr; sitoation. For use, one of these
discs is to be broken into pieces, laid in tepid
water, and set in a warm place dnring 18 honn,
when the soft mass will serve the purpose of beer
yeast.

h. (PATBirx TSABT.) Take of hops, 6 oi. ;
water, 8 galls. ; simmer for 8 honrs, strain, and
in 10 minutes stir in oF ground malt, i peck ;
next leboil the hop* in water, as before, and let
the strained liquor run into the first mash, which
must then be well stirred up, covered over, and
left for 4 hours; after that time drain oft the
wort, and, when the temperature has fallen to
90° F., set it to work with yeast (preferably
pateAt'), 1 pint; after standing for 20 to 24
hours in a warm place, take off the scum, strain
it through a coarse hiUr-sieve, and it will be fit
for use. 1 pint is said to be enough for 1 bushel
of bread.

Ob*. The preparation of artificial yeast, and
anbstitutes for yeast, has long engaged the atten-
tion of both the scientific chemist and the practi-
cal tradesman. The subject is, undonbtedly, of
great importance to emigrants and voyagers.
The above processes, by good management, yield
products which are all that can be desired.

TELIAW STEB. The following substances
impart a yellow to goods, either at once or after
they have been mordanted with alumina or tin :
— annotCa, barberry root, dyer's broom, French
berries, fustic, fnstet, quercitron bark, and tur-
meric. Qoods mordanted with acetate of lead,
and afterwards passed through a bath of chro-
mate of potash, acquire a brilliant chrome-yellow
colour J solution of sulphate or acetate of iron,
followed by immersion in potash or lime water,
gives a buff or orange; orpiment dissolved in
ammonia water, imparts a golden yellow (see
the above-named substances, in their alphabeti-
cal places). An aniline yellow (chrysaniline) has
recently been obtained by Mr Nicholson, which is
said to be a most valuable dye-stufF, comparable,
indeed, with the aniline reds and purples.

TZLLOV TETEK. The bilious remittent
fever of hot climates. It is very common in the
West Indies and the Southern States of America.
New Orleans has been several times nearly de-
populated by it.

YELLOW FIQ'MENTS. Of these the principal
are:

Brown Fink. I'rep. Take of French berries
and pearlash, of each, 1 lb. ; ftastic chips, i lb. ;
water, 2 galls. ; boil in a tin or pewter vessel, and
attain the decoction through flannel whilst hot ;
then dissolve alum, li lbs., in hot water, 2i
galls. ; add the solution to the stnuned decoction
as long as a precipitate falls, which must after-
wards be washed, dnuned, and dried. Some
manufacturers omit the fustic. A good glazing
colonr, when ground in linseed, and used wim
drying oil.

Tellow, Chrome. Syn. Chbomais of lias,
Ybllow o. ov b; Plukbi ohboxas, Plviebi
OBBOMAS ELATUV, L. The prepcuration of the
pnre salt is noticed under Chkoihith and Lbas;
that of the commercial pigment is as follows :

1. Add a filtered solution of nitrate or ace-

tate of lead to a like solution of neutral chro-
mate of potash as long as a precipitate falls;
then collect this, wash it well with clean soft
water, and dry it out of the reach of sulphuretted
vapours.

2. To the lye of ohromate of potash, prepared
by roasting the chrome ore with nitre, and lizi-
viation with water, add a solution of acetate of
lead, and otherwise proceed as before.

8. Dissolve acetate of lead in warm water,.
and add of sulphuric acid, q. s. to convert it into
sulphate of lead ; decant the clear liquid (vinegar),
wash the residuum with soft water, and digest it,
with agitation, in a hot solution of neutral
(yellow) chromate of potash, containing 1 part
of that salt to every 8 parts of sulphate of lead
operated on; afterwards decant the liquid, which
is a solution of sulphate of potash, and carefully
drain, wash, and dry the newly formed pigment.
The product contains much sulphate of lead, but
covers as well, and has as good a colonr, as pnro
chromate of lead, whilst it is much cheaper. The
shade may be varied by increasing or lessening
the quantity of the chromate (Armengand'a
' GJnie Industrie!,' April, 1868).

Obt. Fonr shades of this beautiful pigment
are met with in the shops, viz. pale yellow or
straw colour, yellow, deep yellow, and orange.
The former are made by adding a little alum or
sulphuric acid to the solution of the chromate
before mixing it with the solution of lead ; the
last, by the addition of a little subacetate of lead
(tribasic acetate), or by washing the precipitate
with a weak alkaline lye. The darker colour
appears to arise from a little ' dichromate ' being
thrown down intimately mixed, with the neutral
chromHte, and the paler shades from a slight
excess of acid, or from the presence of water-
sulphate of lead, and, occasionally, alumina.
The colour is also influenced by the temperature
of the solutions at the time of admixture. Anthon
has found that, when hot solntions of equal equi-
valents of acetate of lead (190 parts) and chro-
mate of potash (100 parts, both neutral and in
crystals) are mixed, the yellow precipitate, when
dried, is anhydrous ; but when the mixture is made
at ordinary temperatures, the precipitate has a
paler yellow, and when dried contains 1 eq., or
nearly 5}% of water (■ Buch. Rept.'). It thus
appears that the shades of colonr of chrome yellow
may be varied, without any foreign addition. In
practice, the third formula will be found very
satisfactory. See OBAirei Chbokb and Chbomb
Bbd.

Sntoh Fink. Pnp. Take of French berries,
1 lb. ; turmeric, ) lb. ; alum, i lb. ; water, 1^
galls. ; boil half an hour, strain, evaporate to 2
quarts, adding of whiting, 8 lbs., and dry by a
gentle heat. Starch, or white lead, is sometimea
employed instead of whiting to give it a body.
Qolden yellow. Used as a pigment ; but will not
glaze like brown pink.

English Pink. St/n. Lisht fzitk. As the
last, but using 5 lbs. of whiting.

Indian Tellow. See FuBsn.

King's Tallow. Factitious tersulphnret of
anemc.

Haplea Tellow. 8y». Mutbbax Tsaofw.
Prtp. 1. Take of metallic antimony, in powder.

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TTTBIXnf— ZEUZERA ^SCtTLI

3 Iba. ; red-lead, 2 lbs.; oxide of zinc, 1 lb.;
mix, calcine, well triturate the calx, and fuse it
in a covered crucible ; the fnsed mass must be re-
duced to an impalpable powder by grinding and
elntriation.

2. Flake white, 1) lbs. ; diaphoretic antimony,
i lb. ; calcined alum, 1 oz. ; nJ -ammoniac, 2 oz. ;
calcine in a covered crucible with a mode-
rate heat for 3 hours, lo that at the end it may
be barely red hot. More antimony and aal-ammo-
niac turn it on the gold colour.

3. {&uimel.) Washed diaphoretic antimony,
1 part ; pure red-lead, 2 parts ; grind them to a
paste with water, and expose this mixture to a
moderate red heat for 4 or 6 hours, as before.
Used in oil, porcelain, and enamel painting.
Chrome has now nearly superseded it for ordinary
purposes.

Patent Tellcw. Syn. Cassbl tbllow,

HONT]>HUJBBT.,TirBHBB'BT. iVffp. 1. Take of
dry chloride of lead, 28 parts ; pore carbonate of
lead, 27 parts ; grind them together, fuse, and
powder.

2. Common salt, 1 part, and litharge, 4 parte,
are ground together with water, and digested at
a gentle heat for some time, water being added
to supply the loss by evaporation ; the carbonate
of soda formed is then washed out with more
water, and the white residuum heated until it
acquires a fine yellow colour. Works well in oil.
Chiefly used in coach-painting. See Oxychlobiob
07 Lead.

Weld Yellow. Prepared from a decoction of
weld brightened with a little alum, in the same
manner as Dutch pink. Used chiefly for paper
hangings.

TTTETUM. T = 89-0. The oxide of this metal
(yttria), a rare, white earth, was discovered by
Oadolin, in 1794, in a mineral from Ttterby, in
Sweden, nnce called gadolinite. Tttrium was
obtiuned by Wobler in 1828, as a brittle, dark-
grey metal, from the chloride by the action of
sodium. Its salts have in gcneriJ a sweet taste,
and the sulphate and several others an amethys-
tine colour. Its solutions are precipitated by
pure alkalies, but alkaline carbonates, especially
carbonate of ammonium, dissolve it in the cold.
They are distinguished from glnciniam salts by
the colour of the sulphate by being insoluble in
pure alkalies, and by yielding a white precipitate
with ferrocyanide of potassium. Yttria may be
obtained from gadolinite by a similar process
to that by which glucina is extracted from the
beryl.

According to Professor Mosander, ordinary
yttria is a mixture of the oxides of not less than
three metals — yttrium, erbium, and terbium.
These metals differ from each other in many im-
portant particulars. The first is a powerful
base, and the others are said to be weak ones.
They are separated with extreme difficulty, and
are only interesting in a sdentiflc point of view.

ZAf FBE. Syn. Safvea, Sapfiob, Zappbb.
Crnde oxide of cobbalt, obtuned by roasting co-
balt ore, reduced to an impalpable powder, and
then ground with 2 or 3 parts of very pure
qnartzose or siliceous sand. Used as a blue

colour by enamellers and painters on porcehun
and glass. Chiefly imported from Saxony. See

SKAI,T8.

Z£"aO. See TEBBKOmTBB.

ZESTS. See Powsbbb, Sauob, Spiob, &e.

ZEUZEBA ^SCniJ, Latreille. Thb Wood
Lbofabd Mote. This is a very handsome, bean-
tif uUy marked, large moth. Fortunately for the
fl:uit producers it is not very common, as its lame
can do much harm to apple and pear trees, to-
gfether with forest trees of various kinds, bj
boring into their trunks and boughs, and living
upon their substance in the same manner as the
larvsa of the goat moth, described in the preced-
ing monograph. Pear trees are especial favourites
of the Zeuxera, and larg^ boughs are frequently
detached from them by their own weight, or by
the wind, showing upon close examination plain
traces of having been occupied by the caterpillars
of this insect. Apple trees also suffer severely in
this way, and the injury done to them is often
attributed to the goat moth or to Seoltfti.

The difference, however, can be easily detected,
as the burrows of the goat moth are much larger
and longer than those made by the Zenzera.
Though it derives its affix JBtculi from .^euluM
hippoctuianum, the horse-chestnut, it rarely at-
tacks this tree. So in Qermany it is called Mon-
kcutamen, of the horse-chestnut; but Edilar
remarks that it is found in this tree less than
in many others.

Similarly in France it is termed la Zeutirt dm
l£arro»nier, although it by no means confines its
attention to chestnut trees, but it is very trouble-
some to apple, pear, and walnut trees.

In an orchard in Herefordshire in 1879, it was
noticed that several pear and apple trees were
drooping, and that their branches fell off from
time to time. Upon investigation it was seen
that the trunks, and in many cases the branches
also, were quite honeycombed with passages run-
ing all manner of ways. Caterpillars of the
Zeuzera were ioxaiAflagrante delicto. From one
tree as many as seventh-six were taken, and there
were signs that many more had been lodging
there.

Life HUtorg. Like the goat moth, the wood
leopard moth belongs to the Lepidopterotu family
or group of Sepialida. It is nocturnal in ite
habits, and occasionally comes heavily against
the lamps in sitting-rooms through the open win-
dows in summer.

The female moth measures from 30 to 32 lines
across the wings when fully expanded. Its fore
wings are of |a light colour, almost white, with
many black or bluish-black spots dotted all over
tbem, here and there, irregularly. Upon the
light-coloured hind, or posterior wings, the dots
or marks are not so dark coloured. Upon the
npper part of its body, between the wings, there
are six or seven blue-black spots on a white gronnd.
Lower down, on the abdomen, there are dark-
coloured rings.

As is often the case among moths and bntter-
flies, the male Zeuzera is smaller and less hand-
some than the female, which is made showy,
brilliant, and conspicuous, a very ' cynosure of
neighbouring eyes.' To compensate it, however,
for diminished uze and glory the male has fine

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recurred anteniue, feathered or pectinated, toothed
like a oomb, about half way ap their length.
The female haa mere commonplace feelers, with-
oat fringes or curves of beanty.

For the deposition of its dark yellow or orange-
coloured eggs deep into the bark or rind of trees,
the female is furnished with a long horny OTi-
poeitor, with the assistance of which she places
from 200 to 300 eggs in various parts of the stem
and branches. Egg-laying takes place from the
end of June to the last week in July, and the
caterpillars are produced in a few days after ovi-
poeition, banning to push their heads into the
wood immediately. They live for two years in
this condition, depending upon the trees entirely
for their support, and constantly labouring at
thdr task of excavation.

In colonr, the caterpillar ia yellow, with black
dots upon its smooth body. Its head is black, and
the segment next to the head, and the last or
posterior segment are shiny black. Like the goat-
moth caterpillar, it is not a looper, having six
pectoral, eight abdominal, and two anal feet.
Upon the abdominal segments there are rows of
recurved spines, which evidently serve for the
retrogression of the caterpillar in its tunnel.

Prevention. There are scarcely any means of
preventing the approach of this insect to place
its eggs upon fruit trees. Birds are very fond of
it in its moth state, and of its eggs. The tit-
mouse and hedge sparrow are constantly upon
the watch for these latter dainties.

Semedie*. Plugs of cement, or of some sub-
stance that will dry hard, should be put into the
holes from which sap is flowing, and little bits of
wood mixed with excrement appear on the out-
sides. Pieces of wire may be introduced with
effect so long as the tunnels are not tortnons
(' Reports on Insects Injurions to Crops,' by Chas.
Whitehead, Esq., F.Z.S.).

ZIBC. Zn — 65-1. Sj/n. ZnrK, Spbltbb;
Znronx (Ph. L., E., & D.), h. This metal was
first noticed by Paracelsus, in the sixteenth cen-
tury, who called it ' zinetum ;' but its ores must
have been known at a much earlier period, as the
andents were acquainted with the manufacture
of brass. It has been found native near Mel-
bourne, Australia ; but it occurs chiefly as smith-
sonite or zinc spar in Belgium, Spain, North
America, Qreat Britfun, and as zinc blende and
calamine in England, Saxony, Bohemia, North
America, Ac.

Prq^. The zinc of commerce is obtained from
the native sulphide (zinc blende), or carbonate
(calamine), by roasting thoae ores, and distilling
the calx with carbonaceous matter in a covered
-earthen crucible, having its bottom connected
with an iron tube, which terminates over a vessel
of water situated beneath the furnace. The first
portion that passes over contains cadmium and
arsenic, and is indicated by what is technically
called 'brown blaze;' but when the metallic
▼aponr begins to bom with a blnish-white fiame,
•or the 'blue blaze' commences, the volatilised
metal is collected.

The following method, by which several pounds
of chemically pure zinc may be obtained in about
i of an hour, will be found very useful : — Melt
the zinc of commerce in a common cmoible, and

granulate it by throwing it into a tolerably deep
vessel of water, taking care that the metal be
very hot at the time ; dry the metallic gruns, and
dispose them by layers in a Hessian crucible with
i of their weight of nitrate of potassium, using
the precaution to place a slight excess at the top
and at the bottom j cover the crucible and secure
the lid, then apply heat ; after the vivid deflagra-
tion which occurs is over, remove the crucible
from the fire, separate the dross with a tabe^ and,
lastly, run the zinc into an ingot mould. This
zinc, tested in Marsh's apparatus during entire
days, has never given any stain, and in solution
the most sensitive reagents, such as hydro-sulpho-
cyanic acid, have never indicated the least atom
of iron (' Joum. de Pharm.').

Prop, Zinc is a bluish-white metal, having
the sp. gr. 6*9; tough (under some circumstances,
brittle) when cold, ductile and malleable at from
100^ to 160° C. ; brittle and easily pulverised at
205°; fuses at 433°; at a white heat it boils,
and sublimes unchanged in dose vessels ; heated
to whiteness in contact with the air, it bums with
a brilliant green light, and is converted into oxide.
It is very soluble in dilute sulphuric and hydro-
chloric acid, with the evolution of hydrogen gaa.
It is little acted on by the air, even when moist.
The salts of zinc are colourless.

Test*. 1. The solutions of zinc give a gela-
tinous white precipitate with the caustic allmlies
and carbonate of ammonium, which is completely
redlssolved by an excess of the precipitant. 2.
The carbonates of potassium and sodium give a
white precipitate of carbonate of zinc. Ail the
above precipitates acquire a lemon-yellow colonr
when dried and heated, but again become white
on cooling. 3. Sulphide of ammonium gives, in
neutral solutions, a white precipitate, insoluble
in excess of the precipitant, or in solutions of
hydrate of potassium or ammonium, but freely
soluble in the dilute mineral acids. 4. Sulphu-
retted hydrogen, in neutral and alkaline solu-
tions, also gives a like white precipitate. 6.
Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a gelatinous
white precipitate.

Axta^. a. 100 gr. are digested in dilute
hydrochloric acid in excess, and the insoluble
portion dried and weighed.

i. The acid solution (see a) is next treated with
a current of sulphuretted hydrogen until it smells
very strongly of that gas ; the whole is then left
for some time in a warm situation. The preci-
pitate which subsides consists of the sulphides of
arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, &c., if any of
these metals were present in the sample.

c. The filtrate from h, after being boiled, is
treated with a little nitric acid, after which it is
again boiled, and, when cold, is precipitated with
carbonate of barium added in excess ; the precipi-
tate (ferric hydrate) is then collected, dried,
ignited, and weighed. The weight, in grains,
multiplied by 0'7, gives the percentage of iron in
the sample examined.

d. The filtrate from c is next precipitated with
dilute sulphuric acid, and solution of carbonate of
sodium is added in excess to the filtered liquid ;
the whole is then boiled, after which the new
precipitate is washed, dried, gently ignited for
some time, and then cooled and weighed. The

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ZINC

wdght in grains, multiplied by 0'80,247, gvrei
the percentage of pare zinc in the sample.

U*»t. Zinc is used in the process of desilrer'
ising lead, in galvanic batteries, for covering
•heet-iron (galvanising) destined for roofing and
other purposes which require lightness and dura-
bility; in the chemical laboratory in reduction
operations, especially in the form of fine dmtt,
which is a mixture of the metal with a certain
amount of oxide ; in the form of zinc dust also for
the reduction of indigo blue. Zinc is an im-
portant ingredient in several alloys, e. g. brass.

Zinc, Amalgamated, which is employed for
voltaic batteries, is prepared as follows : — The
plates, having been scoured with emery, are im-
mersed for a few seconds in dilute sulphnric acid,
then rinsed in clean soft water, and drained.
They arp then dipped into a strong solution of
either mercuric nitrate or chloride, or into equal
parts of a mixture of saturated solutions of mer-
curic chloride and acetate of lead ; the plates are,
lastly, dipped into water, and then rubbed with
a son cloth. Another and simpler method is to
mb mercury over the plates while wet with dilute
■ulphurie acid.

&]ie, Qnumlated. Sy». ZiNcmc oBjum^i-
•nrx (B. P.), L. Fuse commercial zinc in a
cmciUe, pour it in a very thin stream into a
bncket of cold water, and afterwards dry the
cine

anc. Acetate of. Zn(C^,0,)r2H,0. ay%.
ZlMOI AOBTAB, L. frep. 1. Acetate of l«ad,
1 lb., is dissolved in distilled water, %\ pints, and
the solution being placed in a cylindrical jar,
sheet zinc, 4 oz., rolled into a coil, is immersed
therein ; after 24 hours the liquid is decanted,
evaporated to 15 oz., and solution of hypochlorite
of calcium added drop by drop, until a reddish
precipitete ceases to form ; the liquid is then
Altered, acidulated by the addition of a few drops
of acetic acid, reduced by evaporation to 10 fl.
oz., and set aside to crystallise ; the crystals are
dried on bibnlous paper set on a porous brick, and
then preserved in a well-stopped bottle.

2. Add 2 oz. of carbonate of zinc in successive
portions to 5 fl. oz. of acetic acid, previously
mixed with 6 fl. oz. of distilled water, in a flask ;
heat gently, add by degrees 2 fl. oz, of acid, or
q. B., till the carbonate is dissolved; boil for a
lew minutes, filter while hot, and set it aside for
two days to cry stellise. Decant the mother liquor,
evaporate to one half, and agun set it aside for
two days to crystellise. Place the crystals in a
fonnel to drain, then spread them on filtering
paper on a porous tile ; and dry them by ezposnre
to the air at ordinary temperatures.

JVop., 4*0. Efflorescent, white, hexagonal plates,
having a powerf nl styptic taste ; very soluble in
waters less soluble in alcohol; decomposed by
heat. It is tonic, antispasmodic, and emetic. —
Do**, 1 to 2 gr.; as an emetic, 10 to 20 gr.;
eztenially, 2 or 3 gr. to water, 1 fl. oz., as an
astringent lotion or iigection.

Zise, Bro'mide of. ZnBr^ Syn. Znroi bso-
XIDUK, L. Prepared by passing bromine vaponr
over the red hot metel ; white needles.
Zinc, Carbonate of. ZnCO|. Ara. ZnoiOAB-

BOHAB FUBUK, ZlHOI OABBOHAB (B. P., Ph. D.),

L. Found in nature as calamine, fnp. 1.

Solution of chloride of zinc (Ph. D.), 1 pint is
added, in successive portions, to a solution of
crystallised carbonate of sodium of commerce,
2 lbs., dissolved in boiling distilled water, 6 pints,
and the whole is boiled until gas ceases to be
evolved; the precipitate is then washed, and
dried, at first on blotting-paper, and, finally, by
a steam or water heat.

2. (B. P.) Dissolve lOi oz. carbonate of soda
with 1 pint of boiling water in a capacious porce-
lain vessel, and poor into it 10 oz. of sulphate of
zinc, also dissolved in 1 pint of water, stirring
diligently. Boil for 16 minutes after efferves-
cence has ceased, and let the precipitete subnde.
Decant the supernatant liquor, pour on the pre-
cipitate 3 pinte of boiling distilled water, agi-
teting briskly ; let the precipitete again subside,
and repeat this process till the washings are no
longer precipiteted by chloride of barium. Col-
lect the precipitete on calico, let it drain, and dry
at a gentle heat.

Oht. When a solution of zinc vitriol is pre-
cipiteted by an excess of acid potassium carbonate
a white precipitete of the hydrated normal car-
bonate is obtained; but if normal sodium car-
bonate be employed for precipitetion, hydrated
basic zinc carbonates of variable composition are
thrown down ; these become more basic in pro-
portion as the temperature is raised and the
water increased.

Zinc, Chlo"ride of. ZnCl,. 8yn. Bcttsb oy

ZINO, HUBIATB Oy Z.t; ZuTOI OHLOBLDUH (B.

P., Ph. L.), Z. MUBiABt, L. Prep. 1. By heat-
ing metallic zinc in chlorine.

2. (Ph. L.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 pint; water,
1 quart; and zinc (in small pieces), 7 oz.; when
the effervescence is nearly finished, apply heat
until bubbles cease to be evolved; decant the
clear liquid and evaporate to dryness; fuse the
resulting mass in a lightly covered crucible, by a
red heat, pour it out on a fiat smooth stone, and,
when cold, break it into small pieces, or cast it
into rods in iron moulds, and preserve it in •
well-stoppered bottle.

8. (B. P.) Pot 16 oz. of grannlated zinc into
a porcelain basin, add by degrees 44 fl. oz. of
hydrochloric acid previously mixed with 1 pint of
distilled water, and aid the action by gently
warming it on a sand-hath until gas is no longer
evolved. Boil for half an honr, supplying the
water lost by evaporation, and allow it to stand
on the cool part of the sand-bath for 24 hours,
stirring frequently. Filter the product into a
gallon bottle, and pour in a solution of chlorine,
q. s. by degrees, with frequent agitetion, until
tiie fluid acquires a permanent odour of chlorine.
Add i oz. or a sufficient quantity of carbonate
of zinc, in small quantities at a time, and with
renewed agitetion, nntil a brown sediment ap-
pears. Filter through paper into a porcelain
basin,^and evaporate until a portion of the liquid,
withdrawn on the end of a glass rod and cooled,
forms an opaque white solid. Pour it out now
into proper moulds, and when the salt has
solidified, but before it has cooled, place it in
closely-stoppered botUes.

4. (In BOiiunox.) a. (Liquor zinoi ohlorisi
— Ph. D.) Hydrochloric acid and water, of each,
2| pinte ; theet zinc, 1 lb. ; dissolve, filter through

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1826

cslico, add of hyperchlorite of calcinm, 1 fl. oz.,
and evaporate, by boiling, to a pint; when cold,
poor it into a bottle, add of prepaied chalk, 1
ox., and water, q. ■. to make the whole measure
1 quart; agitate occasionally for 24 hours, de-
cant or filter, and preserve the liquid in a stop-
pered bottle. Sp. gr. 1-69S. See Solctiov.

h. (E. Parish!) Orannlated zinc, 4 lbs.; hy-
drochloiic acid, 4 lbs., or q. s. ; water, 9 quarts ;
dissolve, avoiding excess of acid. The solution
contains 1 in 12 of chloride of zinc. Becom-
mended as of the proper strength for a disin-
fectant.

Prop., (^«. When pure, a colonrless, amor-
pboQs mass or crystsls ; generally a whitish-grey,
semi-tmnsparent mass, having the consistence of
wax ; f nrible at 100* C, volatile at a strong heat,
condensing in acicular crystals ; freely solnble in
alcohol, ether, and water; highly deliquescent;
coagulates albumen and gelatin, and corodes
animal substances. The solution possesses the
same properties in a minor degree.

Pur. From the aqueous solution, hydrosul-
phorio acid or ferrocyanide of potassinm being
oropped in, a precipitate is thrown down. What
is tiirown down by ammonia or potash from the
same solution is white, and is redissolved by
either precipitant in excess. The precipitate
thrown down by the carbonate of either ammo-
nium or potassinm is also white, but is not redis-
solved when these are added in excess.

VtM, ^e. Dry chloride of sine is chiefly used
as a caustic, for which it is highly recommended
by Voght, Canquoin, and others. It is more
powerful than chloride of antimony, and its
action extends deeper than does nitrate of silver,
whilst it exercises an influence over the vital
actions of neighbouring parts. The sore is
generally healthy after the separation of the
eschar, and no constitutional disorder ensues. It
has been given in scrofula, epilepsy, chorea, &c. ;
and, combined with hydrocyanic acid, in facial
nenralgia. — Dote, ^ gr. to 2 gr. ; externally, as a
lotion, 2 to 8 grr. to water, 1 oz. In large doses it
is poisonons.

The solution is also used as a caustic, but
chiefly as a disinfectant and deodoriser, e.ff. as
Sir Wm. Burnett's Fluid and Professor Tuson's
' Sporokton,' of which it is one of the very best,
possessing, as it does, the power of rapidly de-
composing snlphide of ammonium and c^ render-
ing inert the Tims of infectious diseases. It is
also employed on the iarge scale in 'weighting'
cotton goods. When a solution (sp. gr. 1-7) is
bcnled with an excess of oxide, a liquid is ob-
tained which possesses the property of cUssoIving
silk; this is used for separating silk fibres from
those of wool, cotton, or linen, all of which dis-
solve in normal zinc chloride.

Kfaie, Cy'aaida of. ZnCyj. Bj^, Ctakvbxt
o* znro ; Zivoi otavisdic, Znroi ertAxvuinivM,
L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Add a solution of <^nide
of potassium to another of pore sulphate of zinc ;
wash, and dry the precipitate. It is insoluble in
water and alcohol, bnt dissolves in solutions of
the cyanides of ammomnm and potassinm. — Dose,
^ to 1 gr., twice s daT; in epilepsy, hysteria, and
other nervous affections, heartbnm, worms, Ac ;
and as a substitute for hydrocyanic acid,

Toik n.

Zinc, ?erro<y'anlde of. Zn,FeCy,. Syn.
ZlHoi nBBOOTi.iiiDtnc, L. Prep. By adding
a hot solution of ferrocyanide of potassinm to s
hot and strong solution of pure solphate of
zinc, and washing and drying the precipitate
( White). — Dote, 1 to 4 gr. ; in the same cases as
the last.

Zinc, I'odlde of. Znl,. S^h. Htdbiodatb
OP znrot; Znrci iodisuv, Zikox htdbiosab,
L. Prep. 1. (Jhfflot.) Iodine, 2 parts ; granu-
lated zinc, 1 pint ; water, 4 parts ; proceed as for
ferrous iodide, but employ a gbias or porcelain
vessel.

2. {Magendie.) Iodine, 17 parts; zinc (in
powder), 20 parts; mix, and sublime in a mat-
ran.

Prop., ire. Deliquescent; colonrless; octo-
hedrous. Chiefly used externally ; 15 gr. to water,
6 fl. oz., as a coUyrinm in scrofulous inflamma-
tion of the eye (PottUi) ; 1 dr. to lard, 1 oz., as a
powerful resolvent in scrofulous and other glan-
dular swellings, rubbed on the part twice a day
(Vre).

Ztate, iM'tate of. Zn(C,H.OOs. 8yn. Znioi
ZACTAB, L. Prepared from arte in the same way
as ferrous lactate is from iron.

Zine, Ox'lda of. ZnO. I^n. Pkotozisb oi
znro ; Znoi ozTsirx (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.),
L. Prip. 1. Sulphate of zinc (pure), 1 lb.;
carbonate of ammonium, 61 oz. ; dissolve each
separately in 6 quarts of water, filter, mix the
solutions, well wash the precipitate with water,
and calcine it for two hours in a strong Are. The
Ph. E. is nearly similar.

8. Place carbonate of zinc in a covered clay
crucible, and expose it to a very low red hea^
until a portion taken from the centre of the mass
ceases to effervesce on being dropped into dilute
sulphuric acid.

Prop., l(e. A white, tasteless powder; in-
soluble in water ; freely soluble in acids, the solu-
tion yielding colonrless and easily crystallisable
salts ; strongly basic.

Vttt, Ifc. It is tonic and antispasmodic, and
has been advantageously used in chorea, epilepsy,
and other nervous and spasmodic affections. —
Dote, 2 to 10 gr. It is also used as a dusting
powder, and to make an ointment. It has been
proposed as a substitute for white-lead in paint-
ing, than which it covers better, bnt dries slower,
and hence requires the addition of dried white
vitriol. This oxide is the only compound which
zinc forms with oxygen.

Zino Fhoiphide. Zn,Pi. Fragments of pure
distilled zinc are introduced into a tabulated stone-
ware retort, so as to occupy ahont one fouth of
its capacity ; the retort is placed in an ordinary
ftimace, and a current of dry carbonic acid is
passed into it through the neck. Over the tuba-
lure is placed a crncible cover, so as to close the
orifice incompletely, and allow the carbonic acid,
after traverring the retort, to escape. When the
zine enters into ebullition small Augments of pre-
viously dried phosphorus are successively thrown
in through the tnbulure, the cover being removed
and returned after each addition, to prevent lost
of phosphorus. From time to time it is neces-
sary to break the crust of phosphorus formed, in
order to expose a new layer of metal to its action,

lis

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ZINC

The opcTation is terminated by increasing the
heat strongly — a precaution that is indispensable,
in order to separate as completely as possible the
zinc phosphide from the metallic button of nearly
pure zinc which collects at the bottom of the
retort. The product should be reduced to very
flne powder, and the fragments which resist the
action of the metal, however slightly, should be
reserved for another operation. In the pure state
it resembles iron reduced by hydrogen, and only
thus should it be used by pharmaceutists. It is
completely soluble in hydrochloric acid (from
' Formula for New Medicaments,' adopted by the
Paris Pharmaceutical Society).

Zino, Snlphate of. ZnSO,. Syn. Whih oof-
PBBAB*, Whits viteiol*; Zinci sulphas (B.
P., Ph. L., E., & D.}. L. Long known to the
alchemists as white vitrioL Pnp. 1. (Ph. L.)
Orannlated line, 6 oi. ; diluted sulphuric acid, 1
quart ; dissolve and filter. Evaporate to a pelli-
ue, and set it aside to crystallise.

2. (Ph. D.) Zinc (laminated or granulated),
4 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 8 fl. oz. ; water, 1 pint ;
mix in a porcelain capsule, and, when gas ceases
to be evolved, boil for 10 minutes, filter through
calico, and evaporate the filtrate to dryness ; dis-
solve the dry salt in water, 1 pint; frequently
agitate the solution, when cold, during 6 hours,
with prepared chalV, } oz. ; next filter, acidulate
the filtrate with nitric acid and dilute sulphuric
acid, of each, 1 fl. dr. ; evaporate until a pellicle
forms on the surface, and set it aside to crystal-
lise ; dry the crystals on bibulous paper without
heat.

8. (B. P.) Pour 12 fi. oz. of sulphuric add,
previously mixed with 4 pints of distilled water,
on 16 oz. of granulated zinc contained in a porce-
lain basin, and when efFervescence has nearly
ceased, aid the action by a gentle heat. Filter
the fluid into a gallon bottle, and add gradually,
with constant agitation, chlorine water, until the
fluid acquires a permanent odour of chlorine.
Add now, with continued agitation, i oz. or q. s.
of carbonate of zinc, until a brown precipitate
appears ; let it settle, filter the solution, evaporate
till a pellicle forms on the surface, and set aside
to ciystallue. Dry the crystals by exposure to
•ir on filtering paper placed on porous tiles.

4. The common sulphate of zinc of commerce
freqaently contains copper, cadmium, lead, iron,
and manganese, and nearly always one or more of
them. By digesting its concentrated solution for
some time with metallic zinc it may be freed
from copper, lead, and cadmium, for these metals
are all reduced and precipitated in a metallic
state; or the acidulated solution may be treated
with sulphuretted hydrogen as long as any pre-
cipitate forms. In order to separate the iron,
chlorine gas may be passed into the solution, by
which the iron is converted into the ferrous chlo-
ride; if this solution be exposed to the air for a
length of time, it absorbs oxygen, and oxide of
imn is deponted as a yellow powder, from which
the solution must be filtered. When the sulphate
eontains manganese, which is not very often the
case, the solution must be boiled up a few times
with purified charcoal, filtered, and evaporated
(' Jonm. fur prakt. Chem.'). The product of each
of the above formultB is nearly chemically pure.

5. (Commercial.) The crude sulphate of zinc
(white copperas, or white vitriol, of the shops) is
prepared by roasting native sulphide of zinc (zinc
blende) in a reverberatory furnace, exposing the
calcined mass to the air and humidity for some
time, then lixiviating it, and evaporating the re-
sulting solution uutU it forms a white semi-crys-
tallme mass on cooling.

Prop. Pure sulphate of zinc forms inodorous,
colourless, transparent, quadrangular prisms,
closely resembling in appearance those of Epsom
salt, which effloresce slightiy in the air, and con-
tains 7 eqniv. of water; sp. gr. 1'96; it has a
slightly acidulous and very styptic metallic taste ;
the crystals dissolve in 2i parts of cold and in less
than tiieir own weight of boiling water; they are
insoluble in alcohol. The crude sulphate of zinc
of commerce (white vitriol) occurs in irregular
granular masses, which somewhat resemble loaf
sugar.

When a solution of this salt, in 6 parts of
water, is boiled with a little nitric acid, and a
solution of ammonia is then added until the oxide
of zinc at first precipitated is all redisselved, no
yellow precipitate remains, or a trace only, and
the solution is colourless.

Uiei. In medicine, as a tonic, antispasmodic,
&c. ; in doses of 1 to 2 gr., twice daily ; as an
emetic, 10 to 30 gr. In large doses it is poi-
sonous. It has been employed with benefit in
dyspepsia, fiuor albus, chorea, epilepsy, hooping-
cough, and other convulsive and nervous affec-
tions, generally combined with bitters, foxglove,
hemlock, henbane, or opium. As an emetic, it
acts almost immediately, and is therefore well
suited to empty the stomach at the commence-
ment of a fit of ague, and in cases of poisoning,
&c. It is used externally to form astringent and
repellent coUyria, injections, and lotions. It is
used also very extensively in dyeing.

Zinc Sulphide. ZnS. Occurs as blende, an
ore of zinc. When pure it is yellow and trans-
parent ; it usually, however, is contaminated with
iron and other metals, which cause it to assume a
red, brown, or black tint.

Zine BnlphooarboUte. Zn(C,H,S04)rHsO.
The acid, prepared as in snlphocarbolate of soda
(which let), is saturated by aid of a gentle heat
with oxide of zinc, filtered, and crystals allowed
to form. The crystals should be dried by expo-
sure to the air.

Zinc, Va]«"Tianate of. Zn(C|H,(M^ $>»•

ZlBCI TALBBIANAB (B. P., Ph. D.), L. JPflp.

(Ph. D.) Valerianate of sodium, H oz., and
sulphate of zinc, 2 oz. 7 dr., are each separately
dissolved in distilled water, 1 pint; the solutions
are then heated to 200° F., mixed, and the result-
ing crystals skimmed oft ; the liquid is next eva-
porated at a temperature not higher than 200^,
until it measures 4 fl. oz., the crystals, as they
form, being removed from the surface ; the salt
thus obtained is steeped for an hour in distilled
water, just sufficient to cover it, after which the
whole is transferred to a paper filter, on which it
is at first drained, and then dried at a heat not
exceeding 100°.

Prop^tfe. Brilliant whitf, pearly tabular ays-
tola; very light; astringent; smells f^bly of
valerianic acid ; only slightiy soluble in cold water,

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ZINC ETHYL— ZIRCONIUM

1827

more so in hot water, and freely solnble in alco-
hol and ether ; exposnre to heat rapidly decom-
pones it ; expoeure to the air also decomposes it,
bat more slowly. It is regarded as powerfolly
antispasmodic and tonic. — I>ot«, 1 to 3 gr., thrice
daily, made into pills; in neuralgia, tic-donlonreux,
nervous headaches (more particularly hemicrania),
hysteria, palpitation of the heart, vertigo, chorea,
epilepsy, &c.

Obt. Batyrate of zinc, scented with valerianic
acid, which is often sold for the above compound,
may be detected by distilling it wit& sulphuric
acid ; the distillate, tested with a strong solution
of acetate of copper, gives a bluish-white precipi-
tate if it contains butyric acid. The valerianate
is distinguished from the other salts of linc by
its extreme lightness.

ZIBC E'THTX. Zn(C,H,),. A curious liquid
body, discovered by Dr FrankUnd, and formed,
along with iodide of zinc, when iodide of ethyl is
heated with pure zinc in a sealed ghiss tube. The
mixed white product, by distillation in a current
of hydrogen, yields pure zinc ethyl. It is a
highly volatile liquid, having a rather disagree-
able odour, and so rapidly decomposed by contact
with the air that it takes fire. Water resolves it
into hydride of ethyl and other products.

ZnrC KE'THTX. Zn(CH^2. Obtained by the
action of zinc upon iodide of methyl, as zinc
ethyl. It takes fire on coming in contact with
the air.

znrCKUra. SgH. Zhtkinq. Vessels of copper
and brass may be covered with a firmly adherent
layer of pure zinc by boiling them in a solution
of chloride of zinc, pure zinc turnings being at
the same time present in considerable excess.
Tlie same object may be effected by means of
zinc and a solution of chloride of ammonium or
hydrate of potassium.

The variety of zincked iron commonly known
by the name of 'galvanised iron' is prepared
by immersing the sheets of metal, previously
scoured and cleaned with dilute hydrochloric acid,
in s bath of melted zinc covered with powdered
sal-ammoniac, and moving them about until they
are sufficiently coated.

ZnrCOO'SAPHT. a process of printing closely
resembling lithography, in which plates of zinc
are substituted for slabs of stone.

ZIS'COIT. See Ones.

zmCONIUM. Zr=90. The oxide of this
metal, a white pulverulent earth, was discovered
in the mineral zircon of Ceylon, by Klaprotb, in
1789. It has since been found in hyacinth, a
mineral found in Ceylon.

Prep. The ore is calcined and thrown into cold
water, and then powdered in an agate mortar ;
the power is mix^ with 9 parts of pure hydrate
of potassium, and the mixture very gradually
shaken into a red-hot crucible, care being taken
that each portion is fused before another is added j
after fusion, with an increased heat, for an hour
and a half, the whole is allowed to cool ; the cal-
cined mass is next powdered, and boiled in water ;
the insoluble portion is then dissolved in hydro-
chloric acid, and the solution heated, so that the
silicic acid may fall down, after which zirconia
is precipitated with hydrate of potassium ; or
the zirconia may be precipitated with carbonate
of sodium, and the carbonic acid expelled by heat.

From this, metallic zirconium is obtained by
heating it with magnesium, and then treating
the residue with dilute hydrochloric acid, when
the insoluble zirconium remains behind {Phipio»).

Prop., ^c. An iron-grey powder j it acquires
a feeble metallic lustre under the burnisher, and
takes fire when heated in the air.

Oxide of zirconium, or urconia, ZrOg, is a
white tasteless powder, is insoluble in water, and
forms sslts with the acids. It is distinguished
from all the other earths, except tliorina, by
being precipitated when any of the neutral salts
of zirconium are boiled with a saturated solution
of sulphate of potassium. The salts of zirconium
are distinguished from those of aluminium and
glucinum by being precipitated by all the pure
alkalies, and by being insoluble when they are
added in excess. The precipitated hydrate and
carbonate are readily soloblo in acids. Zirconia
cylinders have recently been successfully substi-
tuted for lime in producing a strong light by the
oxyhydrogen flame.

FSIIriEB BT ASLABB AXB BOH, BABTHOLOMBW CIiOSB.

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Wiih 596 Illustrations, royal $vo.. 32s.

CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY

BT

RUDOLF VON WAGNER

TRANSLATED AND BDITBD BT

WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S.,

PROM THE THIRTEENTH ENLAEGED GERMAN EDITION AS REMODELLED BY
DE. FERDINAND FISCHER

CONTENTS.

SEcnov I.— TBcmroLooT or msL.

Fad and iU Treatment — Thermometry — Determination of the Valae of Fneli — Hanofactnre
of Wood Charcoal— Feat— Lignite (Brown Coal, Bovey Coal) — Coal — Coke — Deganfying, Oaai-
tying. Combustion — Heating Arrangement* — Lighting-gas— Mineral Oil — FaraiBne and Solar Oil
Industry — Production of Light— Photometry — Lighting with Candle* — Lighting with Lamp* —
Gaa Lighting — Electric Light.

SSCnOV n.— KXTALLTTHGT.

Iron — Crude Iron — Examination of Iron and Steel — Iron Founding — Wrought or Bar Iron
— Steel — Manganese — Cobalt— Nickel— Copper — Lead — Silver — Gold — Platinnm — "fin — Biimnth
—Antimony — Anenic — Mercnry — Zinc — Cadmium — Potassium and Sodium — AlnmiDinm— Mag-
nesium.

SECnOB in.— CHSXICIX lUJnJI'ACTUBIHa ISSUSTKT.

Water and loe — Artificial Mineral Waters— Sulphur — Sulphuric Add — Propertie* of Snl*
phuric Acid— Potas*ium Salts— Common Salt and Salt Work*— Soda— Natural Soda — Soda from
Plants — Soda obtuned by Chemical Mean* — Chlorine, Chloride of Lime, and Chlorate* — Bromine
— Iodine — Nitric Acid and Nitrate* — Nitric Acid — Explouve* — ^Ammonia — Phosphorus — Matchea :
Production of Fire — Phosphates : Manure* — Boric Acid and Borax — Salts of Aluminium — Ultra-
marine — Compounds of Tin and Antimony — Compounds of Antimony — Compounds of Arsenic-
Compounds of Oold, Silver, and Mercury — Compounds of Copper — Compounds of Zinc and Cad-
mium— Compounds of Lead — Compounds of Manganese and Chromium— Iron Compounds, includ-
ing Ferrocyanogen — Conspectus of Inorganic Pigments — Thermo-chemistry.

BXCTIOir IV.— THE OBOABIC CHZKIClIi XAVOTACTXTSSS.
Alcohols and Bther* — Organic Acid*— Treatment of Coal Tar — Organic Colouring Hatter* —
Tar Colours — Benzol Colours — Examination of Colonring Matters — ^Artificial ColoDrs soluble in
Water — Solid or Pasty Colour* insoluble in Water,

8SCTI0B v.— eiASS, EASTEEBWASE, CEMEHT, AES HOSTAB.
Glass Manufacture — Earthenware or Cerimic Manufacture^Mortars, &a.

SECnOE VL— ABTICLE8 OF FOOD ABD COBSlTMFtlOB.
Starch and Dextrine — Sugar — Fermentation Arts — Wine Making— Beer Brewing — Tlie
Manufacture of Spirits — Flour and Bread — Milk, Butter, and Cheese— Meat — Nutrition.

SECTIOV Vn.— CHEMICAI TECHB0L06T Of FIBBB8.
Wool — Silk — Vegetable Fibre*— Bleaching>— Dyeing and Tisane-printing — Paper Ifann-

facture.

SECTIOB Vni.— KISCSILABE01T8 OBaABO-(»EKICAL ABT8 ABS KABUTACTUBE8.
Tanning — Qliie, Size, Gelatine — Sizes — Bones— Fat* — Soap — Stearine and Glycerine — Essen-
tial Oils and Kesins — Preservation of Wood.

LONDON : J. & A. CHURCHILL, 11. NEW BURLINGTON STREET.

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